Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

National Electrical Safety Code Overview

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Rule 230. Clearances, General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Rule 231. Clearances of Supporting Structures From Other Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 1-3. Clearances from railroad tracks. Rule 231C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Rule 232. Vertical Clearances of Wires, Conductors, and Equipment Above Ground, Roadway, Rail, or Water Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Rule 233. Clearances Between Wires, Conductors, and Cables Carried on Different Supporting Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Rule 234. Clearance of Wires, Conductors, Cables, and Equipment from Buildings, Bridges, Rail Cars, Swimming Pools, and Other Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Rule 235. Clearance for Wires, Conductors, or Cables Carried on the Same Supporting Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Rule 236. Climbing Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Rule 237. Working Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Rule 238. Vertical Clearance Between Certain Communications and Supply Facilities Located on the Same Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Rule 239. Clearance of Vertical and Lateral Facilities From Other Facilities and Surfaces On the Same Supporting Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Application of the NESC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Pole Line Design

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Route Selection and Control Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 NESC Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Conductor Loading Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Conductor Tensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Ruling Spans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Conductor Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Weight Span (Load Span) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Negative Load Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Wind Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Horizontal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Total Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Vertical Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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Extreme Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Slack Spans (Reduced Tension Spans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Pole Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Selection of Pole Top Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Pole Line Design Parting Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Wood, Steel, and Concrete Poles

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Wood Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Wood Pole Specifications, Codes, Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Steel Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Concrete Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Fiber Optic Cable

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Basics of Optical Fiber Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Fiber Optic Transmission Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Fiber Optic Cable Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Overall Design and Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Street Lighting
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Factors Contributing to Roadway Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Roadway Lighting Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Roadway Lighting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 State Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Example of Roadway Lighting System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Power Supply and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Street Lighting Voltage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Voltage Drop Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Lighting System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Closing Thoughts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Line Protection
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Distribution Transformer Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Fuse-Fuse Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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Reclosers and Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Recloser Recloser Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Sectionalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Recloser Sectionalizer Fuse Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

System Grounding
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Types of Grounding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Earth as a Grounding Medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 The Grounding Electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Pole Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Grounding of System Neutral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Pole Grounding for Line Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Improving System Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Substation Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Electric Shock and the Human Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Capacitors
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Power Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Capacitor Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Capacitor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Distribution Line Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Design of Line Capacitor Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Substation Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Protective Relaying
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Relay Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Overcurrent Relaying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Zone/Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Differential Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Miscellaneous Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Other Transformer Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
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10

Distribution Automation
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Basics of Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 SCADA Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Fault Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Power Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Distribution Sensing, Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Distribution Automation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Communication Systems for Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Automation Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Benefits of Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Environmental Conditions to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

11

Underground Distribution
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Overhead vs. Underground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Engineering URD Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Design of URD Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Installation of URD Facilities Some Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Operating the URD System Some Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

12

Transformer Connections
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Transformer Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Paralleling Single-Phase Distribution Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Phase Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Ferroresonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Single-Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Considerations for Polyphase Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Common Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Banks With Two Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

13

Metering
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Basic Construction and Operation of an Induction Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Demand Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Reactive Power Metering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

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Standard Metering Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Special Metering Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Automated Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Safety Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

14

Dispersed Generation
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Distribution Generation Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Commonly Applied Distributed Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 New and Emerging Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Switching and Protection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Overview of the DG Utility Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Requirements of IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Glossary of Interconnection Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 DG Interconnection Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

15

Engineering Economics
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Cost Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Cost Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Introduction to Engineering Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Time Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

18. For uncontrolled water flow areas, the surface area shall be that enclosed by its annual high-water mark. Clearances shall be based on the normal flood level; if available, the 10-year flood level may be assumed as the normal flood level. 19. The clearance over rivers, streams, and canals shall be based upon the largest surface area of any 1-mile-long segment that includes the crossing. The clearance over a canal, river, or stream normally used to provide access for sailboats to a larger body of water shall be the same as that required for the larger body of water. 20. Where an overwater obstruction restricts vessel height to less than the applicable reference height given in Table 232-3 in the NESC, the required clearance may be reduced by the difference between the reference height and the overwater obstruction height, except that the reduced clearance shall not be less than that required for the surface area on the line-crossing side of the obstruction. 21. Where the US Army Corps of Engineers, or the state, or surrogate thereof has issued a crossing permit, clearances of that permit shall govern. 22. See Rule 234I for the required horizontal and diagonal clearances to rail cars. 23. For the purpose of this Rule, trucks are defined as any vehicle exceeding 8 feet in height. Areas not subject to truck traffic are areas where truck traffic is not normally encountered nor reasonably anticipated. 24. Communication cables and conductors may have a clearance of 15 feet where poles are back of curbs or other deterrents to vehicular traffic. 25. The clearance values shown in this table are computed by adding the applicable Mechanical and Electrical (M&E) value of Table A-1 to the applicable Reference Component of Table A-2a of Appendix A in the NESC. 26. When designing a line to accommodate oversized vehicles, these clearance values shall be increased by the difference between the known height of the oversized vehicle and 14 feet.

Vertical Clearances of Service Conductors

Shown below is a summary diagram of the most commonly required vertical clearances for service conductors, limited to 300 V to ground. Vertical clearances shall not be less than those shown in Figure 1-4, and shall be applied as described earlier in Rule 232A. Application. The clearances shown here are as designed and are not clearances under ambient conditions.

Not less than 16.5 ft (open wire) 16.0 ft (multiplex)

See Table 1-2. Not less than 16.5 ft (open wire) 16.0 ft (multiplex)

See Table 1-2. Not less than 12.5 ft (open wire) 12.0 ft (multiplex)

Street

Residential driveway

Accessible area pedestrians only

Figure 2.4. Vertical clearances of service conductors.

12

NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

L 2

S Y

Low point on sag X

Figure 2-3. Point of maximum sag and low point can be different.

X =

Horizontal distance: and

L H 1 2 4S
2

H Vertical distance: Y = S 1 4S

Where: X = horizontal distance to low point in sag from the lower support, ft Y = vertical distance to low point in sag from the lower support, ft L = span length, ft H = difference in attachment elevations, ft (if higher, the value is positive and if lower, it is negative) S = conductor sag in question (any sag), ft Note: If the value of (1 H/4S) is negative, the low point in sag (theoretical) occurs beyond the lower support and thus not in the given span. In this case, the low point in sag is at the attachment point of the conductor at the lower support.

Anatomy of a Span
Figure 2-4 depicts the important terminology associated with components of conductor sag. These components are used constantly when designing overhead utility lines.
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

Wind Loading on the Conductors

The horizontal loading due to the wind force on a conductor is defined by this equation: FWC = WH LW OFT Where: FWC = WH = LW = OFT = horizontal load due to wind force on each conductor, lbs horizontal wind factor, lbs/ft wind span, ft overload factor for transverse wind as required by NESC Table 253-2.

Wind Loading on the Structure (Pole)

For manual calculations, the wind loading on the structure (pole) is to be applied to that portion of the pole above the support level, see Figure 2-8. For an unguyed pole the support level is the ground line and for a guyed pole the support level is defined as the top guy level. The wind loading on that defined pole section is found by using the following formula: FWS = WPH DA L OFT Where: FWS = WPH = DA = L = OFT = wind load on structure (pole), lbs horizontal wind pressure for given loading conditions, lbs/ft2 average diameter of pole (above pole support level) ft length of pole section above pole support level, ft overload factor for transverse wind as required by NESC Table 253-2.

L (guyed)

L (guyed) 2

FWS (guyed)

Guyed pole support level

FWS (unguyed) L (unguyed) L (unguyed) 2

Unguyed pole support level

Figure 2-8. Wind loading on a structure.

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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

Spiral wire is closer together at each end

Concrete cover Spiral wire

Longitudinal w Prestressed stra

Non-tensioned reinforcement (if required)

Prestressed s Spiral wire Concrete cover Longitudinal wire (if required) Non-tensioned reinforcement (if required) Seam line 5/8 in. minimum As required

Figure 3-8. Prestressed spun concrete pole.

Here are brief descriptions of the major components that make up a prestressed concrete pole:

Prestressed Strands
Prestressed strands are the main strength members of a concrete pole. The number of prestressed strands, their size and location depends on the manufacturer and the class and/or strength requirement of the pole. For ease of drilling, the location of these prestressed strands can be specified. The prestressed strands are loaded to a specific tension to insure the concrete stays in compression. Strands are generally located symmetrically, which makes it fairly easy to avoid them when drilling. Prestressed strands are made of high strength carbon steel and can only be cut with a torch. Due to their importance in the overall strength of the pole, they should never be drilled, cut, or left exposed. Poles with this type of damage should be removed from service.

Spiral Wrap
Spiral wrap wires are smaller than the prestressed strands and are made of mild steel. They are wrapped helically around the prestressed strands for the full length of the concrete pole. Although they provide some strength to the concrete pole, cutting the spiral wrap wires for boltholes does not generally have a significant effect on the strength of the pole.

Non-Tensioned Reinforcement
Non-tensioned reinforcement is nothing more than mild steel rebar. It is often used at the ground line to provide extra strength in this area. It is placed beside the prestressed strand and normally will not be located where it might be cut.
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

Air flow spoiler Downlead cushion & lattice tower clamp Spiral vibration damper OR Suspension

Splice case/ closure

Cushion clamp OR U-Bolt deadend Formed wire deadend

Defender & vertical cable storage

Support

Figure 4-8. Typical hardware for optical ground wire (OPGW). Courtesy: Preformed Line Products.

Air flow spoiler

Dielectric damper

ADSS coronaTM coil

In span storage system Closure or splice case

Dielectric support, aluminum support, or lite support

Dielectric suspension or aluminum suspension

Cable abrasion protector Downlead cushion & mounting accessories Splice case within steel ballistic shield

Dielectric deadends or lite tension deadend

Vertical cable storage

Figure 4-9. Typical hardware for ADSS cable. Courtesy: Preformed Line Products.

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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

CL of luminaire House side Street side

30'

Sidewalk

P1 6' 45' 160.52' 39'

P2

Sidewalk

P1 Points P1 and P2 avg. maint. 0.6 FC

P2

Figure 5-6. Street lighting example.

From Table 5-5, we determine the roadway surface classification as R1. The residential area in question is classified as a low pedestrian conflict area as listed in Table 5-3. From Table 5-6 we see that the average maintained illuminance value (footcandles) for a major roadway in a low pedestrian conflict residential area is 0.6 footcandles. To calculate the average maintained footcandles, we assume the Lamp Depreciation Factor to be 90% and the Luminaire Dirt Depreciation to be 80%. Using Figure 5-3 (American Electric Roadway Luminaire) photometric data, the Coefficient of Utilization graph shows the CU to be 43%, based on this calculation:

180

LINE PROTECTION

40 30 20

2400 1800 1200

Inrush Curve
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Damage Curve
600 540 480 420 360 300 240

Time in Seconds

120

Time In Cycles (60-Hz Basis)

180

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

60 54 48 42 36 30 24

Transformer Fuse

18

0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02

6 5.4 4.8 4.2 3.6 3 2.4

1.2

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

5 6 7 8 9 10

20

30

40

50 60 70 80 90 100

200

300

400

Current in Amperes: x 1 at 12.5 kV.

Fuse-Fuse Coordination
Fuse link coordination can be achieved by the use of TCC curves, coordination tables, or industry established rules of thumb. When fuses are installed in series on a power system, the down-line fuse is referred to as the protecting link and the up-line fuse is referred to as the protected link. To achieve coordination, the protecting link should operate for faults in its zone of protection without causing damage to the protected link.
203

CAPACITORS

SYSTEM GROUNDING

Figure 6-7. Inrush and damage curves.

500

0.01

0.6

LINE PROTECTION

1.8

STREET LIGHTING

12

FIBER OPTIC CABLE

STRUCTURES

POLE LINE DESIGN

100 90 80 70 60 50

6000 5400 4800 4200 3600 3000

NESC OVERVIEW

NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

Deep Driven Ground Rods

Using longer rods or sectional ground rods to drive the rod deeper into the earth usually decreases the electrode resistance. In addition, with the ground electrode down further into the earth it is more likely to exhibit lower levels of resistance due to water tables and constant soil temperatures. It may also encounter soil with a lower resistivity. A rule of thumb is that doubling the length of the ground rod will lower the resistance by 40%.

Multiple Ground Rods

Paralleling multiple ground rods can achieve lower resistances by providing multiple paths for the current to divide. However, paralleling two rods will not reduce the resistance by one-half as is usually the case with parallel conductors. The reason for this is that the rods are not widely separated from one another and the rods will mutually interact on each other through their common resistances to remote earth. Separation of the rod grounds will greatly influence the reduction in resistance. It is recommended that the rods be spaced from one another at a distance of two times the length of the rods and tied together with a #6 or #4 copper conductor. If they are spaced in this manner, the reduction in resistance using two ground rods is about 60%, three reduces it to 40%, and four reduces it to 33%.

Install Ground Away From the Pole

Ground rods installed adjacent to poles are typically in soil which was disturbed when the pole was installed. This can result in a relatively high ground resistance. Installing the rod 2 to 3 feet from the pole may reduce the resistance considerably. This is especially true when installing ground rods for padmounted equipment.

Chemical Treatments
In some extreme cases, the soil surrounding the ground electrode must be chemically treated to reduce the ground resistance. This method also helps to reduce the change in soil resistivity during wet and dry seasons. The major disadvantages of this method are that it is expensive and is not generally permanent (chemicals are washed away by rain). However, it may be the only solution for areas with underlying rock layers preventing the use of deeper or even multiple rods. The materials used for this purpose are generally referred to as Grounding Enhancement Material or GEM, and this abbreviation is used in some trade names. Buried electrodes are sometimes placed in Bentonite clay which has a favorable resistivity.

Substation Grounding
The function of a substation ground is to provide proper operation of electric equipment and to provide personnel safety. These functions can be met by using the lowest practical resistance between the circuit neutrals and the earth. Typically, a ground grid that is designed to meet the safety standards for personnel will also be satisfactory for equipment operations. The substation ground grid generally consists of driven ground rods tied together with buried cables and equipment ground mats, which are all tied to the system neutral. Current flows into the ground from lightning surges, ground faults. Switching surges can cause potential
248

PROTECTIVE RELAYING

80-85% B 20 miles A Source

IF = 6,400 A A B

Time

6000 A IF @ B

6400 A Current

8000 A IF @ A

Figure 9-17. Line breaker with instantaneous relay.

As can be seen, the two are properly coordinated. However, instantaneous relaying can be applied at breaker A to increase its sensitivity without mis-coordinating with breaker B. This is accomplished by setting the instantaneous relay to see 80-85% of the distance to B. This can be easily calculated as a ratio of fault current decrease to line length since this can be approximated as a linear relationship. IInst = 8000 - [(8000 6000) 0.8] = 6,400 amps The instantaneous relay can, for all practical purposes, be drawn as a vertical line at the 6,400 amps location. This time-overcurrent curve can be indicated with a dashed line for all currents greater than the instantaneous setting. Figure 9-17 has been redrawn in Figure 9-18 with a tap at point C that is protected by a fuse.

333

ENGR. ECONOMICS

DISPERSED GENERATION

METERING

TRANSFORMERS

UNDERGROUND

DIST. AUTOMATION

RELAYING

Time

RELAYING DIST. AUTOMATION UNDERGROUND TRANSFORMERS METERING DISPERSED GENERATION ENGR. ECONOMICS

DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDELINES

B C

A Source

A C

6400 A IF @ B

7200 A IF @ C

8000 A IF @ A

Figure 9-18. Radial line with fused tap.

As can be seen, for a fault with a magnitude of 7,200 amps on the tap at C just beyond the fuse, the instantaneous trip setting on breaker A will operate faster than the fuse. The only way to alleviate this problem is to set the instantaneous relay above 7,200 amps or to remove the instantaneous relay. However, this greatly reduces the sensitivity of the breaker relay scheme to high-magnitude, close-in faults. Application of instantaneous relaying can be accomplished by utilizing a reclosing relay with an instantaneous trip lockout feature. After a preset number of reclosers (usually one or two), this device locks out the instantaneous relay from operation. Thus, breaker A can be set to operate twice on instantaneous and then revert to time delay for two additional operations. As a result, an intermittent (transient) fault on the tap at C can be cleared without the fuse blowing. It is estimated that two-thirds of all faults are transient in nature, this results in a considerable reduction in outage time for the consumer. If the fault is persistent, the instantaneous relay will be locked out and, under time delay at breaker A, the fuse will clear the fault providing correct coordination. For a persistent fault on the main feeder, the time delay of the final two operations can be undesirable. However, due to the small percentage of persistent faults and, by liberal application of fuses on all taps off the main feeder, this problem can be reduced to an acceptable level.

Ground Overcurrent Relaying

Though all of the principles above are applicable to relaying for ground faults, ground fault protection requires special consideration. The magnitude and detection of ground faults depends upon transformer connection (delta or wye) and the presence of a ground impedance in the case of a wye system. The following discussion will concentrate on the solidly grounded wye system prevalent in most distribution systems.

334