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123: European Culture and Society Westmont College The Arts in Europe / Performing and Interpreting the Arts; Faith, Witness and Belief Europe Semester, Fall 2011 Art era survey (10% of course grade, including interview on this paper) Your name here: Jacqueline Firestone At-a-glance list of the Eras *(Classical) not included in this survey, but you need to be aware it happened *(Byzantine) not included in this survey, but you need to be aware it happened *Romanesque *Gothic *Renaissance *Mannerist *Baroque *Pre-Modern Era -subdivided into Neo-Classical, Romanticism, Realist, Impressionist *Modern Era -subdivided into Post-Impressionist, Expressionist, (This is for your reference, no need to add anything) Question What questions will you be asking yourself when looking at a painting in a gallery? Please list at least 5 questions here. 1. Associative understanding: What is my initial reaction to this painting? What is the mood of it? 2. What date was it painted? Where was it painted? What is the cultural meaning? What context was the piece of art created in? 3. How can I tell that this piece of art belongs to a particular era? Why is it not a part of the previous or successive era? 4. Who is the artist and what do I know about them? Why would this piece of art been commissioned? 5. Who is served by the piece of art? What is the function of the work? What expressions of faith is this painting making and is the artist witnessing anything?

ROMANESQUE Approximate dates: 1066 AD to 1200 AD Origin/center(s) of this era in Europe, where relevant: Throughout Western Europe Known as the Norman style in England because it was brought by the Normans to England during the Battle of Hastings) This style was used by bishops and Nobles who were building abbeys Which key words would you use to describe the art of this era? Had a definite function Connected with religious topics or stories Rigid figures Massive solemnity Contained sacred symbols Few windows Powerful Grim Which three key quotes from Gombrich best describe this era for you? Everything that belonged to the church had its definite function and expressed a definite idea connected with the teaching of the Church (Page 131). The artist was not concerned with an imitation of natural forms, but rather with the arrangement of traditional sacred symbols (Page 135). Painting was indeed on the way to becoming a form of writing in pictures without these methods the teaching of the Church could never been translated into visible shapes (Page 135-136). Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! We must not expect such sculptures to look as natural, graceful and light as classical works. They are all the more impressive because of their massive solemnity (Page 132). GOTHIC Approximate dates: 1150 AD to 1400 AD Origin/ centre(s) of this era in Europe: Northern France Western Europe Was fuller north of the Alps Never quite affected classical styles in Italy Which key words would you use to describe the art of this era? Glorifying Bold Graceful Weightless Effected the church before it effected the composition of figures More animation in pose and facial expression than previous eras

 Subjects Tend to be smaller in relation to the background of scenes Arranged more freely in the pictorial space Key historical events in the world that may have influenced this new era in art: Gothic architecture predates the painting, the creation of the new spacious churches created more opportunities for stained glass windows, more light to view artwork in the churches Secular art emerged with the rise of cities and the need for architecture beyond the church Foundation of universities furthered the development of art Increase in travel more travel by artists in this period than in some later ones Trade guilds were formed Three key quotes from Gombrich that unlock or best describe this era for you: We can barely imagine the impression which these buildings must have made on those who had only known the heavy and grim structures of the Romanesque style the new cathedrals gave the faithful a glimpse of a different world (Page 141). In this way nearly every one of the figures that crowd the porches of the great Gothic cathedrals is clearly marked by and emblem so that its meaning and message could be understood and pondered by the faithful (Page 143). The Gothic artists wanted to understand the ancient formula for draped bodies, which had been handed down to them Thus they regained the lost classical art of letting the structure of the body show under the folds of the draperythese Gothic sculptors were no longer interested only in what they represented, but also in the problems of how to represent (Page 144). The task had nevertheless changed. Formerly it was sufficient training to learn the ancient formulas for representing the main figures of the sacred story and to apply this knowledge in ever-new combinations. Now the artists job included a different skill. He had to be able to make studies from nature and to transfer them to his pictures. He began to us a sketchbook, and to lay up a store of sketches of rare and beautiful plants and animals (Page 164). What are the key works or highpoints from this period? Pointed arches Flying buttresses Slim pillars Big windows Notre Dame . Giotto di Bondone began painting frescos and rediscovered the art of creating the illusion of depth on a flat surface. Name one work (with dates) and its artist (with dates) from this period In the Louvre (Paris): The Piet of Villeneuve-ls-Avignon (1455) Enguerrand Quarton (14101466) What sub-movements, later refinements or variations in particular regions or countries were features of this era? Flamboyant style - Artist of this period covered whole buildings with an infinite variety of decorations not considering whether or not the server a purpose or a function in the structure. Decorated style - is characterized by its window tracery, closely spaced parallel

mullions (vertical bars of stone). Interiors of this period often feature tall, sender and elegant columns, as well as elaborate vaulting and equilateral arches. International Gothic style - Stylistic features are a dignified elegance, which replaces monumentality, along with rich decorative coloring, elongated figures and flowing lines. Made a more practiced use of perspective, modeling, and setting. Figures begin to be given more space in their settings, and interest is taken in realistically depicted plants and animals. Decoration became increasingly ornate. Late Gothic - The Late Gothic is the bridge between the Middle Age and the Renaissance. This influence appears strongly in the emotionalism of a large wooden crucifixes and icons. Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! We can never do these works justice if we just pass them by in our museums, and devote no more than a quick glance to them. They were made to be appreciated by real connoisseurs, and treasured as pieces worthy of devotion (Page157). The public which looked at the artists works began to judge them by the skill with nature was portrayed, and by the wealth of attractive details which the artist managed to bring into his pictures (Page 164).

RENAISSANCE Approximate dates: 1450 AD to 1600 AD Origin/ centre(s) of this era in Europe: Began in Florence, Italy and spread throughout the rest of Europe Many artists came to Italy to study the new style of art taking it back their homeland As Later Renaissance art developed, it took on different and distinctive characteristics in every region Which key words would you use to describe the art of this era? Detailed Depth Perspective Religious altarpieces Fresco cycles Small works for private devotion Many Mythological and history paintings New techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness Decorative ornaments Influenced by classical Roman motifs Application of science in art Fully three-dimensional figures occupying a rational space The first secular themes More accurate representation of the human body Churches in the shape of a cross Protruding moldings on Buildings Key historical events in the world that may have influenced this new era in art: Protestant Reformation - Created a shift from Biblical scenes to scenes of ordinary people and every-day life. The focus was now on historical scenes, landscapes, still life and portraits Are there any artistic events, inventions, milestone or themes within this period of art that we should bear in mind? Oil Painting - was invented by Jan Van Eyek and allowed artists to work more slowly and accurately. Sfumato - was created by Leonardo da Vinci and is the blurred outlining and mellow colors that allow one form to merge with another and always leave something to our imagination (Page 228). Filippo Brunelleschis o Introduced architecture that was reminiscent of Roman ruins eventually leading to the creation of the dome of the Florence Cathedral o He also was influential in the creation of linear perspective Three key quotes from Gombrich that unlock or best describe this era for you: The mastery of science and the knowledge of classical art remained for some time the exclusive possession of the Italian artists of the Renaissance. But the passionate will to create art, which should be more faithful to nature than anything that had ever been seen before, also inspired the artists of the same

generation in the North (Page 174). It is not that the Florentine master lacked reverence of devotion. But the very powers his art had gained made it impossible for him to think of it only as a means of conveying the means of the sacred story (Page 199). The mathematical rules of perspective, the secrets of scientific astronomy, the study of Roman monuments did not trouble the peace of mind of the northern masters. For this reason we may say that they were still medieval artists, while their colleagues across the Alps already belonged to the modern era. But problems facing the artists on both sides of the Alps were nevertheless strikingly similar (Page 202). [The artists] were no longer content with the newly acquired mastery of painting such details as flowers or animals from nature; they wanted to explore the laws of vision, and to acquire sufficient knowledge of the human body to build it up in their statues and pictures as the Greeks and Romans had done (Page 221 BIG) These were three tangible achievements of the Italian masters to which they could point. Once the discovery of scientific perspective, the second the knowledge of anatomy- and with it the perfect reading of the beautiful human body- and thirdly the Knowledge of the classical forms of building, which seemed to the period to stand for everything that was dignified and beautiful (Page 341 BIG). What are the key works or highpoints from this period? Leonardo da Vinci o Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and The Vitruvian Man Michelangelo o David, Piet, and The Sistine Chapel (including The Creation of Adam) Sandro Botticelli o The Birth of Venus Raphael o The Virgin in the Meadow, Pope Leo X with two Cardinals and The Deposition of Christ Name one work (with dates) and its artist (with dates) from this period: In the Louvre (Paris): Balthazar Castiglione (1514 1515) Raffaello Sanzio (14831520) In the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna): Madonna del Prato (1506) Raffaello Sanzio (14831520) In the Uffizi (Florence): La nascita di Venere (1486) Sandro Botticelli (14451510) What sub-movements, later refinements or variations in particular regions or countries were features of this era? Northern Renaissance - The renaissance everywhere except for Italy. Art, and especially architecture, throughout the rest of Europe continued to have a later Gothic influence until the arrival of Baroque. Painters did shift slightly toward Italian models. There was more focus on landscapes in the north. Painters traveled to Rome and then adapted the painting styles they learned to fit their culture and region. Attuning beauty and harmony was not as important to Northern painters.

Southern Renaissance - (or the Italian Renaissance) Art became increasingly associated with enlightenment and the figures of Classical mythology. It began to take on a new symbolic role in Christian art. Artists wanted to express the individual personality rather than the iconic images associated with them, so they began to learn by looking at things themselves. Many works of art, even those that were done as decoration for churches, were generally commissioned and paid for by private patrons. Early Netherlandish - This style of painting grew directly out of the medieval arts of tempera painting, stained glass and book illumination. These artists did not approach their work through linear perspective and correct proportion; rather they maintained a medieval view of hierarchical proportion and religious symbolism. Early Renaissance Is characterized by oil paintings and an increase in the life like-ness of subjects. Their figures contrasted with the gentle and pretty figures painted previously. They achieved of the effect of realistic space in a painting by using of linear perspective. High Renaissance It was the culmination of the goals of the earlier period. One of the largest accomplishments was the accurate representation of figures in space with believable motion. The subjects tend to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Their goal was to create perfect symmetry and regularity. They also wanted to create true representation of nature. The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! The word renaissance means rebirth or revival

MANNERISM Approximate dates: 1520 Ad to 1600 AD Origin or centre(s) of this era in Europe: Centers in Italy were Rome, Florence and Mantua Spread out across the continent as artists traveled In France it had a particular impact on architecture Other important continental centers include Prague, Haarlem and Antwerp Which key words would you use to describe this era? Imitation of previous perfection Significance and wisdom in pictures Avoided perfect harmony Natural simplicity Contrasts in light and shade Closeness of distance One or two key quotes from Gombrich that unlocks or best describes this era: To be an artist was no longer to be a respectable and sedate owner of a workshop: it was to be a virtuoso for whose favor princes and cardinals should compete (Page 275). The painter wanted to be unorthodox. He wanted to show that the classical solution of perfect harmony is not the only solution conceivable; that natural simplicity is one way of achieving beauty, but that there are less direct ways of getting interesting effects for sophisticated lovers of art (Page 277). They may have been rather shocked by the clashing contrasts of light and shade, of closeness and distance, by the lack of harmony in gestures and movement. Yet they must soon have understood that with more ordinary methods Tintoretto could not have created the impression of a tremendous mystery unfolding before our eyes (Page 280). What are the key works or highpoints from this period? El Greco - [His] art surpasses even Tintorettos in its bold deiregard of natural forms and colors, and in its stiring and dramatic vision (Page 281-282). The finding of St Marks remains (1562) Tintoretto - He must, at any rate, been resolved tto tell stories in a different way, to make the spectator feel the thrill and tens drams of the events he painted (Page 278). Benvenuto Cellini - He changed the ideas about perfect harmony from classical art. He enjoyed natural simplicity and showed off its beauty. Name one work (with dates) and its artist (with dates) from this period: In the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna): Susanna and the Elders (1555-56) Tintoretto (1518 1594) Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! [They] must have wondered whether it was true that nothing remained to be done because everything art could possible do had been achieved some wanted to out do them in the matter of invention. They wanted to paint pictures full of significance and wisdom- such wisdom, indeed, that it should remain obscure, save to the most learned scholars (Page 273-274). These works, they seem to have argued, are indeed perfect but perfection is

not forever interesting. Once you are familiar with it, it ceases to excite you (Page 274) (Referring to how Mannerist artists regarded Renaissance works). Indeed, that what is now called modern art may have had its roots in a similar urge to avoid the obvious and achieve effects which differ from conventional natural beauty (Page 277).

BAROQUE Approximate dates: 1600 AD to 1700 AD Centre(s) of this era in Europe: It started in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe The Roman Catholic Church encouraged it as a response to the Protestant Reformation. (The Catholic Church believed that art should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional ways). Which key words would you use to describe this era? Light color * Disregard of simple balance Exaggerated motion * Clear and easily interpreted detail Grandeur in sculpture * Exaggerated lighting Intense emotions (delight, joy and ecstasy) Individualism in subjects * A release from restraint A kind of artistic sensationalism Evoked awe rather than fear of the Gothic Did not really depict the life style of the people at that time Glorified both church and monarchy Key historical events in the world that may have influenced this new era in art: Counter-Reformation - the period of Catholic revival (1545 -1648) in response to the Protestant Reformation that effected religious imagery and lead to the covering of works of art such as the Sistine Chapel. The Thirty Years War and The Civil War in England Lead to the division of the Monarchies supported by the Catholic Church and the development of Protestant merchant cities, furthering the religious division. Eighty Years War- was a fight for Dutch independence (15681648) that lead to the creation of Dutch Golden Age art because of the Dutch peoples prosperity and Protestantism. Three key quotes from Gombrich that unlock or best describe this era for you: The emphasis on light and color, the disregard of simple balance, and the preference for more complicated composition. Nevertheless, seventeenth- century painting is not just a continuation of the Mannerist style. At least people at the time did not feel it to be so. They felt that art had got into a dangerous rut, and must be got out of (Page 297). Caravaggios naturalism, that is, his intention to copy nature faithfully, whether it ugly or beautiful, was perhaps more devout that Carraccis emphasis on beauty He did everything possible to make the figures of the ancient texts look more real and tangible. Even his way of handling light and shade helps to this end. (Page 299). It was a combination of his unrivalled gifts in arranging large compositions, and in infusing then with buoyant energy, that secured a fame and success for Rubens such as no painter had enjoyed before (Page 307). While none of them (the king and the royal family) had attractive, or even interesting faces, they certainly insisted on their dignity, and dressed in a stiff and unbecoming fashion. Not a very inviting task for a painter it would seem (Page 311). What are the key works or highpoints from this period?

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) o Allegory of the blessings of Peace (1629-1630) Anthony Van Dyke (1599-1641) o Charles the I of England (1635) Diego Velzquez (1500-1660) o Pope innocent X (1649-1650) Caravaggio (1571-1610) o The Calling of Saint Matthew (15991600) Johannes Vermeer (1632-1635) o The Milkmaid (16581660) Carracci (15571602) o The Virgin Mourning Christ (1599-1600)
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696 - 1770) o The Banquet of Cleopatra (1750)

Name one work (with date) and its artist (with dates) from this period: In the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna): Ildefonso Altar (163032) Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) Can this era be said to have had any sub-movements, later refinements or variations in particular regions or countries? The Dutch Golden Years after the Eighty Years War the new Dutch Republic was the most prosperous nation in Europe, and led European trade, science, and art. There was also a sharp break with the old monarchist and Catholic cultural traditions, meaning that Dutch art needed to reinvent itself entirely. It is characterized by: A small amount of religious painting Rich portrait painting Scenes of peasant life Landscapes Townscapes Landscapes with animals Maritime paintings Flower paintings Still life Rococo style (developed out a new era of peace and prosperity in Europe. The style of painting included delicate colors, curving forms, and can be described as flamboyant and frivolous. Portraiture was popular among may Rococo painters as well as les wholesome subject matter Jean-Antoine Wattau (16841721) is generally considered the first great Rococo painter Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! To see and observe nature with ever-fresh eyes, to discover and enjoy ever-new harmonies of colors ad lights, had become the essential task of the painter. In this new zeal, the great masters of Catholic Europe found themselves at one with painters on the other side of the political barrier, the great artists of the Protestant Netherlands (Page 313).

PRE-MODERN Neo-Classicism / Romanticism / Realism / Impressionism Approximate dates for each of the four eras (they do overlap): Neoclassicism: 1700 AD to 1890 AD Romanticism: 1750 AD to 1800 AD Realism: 1850 AD to 1860 AD Impressionism: 1860 AD to 1900 AD (most prominent during the 1870s and 1880s) Name a work (date) and its artist (dates) for each era: Neoclassicism: Et in Arcadia ego (1638-1639) Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) Romanticism: Liberty Leading the People (1830) Eugne Delacroix (1798-1763) Realism: Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet (1854) Gustave Courbet ( 1819-1877) Impressionism: Impression, soleil levant, Sunrise (1872) Claude Monet (1840-1926) Which key words would you use to describe the art of these eras? Neoclassicism: Order Simplicity Focuses on Beauty Modeled after the works from the classical world Often containing political themes including bravery and war Central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane Heroic figures Romanticism: Validated strong emotion Emphasized the power of nature Idealistic Clash between color and design Prominence of the brushstroke Realism: Depicts subjects as they real exist Art without embellishment Everyday or ordinary subjects Revolted against the exaggerated emotionalism of the romantic movement Impressionism: Visible brush strokes An emphasis on accurate depiction of light and its changing qualities Often accentuated the effects of the passage of time Common or ordinary subject matter Captured a moment Used element of human perception and experience What were the reasons why these new styles emerged? Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism grew as a response against Rococo, which was seen as over-the-top and shallow. Architecturally, it was characterized by similarities to classical structures as well as the Renaissance. It was also modeled on works from the classical world, often containing political themes including bravery and war.

Romanticism: The ideologies and events of the French Revolution created a backdrop from which both Romanticism emerged. Also the people living in the Industrial Revolution needed an escape from the modern realities. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority, which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. It was also a key movement in the Counter-Enlightenment. Realism: Was a reaction against Romanticism and its embellishments of the natural world or subjective opinions. They desired to paint pictures without a personal bias, so that they could honestly reflect the scene. Impressionism: Was a reaction against romanticism and its honest claim in its representation of nature. They wanted to capture the things the human eye experiences as it really is. Their painting allowed the human eye to adjust and fill in the gaps, actually achieving a more realistic painting. Add one or two quotes from Gombrich that unlock or best describe each era: Neoclassicism: Matters of principle had been brought up and had permeated the minds and the conversations of painters artists were inevitably conscious of the choice of methods before them. And once we accept this we are free to admire the way in which Reni carried out his progamme of beauty, how eh deliberately discarded anything in nature that he considered low and ugly or unsuitable for his lofty ideas, and how his quest for forms more perfect and more ideal than reality was rewarded with success (Page 301). Formulated the programme of idealizing, of beautifying nature, according to the standards set by the classical statues (Page 301). The arrangement seems simple enough but it is simply born of immense artistic knowledge. Only such knowledge could evoke this nostalgic vision of calm response in which death has lost its terror (Page 302). He selected only such motifs as he considered worth of a place in dreamlike vision of the past, and he dripped it all in a golden light or a silvery air which appeared to transfigure the whole scene opened peoples eyes to the sublime beauty of nature (Page 303). Romanticism: The break with tradition had left artists with the two possibilities which were embodied n Turner and Constable. They could become poets in painting, and seek moving and dramatic effects, or they could decide to keep to the motif in front of them, and explore it with all the instances and honesty at their command (Page 376). Landscape pictures reflect the mood of the Romantic lyrical poetry of his time which is more familiar to us through Schuberts songs (Page 376). [They] may even remind us of the spirit of Chinese landscape paintings, which also comes so close to the ideas of poetry (Page 376-377). Those who followed Constables path and tried to explore the visible world rather than to conjure up poetic moods achieved something or more lasting importance (page 377).

Realism: The arrangement, which looks casual at first sight, supports this impression of tranquil poise. There is a calculated rhythm in the movement and distribution of the figures which gives stability to the whole design and makes us feel that the painter looked at the work of harvesting as a scene of solemn significance (Page 390). Courbet wanted to be the pupil of no one but nature... He wanted not prettiness but truth [His] pictures must have seemed downright childish. There are no graceful poses here, no flowing lines, and no impressive colors. Compared with its artless arrangement, event he composition of Millets The gleaners looks calculated (Page 390). [Courbet] wanted his pictures to be a protest against the accepted conventions of his day, to shock the bourgeois out of his complacency, and to proclaim the value of uncompromising artistic sincerity as against the deft handling of traditional clichs (Page 390-391). Impressionism: They looked out for conventions in painting which had become stale and meaningless. They found that the whole claim of traditional art to have discovered the way to represent nature, as we see it, was based on misconception. T most they would concede that traditional art had found a means of representing men or objects under very artificial conditions (Page 392-393). The public had become so accustomed to seeing things represented in this manner (referring to traditional art) that they had forgotten that in the open air we do not usually perceive such even graduations from dark to light. There are harsh contrasts in the sunlight IF we trust our eyes, and not our preconceived ideas of what things ought to look like according to academic rules, we shall make the most exciting discoveries (Page 393). The great artists of subsequent periods had made one discovery after which allowed them to conjure up a convincing picture of the visible world, but none of them had seriously challenged the conviction that each object in nature has its definite fixed form and color which must be easily recognizable in painting (Page 394). We don not see individual objects with its own color but rather a bright medley of tints which blend in our eye or really in our mind (Page 394). It transports us for an instant to the bustle and excitement of the scene which the artist witnessed, and of which he recorded only as much as he could vouch for having seen in an instant (Page 397). Is there anything else you would want to note about these eras you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! To appreciate an Impressionist painting on has to step back a few yards, and enjoy the miracle of seeing these puzzling patches suddenly fall into place and come to life before our eyes (Page 401).

MODERN Post-impressionism / Expressionism Approximate dates for each of the two eras: Post-impressionism: 1886 AD to 1892 AD Expressionism: 1900 AD to 1940 AD Were these movements associated with particular locations in Europe? Post-impressionism: The mass of the work comes form France, but many artist were actually from other countries. Expressionism: Started in Germany and inspired by French painters such as Matisse (Fauve) Name two works (date) and their artists (dates) for each era Post-impressionism: The Centenary of Independence (1892) Henri Rousseau (1844-1910) The Cyclops (1914) Odilon Redon (18401916) Expressionism: The scream (1895) Edvard Munch (1863-1944) Need (1893-1901) Kthe Kollwitz (1867-1945) Which key words would you use to describe the art of these eras? Post-impressionism: Vivid colors Less realistic Thick application of paint Distinctive brush strokes Real-life subject matter Emphasized geometric forms Distorted form for expressive effect Use unnatural or arbitrary colors Reduced objects to their basic shapes The systematic use of tiny dots of color Wanted to restore a sense of order and structure to painting Expressionism: Graphic work New Patterns Shockingly Painful Lack of classic beauty Intense emotion Can be unimpressive aesthetically Influenced by the primitive Express meaning or emotional experience, rather than physical reality Is know to contain drama, horror, anxiety and psychology Presents the world from a subjective perspective Add one or two quotes from Gombrich that unlock or best describe each era: Post-impressionism: The Impressionists were true masters in painting nature. But was that really enough? Where was that striving for a harmonious design, the achievement of solid simplicity and perfect balance, which had marked the greatest paintings of the past? The task was to paint from nature, to make use of the discoveries of

the Impressionist masters, and yet to recapture the sense of order and necessity that distinguished the art of Poussin (Page 539 BIG). Expressionism: Humorous art was a field in which everything was permitted, because people did not approach it with the prejudices they reserved for Art with a capital A. But the idea of a serious caricature, of an art which deliberately changed the appearance of things not to express a sense of superiority, but maybe love, or admiration, or fear, proved indeed a stumbling block Van Gogh had predicted (Page 436). What upset the public about Expressionist art was, perhaps, not so much the fact that nature had been distorted as that the result led away from beauty (Page 437). But the men who claimed to be serious artists should forget that is they must change the appearance of things that should idealize them rather than make them ugly was a strongly resented. But Munch might have retorted that a shout of anguish is not beautiful, and that it would be insincere to look only at the pleasing side of life (Page437). If the doctrine was right what mattered most in art was not the imitation of nature but the expression of feelings through the choice of colors and lines, it was legitimate to ask whether art could not be made more pure by doing away with all subject-matter and relying exclusively on the effects of tones and shapes (Page 440). Is there anything else you would want to note about this era you would want to be able to have at hand in a gallery? Add it here! The artists of the twentieth century had to become inventors. To secure attention they had to strive for originality rather than for that mastery we admire in the great artists of the past (Page 435).