APPLIED PHYSICS

(GS-113)
LAB MANUAL
INSTRUCTOR
LAB ENGINEER
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
SWEDISH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, WAH CANTT
RIZWAN ALI KHAN
ALI MURAD
Sr.No Description
1 Introduction to Lab Apparatus
2 Construction and Measurements of DC circuits
3 Introduction to Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulator and their usages.
4 Ohms Law
5 Magnetic field strength
6 Self induction
7
Mutual induction
8
Lenzs Law and Faraday law
9
Magnetic flux detection
10
Introduction to oscilloscope
11 To determine the Frequency of AC signals
12
B-H curve
13
To study the Characteristics of P-N junctions
14 To study the Characteristics of Zener diode
15 To study the Characteristics and Operation of LED
16
To study the Characteristics of Varactor and Tunnel Diode
Objectives
1. Use of Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. Introduction to DC Power Supply
Equipment Required
1. Digital Multimeter
2. DC Power Supply
Procedure and Theory:
1. Use of Digital Multimeter (DMM)
How to Measure Resistance:
1. Rotate the knob of digital multimeter from OFF to .
2. Verify that the red lead plugs into the jack and the black lead plugs into the
COM jack.
3. Connect the red and black leads across the resistor.
4. The resulting value will appear on the display.
NOTE: The unit for resistance is Ohm (symbol ). The bigger units are Kilo
Ohm (symbol K) and Mega Ohm (symbol M).
How to Make DC Voltage Measurements:
1. Rotate the knob from OFF to V.
2. To switch between AC & DC press SHIFT button once.
Lab # 1 - Introduction to Basic Lab Apparatus
3. Verify that the red lead plugs into the V jack and the black lead plugs into the
COM jack.
4. To make a measurement, connect the tip of the red lead and the tip of the black
lead across the points where you want to measure voltages (potential difference).
A positive meter reading means the point where the red tip is connected is higher
in voltage than the point where the black tip is connected.
NOTE: The unit for voltage is the volt (symbol V). Smaller units of voltage
are the millivolt (10
-3
volt) symbol mV, and the microvolt (10
-6
volt) symbol
V.
How to Make Current Measurements:
1. Rotate the knob to A.
2. Make sure that the red lead plugs into the A or A.mA jack and the black lead
plugs into the COM jack.
3. To switch between AC & DC press SHIFT button once.
4. To make a current measurement, the tip of the red lead and the tip of the black
lead must be inserted in series with the element whose current is to be measured.
A positive meter reading means the point where the red tip is connected has
current entering it.
NOTE: The unit for current is the ampere (symbol A upper case).
Smaller units of current are the milliampere (10
-3
ampere) symbol mA, and
the microampere (10
-6
ampere) symbol A.
Introduction to DC Power Supply
The power supply has two variable Master and Slave (0 to 30Volts) and one fixed
(5Volts) DC voltage source. The variable supply has a current limit which can be set
by the user.
1. Press the Power On button.
2. If using the variable dc supply, connect the red lead with + and the black lead
with - .
3. The vlotage and current can be set to desired level by rotating the knobs & the
resulting value appears on the display.
4. If using the fixed 5 Volts supply, connect red lead with + and black with -.
5. Two variable supplies can be be used in series or parallell combination by using
tracking buttons.
Lab performed on (date): ___________________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: ____________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. The objective of this experiment is to analyze and construct simple resistive
circuits in DC. The circuits considered here are: resistors in series, resistors in
parallel, series-parallel combination, voltage divider, current divider and the
Wheatstone bridge. This experiment will allow the experimental verification of
the theoretical values of Req.
Equipment Required
1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. DC Power Supply
3. Wire Stripper
4. Resistors
Theory of Resistive Circuits:
The theoretical analysis of the circuits under study is based on Ohms and Kirchhoffs
laws. The main equations relating the electrical parameters of every circuit are presented
below.
1. Ohms law. The voltage V (in volts, V) across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current I (in amperes, A) flowing through it. The constant of proportionality
is the resistance R (in ohms,).
V = RI (2-1)
2. Resistors in series. (See Figure 2-1).
The current through N elements in series is the same for all of them.
Is = I1 = I2 = . . . . . . = In (2-2)
The voltage across the ith element is RiIi. The sum of the voltages across each
element is equal to the voltage applied to the entire series combination.
Vs = V1 + V2 + . . . . . . + Vn (2-3)
Equation 2-3 is formulated from Kirchhoffs voltage law.
The equivalent resistance of the series combination is the sum of the individual
resistances.
Req = R1 + R2 + . . . . . . + Rn
(2-4)
3. Resistors in parallel. (See Figure 2-2).
The voltage across N elements in parallel is the same for all of them.
Vs = V1 = V2 = . . . . . . = Vn (2-5)
Lab # 2 - Construction & Measurements in DC Circuits Lab # 2 - Construction & Measurements in DC Circuits
The current through the ith element is Vi/Ri. The sum of the currents through each
element is equal to the current provided to the entire parallel combination.
Is = I1 + I2 + . . . . . . +In (2-6)
Equation 2-6 is formulated from Kichhoffs current law.
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is the sum
of the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
N eq
R R R R
1
.....
1 1 1
2 1
+ +
(2-7)
4. Series-parallel combination. An example of a series-parallel combination circuit
is shown in Figure 2-3.The analysis of this type of circuit is accomplished by
substituting the series (or parallel) combinations by their equivalent resistances,
such that the circuit is transformed into a pure parallel (or series)circuit. Once the
electrical parameters (voltage and/or current) have been determined for the
equivalent resistances, the voltages and/or currents for the individual resistors in
the series or parallel combinations can be obtained by using these parameters as
Vs and Is for the corresponding combination.
5. Voltage divider. From Equation 2-3, a series circuit with two resistors will divide
the applied voltage Vs into two voltages V1 and Vo across each resistor. Notice
that Vo is the output of the voltage divider (see Figure 2-4), as it is referenced to
ground. The proportion in which the input voltage Vs is divided is given by
o
V
=
R2 R1
R2Vs
+
(2-8)
In order for this circuit to operate as a voltage divider, the output current Io must
be zero or very small compared with the current through R2.
6. Current divider. (See Figure 2-5). From Equation 2-6, a parallel circuit with two
resistors will divide the applied current Is into two currents I1 and IL through each
resistor. The proportion in which the input current Is is divided is given by
IL =
RL R1
R1Is
+
(2-9)
7. Wheatstone bridge. Figure 2-6 shows the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The output
of this circuit is the difference of potential across nodes a and b. Notice that it is
composed of a pair of voltage dividers, therefore, no significant current can be
drawn from the output. The output voltage is given by
ab
V
=
,
_

+ R4 R3
R4
R2 R1
R2
.Vs (2-10)
Procedure
This part of the experiment requires assembling the resistive circuits presented in the
previous section and measuring Req from all of them. Refer to the Lab#1 regarding the
use of the equipment and breadboard. These activities allow for a continuing
familiarization with the use of the equipment.
Assemble following circuit on bread board, calculate and measure their Req values along
its figure.
Analysis
This section is intended for the analysis and comparison of the experimental and
theoretical results. Answer all the questions.
1. Calculate the error percentage between the measured and theoretical data and
complete all the corresponding entries in Tables 2-1 through 2-6. The error
percentage is given by
%error =
100

th
m th
d
d d
Where dth and dm are the theoretical and measured data respectively.
2. From the above results comment on the three parameters with the highest error
percentages and the three with the lowest error percentages. Discuss the possible
causes for error and comment on the overall agreement between the measured and
theoretical data.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Lab # 3 - Introduction to Conductor, Semi-Conductor and
Insulator and their usage
Apparatus: Copper Cables, Diodes, LED, Coaxial Cable, Twisted Pair
All conductors contain electric charges which will move when an electric potential
difference (measured in volts) is applied across separate points on the material. This flow
of charge (measured in amperes) is what is meant by electric current. In most materials,
the direct current is proportional to the voltage (as determined by Ohm's law), provided
the temperature remains constant and the material remains in the same shape and state.
Most familiar conductors are metallic. Copper is the most common material used for
electrical wiring. Silver is the best conductor, but is expensive. Gold is used for high-
quality surface-to-surface contacts. However, there are also many non-metallic
conductors, including graphite, solutions of salts, and all plasmas. See electrical
conduction for more information on the physical mechanism for charge flow in materials.
Non-conducting materials lack mobile charges, and so resist the flow of electric current,
generating heat. In fact, all non-superconducting materials offer some resistance and
warm up when a current flows. Thus, proper design of an electrical conductor takes into
account the temperature that the conductor needs to be able to endure without damage, as
well as the quantity of electrical current. The motion of charges also creates an
electromagnetic field around the conductor that exerts a mechanical radial squeezing
force on the conductor. A conductor of a given material and volume (length cross-
sectional area) has no real limit to the current it can carry without being destroyed as long
as the heat generated by the resistive loss is removed and the conductor can withstand the
radial forces. This effect is especially critical in printed circuits, where conductors are
relatively small and close together, and inside an enclosure: the heat produced, if not
properly removed, can cause fusing (melting) of the tracks.
Since all non-superconducting conductors have some resistance, and all insulators will
carry some current, there is no theoretical dividing line between conductors and
insulators. However, there is a large gap between the conductance of materials that will
carry a useful current at working voltages and those that will carry a negligible current
for the purpose in hand, so the categories of insulator and conductor do have practical
utility.
Thermal and electrical conductivity often go together For instance, most metals are both
electrical and thermal conductors. However, some materials are practical electrical
conductors without being good thermal conductors.
Conductors and Insulators
In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot. Metals such as
copper typify conductors, while most non-metallic solids are said to be good insulators,
having extremely high resistance to the flow of charge through them. "Conductor"
implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and free to move through
the material. Most atoms hold on to their electrons tightly and are insulators. In copper,
the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly repel each other. Any external
influence which moves one of them will cause a repulsion of other electrons which
propagates, "domino fashion" through the conductor.
Simply stated, most metals are good electrical conductors, most nonmetals are not.
Metals are also generally good heat conductors while nonmetals are not.
Insulators
Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they offer very large resistance to
the flow of electric current. Metals are classified as conductors because their outer
electrons are not tightly bound, but in most materials even the outermost electrons are so
tightly bound that there is essentially zero electron flow through them with ordinary
voltages. Some materials are particularly good insulators and can be characterized by
their high resistivity:
Resistivity (ohm m)
Glass 10
12
Mica 9 x 10
13
Quartz (fused) 5 x 10
16
This is compared to the resistivity of copper:
Resistivity (ohm m)
Copper 1.7 x 10
-8
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: _____________________________
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. To verify Ohms Law by calculating, and then by measuring voltage, current and
resistance, and then comparing the calculated and measured results.
2. To verify Ohms Law relationships by increasing one quantity while holding the
second quantity constant, then measuring and calculating the effect on the third
quantity.
3. To demonstrate the three power formulae in DC circuits.
Equipment Required
1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. DC Power Supply
3. Wire Stripper
4. Bread Board
5. Resistors: 10, 3.6 k, 4.7 k, 6.8 k, 10 k
Theory of Ohms Law
Ohms Law is the basis of many electrical circuit calculations and is one of the
most important theories you will learn: V=IR. The purpose of this experiment is to verify
Ohms Law, which in words, simply says that the current through a resistor is
proportional to the voltage across it. The way in which we accomplish this is to measure
the voltage across and current through a known resistor for several different pair of
values. We can then plot the data on a graph, and if the relationship is truly linear it
should yield a straight line.
When graphing data such as those obtained in this experiment, either the x or y-axis
can be chosen to display the voltage or current values. When the y-axis is chosen as the
voltage axis, and the x-axis as the current axis, we say that we are plotting V versus I. the
slope of the line V/I should be equal to the resistance R of the resistor. If on the other
hand, current is plotted on the y-axis, and voltage along the x-axis, then slope of the line
I/V is equal to the conductance G of the resistor. In this experiment you will plot I in
mA versus V in volts, and therefore the slope will be the conductance of R. When
plotting a straight line on a graph such as this, it is important that you draw the best
straight line that you can through the data points.
Power in DC Circuit
Electronic devices and circuits require energy to operate. Power is a measure in
watts (W) of the energy in joules (J) consumed by a given device in one second. For a
resistor, three equations will yield the power dissipated: P=IV, P=V/R and P=IR. In this
experiment, you will verify these formulae and plot graphs of the power versus the
current, and then power versus the voltage. The resulting curves are parabolas, and the
Lab # 4- Ohms Law
equations of the curves are called quadratic. By plotting two curves for both 1 k and
390 resistors on the same scales and axes, you will be able to see which resistance
consumes more power for a given current (or voltage).
Procedures
A. Perform the following steps to verify that

R
V
I
1. Measure the resistance of the 6.8 k (color-coded value) resistor with the DMM.
R1
measured =
_______________,
2. Connect the circuit in Figure-1.
Figure-1
+
-
15V
R1 6.8Kohm

+
-
15V
R1 6.8Kohm V
Figure-2
3. Adjust the power supply voltage to 15.0 V using the DMM set on its DC voltage
mode.
4. Measure and record the voltage across the R1 resistor. (As shown in Figure-2)
V
R1
= _____________. Make sure that the voltage across R1 is still 15V.
5. Measure and record the current through R1. (as shown in Figure-3).
I
R1
= ________________ VI P = _______________
15V R1 6.8Kohm
A
Figure-3
6. Using the measured values of voltage and resistance, calculate the current through
R
1
using Ohms Law. Show calculations in the space below.

R
V
I _______________ I
R1
= _______________
7. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?
_________________________________________________________________
________
B. Perform
the following steps to verify that
I
V
R
1. Connect the same circuit as in Figure 1, except change the value of resistance of
3.9 k (color-coded value).
2. Measure and record the voltage across R1 and the current flow through R1.
V
R1
= _______________ I
R1
= ________________
3. Calculate the resistance of R1 using the measured values of V
R1
and I
R1
with
Ohms Law. Show calculation. R1 = _______________
4. Remove R1 from the circuit. Measure and record the resistance of R1 using the
multimeter.
R1 = _______________
R I P
2

= _______________
5. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?
______________________________________________________________
___________
C. Perform the following procedures to verify that
R I V
1. Connect the circuit in Figure 1, except change the resistor to 10 k. (color-coded
value)
2. Measure the resistance of this resistor making sure that the resistor is removed
from the circuit. R1 = _______________
3. Reinsert the resistor into the circuit and measure the current through the resistor.
I
R1
= _______________
4. Calculate, using Ohms law, the resistor voltage using the measured values of
resistance and current. Show calculation below.
V = I R = _______________ mA _______________ = _______________V
5. Measure the resistor voltage. Record
V
R1
= _______________
R
V
P
2
= _______________
6. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?
_________________________________________________________________
_
D. Perform the following procedures to verify that
IF THE RESISTANCE IS HELD CONSTANT, INCREASING THE
VOLTAGE WILL INCREASE THE CURRENT.
1. Connect the circuit in Figure 1 using a 4.7 k resistor.
2. Set the voltage source to 2.0 V.
3. Measure the current through the resistor. Record this value in the following table.
4. Repeat this procedure from 2.0V to 30.0V. And note down the required values in
the table (on next page).

Draw the following graphs on next pages.
1. Draw relation between V & I on graph paper.
2. Draw relation between P & V on graph paper.
3. Draw relation between P & I on graph paper.
1 R
V
1 R
I
1 R
P
1
R
0V 4.7k
2V
4V
6V
8V
10V
12V
14V
16V
18V
20V
22V
24V
25V
26V
28V
30V
Information:
The three forms of Ohms Law are:
1
]
1

I
V
R and IR V
R
V
I ,
The procedures in this experiment the student verified these formulas by comparing
measured data with calculated data. Allow for a reasonable tolerance in your data. For
example: Measured voltage = 15 V; calculated voltage = 14.8 V. To compare these, we
use
[(measured - calculated)/calculated]*100%:
% 4 . 1 % 100
8 . 14
8 . 14 15
+
1
]
1

V
V V
error percentage
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. To understand the magnetic field strength around a coil.
2. To study the factors for producing a magnetic field.
Discussion
In 1918, Hans Christan Oersted discovered that a current produced a
Magnetic field when he noticed how a wire carrying a current affected a compass.
If number of wire loops are wound in the same direction to form a coil,
More fields will add to make the flux lines through the coil even more dense.
The magnetic field through the coil becomes even stronger. The
More loops there are, the stronger the magnetic field becomes.
A helically wound coil that is made to produce a very strong magnetic field
is called a solenoid. The flux lines in a solenoid act the same as in a magnet.
The leave the N pole and go around the S pole. When a solenoid attracts
an iron bar, it will draw the bar inside the soil as shown in fig 11.1.

Lab # 5 Magnetic field strength

Record the current value indicated by the ammeter.
I=_______________A
Turn off the power and turn the voltage control to the left completely.
Turn on the power
Slowly raise the positive power until the iron bar is drawn into the coil.

Record the values of the power voltage and the current.
E=__________________V
I=___________________A
Results
The results are only for your reference

Setup 3: 0.12A
Setup 4: 14.5V ; 0.12 A
Conclusion
In procedure steps 3 and 4, you have verified that the magnetic field built
Up by a coil is in proportion to the current flowing in the coil and the
Number of turns in the coil.
The magnetic field of a coil be made stronger still by keeping an iron core
Inside the coil of wire. Since the soft iron is magnetic and has a low
reluctance, it allows more flux lines to be concentrated in it than would air.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. To understand the self induction of a coil.
2. To verify the phenomenon of self-induction.

Discussion
Any change in current causes an expansion or collapsing of the magnetic field around a
conductor, which in turn induces an emf in the conductor. This is called self-induction.
The magnetic of the self-induced emf is proportion to the amplitude and frequency of the
current. By Lenzs law, we can also find the relation between the induced emf and the
applied voltage that causes the current flow is such that the current flow is such that the
two voltages are always 180
0
out of phase.
Since the magnitude of the magnetic flux is proportional to the magnitude of current in
the coil. The self-induced emf of a N-turns coil can be expressed by the equation e=-N
/t. of course, the magnetic field of a coil can be made stronger, more flux line too, by
keeping a soft iron core inside the coil.
The circuit of fig.1.1 can be used to demonstrate the phenomenon of self-induction.
When the switch is closed, the coil then build up a magnetic field (flux).if the switch is
Lab # 6 Self Induction
opened, and then magnetic flux will collapse rapidly. Therefore, a large induced emf is
produced by a large amount of /t brightness of the lamp will be maximum.
Procedure
1. Set the module IT-1005 on the main unit and locate the self induction block.
2. According the fig.1.1 and 1.2, complete the experiment circuit with short-circuit
clips.
3. Apply +5V to V+.
4. Observe the states of the lamp while switch open or close write down your
comment.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___
Results
Step 4: the lamp has a maximum brightness when the switch is turned off.
Conclusion
Wherever there is magnetic flux, there is inductance. The inductance may be that of a
wire or a coil, but always magnetic flux and inductance go to gather. The self-inductance
L of an N-turns coil can be express by the equation L=N /t. the unit of self-
inductance L is the henrys (H).
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. To understand the mutual-induction between coils.
2. To verify the phenomenon of mutual-induction.
Discussion
When the current in a coil is changing that a voltage will be induced in another coil. this
effect is called mutual-induction.
Consider fig.2.1 (a).At the instant when the switch S closes, then current flowing through
the coil 1 builds up a magnetic field (flux) around itself. A part of this flux which links
only the coil 1. Then other part links both the 1 and 2 coils and therefore is a component
of mutual flux. This mutual flux produces a current flowing through the ammeter.
Lab # 7 Mutual Induction
Similarly, a reverse current will flow the ammeter at the instant when the switch S opens
as shown in fig.8.1 (b)
As mentioned before, wherever there is magnetic flux, there is inductance. the mutual
flux is built up by a mutual inductance M. the mutual inductance M between two coils
depends on their configuration, permeability ,and the individual inductance of each coil.
Procedure
1. Set the module IT-1005 on the main unit and locate the Mutual induction block.
2. Complete the experiment circuit as shown in fig.8.2.
3. Apply +5V to V+.
4. On (Close) the SW and observe the indication on the A meter.
Does any current indication present on the A meter.
Yes/No
5. Releases the SQ and observe the indication on the A meter?
Does any current indication present on the A meter? Yes /No
6. Reduce the power supply and repeat steps 4 and 5.
Record the results below.
Results and Conclusion
You have completed the experiment and should have found that the induced current
flows through the ammeter at the instant when the switch closes and then opens. then
decrease in applied voltage will cause the decrease in induced current.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1. To become familiar with Lenzs Law in electromagnetic induction.
2. To become familiar with Faradays Law in electromagnetic induction.
Discussion
Lab # 8 Lenzs Law and Faradays Law
Lenzs law states that a change in current or flux produces an emf whose direction is such
that it opposes the change in current or flux. in other words when current or flux is
decreasing, the induced emf is in the same direction as current or flux and tries to Keep
the current or flux from decreasing and when a current or flux in increasing, the polarity
of the induced emf is opposite to the direction of the current or flux and tries to prevent
Current or flux from increasing.
e can demonstrate these phenomena by considering the relative motion
Between movable magnet and a stationary coil as shown in Fig. when the magnet is put
in the coil, the coil produces a magnetic field with the same pole as the end pole of
magnet on the left and try prevent the magnet in and the induced current causes the
Pointer of ammeter to deflect to one side. lf the magnet is putting out the
Oil the coil will produce a magnetic field with the opposite pole to the pole
Of magnet on the left end trying to prevent the magnet out and the induced
Current causes the pointer of ammeter to deflect to the other side
illustrated in (b) and (d).
Procedure
1. Set the module IT-1006 on the main unit and locate the Lenzs Law
block.
2. According to Fig. 4.2 and 4.3, complete the experiment circuit.
3. Move up and down the magnet in the coil and observe the current
indication on the A meter.
Does any current indication present on the A meter?
Yes No
4.Change the moving speed of the magnet and _observe the current indication on the A
meter.
What is the relationship between the induced current and the moving speed?
5. Stay the magnet in the coil statically.
Does the current indication return to zero? Yes No


Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Objectives
1 To learn the operating of magnetic-flux-density sensor.
Lab # 9 Magnetic Flux Detection
2 To understand the application of the magnetic flux detector circuit.
Discussion
The most usually used magnetic-flux-density sensors are those using Hall-effect devices.
These devices produce an output voltage proportional to the flux density of a transverse
magnetic field when a constant excitation current is passed through them. The polarity of
its output voltage is determined by the direction of the magnetic field. The hall-effect
devices commonly used in electronic circuits are semiconductor devices.


A circuit contracted to detect the magnetic flux is shown in fig.3.1.the magnetic-flux-
density transducer U1 produces a dc output voltage when detecting a magnetic field. The
magnitude of output voltage is proportional to the flux density and the output voltage is
amplified by the amplifiers U2-a and U2-b.the output voltage of U2-a produces a driving
current through the LED1 or LED2.the positive output turns on the LED2 and the
negative turns on the LED1.the brightness of LEDs is proportional to the magnitude of
U2-b output voltage. The VR1 in the circuits is used for offset adjustment of U2-b output
voltage. The VR1 in the circuit is used for offset adjustment to set a zero of output
voltage when the circuit is initialized.
Procedure
1 Set the module It-1005 on the main unit and locate the magnetic flux Detection
block.
2 Apply +12V and -12V the experiment circuit as shown in fig.3.1.
3 Adjust VR1 to obtain a 0V at the output of U2-a(U2 PIN 7).
4 Approach the magnet to U1 and observe the output voltage o f U2-b on the
voltmeter.
5 What is change in the output voltage of U2-b as the magnetic field changes its
magnitude and polarity?
6 Observe the states of LED1 and LED2 and record the results below.
Results and Conclusion
The output voltage level of U2-b is reversely proportional to the distance from the sensor
U1.When the N pole approaches to the U1, the output of from the sensor U1.When the N
pole approached to the U1,the output of U2-b is a positive level and turns on
LED2.Reversely,the output is negative and turns on LED1 when the S pole approaches to
the U1,the brightness of LEDs is Proportional to the voltage level at U2-b output
terminal.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__
Objective
Lab # 10 Introduction to Oscilloscope
1. Measurement of Voltage and Frequency on Oscilloscope.
Equipment Required
1. Oscilloscope (Kenwood C4135A)
Theory of Oscilloscope:
Front Panel
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The effective display screen surface runs over an area of eight 1cm divisions along
the vertical axis and ten 1cm divisions along the horizontal axis. With an inner
gratitude etched right into the tube face, the chance of measurement errors due to
parallax occurring between the trace and the gratitude has been significantly reduced.
There is also a % display for measuring rise time on the left edge of the gratitude.
2. Power Switch
A push-button type switch that turns the power source on and off. Pressing the left
edge of the gratitude.
3. Pilot Lamp
Light ups when the power is turned on.
4. CAL Terminal
A voltage terminal for calibration. To be used for adjusting the probe. Capable of 1
volt peak to peak, positive, polarity, square wave signals with approx.1kHz is enable.
5. INTIN Control
For adjusting the brightness of the trace line.
6. FOCUS Control
For adjusting the focus and attaining the clearest display possible.
7. TRACE ROTA Control
For adjusting the slope of the horizontal trace line. The slope of the line will change
due to such influences as the earths magnetic force. Use a screwdriver to keep the
trace line parallel with the horizontal axis gratitude.
8. ILLUM Control (CS4135A Only)
For adjustment the brightness of gratitude on the CRT.
9. GND Terminal
This is the ground terminal to be used when setting up a common ground with other
equipment.
10. POSITION Control
For adjusting the vertical position of the CHI & CH2 waveforms on the CRT screen.
During X-Y operation it is used to adjust the position of Y-axis.
11. VOLTS/DIV Control
For setting the vertical axis sensitivity with the CHI & CH2 vertical axis attenuator. It
can be set in steps of 1, 2 and 5. Setting the VARIABLE control all the way to the
right at CAL enables calibrated vertical sensitivity. During X-Y operation, it becomes
the attenuator control for the Y axis.
12. VERIABLE Control
For fine adjustment of CHI & CH2 vertical axis sensitivity. Allows continuous
variable adjustment within the VOLTS/DIV range. When set to the right at CAL, the
attenuator can be calibrated. During X-Y operation, it becomes the fine adjustment
control for the X-axis and y-axis.
13. AC-GND-DC Switch
For selecting the CHI vertical axis input signal coupling mode.
AC The input signal will be capacitively coupled. And all DC components will be
eliminated. The low range -3dB attenuation point will be 10 Hz or less when
using either a 1:1 probe or a coaxial cable, and 1Hz or less when using a
corrected 10:1 probe.
GND Vertical amplifier input is grounded, and the ground potential can be checked.
At an input resistance of 1M ohm relative to the ground, the input signal is not
Grounded. In this mode, the antitrace line jump circuit prevents the trace
position From changing suddenly when switching from GND to AC.
DC Provides direct coupling of the input signal, and measurement can be carried
out with the direct current component intact.
14. INPUT Jacks
The CHI & CH2vertical axis input jack. During X-Y operation, CH1 becomes the Y-
axis input jack and CH2 becomes the X-axis input jack.
15. BAL Control
For adjusting The DC balance of the CHI & CH2. The factory delivered the proper
adjustment. If discrepancy occurs due to circumferential temperature, Please use a
screw driver to keep the trace line not to move up and down when rotating the
VOLT/DIV control.
16. VERT MODE Switch
For selecting the vertical axis operation mode.
CH1 : For displaying the CH1 input signal on the CRT screen.
CH2 : For displaying the CH2 input signal on the CRT screen.
ALT : Switches between CHI & CH2 input signal for each sweep and
displays them on the CRT screen
CHOP : For displaying CH1 & CH2 input signal one after the other on the CRT
screen, regardless of sweep and at an occurrence rate of about 250 kHz.
ADD :For displaying combine waveform of CH1 & CH2 input signal on the
CRT screen However, when CH2 is set at ENVERT, the difference
between CH1 & CH2 will be displayed.
17. CH2 INVERT Switch
When the button is pushed all the way in, the polarity of the CH2 input signal display
will be inverted.
18. X-Y Oscilloscope Setting Switch
When button is pushed all the way in, ignores the VERT MODE setting and
commences operation as an X-Y oscilloscope with CH1 as Y-axis and CH2 as X-axis.
19. MODE Selector Switch
For selecting trigger operation modes.
AUTO : Sweep is performed by a trigger signal.
However, in the absence of a trigger signal, free run will commence and a
trace will appear.
NORM : Sweep is performed by a trigger signal. In the absence of a suitable
trigger
Signal, a trace will not appear.
FIX : Sweep trigger level is fixed. In this case, trigging is made regardless of
TRIGGER LEVEL control (28) setting.
TV-F : Composite video signal vertical sync pulses are selected out and coupled
To the trigger circuit.
TV-L : Composite video signal horizontal sync pulses are selected out and
Coupled to the trigger circuit.
Note : The trigger signal is capacitively coupled to the trigger circuit in this
oscilloscope. The trigger signal source will be selected by the VERT
MODE setting.
VERT MODE TRIGING SIGNAL
CH1 CH1
CH2 CH2
ALT
Switches between CH1 and CH2 input signals for each sweep and
selected for trigger signal source.
CHOP CHI
ADD Combine signal of CH1 and CH2 input signal.
Table-1 setting to the trigger signal source by the VERT MODE.
CH1 : The CH1 input signal will become the trigger signal source.
CH2 : The CH2 input signal will become the trigger signal source.
LINE : The commercial-use power source voltage waveform will become the
trigger
Signal source.
EXT : The signal being input into the EXT TRIG jack will the trigger signal
source.
20. SLOPE Control
For selecting the slope polarity of the trigger sweep signal. When the pushbutton is
out, triggering will be performed with the trigger source signal rising. When the push-
button is pressed in , triggering will be performed with the trigger source signal
falling.
21. Trigger Level Control.
For adjusting the trigger threshold level. This will determine at what point on the
signal waveform slope sweep will commence.
22. External Trigger Input Jack
The input terminal for externally generated trigger signals. When the become the
SOURCE switch is set at EXT; signals input through this terminal will become the
trigger signal source.
23. Horizontal Position Control
For adjusting the horizontal position of waveform displayed on the CRT screen.
24. SWEEP TIME/DIV Control
For setting the sweep time. Setting can be carried out over 20 steps between 0.2
s/div in 1-2-5 step sequence. When the VARIABLE control is set all the way to the
fright at CAL, sweep rate values will become calibrated.
25. VARIABLE Control
Continuous sweep time adjustment can be carried out within the SWEEP TIME/DIV
range by this fine control. The sweep time becomes compensated by turning the CAL
all the way clock wise.
26. X10MAG Switch
Press this switch to magnify the display 10 X left and right from the center of CRT
screen.
The Display
Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid markings on the screen - these
markings creates the graticule. Each vertical and horizontal line constitutes a major
division. The graticule is usually laid out in an 8-by-10 division pattern. Labeling on the
oscilloscope controls (such as volts/div and sec/div) always refers to major divisions. The
tick marks on the center horizontal and vertical graticule lines (see Figure 1) are called
minor divisions.
Many oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each vertical division
represents and how many seconds each horizontal division represents. Many
oscilloscopes also have 0%, 10%, 90%, and 100% markings on the block (see Figure 1)
to help make rise time measurements.
Figure 1: An Oscilloscope graticule
Voltage Measurements
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points in a
circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not always. Voltages can
also be measured from peak-to-peak - from the maximum point of a signal to its
minimum point. You must be careful to specify which voltage you mean.
The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once you have measured the
voltage, other quantities are just a calculation away. For example, Ohm's law states that
voltage between two points in a circuit equals the current times the resistance. From any
two of these quantities you can calculate the third. Another handy formula is the power
law: the power of a DC signal equals the voltage times the current. Calculations are more
complicated for AC signals, but the point here is that measuring the voltage is the first
step towards calculating other quantities.
Figure 2 shows the voltage of one peak - V[p] - and the peak-to-peak voltage - V[p-p] -,
which is usually twice V[p]. Use the RMS (root-mean-square) voltage - V[RMS] - to
calculate the power of an AC signal.
Figure 2: Voltage Peak and Peak-to-peak Voltage
You take voltage measurements by counting the number of divisions a waveform spans
on the oscilloscope's vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of the screen
vertically, then taking the measurement along the center vertical graticule line having the
smaller divisions, makes for the best voltage measurements. The more screen area you
use, the more accurately you can read from the screen.
Figure 3: Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line
Many oscilloscopes have on-screen cursors that let you take waveform measurements
automatically on-screen, without having to count graticule marks. Basically, cursors are
two horizontal lines for voltage measurements and two vertical lines for time
measurements that you can move around the screen. Readout shows the voltage or time at
their positions.
Time and Frequency Measurements
You take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time
measurements include measuring the period, pulse width, and timing of pulses.
Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period, the frequency is
one divided by the period. Like voltage measurements, time measurements are more
accurate when you adjust the portion of the signal to be measured to cover a large area of
the screen. Taking time measurement along the center horizontal graticule line, having
smaller divisions, makes for the best time measurements. (See Figure 4.)
Figure 4: Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line
Pulse and Rise Time Measurements
In many applications, the details of a pulse's shape are important. Pulses can become
distorted and cause a digital circuit to malfunction, and the timing of pulses in a pulse
train is often significant.
Standard pulse measurements are pulse width and pulse rise time. Rise time is the amount
of time a pulse takes to go from the low to high voltage. By convention, the rise time is
measured from 10% to 90% of the full voltage of the pulse. This eliminates any
irregularities at the pulse's transition corners. This also explains why most oscilloscopes
have 10% and 90% markings on their screen. Pulse width is the amount of time the pulse
takes to go from low to high and back to low again. By convention, the pulse width is
measured at 50% of full voltage. See Figure 5 for these measurement points.
Figure 5: Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points
Pulse measurements often require fine-tuning the triggering. To become an expert at
capturing pulses, you should learn how to use trigger hold off and how to set the digital
oscilloscope to capture pre-trigger data, as described earlier in the controls section.
Horizontal magnification is another useful feature for measuring pulses, since it allows
you to see fine details of a fast pulse.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Objective
Find the frequency by using oscilloscope in
a) Sinusoidal wave
b) Square wave
c) Triangle wave

Lab # 11- To determine Frequency of AC signals
Time and Frequency Measurements
You take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time
measurements include measuring the period, pulse width, and timing of pulses.
Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period, the frequency is
one divided by the period.
T= 1/f

Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Magnetic Circuit Nomenclature
Symbol Represents Units
H Magnetic field strength Amp per metre (A/m)
B Magnetic flux density Tesla (T)

0
Permeability of free space Henries per meter (H/m)
r Relative permeability n/a
L Self-inductance Henries (H)
Lab # 12- To draw B-H curve
M Mutual inductance Henries (H)
Magnetic flux Weber (Wb)
B-H Curve of Vacuum
The magnetic flux density in vacuum
Is directly proportional to the
Magnetic field intensity:
B =
o
H
Where

o
= permeability constant
= 4 x 10-7 H/m
Non-magnetic materials such as
Copper, paper, rubber and air
Have B-H curves almost identical
To that of vacuum. These
Materials never saturate!
B-H Curve of Magnetic Materials
The magnetic flux density in magnetic materials also depends upon the
magnetic field intensity:
B =
r

o
H
Where

r
= relative permeability of magnetic material
However, relative permeability is not constant and varies with the flux
density in the material. Consequently, the B-H relationship for
magnetic materials is non-linear
B-H Curve of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic Materials
Commonly used magnetic materials:
Permanent magnets
Rare-earth magnets (highest flux/field and high cost)
Ferrite magnets (low-medium flux/field and low cost)
Laminated materials
Iron-silicon alloys
High relative permeability but low conductivity
Used to minimize eddy currents at power frequencies (Hz)
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Objective
To study the I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode both in
a) Forward Bias
b) Reverse Bias
Lab # 13- To study the Characteristics of P-N junctions
Apparatus
Power Supply (0-30V), Voltmeter (0-30V), Ammeter (A & mA range), resistors, and
P-n junction diode

Forward Biased diode Reverse Biased diode
Procedure:
1. Wire up the circuit shown in figure.
2. Record the voltage across the diode (V) and current (I) through it as a function of
input voltage.
3. Repeat the experiment of the reverse biased diode.
4. Plot the relevant graphs.
5. Find the equation of dc load line and plot it along with I-V characteristics of fig.
Reverse Biased Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive
voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away
from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes
and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high
potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.
Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion Layer
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero
current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a
very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in
microamperes, (A). One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is
increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat
and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to
become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as
a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits
where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown
current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the
diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in
a later tutorial.
Forward Biased Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts
for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the "knee" on
the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the
external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion
layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the
junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase
in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the
"knee" point
Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer
This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very
large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of
the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for
silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to
dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Objective
To plot the V-I characteristics of Zener diode in
a) Forward biased
b) Reverse biased
Apparatus
Zener diode, resistor, power supply, voltmeter, Ammeter,
Theory
A p-n junction does not conduct when reverse biased but if reverse voltage is increased,
at particular voltage it start conducting heavily. This voltage is called breakdown
voltage. High current through diode can permanently damage it. But Zener diode in
reverse bias maintain almost constant voltage in reverse biased across it terminals.
Whatever may be input voltage and current through it. So Zener diode is p-n junction
diode specially made to work in reverse region.


Procedure
1. Wire up the circuit shown in figure
2. Record the voltage across the diode (V) and current (I) through it as a function of
input voltage. Find Zenar Voltage
3. Connect the circuit shown in figure 2.2. Keep the load resistance R
L
at 3.3 k.
Vary the input voltage in short steps and record the voltage across the zener and
current flowing through the zener. Repeat the above step for various R
L
values.
4. Plot the relevant graphs.
Lab # 14- To study the Characteristics of Zener diode
Result
The breakdown voltage observer in reverse bias is that for the given zener diode. It
provide constant voltage by into the breakdown region.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Apparatus: LEDs, Bread Board , Resistors , Power Supply , DMM
Light-emitting diode
Red, green and blue LEDs of the 5mm type
Electronic symbol
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. The first LED was built in
the 1920s by Oleg Vladimirovich Losev, a radio technician who noticed that diodes used
in radio receivers emitted light when current was passed through them. The LED was
introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962.
All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness.
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the
energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm
2
)
with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources.
Lab # 15- To study the Characteristics and Operation of LED
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for
replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive lighting. The
compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.
Practical use
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent
indicators, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as
laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios,
telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal applications). These red
LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to
illuminate an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in
appliances and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the
light output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability to an
acceptable level. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led
to use for illumination (see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs were made in
the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with increasing power output, it
has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain reliability, so
more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for
state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.
Technology
Parts of an LED
The inner workings of an LED
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Apparatus: Varactor Diode, Tunnel Diode
Tunnel diode schematic symbol
These diodes have a heavily doped pn junction only some 10 nm (100 ) wide. The
heavy doping results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the
n-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side.
Tunnel diodes were manufactured by SONY for the first time in 1957
[1]
followed by
General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume
today.
[2]
Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in
Lab # 16 To study the Characteristics of Varactor and Tunnel Diode.
gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers,
frequency converters and detectors.
[3]:735
Forward bias operation
Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first
tunnel through the very narrow pn junction barrier because filled electron states in the
conduction band on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on
the p-side of the pn junction. As voltage increases further these states become more
misaligned and the current drops this is called negative resistance because current
decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the diode begins to
operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the pn junction,
and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier. Thus the most important
operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.
Reverse bias operation
When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast
rectifiers with zero offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an
accurate square law characteristic in the reverse direction).
Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty
states on the n-side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse
direction this is the Zener effect that also occurs in zener diodes.
Technical comparisons
A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative
differential resistance region
In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the pn junction is
forward biased and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs
up to a point known as the reverse breakdown voltage when conduction begins (often
accompanied by destruction of the device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration
in the p and n layers are increased to the point where the reverse breakdown voltage
becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse direction. However, when forward-
biased, an odd effect occurs called quantum mechanical tunnelling which gives rise to a
region where an increase in forward voltage is accompanied by a decrease in forward
current. This negative resistance region can be exploited in a solid state version of the
dynatron oscillator which normally uses a tetrode thermionic valve (or tube).
Varactor Diode
In electronics, a varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable
reactance diode or tuning diode is a type of diode which has a variable capacitance that
is a function of the voltage impressed on its terminals.
Applications
Varactors are principally used as a voltage-controlled capacitor, rather than as rectifiers.
They are commonly used in parametric amplifiers, parametric oscillators and voltage-
controlled oscillators as part of phase-locked loops and frequency synthesizers.
Operation
Internal structure of a varicap
Operation of a varicap
Varactors are operated reverse-biased so no current flows, but since the thickness of the
depletion zone varies with the applied bias voltage, the capacitance of the diode can be
made to vary. Generally, the depletion region thickness is proportional to the square root
of the applied voltage; and capacitance is inversely proportional to the depletion region
thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of applied
voltage.
Lab performed on (date):______________________
Signature: ___________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Marks Awarded: __________________________
Comments:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________