BAE103

BAE103
Fundamentals of Sociology
Edition: Fall 2011
S
B1516
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY

Directorate of Distance Education
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY (SMU DDE)

Dean Directorate of Distance Education Sikkim Manipal University (SMU DDE)
BOARD OF STUDIES
Chairman HOD Arts and Humanities SMU DDE Additional Registrar SMU DDE Controller of Examination SMU DDE Director SMU DDE Dr Ramesh Murthy, Director, SMU DE Dr Gayathri Devi, Dean, SMU DE Dr Shivram Krishnan, Professor & HOD, A&H, SMU DDE Srinath P.S., Additional Registrar, Student Evaluation, SMU DDE Ashok Kumar K., Additional Registrar, SMU DDE Prof. S.S. Sharma, Emeritus Professor, CCS University, Meerut
Author: Dr Biswaranjan Mohanty Copyright Reserved, 2011

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Contents
Unit 1 Nature and Scope of Sociology Unit 2 Sociological and Other Forms of Knowledge of Society Unit 3 Development of Sociology Unit 4 Basic Concepts of Sociology Unit 5 Social Institutions Unit 6 Social Stratification Unit 7 Sociology and Culture Unit 8 Process and Changing Pattern of Socialization Unit 9 Social Control and Deviance 199212 177198 151175 107150 83106 6781 3365 1931 118
Contents
Unit 10 Society as a Process Unit 11 Social Conflict Unit 12 Social Mobility Unit 13 Social Change Unit 14 Uses of Sociology 297316 275296 253273 239251 213238
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SUBJECT INTRODUCTION
Fundamentals of Sociology Sociology is a science based on the study of human beings and their culture. It is a combination of the organized study of the growth, architecture, relationships and attitudes of systematic groups of human beings. Sociology paves the way for scientists, social thinkers and activists in understanding the society. It also helps them in improving the quality of life of the people living in the society. The basic principles of sociology are: The behaviour of individuals in social groups is different than when they are independent. Individuals who are part of a social group follow the rules of that social group. These rules are created and implemented socially. Some people have more authority in the creation of rules than others. Those who follow the rules are awarded and those who break them are penalized. The rules of social groups have a scientific base. In a society, culture is responsible for giving an identity to the individual. Culture is imbibed in an individual at the time of his birth and persists till the time of his death. This book focusses on the behaviour of individuals in societies; effects of culture on the human personality; and characteristics, types and functions of culture. It also analyses the relationship between social interaction and socialization. It familiarizes the reader with the basic concepts in sociology, such as customs, competition and conflict, social institutions, roles, social control, formal and informal agencies of social control, polity and religion, social conflict and social change. Unit 1. Nature and Scope of Sociology: Describes the subject of sociology, with definition and methods of study, and raises the question whether sociology is a valid science. Unit 2. Sociological and Other Forms of Knowledge of Society: Analyses the relation of sociology to other allied subjects, such as psychology, history, political science and anthropology.
Contents Subject Introduction
Unit 3. Development of Sociology: Describes some basic issues in sociology, such as the role of the individual in sociology, and discusses some important events in the development of sociological thought, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution. Unit 4. Basic Concepts of Sociology: Discusses society, community and other concepts of sociology. Unit 5. Social Institutions: Analyses some important sociological institutions, such as family, religion, education, politics, property and division of labour. Unit 6. Social Stratification: Describes the origin and theories of social stratification, such as those based on race, class, caste and gender. Unit 7. Sociology and Culture: Discusses the important role that culture plays in sociology, such as in the growth of civilization; components of culture; media; and ends with an overview of Indian culture. Unit 8. Process and Changing Pattern of Socialization: Describes the various agencies of socialization and how patterns of socialization, culture and social structure have changed over the years. Unit 9. Social Control and Deviance: Describes the types and agencies of social control and punishment for deviance. Unit 10. Society as a Process: Analyses the processes of society with an emphasis on mans relationship with his total environment, and the internal processes of strain, conflict and cooperation. Unit 11. Social Conflict: Defines social conflict from the perspective of Dahrendorf, Coser and Marx. Unit 12. Social Mobility: Analyses the meaning and types of social mobility. Unit 13. Social Change: Defines social change and evolution along with an overview of social processes. Unit 14. Uses of Sociology: Describes the uses of sociology, with emphasis on applied sociology and its influence on policy and development.
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Unit 1
Structure
Nature and Scope of Sociology
1.1 Introduction Objectives 1.2 Definition and Development of Sociology 1.3 Scientific Status of Sociology 1.4 Summary 1.5 Glossary 1.6 Terminal Questions 1.7 Answers 1.8 Further Reading
1.1 Introduction
Sociology is one of the first social sciences to be acknowledged. The word sociology, owes its origin to the Latin word, socius (companion) and the Greek word, logus (study of). It is thus a science of society and social relationships. Sociology incorporates the study of social phenomena, social life, groups, institutions, associations and societies. Sociology focusses on society from a scientific point of view. The scope of sociology is vast, ranging from the individual to grouped social systems. The principles of sociology explain the behaviour of human beings and their existence with respect to their mutual interaction. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the origin, development and nature of sociology Evaluate the scope and importance of sociology Explain the sociological method Explain sociology as a science
1.2 Definition and Development of Sociology

Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among the social sciences, which include economics, political science, anthropology, history and psychology.
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The ideas behind it, however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a mixture of common human knowledge and philosophy. Sociology emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century, as a fundamentally new type of society emerged based on new principles of social organization and new ideas of enlightenment. This led to a change in the mindset of people. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an antidote to the social breakdown. In terms of science, sociology pertains to social groups and their hierarchies or forms of organization. It combines functions which are inclined to maintain or modify these forms of organization and their inter-group network. Sociology is concerned with interaction itself. A social group is a system of social interaction. Sociology is interested in social relationships, not because they are economic, political, religious, legal or educational, but because they are social at the same time. Further, in sociology we do not study everything that happens in a society or under social conditions, but we study culture, social relationships, their specific forms, varieties and patterns. We study the combination of relations, how they build up smaller or greater systems and how they respond to changes and changing demands or needs. Auguste Comte introduced the term sociology in the year 1838. He was a French philosopher and sociologist. Comte attempted to combine all the faculties of mankind, including history, psychology and economics. His own pattern of sociology was typical of the 19th century; he put across the theory that every man had experienced the same distinct historical stages and that the success of this progress was the solution to every social ill. He believed that sociology would lead to the further development of social sciences. Comte defined sociology as the science of social phenomena, subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation. He advocated for sociology to be used as a positive method as in natural sciences. He further believed that social evolution went hand in hand with progress, in accordance with the law of three stages. These three stages are: the theological-military, the metaphysical-legalistic and the positive-industrial laws. According to Comtes hierarchy of sciences, sociology occupies the summit. This is because it is considered to be the most complex of sciences, as it deals with humanity. The systematic study of society gained prominence due to the upheavals caused by the French and industrial revolutions. The intellectual community of that time attempted to analyse and establish reasons for these rapid changes. So the study of sociology emerged as a distinct discipline
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dealing with social order and change. Although all social sciences study different aspects of social life, the approach of sociology is distinct. It is a more detailed picture explaining why things are the way they are. Sociology has also been labelled as a debunking science. This is because a sociologist is interested in looking beyond the commonly accepted meaning of social phenomenon and understands reality as a social construction; that is, how reality gets established is the way we understand it. Peter Berger argued that sociology is a distinctive way of thinking, a particular awareness of the nature of social life, an unwillingness to accept the superficial and the apparently obvious. Emile Durkheim was a pioneer in demonstrating scientific methodology in sociology. In his most acclaimed work, Rules of Sociological Method (1897), he emphasized on the methodology that he has described in his study, Suicide (1897). The discipline of sociology appeared in many universities in the 1890s. Urbanization and industrialization were posing several social issues and the sociologists of those times were trying hard to find a scientific solution. However, they did not succeed. It was their strong belief that sociology was the key to the scientific growth of the society. Later, sociology emerged as a branch of scientific knowledge with theories resulting from scientific inferences, rather than mere guesswork or comments that were based on impressions.
1.2.1 Nature of Sociology

On a broader platform, sociology is the study of human interactions, their conditions and consequences. It is a type of science that comprises investigative techniques which are objective and systematic. It gives rise to the evolution of the social truth that is based on empirical evidence and interpretation. However, it cannot be directly based on natural sciences, since human behaviour is a unique phenomenon.
Independent Science Social Science Rational Science General Science
Sociology
Categorical discipline
Pure Science
Abstract Science
Figure 1.1 Nature of Sociology
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It also differs from natural sciences such that the contents of natural sciences are constant while human behaviour exhibits variations and flexibility. Sociology as a branch of knowledge has its own unique characteristics. It is different from other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of internal logical characteristics helps one to understand its main characteristics: (i) Sociology is an independent science: It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science. As an independent science, it has its own field of study, boundary and method. (ii) Sociology is a social science and not a physical science: As a social science it focusses its attention on man, his social behaviour, social activities and social life. It is related to other social sciences like history, political science, economics, etc. (iii) Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline: Sociology does not make any kind of value judgments. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It makes no recommendations on matters of social policy or legislation or programme. Sociology cannot deal with problems of good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral. (iv) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science: The main aim of pure science is acquisition of knowledge, irrespective of whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use. On the other hand, applied science applies acquired knowledge into life. (v) Sociology is a relatively abstract and not concrete science: It is not interested in the concrete manifestation of human events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and their patterns. For instance, sociology is not specifically concerned with wars and revolutions but in the general social phenomena, as types of social conflict. (vi) Sociology is not based on particular subjects or individuals, but is a general science: Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human interaction and associations about the nature, forms, content and structure of human groups and societies. It adopts a general approach on the basis of a study of some selected events. (vii) Sociology is a rational and empirical science: There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge; one is empiricism and the
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other is rationalism. Empiricism emphasizes experiences and facts that result from observation and experiment. Rationalism stresses reason and theories that result from logical inference. In sociological inquiry, both are significant.
1.2.2 Scope of Sociology

According to Morris Ginsberg, the scope of sociology includes a broad study of human interactions, their conditions and consequences. Some writers would restrict its scope to the relations arising out of acts of will, but this is an unjustifiable and unworkable limitation. Many interactions between individuals are not consciously determined or apprehended. One of the most interesting problems confronting the student of sociology is to determine the respective roles of reason or rational purpose and of impulse and the unconsciousness in social life. In this case, sociology must be capable of dealing with the complete issue or network of social relationships. Since these relationships are assumed to be dependent on the nature of individuals; (i) to one another, (ii) to the community, (iii) to the external environment. This can be explained if every social event can be traced back to its origin, as influenced by complex interactions. A combination of these interactions is comprised within a community, with respect to external influences. But this ideal, if generously conceived, is clearly too ambitious. Sociology involves a systematic and objective study of human society. Sociologists study individuals social actions. Social relationships, for instance, those between a husband and a wife, a teacher and a student, a buyer and a seller and social processes, namely, cooperation, competition, conflict and organizations, communities and nations and social structures (family, class and state), give rise to sociological queries. Explanations that are derived from norms and values result in the formation of social institutions. Thus, sociology can be defined as the study of social life. Sociology comprises a variety of apprehensions and interests. It is aimed at providing classified forms of relationships within societies, institutions and associations. These relationships pertain to the economic, political, moral, religious and social aspects of human life. Though, so far no collective agreement has been reached on the essence of sociology, yet it is established that sociology deals with the study of interaction systems, which shape social institutions, the state and the non-native order. Therefore, in sociology we study about social organization, social structure, institutions and culture.
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Sociology was defined differently by two schools of thought, pertaining to its range and theme: (i) Formal school (ii) Synthetic school Formal school The formal school defined sociology as a social science that has definite characteristics. This school was advocated by German sociologists, Georg Simmel, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred Vierkandt and Leopord Von Wiese. On the other hand, the synthetic school with French sociologist Durkheim, British politician and sociologist Leonard T., Hobhouse and Russian-American Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin attempted to bring together a type of coordination among all social sciences. The formal school supported the idea of giving sociology a suitable subject matter to make it a distinct discipline. It stressed on the study of the forms of social relationships and considered sociology as independent. Simmel defined sociology as a specific social science that describes, organizes, analyses and visually explains the forms of social relationships. To put it in a different way, social interactions should be classified into various forms or types and analysed. Simmel argued that social interactions have various forms. He conducted researches on formal relationships like cooperation, competition, sub and super-ordinate relationships, etc. He said, However diverse the interests are that give rise to these sociations, the forms in which the interests are realized may yet be identical. His main emphasis was to conceptualize these forms from human relationships which are not affected by different scenarios. Vierkandt believed that sociology should pertain to people being extremely attached mentally or psychically. Von Wiese believed in the existence of two types of basic social processes in human society: (i) Associative processes that are related to contact, approach, adaptation, etc. (ii) Disassociate processes like competition and conflict. Additionally, a blend of associative and disassociative processes also exists. Each of these processes can be further segregated into subclasses. These subclasses result in 650 categories of human relationships. Sociology should concentrate on discovering a basic force of change and consistency and should be influenced by the history of concrete societies. Tonnies suggested two types of societies, namely Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (association). These were based on the level of closeness between members
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of the society. Based on the types of relationships, he attempted to differ between community and society. Max Weber outlined a particular field for sociology. He recommended that the aim of sociology was to identify or explain social behaviour. But social behaviour does cover all aspects of human relations, since all exchanges between human beings cannot be called social. Sociology deals with learning and identifying the different types of social relationships. Criticism of formal school The formal school has come under criticism because it has focussed only on abstract forms and ignored the more feasible parts of social life. It is not possible to study abstract forms that have been alienated from concrete relations. According to Ginsberg, the study of social relationships would never be complete if it is carried out in isolation, without a thorough knowledge of the terms that are associated with it. Sociology is not the only branch of social sciences that focusses on the types of social relationships. Political science and international law also study the same. Since it is not possible to study social sciences as a separate entity from other sciences, the concept of pure sociology is not practical. Synthetic school of sociology The synthetic school defines sociology as a combination of social sciences. It stresses on widening the range of sociology. Durkheim divided sociology into three main sectionssocial morphology, social physiology and general sociology. Social morphology pertains to the lifestyle of people on the basis of their location or region. It comprises factors like population, density, distribution, etc. One can further divide this into two categories, (i) analysis of density and type of population that influences social relationships and social groups and (ii) learning about social hierarchy or details related to the main categories of social groups and institutions, along with their operation. Social physiology deals with the origin and character of different social institutions, namely religion, morals, law, economic institutions, etc. The prime objective of general sociology is to frame general social laws. Efforts are still on to find out links between different types of institutions that are treated independently in social physiology and the possibilities of emergence of general social laws as a byproduct. Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, a British sociologist, defined sociology as a field of science which focusses on the whole social life of man. It relates to other social sciences in a way that can be regarded as a blend of mutual exchange and stimulation. Karl Mannheim has explained sociology in terms of two key divisions, systematic and general sociology and historical sociology.
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Systematic sociology: This provides a methodical review of the main factors of coexistence, such that they are evident in every kind of society. Historical sociology: This deals with the historical array and existence of general forms of the society. This can be divided into two sectors, comparative sociology and social dynamics. Comparative sociology basically deals with identical historical changes and tries to highlight the general features by comparing them. It also separates the general features from the industrial features. Social dynamics is concerned with the interrelations that exist among different social factors and institutions in a given society, for example, in an ancient society. Ginsberg combined the main features of sociology in a way that they classified the different types and structures of social relations, specifically those that are clearly specified as institutions and associations. He tried to find connectivity between various parameters of social life, for example, economic, political, moral and legal, intellectual and social elements. It attempts to make the basic conditions of social change and persistence simpler and evaluates the sociological principles that influence social life. Thus, on the basis of the viewpoints of many sociologists, the scope of sociology can be generally defined. To begin with, sociology should be concerned with the analysis of various institutions, associations and social groups, which have resulted from social relationships of individuals. The second step is an understanding of the different links between various sections of the society. This objective is catered to by the functionalist school of sociology, as required. The Marxist school also exhibits the same opinion. Thus, the main area of discussion of sociology pertains to social structure. Sociology should also focus on aspects which are important in bringing about social stability and social change. Finally, sociology should also tackle issues related to the changes in pattern and the consequences of societal changes.
1.2.3 Importance of Sociology

The discipline of sociology is recognized widely today. Nowadays, there is growing realization about the importance of the scientific study of social phenomena and means of promoting what Giddings calls human adequacy. It is of great value in modern complex society. (i) Sociology makes a scientific study of society: Sociology has made it possible to study society in a systematic and scientific manner. Scientific knowledge about human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields.
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(ii) Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man: Sociology delves deep into the social nature of man. It tells us why man is a social animal, why he lives in groups, etc. It examines relationships between individuals and the society. (iii) Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of social action: The science of society assists an individual to understand himself, his capacities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust to the environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, etc., helps us to lead an effective social life. (iv) Sociology has contributed generously to enhance the value of human culture: Sociology has trained us in building a rational approach to questions that concern ourselves, our religion, customs, etc. It teaches one to have an object-oriented and balanced approach. It emphasizes the importance of ignoring petty personal prejudices and ambitions that are influenced by ego and envy. (v) Sociology studies the role of institutions in the development of the individual: The home and family, school and education, church and religion, states and government, marriage and family, etc., are important institutions through which a society functions. Furthermore, they condition an individuals knowledge of sociology. (vi) Sociological knowledge is indispensable for understanding and planning of the society: Sociological planning has been made easier by sociology. Sociology is often considered a vehicle of social reform and social organization. It plays an important role in reconstruction of the society. (vii) The need for sociology in underdeveloped countries: Sociologists have drawn the attention of economists regarding the social factors that have contributed to the economic backwardness of a few countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological knowledge in analysing the economic affairs of a country. (viii) Study of society has helped several governments promote the welfare of tribal people: It is not only civilized societies, but also tribal societies that have socio-economic problems. Studies conducted by sociologists and anthropologists regarding tribal societies have helped many governments in undertaking various social measures to promote the welfare of tribal people.
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1.2.4 Methods of Study

Sociology has emerged as a distinct intellectual endeavour with the development of modern societies and the study of such societies is its principal concern. However, sociologists are also preoccupied with a broad range of issues about the nature of social interaction and human societies in general. Sociology also enables us to see the world from others perspective rather than our own. French philosopher Auguste Comte and English philosopher Herbert Spencer were pioneers among sociologists. Their concerns were with the means and paths of societal development and the conditions for harmony and continued development. They presented quite different views on these issues and a comparison of their work set the stage for discussion by the three famous personalities, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Emile Durkheim stressed on the practical existence of a society. He emphasized on social realities and saw sociology from a different point of view, as compared to that of psychology. Social realities restrict the freedom of members of the society to act, think and feel differently, with respect to the society. Beliefs and moral codes are transferred from one generation to the next and are imbibed by the individuals who form a society. One way of explaining social realities involves focussing on the cause of a social reality to explain its origin. The decisive cause of a social reality should be looked for among the facts that precede it. It should not depend on an individuals level of consciousness. Nevertheless, this social reality can be explained in a better way after a detailed study of its functions in the society, its role in contributing to the general needs of the social beings and its utility in establishing a social order. Durkheim believed that this social reality survived because it was useful to the society. Durkheim was more inclined to find harmony and he attempted to uncover the essential features of collective life which were responsible for producing it. He determined that there was a realm of social facts, ways of thinking, acting and feeling, which we are produced by group existence, which tended to produce an integrated society. Modern society was the product of the development of the division of labour and its complexity presented some problems for integration. However, Durkheim was confident that he had found the essential features of harmonious, collective life which will allow sociology to intervene. Weber viewed the development of modern society as a much less orderly affair and was rather pessimistic about the possibility of discovering some means of harmonizing its present condition. He attempted to understand various institutions
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and states of society, in terms of the actions of individuals. His central concept for this purpose was social action. He analysed the organizations of individuals in different positions on the basis of their levels of motivation. These, in turn, rested on subjective meanings which persons attached to the things and other persons in their environment. On this basis, he examined the relation between different forms of authority, social organizations and economic distribution of rewards. He was pessimistic about the bureaucratic form of domination that was found in modern society. In his view, it was a very stable form of domination of powerful interests. Sociology differed from most of the natural sciences in dealing with a phenomenon, which was often difficult and sometimes impossible to measure or calculate, or to subsume under relations of causality. However, this did not involve a total divergence in the methods of inquiry. It involved considering the limits of sociological enquiry and assessing what can be practically achieved. In sociology, five important methods or approaches can be distinguished, which are as follows: (i) The historical method: This method has taken two principal forms. The first is that of early sociologists, influenced by the philosophy of history and afterwards by the biological theory of evolution. This approach involves a certain order of priorities in the problems for research and theory. It concentrates on problems of the origin of development and transformation of social institutions, societies and civilization. It is concerned with the whole span of human history and with all major institutions of society, as in the work of Comte, Spencer, etc. In Marxs view, the most important thing about people is their practical activity. The way people produce for themselves, gives shape to other aspects of their society and culture. In this way, they relate to nature and to one another in society. These are the most fundamental sets of relations. These sets of relations change and develop over the course of history. They change from one mode of production to another. (ii) The comparative method: This was considered to be the fundamental method in sociology for a long time. It was first used by evolutionary sociologists, but its use did not involve a necessary commitment to an evolutionary approach. Durkheim, in the Rules of Sociological Method, explains the significance of the method. After claiming that sociological explanation consists entirely of the establishment of causal connections, he observes that the only way
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to demonstrate that one phenomenon is the cause of another is to examine cases in which the two phenomena are simultaneously present or absent and establish whether one does depend on the other, or not. In many natural sciences the establishment of causal connections is facilitated by experiment, but since experiment is impossible in sociology, Durkheim suggests the use of the method of indirect experiment, i.e., the comparative method. (iii) The functionalist method: In sociology, this method first emerged in the form of a response against the approach and assertions of evolutionists. It criticized the immature and outward application of the comparative method and the methods of conjectural history. These methods used data that was neither verified nor systematic, on ancient societies, for the reconstruction of early stages of human social life. The functionalist method also criticized the objective or claim made by evolutionists to present the complete social history of mankind in scientific terms. The notion of social function was formulated by Herbert Spencer in the 19th century. Durkheim defined the function of a social institution as the correspondence between it and the needs of social organism. (iv) The formal or systematic method: Formal or systematic sociology represented a reaction against the evolutionary and encyclopedic science of early sociologists. Its originator was George Simmel and it remained largely a German approach to sociology. Simmel argued that sociology is a new method, a new way of looking at facts which are already treated by other social sciences. According to him, this new approach consists of considering the forms of sociation or interaction, as distinguished from the historical content. Sociology is therefore also concerned with forms of interaction which have not been studied at all by traditional social sciences. These forms appear not in major institutions, such as the state, the economic system and so on, but in minor and fleeting relationships between individuals. (v) The structural method: Claude Levi-Strauss proposed the structural method. Levi-Strauss offered new insights of analysis. According to Edmund Leach, Levi-Strauss has provided us with a new set of hypotheses about familiar material. We can look again at what we thought was understood and begin to gain entirely new insights. The structural method began to have a certain influence, particularly in renewing the discussion of the concept of social structure.
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Activity 1 Using the comparative and structural aproach explain in about 500 words the rural and urban differences.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. State whether true or false. (a) The formal school defined sociology as a social science that has definite characteristics. (b) The historical method is concerned with a particular time frame of human history. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The synthetic school defines sociology as a combination of_______ ____________. (b) The formal school has come under criticism because it has focussed only on _______ forms.
1.3 Scientific Status of Sociology

The nature of sociology as a science has become a controversial issue. Some critics do not support the ideology of sociology being regarded as a science like all other social sciences. Sociology can be regarded as a science since it comprises objective and systematic methodologies of examination and assessment. It can also be evaluated as a social reality, on the basis of empirical data and explanation. However, it cannot be directly compared to natural sciences, since human behaviour is not similar to natural sciences. A science may be defined in at least two ways: (i) A body of organized, verified knowledge which has been secured through scientific investigation (ii) A method of study whereby a body of organized and verified knowledge is discovered However, if the first definition is accepted, then sociology can be termed a science, based on the theory that it creates a body of organized and verified
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knowledge, after scientific investigation. To the extent that sociology forsakes myth, folklore and wishful thinking and bases its conclusions on scientific evidence, it is a science. If science is defined as methods of study, then sociology can be defined as a science because it uses scientific techniques of study. In the history of human thinking, few of our actions have been based on verified knowledge, for people through the ages have been guided mainly by folklore, norms, values and anticipations. Recently, very few people accepted the idea of systematic observations and analysis. W.F. Ogburn, an American sociologist, opines that sociology is a science. According to him, science is to be judged by three criteria: (i) The reliability of its body of knowledge (ii) Its organization (iii) Its method Sociology depends on reliable knowledge. Thus, sociological studies of population, families, group behaviour, evolution of institutions, the process of social change, are regarded as considerably reliable. Secondly, disjointed collection of facts cannot be a science. Science should be organized and the organization of science rests upon relationships. Sociology provides a scope for interrelationships, which is enough to encourage more discoveries. Moreover, with reference to method, a branch of knowledge can be called a science if it follows a scientific method in its studies and investigations. Sociological studies employ various methods like the historical method, the case study method, the social survey method, the functional method, and the statistical method. Though sociology can be considered a science, its scientific character cannot be established because it is not as accurate as natural sciences. There is no denying the fact that sociology cannot experiment and predict in the same way in which physical sciences do because human behaviour and relationships are peculiar and uncertain. Objectivity in sociology is not possible as man has his own prejudices and bias. Social phenomena cannot be exact as it is too vast and human motivations are complex. Also, it is difficult to make predictions about human behaviour. But such objectives raised against sociology as a science are refutable. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study of its subject matter. Though sociology does not support laboratory experiments, yet it does employ the techniques of science, such as the measures of sociometry, schedule,
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questionnaire, interview and case history. These relate measures of quantity with social phenomenon. Moreover, a sociologist also uses observation and comparison. Sociology delineates causeeffect relationship. So sociology is a scientific discipline which obeys the demands of validity that are implied by the word science. It classifies the form of social relationships and determines the connectivity between different sectors of social life. Robert Bierstedt, in his book The Social Order, considered sociology a social and not a natural science. It can be said that science is a way to find out the truth and if sociology involves application of a range of techniques and methods in the right manner, then it will achieve a scientific character. Human social activities can be observed through scientific exploration just like any other natural phenomenon. The scientific techniques used in turn, apply quantitative measurements to social phenomenon. Hence, they can be compared to the technique of experimentation. Sociology attempts to identify the types and forms of social relationships, especially of institutions and associations. It tries to establish the relations between different factors of social life. It also involves the deduction of general laws through a systematic study of its material. The outcome of the study of sociological principles is used as a means to resolve social problems. Consequently, sociology can be compared to a science like social psychology, clinical psychology and other sciences that relate to the existence of mankind. A sociologist can also make optimum use of two other fundamental techniques of scientific reasoning, which are observation and comparison. Sociology can be used in the building of laws and for futuristic calculations. These laws are relevant and independent of cultural changes. Sociology also explains causeeffect relationships by the analysis of social procedures and relationships. Activity 2 Make a table listing out the pros and cons of sociology not being a science.
1.4 SUMMARY
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Sociology is a field of science that emerged in the initial period of the 19th century. It came into existence as an academic response to modernism. Since transportation and communication facilities have
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become increasingly advanced, it is easier for people in different parts of the world to stay connected. Sociology covers the complete network of social relationships. It is presumed that these relationships depend on the position of individuals in the hierarchy of relations, with respect (i) to one another, (ii) to the community and (iii) to the external environment. For achieving a perfect sociological rationalization, it is important to reach the roots of every social event with respect to the vital and psychological capacities of individuals. These capacities may be influenced by complex interactions which are a vital constituent of the community, which is connected to the external environment. W.F. Ogburn opines that sociology is a science. According to him, science is to be judged by three criteria: o The reliability of its body of knowledge o Its organization o Its method Sociology differs from most of the natural sciences in dealing with phenomena, which are often difficult and sometimes impossible to measure or calculate, or to subsume under relations of causality. However, this does not involve a total divergence in the methods of inquiry. It involves considering the limits upon sociological enquiry and assessing more realistically what it can achieve. In sociology, five important methods or approaches can be distinguished, as follows: o The historical method o The comparative method o The functionalist method o The formal or systematic method o The structural method
1.5 Glossary
Anthropology: The study of the human race, especially of its origins, development, customs and beliefs
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Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and its influences on behaviour Antidote: Anything that takes away the effects of something unpleasant Debunk: To show that an idea, a belief, etc., is false Urbanization: The movement of people from rural areas to towns and cities Industrialization: The rapid development of industries
1.6 Terminal Questions

1. How did the word sociology originate? 2. Who wrote Rules of Sociological Method? 3. Name the two schools of thought that had different perspectives with respect to the scope and theme of sociology. 4. Write an essay on the development of sociology. 5. Discuss the nature and scope of sociology. 6. Discuss the different sociological methods.
1.7 Answers Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) social sciences; (b) abstract
Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer to Section 1.1. 2. Refer to Section 1.2 3. Refer to Section 1.2.2 4. Refer to Sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 5. Refer to Section 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 6. Refer to Section 1.2.4
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1.8 Further Reading

1. Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi: S. Chand. 2. Horton, Paul. B and Chester L. Hunt. 1968. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill. 3. Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory An Introduction to the Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press. 4. Davis. Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan. 5. MacIver, R.M and Charles Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India. 6. Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
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Unit 2
Structure
Sociological and Other Forms of Knowledge of Society
2.1 Introduction Objectives 2.2 Relation of Sociology with Other Subjects 2.3 Summary 2.4 Glossary 2.5 Terminal Questions 2.6 Answers 2.7 Further Reading
2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you learnt how sociologists defined the subject, how it is a unique branch of knowledge different from the natural sciences in many ways. Sociology as an academic discipline cannot be isolated from other related subjects. Sociologists have given and taken from various other disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, history and political science. This unit will look at sociology's interdependence with these other disciplines. The primary focus of sociology is on the way people interact with each other, their norms, values and customs. These topics are also dealt with in other social sciences such as psychology and anthropology. Sociology, like other social sciences, also deals with data that is observable, factual, measurable and practical. Psychology and sociology both deal with the way people behave, and attempt to understand that behaviour. Anthropology, like sociology, is concerned with culture and institutions such as family, marriage and social bonding and groups. Sociology and political science can also overlap; they both deal with the exercise and distribution of power and political institutions in society and a state. History is also related to sociology as it looks at past events and analyses how people interact with such events and each other.
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Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the relations between sociology and anthropology Discuss the interdependence between sociology and psychology Compare the relations between sociology and history Describe the relations between sociology and political science
2.2 Relation of Sociology with Other Subjects

Sociology could be considered to be a method of objective inquiry that involves testing of beliefs against evidence. Sociology and other social sciences focus on certain aspects of human behaviour. All of us can claim to be familiar with human behaviour. All of us rely on our common sense to function in our daily lives. Even when faced with an obstacle, we tend to use our common sense to cross that hurdle. Common sense does not rely upon any specific education as it is believed to be shared by all. However, sociologists believe that this common sense that we depend upon may not always be reliable as this common sense is based on commonly-held beliefs rather than a systematic analysis of facts. Sociology is the systematic study of society, its people and their behaviour. Critics often claim that all that sociology does is repeat the obvious; things that we can witness and analyse through common sense, and as such, there is not much difference between sociology and common sense. However, there are some major differences between sociology and common sense. They are as follows: Common sense views are built upon peoples limited experiences and give an inaccurate view of society. Sociological views, on the other hand, are based on thorough qualitative or quantitative research and evidence. Common sense views are built upon social tradition and customs and are resistant to change. Sociological views often raise serious questions that challenge status quo. Common sense views are specific and particular to time and place, thus they are culture-specific and full of stereotypes. Sociological views recognize the fact that many stereotypes are social constructs.
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Common sense views lack academic credibility and reliability. Sociological views, since they are based on data and research, have academic credibility and validity. Sociologists, like other scientists, are unwilling to accept something as fact simply because it is common knowledge. They believe that all information must be tested and analysed in relation to the data at hand. Ethnomethodology is a recent sociological theory. It is the study of 'folk' or common sense methods employed by people to make sense of everyday activities by constructing and maintaining social reality. It means that common sense is so important that it helps in understanding the methods of constructing reality.
2.2.1 Sociology and Social Anthropology

Sociology and social anthropology are related but different fields with dissimilar origins. While sociology has its roots in philosophy and history, anthropology began as a study of physical measurements of humans. However, the two subjects have developed hand in hand, especially when it comes to concepts and scientific methods. Social anthropologists generally study small societies that are often considered primitive, such as in the Pacific Islands. They tend to live in the particular community they are studying, witnessing their daily activities and almost becoming a part of the community themselves. Sociologists, on the other hand, study facets of a society, such as family or social mobility, and their organization and processes. A sociologist uses methods that are loaded with values, therefore their conclusions are lined with ethical considerations. Perhaps, the biggest difference between sociology and social anthropology is in their method of research. A social anthropologist uses qualitative methods to collect information, usually by immersing oneself into the society that is being studied. Sociologists generally collect quantitative data based on which they make their conclusions.
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Figure 2.1 Social and Cultural Anthropologists often Immerse Themselves in the Subjects of Their Study
2.2.2 Sociology and Social Psychology

Social psychology involves the study of social and mental processes and how they act together to determine action. Essentially, it studies the interaction between psychological and sociological processes. It is the ground where sociology and psychology converge. Psychologists look at the mental processes and personality characteristics that make people act in a certain manner. Sociologists tend to look at not just the social setting and structure and the processes that go on within them but the influence they exert upon individuals. Sociology particularly looks at human connections and interrelationships. Social psychologists look into the following factors to study how an individuals behaviour, beliefs, moralities and identity are determined by his/her position in social space: Culture Time period Gender Class
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Race Age Peers
2.2.3 Sociology and History

Sociology as a discipline owes a lot to history. History has influenced the way sociology views and classifies historical types of society. The two subjects interact and overlap with each other to a great degree. A large volume of data that sociologists use is provided by historians. At the same time, historians also draw upon a lot of sociological research. Does that mean there is very little difference between the two disciplines? According to Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Sociology is nomothetic, while history is idiographic, which means that a historian describes unique events, while the sociologist derives generalizations. A sociologist utilizes quantitative data to infer generalizations about the social forces at work. A historian, on the other hand, is concerned with the interplay of these social forces and personality. History is concerned with the past and looks at the changes that take place over time. A sociologist looks for patterns to build generalizations.
2.2.4 Sociology and Political Science

Political sociology lies at the intersection of the disciplines of political science and sociology. Giovanni Sartori, an Italian political scientist, had suggested that there was an ambiguity in the term political sociology because it could be construed as a synonym for sociology of politics. There was ambiguity concerning the objects of study and the approaches of inquiry within the field of political sociology. Therefore, there arose the need for clarification. For Sartori, such a clarification would be possible only when the sociological and politicological approaches are combined at their point of intersection. This point of intersection is a site of interdisciplinary studies. However, to understand the dynamics of such a site, one must delineate the contours of the two parent disciplinespolitical science and sociology. Although the discipline of political science traces its history back to Aristotle, it evolved into an academic field of study in the United States of America. According to Lipset, one of the earliest usages of the term political science occurred with the founding of the Faculty of Political Science at Columbia University, New York in the late 19th century. A few years later, in 1903, the American Political
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Science Association was founded. Not much later, the first issue of the American Political Science Review was published, and is now more than a century old. Gradually, as the 20th century unfolded, political science acquired many a focus. It included a historical study of political thought, an analytic and comparative study of distinct polities as well as a normative approach to politics. Notwithstanding such a broad scope, if one were to narrow down the object of study of the discipline of political science to a single theme, it would be the State. If political science is largely focussed on the study of the state, sociology may be understood as the study of society. The latter discipline was the consequence of the Enlightenmentan intellectual epoch in the history of Europe that awarded primacy to the critical application of human reason as opposed to blindly following the dictates of human and divine authorities. Nature: Political sociology seeks to understand the process of interaction between government and society, decision-making authorities and conflicting social forces and interests. It is the study of interactions and linkages between politics and society; between the political system and its social, economic and cultural environment. It is concerned with problems regarding the management of conflict, the articulation of interest and issues, and political integration and organization. The focal point in all these concerns is the independence of the interplay of socio-cultural, economic and political elements. The perspective of political sociology is distinguished from that of institutionalism and behaviouralism. The institutionalists have been concerned primarily with institutional types of political organization, and their study has been characterized by legality and formality. The behaviouralists have focussed on the individual actor in the political arena; and their central concern has been the psychological trait, namely, motives, attitudes, perception and the role of individuals. The task of political sociologists is to study the political process as a continuum of interactions between society and its decision-makers, and between the decision-making institutions and social forces. Political sociology provides a new vista in political analysis. Yet, it is closely linked with the issues which have been raised in political philosophy. Political philosophy has a rich and long tradition of political thought that began with the ancient Indian and Greek philosophers, and that has amply followed since Machiavelli, who made a bold departure from Greek idealism and medieval scholasticism. It was Karl Marx, however, who brought into sharp focus issues concerning the nature of political power and its relationship with social or
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economic organization. The Marxist theory of economic determinism of political power laid the foundation for the sociology of politics. Marx was, however, neither the first nor the only thinker to conceive of government as an organ of the dominant economic class. The Arabian scholar Ibn Khaldun and several European predecessors of Marx had argued that ideology and power were superstructures of economy. The early origins of sociology are often traced to Auguste Comtes sixvolume work Cours de Philosophie Positive (183042). This work offered an encyclopedic treatment of sciences. It expounded positivism, and initiated the use of the term sociology to signify a certain method of studying human societies. Comte proposed a historical law of social development, and according to this scheme, human societies pass from an initial stage of interpreting phenomena theologically to an intermediate stage of metaphysical interpretation before arriving at the final stage of positivist interpretation. This is known as Comte's law of three stages. In the Theological stage, which Comte divided into three sub-stages of animism, polytheism and monotheism, humans blindly followed what they believed was the law of god and supernatural powers. In the metaphysical stage, humans started questioning such concepts and also started offering impersonal, abstract explanations of various concepts. In the positivist stage, humans started relying on what was called the scientific method, based on observation, experiment and comparison. This idea of a historical development of human societies obeying laws of nature was adopted by Karl Marx.
Historical Law of Social Development
Theological Stage
Metaphysical Stage Questioning of concepts
Positivist Stage Scientific method
Monotheism Animism Polytheism
Abstract Explanations
Figure 2.2 Comtes Law of Three Stages
The work of Marx, which emphasized the role of capitalist mode of production, and Marxism in general were important stimuli for the development of sociology. The early Marxist contribution to sociology included the works of Karl Kautsky on the French Revolution; Mehrings analysis of art, literature and intellectual history; and Grunbergs early studies on agrarian history and labour movements. It is important to note that Marxist studies of society also developed
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independent of universities as they were intimately related to political movements and party organizations. In the decades following the death of Marx, sociology was gaining ground as an academic discipline, and the critics of Marxism had an important role to play in its development. The most notable critics were Max Weber and Emile Durkheim. Webers work on capitalism, the State, and methodological writings were largely directed against historical materialism. In the later works of Durkheim, an attempt was made to distinguish the social functions of religion from the explanation provided by historical materialism. Given the inevitability of political role in society, thinkers from Aristotle to Tocqueville have rightly emphasized the point that instead of deploring the evils of human nature or social circumstances, it is more prudent and worthwhile to accept the given and improve it for the good of man and society. It is wiser to face it and to manage it so as to achieve reconciliation and accommodation. Conflict, though apparently an evil, is a condition of freedom, as it prevents the concentration of power. This kind of political realism recognizes the necessity and utility of the political management of conflict through compromise and adjustment among various social forces and interests. Political sociology aims at understanding the sources and the social bases of conflict, as well as the process of management of conflict. Scope: The broad aim of political sociology is to study and examine the interactions between social and political structures. The determination of the boundaries of what is social and political, however, raises some questions. The relevant question in delineating the scope of political sociology is that of the kinds of groups which form part of the study of the discipline of political sociology. Some scholars believe that politics depends on some settled order created by the state. Hence, the state is political, and is the subject matter of political sociology, and not the groups. There is another school according to which politics is present in almost all social relations. Individuals and small groups try to enforce their preferences on their parent organizations, family, club, or college, and thus indulge in the exercise of power. Sheldon S. Wolin a political philosopher, takes quite a reasonable view of the word political, which according to him, means the following three things: (i) A form of activity that centres around the quest for competitive advantage between groups, individuals, or societies.
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(ii) A form of activity conditioned by the fact that it occurs within a situation of change and relative scarcity. (iii) A form of activity in which the pursuit of advantage produces consequences of such a magnitude that they affect, in a significant way, the whole society or a substantial portion of it. Two groups of scholars have discussed the scope of political sociology in two different ways. According to Greer and Orleans, political sociology is concerned with the structure of the state; the nature and condition of legitimacy; and nature of the monopoly of force and its use by the state; and the nature of the subunits and their relation with the state. They treat political sociology in terms of consensus and legitimacy, participation and representation, and the relationship between economic development and political change. By implication, whatever is related to the state is alone held as the subject matter of political sociology. Andreu Effrat takes a broader view of the picture and suggests that political sociology is concerned with the causes, patterns and consequences of the distribution and process of power and authority in all social systems. Among social systems he includes small groups and families, educational and religious groups, as well as governmental and political institutions. Lipset and Benedix suggest a more representative catalogue of topics when they describe the main areas of interest to political sociologists, as voting behaviour, concentration of economic power and political decision-making; ideologies of political movement and interest groups; political parties, voluntary associations, the problems of oligarchy and psychological correlates of political behaviour; and the problem of bureaucracy. To Dowse and Hughes, one area of substantive concern for the political sociologist is the problem of social order and political obedience. Richard G. Braugart has pointed out that political sociologists are concerned with the dynamic association among and between (a) the social origin of politics, (b) the structure of political process, and (c) the effects of politics on the surrounding society and culture. Political sociology should include four areas that are as follows: (i) Political structures (social class/caste, elite, interest groups, bureaucracy, political parties and factions) (ii) Political life (electoral process, political communication, opinion formation, etc.) (iii) Political leadership (bases, types and operation of community power structure)
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(iv) Political development (concept and indices of its measurement, its social bases and prerequisites and its relationship to social change and modernization) To illustrate, it can be pointed out that on one hand, sociologists focus their attention on the sub-areas of the social system, and political scientists concentrate on the study of law, local, state and national governments, comparative government, political systems, public administration and international relations. On the other hand, political sociologists ought to be concerned with topics of social stratification and political power: socio-economic systems and political regimes, interest groups, political parties, bureaucracy, political socialization, electoral behaviour, social movements and political mobilization. A significant concern of political sociology is the analysis of socio-political factors in economic development. Importance: There are four main areas of research that are important in present-day political sociology. They are as follows: (i) The socio-political formation of the modern state. (ii) Who rules? How social inequality between groups (class, race, gender, etc.) influences politics. (iii) How public personalities, social movements and trends outside of the formal institutions of political power affect politics. (iv) Power relationships within and between social groups (e.g. families, workplaces, bureaucracy, media, etc.). Contemporary theorists include Robert A. Dahl, Seymour Martin Lipset, Theda Skocpol, Luc Boltanski and Nicos Poulantzas. This introductory purview of the disciplines of political science and sociology should allow us to now characterize the field of political sociology. The latter may be understood as the study of the varied and multiple relationships between the state and society. In this sense, political sociology evolved into an interdisciplinary field lying between the academic disciplines of political science and sociology. Activity 1 Describe certain stereotypes that you may have held but discarded after contradictory evidence from detailed study.
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1. State whether true or false. (a) Common sense views are built upon social tradition and customs and are resistant to change. (b) A sociologist utilizes qualitative data to infer generalizations about the social forces at work. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) __________ studies the interaction between psychological and sociological processes. (b) Sociology is nomothetic, while history is __________.
2.3 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Although sociology may appear to be a rerun of common sense, there is a significant difference between the two. Common sense views are built upon peoples limited experiences and give an inaccurate view of society. Sociological views, on the other hand, are based on thorough qualitative or quantitative research and evidence. A social anthropologist uses qualitative methods to collect information, usually by immersing himself into the society that is being studied. Sociologists generally collect quantitative data based on which they make their conclusions. Psychologists look at the mental processes and personality characteristics that make people act in a certain manner. Sociologists tend to look at the social setting and structure and the processes that go on within them and the influence they exert upon individuals. History is concerned with the past and looks at the changes that take place over time. A sociologist looks for patterns to build generalizations. Political science is largely focussed on the study of the state, while sociology may be understood as the study of society.
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2.4 Glossary
Sociology: A method of objective inquiry that involves testing of beliefs against evidence Social anthropology: The immersive study of small, isolated societies Political sociology: The study of the process of interaction between government and society, decision-making authorities and conflicting social forces and interests Politicology: An alternative term offered for political science which argues that politics is more of a cultural aesthetic than a science.

1. In what way is common sense different from sociology? 2. What is social anthropology? 3. What can sociology learn from psychology? 4. Where do sociology and history meet as disciplines? 5. What is political sociology?

1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) Social psychology; (b) Idiographic

1. Refer to Section 2.2 2. Refer to Section 2.2.1 3. Refer to Section 2.2.2 4. Refer to Section 2.2.3 5. Refer to Section 2.2.4
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2.7 Further Reading

1. Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology A Guide to Problems and Literature. Englewood cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 2. Horton, Paul. B and Chester L . Hunt. Sociology, 6th edition. New Delhi. Tata McGraw-Hill. 3. Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory An Introduction to the Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press. 4. Davis. Kingsley. 1949. Human Society. New York: Macmillan. 5. MacIver, R.M and Charles Page. 1962. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.
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Unit 3
Structure
Development of Sociology
3.1 Introduction Objectives 3.2 Theories about the Origin of Human Society 3.3 Important Milestones in Sociology 3.4 Indian Social Structure 3.5 Summary 3.6 Glossary 3.7 Terminal Questions 3.8 Answers 3.9 Further Reading
3.1 Introduction
The previous unit emphasized the fact that sociology is the study of human society or societies. However, such a simple initial definition of the subject poses the question, What is human society? There is a difference of emphasis between the singular form of a society and its plural form. Society, as a singular term, appears general and unlimited. The plural term, societies, sounds more like a set of container units distinct from each other, such that you can take them one by one to inspect their contents. In fact, sociology has always studied societies, both, taken separately and together, as human societies. The balance between the two aspects may vary, but in the end, the study of one absolutely requires the study of the other. Neither of them makes sense independently. For instance, considering India as a society, one can think of it in terms of cities, factories, schools, farms or prisons. One can also think of it in terms of politics, media or divinity. It is simple to connect all these factors. They can also be visualized as confined within the boundaries of the Indian states and referred under the general heading of Indian society. The development of culture, ways of acting, thinking and feeling makes human society a special case as compared with the societies of other species. These features are transmitted from one generation to the next and across societies through learning, not through inheritance. Culture includes language
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and technology, both of which involve the communication of ideas and the possibility of sophisticated coordination of action. This vastly enhances adaptability. In this unit, we will be looking extensively at the meaning and concept of the development of society. We will learn about the theories regarding the origin of human society, important milestones in sociology, and the social culture prevailing in India.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the theories regarding the origin of human society Demonstrate the importance of society for individuals Explain the life of individuals in terms of heredity and environment Describe the important events that shaped modern sociological thought Analyse an outline of Indian society
3.2 Theories about the Origin of Human Society

The term 'society' is not easy to define. In general, it refers to people and their community. Man is a social animal, who relies on others around him for his basic needs. People form society. The interaction between people brings them closer to each other and makes them mutually dependent. Society can thus be defined as a formal association of people having the same interests. The origin or emergence of society may be viewed as one of the great steps in evolution. However, this step was taken only by a few species. Like other steps, it represents a new synthesis of old materials, possessing unique qualities that are not found in old materials that are considered separately. It is thus a true example of what is known as an emergent evolution. To realize that society is a true emergent, one needs to trace its independent origin in countless animal types. One needs to merely grasp the difference between the society and the organisms which it is composed of. Several decades ago, it was normal to compare society with an organism. The idea was to demonstrate that a social system is, after all, a system. The analogy was helpful but never perfect. The cells of an organism are rigidly fixed in their mutual relations, completely subordinated to the organism and too specialized to be called members of the society. They are not spatially detached and independently mobile. So the
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organism is not, strictly speaking, a society of cells. The organism possesses a consciousness, which no society possesses. Like an organism, a society is a system of relations, but relations between organisms themselves rather than between cells. Like the organism, a society has a determined structure and the parts of this structure, when in operation contribute to the existence of the whole. This gives it continuity, which is apart from that of the constituent individuals. It is this possession of continuity and a structure of its own that makes it impossible to reduce the study of society, merely to a study of its individual members. It is like a house, which, though composed of bricks, nails, mortar and pieces of lumber, cannot be understood purely in terms of these materials. It has a form and functions as a complete house. Social Contract Theory The Social Contract Theory is unique, giving importance to individuals as architects of society. This theory was propounded by three eminent philosophers: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.J. Rosseau. According to this theory, all men were born free and equal and individuals made a mutual agreement and created a society. Thomas Hobbes, in his book, The Leviathan, discusses the state of nature. He gives a very gloomy picture of the state of nature. According to him, society is a means of protection for men, against the consequence of their own untrammelled nature. In the state of nature, man was in perpetual conflict with his neighbours on account of his essentially selfish nature. Mans actions were motivated by selfish interests. According to Hobbes, the state of nature was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. There was liberty without license. The stronger enjoyed a privileged position. As a result, mans life became miserable and totally insecure. In order to come out of these evil consequences and to ensure peaceful coexistence, a civil society was needed. So men came out of the state of nature to set up a civil society. By such contract, men gave up their liberty to a single individual who could give them security. Thus, the individual became the great monster i.e. a repository of all power and he was known as the leviathan. Thus man, with his fellow men, organized society in order to be in love and at peace with all. John Locke, in his book, Two Treaties on Civil Government, gave an optimistic view about the state of nature. He tried to justify that the state of nature was not so perverted and it was a state of peace, goodwill, mutual existence and preservation. The only disadvantage of the state of nature was
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that there was no recognized system of law. To overcome this deficiency and to ensure the exercise of his liberty, man entered into a contract by which certain powers were conformed upon a community. J.J. Rosseau, in his book, Social Contract, gave a classical opinion about the Social Contract Theory. He started with Hobbes and ended with Locke. He held that all men, in the state of nature, were equally self-sufficient and contented. Man was a noble savage and was untouched by all negative vices of life. Man lived a life of idyllic happiness and primitive simplicity. But, with the growth of population, quarrels arose which necessitated the establishment of a civil society. Consequently, men entered into a contract and thus society was born. The criticisms of the Social Contract Theory are as follows: MacIver argues that the theory is not historical because history has not supported the existence of the state of nature anywhere. This theory is considered illogical. The theory seems to assume that man existed before society, but such an assumption is erroneous. This theory suppresses the sociable character of individuals. Society emerged gradually, thus, this theory does not offer a valid explanation of the origin of society. Organismic Theory This is another vital theory about the origin of human society. Plato, Aristotle, Herbert Spencer and Novicow were the exponents of this theory. However, Spencer occupies a unique place. This theory states that society is never manmade. It is a natural creation and has started through the process of evolution. Spencer conceives society as a biological system, a greater organism alike in its structure and functions, exhibiting the same kind of unity as the individual organism and subject to similar laws of development, maturation and decline. Thus the basic assumption is that society is like a biological organism and the only difference is in the size. Spencer tries to draw analogy between the organism and the society on the basis of the following points: Evolution: Evolution or development is the basic characteristic of a biological organism. Society, like an organism, grows or develops gradually. As an organism passes through the laws of development, maturation and decline, so does society. Systems: The biological organism consists of different systems like the circulatory, nervous, respiratory, etc., which correspond to similar systems in society. For instance the circulatory system corresponds to the system
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of transport and communication in the society and the nervous system corresponds to the government of the state. Structural differentiation and function integration: In both society and biological organisms, there exists close integration or interdependence of parts. The institutions are parts of the society. Just as different parts of an organism are mutually dependent, the individuals are also mutually dependent upon each other. If any part of the structure is affected, the entire system is paralyzed. Cellular formation of both society and individual: The individual or organism is made up of cells. Similarly, the society is also composed of cells and people are the cells of society. Thus, Spencer concluded that society is like an organism. Spencer observed the following differences between the organism and the society: In organic growth, nature plays a dominant role and the organism grows naturally, while social growth may be checked. An organism is composed of many cells, whereas a society is composed of a collection of individuals. Society is abstract whereas an organism is concrete. The units of society are not fixed, like those of an individual organism. Criticism MacIver argues that the theory does not explain the relationship between society and individual in social life. He also argues that this theory is the unreal death of an individual organism, which does not correspond in a proper sense to the death of society. Importance of Society for Individuals As we have seen, a society, especially human society, comprises a group of people who are related to each other through persistent relations and share the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Society has the capacity to encourage personal growth and development of individuals through the process of socialization. It provides an opportunity to individuals to develop their potential to the fullest extent. It is society that orients the individuals towards conformity to institutionalized norms and keeps them in limits. It makes a person worth calling a human being. Society is external to individuals and exerts a pressure on them to act according to norms also counteracts deviant behaviour in individuals.
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There is a lack of a certain amount of factual evidences in the interrelationship between individuals and social orders. The following cases have been discussed below to understand the importance of society for individuals. Case I The famous case of The German youth, Kaspar Hauser, is peculiarly significant because this ill-starred youth was in all probability bereft of human contact through political machinations. Therefore his condition could not be attributed to a defect of innate mentality. When Hauser, at the age of seventeen, wandered into the city of Nuremberg in 1828, he could hardly walk, had the mind of an infant and could mutter only a phrase or two. Sociologically, it is noteworthy that Kaspar mistook inanimate objects for living beings. And when he was killed five years later, his post-mortem revealed that the development of his brain was subnormal. The denial of society to Kaspar Hauser was the denial of human nature itself. Case II One of the most interesting of feral cases involved two Indian children in 1920. These children, who were eight and two years old respectively, were discovered in a wolfs den. The younger child died within few months of the discovery but the elder, Kamala, as she was named, survived until 1929. Her history has been carefully recorded in human society. Kamala brought with her almost none of the traits that we associate with human behaviour. She walked on all four of her limbs and could not speak any language other than wolf-like growls. Like any other undomesticated animal, she too was shy of humans. However, as a result of the most careful and apparently sympathetic training, she was taught rudimentary social habits. Before her death, she had slowly learned some amount of simple speech, human eating and dressing habits, etc. This wolf child utterly lacked human habits when she was first found, but her individuality emerged when she interacted with human society. Case III Sociologists and psychologists have also studied the case of Anna and her illegitimate American child, who were isolated since the child was six months old, until her discovery five years later, in 1938. During her confinement, Anna was fed little else than milk, was not given any general training and had no contact with other human beings. This extreme and cruel social isolation provided scientists with a laboratory case and left the child with few attributes of a normal, five-year-old child. When Anna was discovered she could not walk or speak, she was completely apathetic and indifferent to people around her. As in the case of Kamala, Anna responded to the careful treatment provided to her after
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she was released. However, because of her young age and limited contacts while she was a prisoner, she interacted with humans much more rapidly before she died in 1942. Annas case illustrates once again that human nature develops in man only when he is a social being, only when he is a part of the society and shares a common life. Individual Dependence on Social Heritage Each individual is the offspring of social relationships, itself determined by preestablished mores. The individual is neither a beginning nor an end, but a link in the succession of life. This is a sociological as well as a biological truth. But yet, it does not express the depth of our dependence as individuals on society, for society is more than a necessary environment and more than just the soil in which we are nurtured. Our relation to social heritage is more intimate than that of a seed to the earth in which it grows. We are born in a society, the processes of which determine our heredity and part of which becomes our internal mental equipment in time and not merely an external possession. Social heritage, continuously changes because of our social experiences. It evokes and directs our personality. Society both liberates and limits our potentialities as individuals, not only by affording definite opportunities and stimulations, not only by placing definite and interferences restraints on us, but also subtly and imperceptibly, by molding our attitudes, beliefs, morals and ideals. Comprehension of this fundamental and dynamic interdependence of individual and social heritage permits us to appreciate the truth of Aristotles famous phrase, that man is a social animal. However, this does not mean that man is a sociable animal. Man is greater than that, in this respect. This also does not mean that man is altruistic in his impulse toward society, nor does it mean that he is social by virtue of some original constitution of human nature. This means that without society, without the support of social heritage, the individual personality does not and cannot come into existence. Individual and Society The system approach of Talcott Parsons claims that the governance of individual relationships at micro level is taken care of by the macro level and that the functional contribution of an individual to the society is so indispensable, that the society cannot live without the individual and vice versa. The entire interactive approach in sociology and even social psychology revolves around this concept of relationships between individuals and society. This relationship paves the way for framing the most acceptable definition of society which is given by MacIver and Page, Society is a system of usages and procedures of authority
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and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behavior and of liberties. We will discuss the relationship of individual and society through the following points: (i) The nature of social unity: The unique quality of social unity is revealed when it is contrasted with other types of unities. Various forms of unities may be distinguished by viewing the nature of the functional relations of the units or parts of the whole. A type of unity is the organism, to which the society itself is assigned, mistakenly. In this type, one can interpret the cells, organs and various systems that these compose, for instance, circulatory, glandular, nervous, etc. These derive their significance solely from their utility to the life of the organism, as a whole. Mechanism is another type of unity, the specific form of which is a man-made machine. The machine is not autonomous or self sustaining or self reproducing, like the organism. However, its various parts like wheels, gears, transmission belts, etc., can be understood in terms of their contribution to the functioning of the whole machine. Like organic unity, mechanical unity has been attributed to the society or parts of it. But the social system must be distinguished from these types. For a social system, social relationships grow and change in accordance with the changing attitudes and interests of its members, of some or all of the units or individuals who compose it. Here, the system derives its significance from its support of and contribution to the final purpose of individuals themselves. Without this purpose, social unity cannot be envisaged. This principle makes the harmonization of society and individuality possible. (ii) Understanding individuality: When we extend the meaning of individuality to man, we find it essential to use the term in its sociological reference. Here, one can argue that a social being has more individuality in the following circumstances: a. His conduct is not imitative nor is it the result of suggestion. b. He is not entirely the slave of custom or even of habit. c. His responses to the social environment are not altogether automatic and subservient. d. His personal purpose are factors in his real-life activities.
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e. Individuality in sociological sense is that attribute which reveals the member of a group as more than merely a member. f. He is a self, a centre of activity and response, expressive of a nature that is his own. This concept supports the admonition that we often give to others or to ourselves. g. The factor of being yourself. Being oneself need not mean just originality; it certainly does not mean eccentricity. A strong individuality may, in fact, express more fully the spirit or quality of his country or his time, but he does so, not because he is quickly imitative or easily suggestible, but because of his sensitivity to the age itself. It is true that when members of a group are more individualized, they will exhibit greater differences and will express themselves in a greater variety of ways. But the criterion of individuality is not the extent to which each individual differs from the rest. It is rather, how far each acts autonomously, in his own consciousness and with his own interpretation of the claims of others. When the possessor of individuality does as others do, at least in those matters which he deems important, he does it simply. This is not because others do it, but because he himself approves that particular behavior. When he follows authority, except as far as he compelled to, he follows it partly because of conviction and not because of authority. He does not specifically accept or reflect the opinions of others. He has certain independence of judgment, initiative, discrimination, strength of character, etc. The extent to which he exhibits these qualities is directly proportional to his individuality. Life of Individuals-Heredity and Environment Since ancient times, man has experienced irregular relations between broad physical conditions and modes of living. The inhabitants of tropical regions for instance exhibited characteristic differences from those of temperate or of arctic regions. But recently, these observations have been gradually refined and turned more systematic. French sociology has been especially prominent in the development of such studies since the time of Montesquieu, inspired by leaders like Le Play, Demolins and Brunhes. The relationship between physical environment and social phenomena has been of particular interest to two groups of American sociologists in recent times. The development of an ecological school has been stimulated by the investigations of late R.E. Park and E.W. Burgess, at the University of Chicago. Human or social ecology, that found suggestive
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analogies in plant and animal ecologies have been particularly interested in the social and cultural phenomena that is associated with various urban areas. There are several levels of adaptation to the environment. It has been argued that man adapts himself to his environment. The adaptation may be employed in physical, biological and a social reference. Physical adaptation: Purely physical adaptation is independent of our striving and our aims. The sun will tan our skin if we expose ourselves to it. This is a form of physical adaptation, irrespective of whether it helps us or not. Similarly, cold makes us shiver and gives us goose bumps. Low light enlarges our pupils, heat makes us sweat. All these are examples of physical adaptation. Biological adaptation: Biological adaptation means that a particular form of life is suited to survive or to prosper in environmental conditions. One can argue that fish are adapted to marine environment or tigers, to the conditions of life in a jungle. In this sense, we can also speak of the inability to adapt. For instance, when it is said that a tiger is unable to adapt to the conditions of the desert or those of the polar snows, it means that the conditions do not permit adequate functioning of the organism. This implies that inevitable physical adaptation is detrimental to biological demands. In order to attain certain equilibrium, that involves the survival or fulfillment of an organism, environment support is required. Social adaptation: Social adaptation reveals an extension of biological use. Social adaptation is conditional adaptation when it involves some standards of value. When various sociologists speak about the process of adjustment or of accommodation, they basically refer to the conditions that are associated with it. In social sense, adaptation definitely implies valuation. Social adaptation involves mans continuous adjustment to his changing life conditions and his evaluation of both his own adjustments and social conditions. To understand the overall environmental conditions of human beings, one needs to focus on two important components of total environment: external environment and internal or social environment. Outer environment specifically refers to material culture. Inner or social environment consists of organizations and regulations, traditions and institutions, repression and liberation of social life. This is collectively referred to as social heritage. Man adapted himself to this through conscious response and habituation.
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Heredity and environment It is ancient observation which confirms that in almost all human groups the traits or habits of parents are inherited by their children. The difference in heredity then might account for the difference in the traits or qualities of individuals or groups, even in different environments. Some biologists have been supported by a number of psychologists and a few sociologists, while the students of environment studies have generally stressed on other aspects. Therefore, a major dispute pertaining to the relative importance of the two arose and continues, even today. In explaining the variations of human beings and their societies, some claim that heredity is the stronger determinant, while others claim that environment is a stronger determinant. Some argue that certain qualities, such as those of health and intelligence depend mainly on heredity, while they admit that other qualities, particularly social qualities that extend in morals, customs and beliefs, depend more directly on environment. The whole issue was raised in a definite form by Francis Galton in his pioneer work, Hereditary Genius (1869) in which he sought to show that the probability of the occurrence of greatly gifted children is vastly higher when the fathers are of a superior intelligence. Galtons work was carried on by Karl Pearson, who applied his method of correlation to this theory. He concluded that in the determination of important human differences, the influence of environment is far less than that of heredity. Pearson claimed that it was even possible to measure the relative efficacy of the two and gave evidences purporting to show that for people of the same race, within a given community, heredity is seven times more important than environment. Many other researchers have followed the path of Pearson. Some have taken class or occupational categories and have shown that the groups with higher social or intellectual rating have produced more geniuses or persons of distinction. This positive correlation has been illustrated in studies showing that royal families produce more geniuses in comparison to others; families of the clergy in the US produce the largest number of notable men, followed by those of professionals, businessmen, farmers and laborers. Men of science emanate in largest numbers from professional classes and in smaller numbers from agricultural class and so forth. Other psychologists have chosen racial or national categories and applications of psychological tests. Intelligence tests, have typically brought about considerable differences between them, as in the well known army tests of an immigrant group in the US and more generally of native-born, foreign-born, and Negro section of the population. MacIver argues that from such studies, conclusions are frequently drawn to indicate a superficial analysis of the problem of heredity and environment.
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A large number of earlier researchers have given us more precise evidence with reference to a common observation: that those who are born in families or groups which possess distinction or prestige are more likely to develop intellectual or other attainments. Heredity contains all potentialities of life, but all its actualities are evoked within and under the conditions of environment. A biologist is interested in tracing the inheritance of those unit characteristics, such as blue eyes, albinism, hemophilia, etc., which suggest separable specific determinants in the mechanism of heredity. Biologists are also interested in the manner in which specific organic predispositions, such as the tendency to certain disease, reveal themselves under varying conditions of environment. On the other hand, sociologists are interested in the way in which a group deals with another group, which is brought up in a given environment and is affected by changes occurring within it or by their transference to a different environment. An immigrant group, irrespective of its hereditary characteristics, exhibits entirely different characteristics, when transported from Italy, Greece or Ireland to North America. One cannot but be impressed by the way in which customs, attitudes and modes of life change, to new occupational activities and so forth, in response to changes in economic conditions. Heredity is the potentiality which is made within the actual environment. All qualities of life are present in heredity. The evocation of qualities depends on environment. It follows from this initial principle that the higher the potentiality, greater is the demand on environment. Instead of seeking to exalt the importance of one factor over the other, it is easier to analyse the importance of the fitness of the environment. Thus, though more subtle differences in environment may have little effect on beings with low potentialities, they are vastly significant for beings which are more responsive to them. A seemingly minor change in a situation, a stimulus to success, an encouragement, a rebuff, may prove decisive to a sensitive nature while scarcely affecting a less sensitive one. Hence the imponderables of the social environment become more important for civilized individuals and groups. Activity 1 From your own experience, write a note on how society and the environment has shaped your outlook and attitudes.
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1. State whether true or false. (a) Society is a system of relations. (b) Thomas Hobbes wrote the book The Leviathan. 2. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate words. (a) Spencer conceived of society as a _______ system. (b) Francis Galton wrote the book _________ ___________.
3.3 Important Milestones in Sociology

Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution roughly took place in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe and North America, as changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology greatly affected socio-economic conditions. It first began in the United Kingdom. The Industrial Revolution is considered as one of the major turning points in human history as it significantly changed almost all aspects of life. Its greatest result has been a phenomenal yet sustained growth in both average income and population. Between 1800 and 2000, the worlds per capita income increased 10 times, while population increased six times. In the later part of the 18th century, the United Kingdom witnessed a transition from manual labour and draft animal-based economy towards machinebased manufacturing. The process began with the mechanization of the textile industry, and this soon led to developments in iron making and the usage of refined coal. Before long, a sophisticated network of roads, canals and railways had opened up, making trade and goods more widely available. The industrial revolution was primary fueled by steam power and coal. This led to a large increase in production capacity. Later, in the 19th century, even greater technological and economic changes took place, with the development of steamships and later the internal combustion engine and the generation of electricity. It can be safe to say that we are still enjoying the fruits of the industrial revolution today.
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French Revolution The French Revolution (17891799) was a period of great social and political upheaval in France, and the repercussions of which were felt throughout Europe and also in the Americas. The revolution resulted in the overthrow of the absolute monarchy and transition of feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges to new Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The French Revolution has been the cause of the growth of modern liberal democracies and ideas of secularism. Enlightenment and Educational Revolution The Age of Enlightenment (or Age of Reason) was an elite cultural movement that took place in 18th century Europe with an aim at mobilizing the power of reason to reform society and advance knowledge in opposition to intolerance and abuses in the Church and state. It was influenced by the ideas of Baruch Spinoza, John Locke and Isaac Newton. The centre of the Enlightenment was France, with the publication of the Encyclopdie (175172) edited by Denis Diderot with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals such as Voltaire and Montesquieu. The new intellectual forces spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, then jumped the Atlantic into the European colonies, where it influenced Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, among many others, and played a major role in the American Revolution. One of the key components of the age of Enlightenment was the increase in consumption of reading materials of all sorts. This was directly due to the Industrial Revolution, which made printing books in a large scale cheaper and easier.
3.4 Indian Social Structure

India is a vast country with a geographical area of 3,287,240 sq km and a population of over one billion. The society in India is quite old and complex in nature. Many scholars have diverse opinions on the origin of Indian society. However the old heritage of Indian society has shown enough evidence of immigrants from various racial, ethnic and religious groups. Indias cultural heritage is one of the most ancient, extensive and varied among all those who make up the cultural heritage of mankind. Throughout the ages many races and peoples contributed to Indias culture. Some came into contact with her only
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temporarily, others settled permanently within her borders. The keynote of the distinctive culture thus evolved was synthesis on the basis of eternal values. So India has a long history and its cultural tradition is very rich. It is often said that there is no other country that offers the same cultural diversity as India. India is indeed unique when it comes to diversity, with 29 different states each with their own distinct traditions and character, and a population rich with diverse religious faiths, dress and accents. Such a level of diversity could perhaps be found elsewhere in an entire region such as Europe; however, in India this diversity is contained within the boundaries of a single nation. India is a vast country and from north to south and east to west various cultures have amalgamated, promoting cultural pluralism amidst cultural diversity. The composition of Indian society reflects the various diversities existing in India. It is essential to remember that the bulk of the Indian population represents racial admixture in varying degrees. Racial origins, however tenuous, are a part of the ethnic memory of most of the communities. This plays a significant role in shaping their identity and self-image. In this unit we will discuss the religious, linguistic and cultural composition of India and observe how these act as diversifying factors and at the same time have an underlying unity. Diversity in India is found in terms of race, religion, language, caste and culture. Sociologists say that Indian unity has been both politico-geographic and cultural in nature. The diversities have remained, but simultaneously provided for a mainstream culture. Religious Composition and Diversity Indian society is divided into a large number of religious communities. Broadly there are seven major religions, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Zorastrianism. In India, Hindus constitute the majority of the population (80.5%). The Muslims are the second largest religious group (13.4%). The Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), and other religions like Jews, Zorastrians, Parsis, etc., comprise 6 per cent. All these religions are further divided into various sects. Though the other religious communities are numerically less, yet their contribution to Indias cultural heritage is noteworthy. All religious groups are further divided internally. The Muslims make up a large proportion of the total population in Jammu and Kashmir. Some coastal districts in Tamil Nadu and Kerala and in Lakshadweep comprise entirely of Christians. Sikhs are more numerous in Punjab. Buddhists are mostly found in Maharashtra and Arunachal Pradesh and the Zorastrians in and around Mumbai.
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The Christians are more numerous in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and the North-East Region. They make a large proportion of the total population in the North-East. Traditionally different religions have existed in India in peaceful coexistence. The secular nature of Indian society was well acclaimed worldwide. But the British policy of Divide and Rule and the partition of the country led to various communal tensions. Communalism, which is blind loyalty towards ones own religion, has created conflicts and tensions among various religious communities. Politics practised in the name of religion has further aggravated the problem as such politics is based on narrow vested interests. Article 25 of the Constitution gives all religious communities the right to profess, propagate and practice their religion. It is pertinent to know that the right to propagate ones religion was included in deference to the concerns of the minority communities, particularly Muslims and Christians, who maintained that preaching and propagating their faith was an essential part of their religion. Hinduism is the oldest religion and is divided into various sects and cults. Hinduism is basically divided into Shaivite (worshippers of Lord Shiva), Vaishnavite (worshippers of Lord Vishnu), Shakta (worshippers of Shakti or Mother Goddess in different incarnations like Durga, Kali, Parvati, etc.) and Smarta (worshippers of all the three Gods).Even among these there are further sub-divisions making Hindu religion more complex. Moreover, the Hindu religion has accommodated many Gurus, saints and their followers like Swami Chidanand, Shivanand, etc. Some sects like Satnami, Kabirpanthi, Radhaswami, Swaminarayan, etc., are also prevalent in Hinduism. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj are also a part of Hinduism. Therefore Hinduism with its diverse cults, sects, rituals and doctrinal differences accommodates many believers. Muslims are divided into two major groups, Sunnis and Shias, out of which Sunnis have a larger population than Shias. Indian Christians are divided into Catholics and Protestants; whereas Buddhism is also divided into two, Mahayana and Hinayana based on differences in religious doctrines. The Jains in India are divided into Digambara (unclothed) and Swetambara (white robed). The Jains do not practise untouchability and no restrictions are observed with regard to commensality and social intercourse. It is interesting to note that both Buddhism and Jainism evolved as a protest against the Brahminical social order and the superior position ascribed to Brahmins. Sikhism is a synthesizing religion and the majority of the Sikhs are found in Punjab. However, after partition there has been a large scale migration and
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now Sikhs are found almost everywhere in India and even in other countries like U.K. and U.S. Their unique tradition of Langar (free food for all) has brought together many religious communities and also inculcated the feeling of community and service to mankind. Sikh places of worship, Gurudwaras, are found everywhere in the country. The Parsis and Jews in India are small religious communities who have contributed a lot towards the industrial development of India, e.g., Jamshedji Tata who founded the Tata group of industries. The Parsis are mostly found in Mumbai and Jews are found in Kerala and Maharashtra. While the religious composition of Indian society has also resulted in the diversifying of religion, there is no denying the fact that religion has also acted as a unifying force. While most societies grant individuals the right to religious belief, in India communities enjoy the right to continue with their distinct religious practices. Perhaps the most significant part of this is that in all matters of family, individuals are governed by their community personal laws (Larson, 2001).Religious communities also have the right to set up their own religious and charitable institutions; they can establish their own educational institutions, and above all, these institutions can receive financial support from the state. Taken together, these are the ways by which public recognition has been granted to different religious communities and space given to them to continue with their way of life (Mahajan, 1998). India has many religious festivals which are celebrated amongst all religious communities. Festivals like Diwali, Id-ul-fitr and Christmas are celebrated by all religious communities. Centres of pilgrimage such as Badrinath, Rameshwaram, Kedarnath, Ajmer Sharif and many more attract people from every corner of India across religious lines and strengthen the process of national integration. The tourist places portraying beautiful Muslim architecture like the Taj Mahal, Lal Quila, Qutub Minar, etc., attract people from all walks of life. Linguistic Diversity India has always been a multi-lingual country. Language has also been an important source of diversity as well as unity in India. According to the Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 190328) there are 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects in the country. The Constitution of India, in its 8th Schedule recognizes 22 official languages with English as an important associate language. All the major languages have different regional variations and dialects. Some of the dialects of Hindi are Bhojpuri, Rajasthani, and Haryanvi. Originally, only 14
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languages were included in the 8th Schedule. Bodo, Dogri, Konkani, Maithili, Manipuri, Nepali, Santhali and Sindhi were recognized later. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru had remarked, The makers of the Constitution were wise in laying down that all the 13 or 14 languages were to be national languages. The languages listed in this schedule have acquired different names at different stages and are better known as the scheduled languages now. The Minorities Commission report and the official Language Resolution 3 of 1968 considered languages listed in the schedule as major languages of the country. The Programme of Action Document, 1992 of the National Policy on Education, 1986 considered them as modern Indian languages. The highest literary awards in the country are given to 24 literary languages in India by the Sahitya Academy, and newspapers and periodicals are published in 35 languages every year. English is recognized as an important instrument of knowledge dissemination, commerce and maintenance of international relations. A provision was made to extend the use of English language in the article 343 as Official language of the Union for all official purposes of the Union even after a period of fifteen years with a provision that the President may, during the said period, by order authorize the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language. Originally among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi had the highest percentage (41.03%). However, it is noticed that the linguistic regions in the country do not maintain a sharp and distinct boundary; rather they gradually merge and overlap in their respective border zones. Though all the languages spoken in India are different from each other, yet they may be grouped into four linguistic families; the Austric Family (Nishada), Dravidian family (Dravida), Sino-Tibetan Family (Kirata) and Indo-European Family (Arya). The languages of the Austric family are spoken by tribal people in Meghalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in parts of Central Indian tribal belts like Ranchi, Mayurbhanj, etc. The languages of the Dravidian family are spoken in southern parts of India. The dialects and languages of the Sino-Tibetan family are spoken are spoken by the tribal people of the North-Eastern region and in the sub-Himalayan region in the North and North-West. People in the Ladakh region, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh also speak these languages. The speakers of the languages of Indo-European family are found in North India. The majority of
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the people in the North Indian plains speak Indo-Aryan (Indo-European family). Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh also have large population of speakers of these languages. The degree of linguistic diversity in India is perplexing, not only for visitors but also for Indians. Each of the countrys 28 states has adopted one or two of the 22 official languages. Indias linguistic barriers are compounded by the fact that each language also has a unique written form, with an alphabet that is unrecognizable to people who are ignorant of that language. The linguistic diversity found across India stems from a history that saw numerous ancient kingdoms, each with its own language. These languages remained distinct to the area even after a kingdom was dissolved or merged with another. State lines later drawn by the colonial rulers often crossed former political and linguistic boundaries. After Independence, many of the southern states in India opposed the installation of Hindi as Indias national language. Simultaneously there was a strong lobby across different regions of the country for organization of states on a linguistic basis. This has resulted in the protecting and encouraging of linguistic diversity. The formation of groups based on common linguistics, each with the political rights to administer itself within the structure of the federal system, resulted in that particular linguistic community becoming the majority in that specific region. The recent Telengana issue is an important example where there was a demand for a separate linguistic province. Language also becomes a diversifying factor when it is used as a vote bank for politics. (Kamraj Nadar) Slogans like Tamil Nadu for Tamils, Maharashtra for Marathis, and so on further aggravated the language problem. Although there is a great diversity of languages and dialects in India, fundamental unity is found in the ideas and themes expressed in these languages. Sanskrit has influenced many languages in India. However in spite of diversities Hindi continues to be the national language and people of one State can communicate with people of another State and a national language generates national sentiment. Cultural Diversity India is a multi-cultural society and is a fine example of diversity and unity in cultures. Indias rich natural resources have attracted many from across the
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world bringing about great diversity in human cultures. Powerful kingdoms and empires contributed to the shaping of Indias cultural regions. The various conquests in the historical past have also been responsible for creating diversity. The bulk of the Indian population represents racial admixture in varying degrees. Unlike several other lands where the dominant human cultures have tended to absorb or eliminate others, in India the tendency has been to nurture diversity, which has been favoured by the diversity of the countrys ecological regimes (Gadgil and Guha, 1992). From the beginning, Indian civilization has witnessed a pluralistic culture. This pluralistic culture which has its roots in the Vedic period, was enhanced by the upsurge of Buddhism and Jainism, and was further reinforced during the early medieval period, which saw the founding of the Bhakti Movement. Vedic society was an admixture of different cultures. It was a combination of Aryan and non-Aryan, with a mix of tribal elements added. There are many cultures which coexist simultaneously in India. Communities in India demonstrate commonalities in culture traits irrespective of which religious background they belong to, even though these religious groups are further subdivided. Many studies on cultural diversity and syncreticism have been conducted by sociologists and anthropologists like Y. Singh, N.K. Das, Madan, Majumdar, etc., which adhere to various sociological approaches like Structural Functionalism of Radcliffe Brown or Functionalism of Malinowski. However, all this research proves that in spite of there being so many contrasts and diversities, there exists an underlying thread of unity which is seen in cultural and regional traits. India has undergone many cultural changes since independence. On one hand, where ethnic and regional groups or castes, tribes, minorities and other groups are fighting for their individual identities, there is a pervasive commonality of many integrative cultural processes. In India we can now increasingly see a rise in inter-regional migration which results in the merging of regional cultural traits, cooking patterns, cultural performances, ritual forms, styles of dress and ornamentation. A sense of synchronization is evolving which helps in dissolving prevailing differences and contributes towards cultural consistency. Moreover, the role played by Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature in strengthening Indias unity is praiseworthy. India celebrates various festivals together which reflect the solidarity of people of India amidst cultural diversity. Thus it is to be noted that diverse societies in India have evolved through dialogue and interactions at different levels. The multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multilingual and multi-religious society in India is the result of a constant exchange of ideas amongst the various groups. India is the best example of portraying various
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diversities and within this diversity a peculiar thread of unity prevails making India a unique nation. What is The Social Structure of India? Indias culture is diverse. Different regions have different cultures and traditions. At the same time, you can find a lot common in them. Let us try and look at the various social formations which offer different characteristics to the Indian society. Social Structure of India Caste systemIndias social structure is founded on its caste system. The caste system is divided into four major castesBrahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Brahmins are the priests and the uppermost caste. Kshatriyas are the warriors, Vaisyas the business class, and Sudras are the working class. Inter-caste marriages, once forbidden, are commonplace in the urban areas today. Untouchability still persists, with the Dalits treated as untouchables and reduced to menial jobs like cleaning the streets etc. Today, with burgeoning urbanization, the caste system does not have an influence it once did on society. FamilyThe family unit is given great significance. Divorces are not appreciated. Couples try their best to adjust than break up and cause children (also given high importance) distress. Nowadays, due to modernization, divorces do take place with greater regularity; still, on the whole, couples look at retaining the family unit first. WomenIn the past, women have played an important role in the Indias political and social structure. That sadly changed over time. Women remain submissive in many regions of the country, although lately, with better education, they are more confident in general. MenThe mans authority in the Indian social system is still unchallenged. He is very dominating by nature, due to his position as the head of the family. Patriarchal setup The Indian family is patriarchal, with the father as the head of the family unit. The eldest male member is respected and has much influence over matters of the family. Matriarchal setup In Kerala and Meghalaya, however, the woman is the dominant force, and the authority on family matters. MarriageThe Indian society gives the institution of marriage a lot of importance. Marriages are usually arranged, but people in urban areas
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have started choosing their own partners. Marriages are conducted with intricate rituals and celebrated with much pomp. BirthThis is viewed as an auspicious occasion warranting much celebration. The birth of a male child is much sought after. In some regions, the birth of a girl child is considered unfavourable. DeathElaborate ceremonies are held when people die, and rituals are held every year in their remembrance. Unity in Diversity When India became independent in 1947, freedom fighters and those who framed our Constitution worked on a document which provided for a culturally diverse state. Independent India had to allay the fears of its people and the leadership was urged to keep to its promise of providing equality to all the people of India. Respect for the individual could only come about through respecting the diverse beliefs and traditions that the people represent. Unity in diversity expresses the opinion that India can remain a strong and unified country while retaining its cultural diversity. As a result of the geographical mobility of people, various parts of the country are found to have commonalities in their ways of life. Religious communities share many common cultural rights but this does not extend to them having any separate political rights, whereas recognized linguistic communities enjoy cultural and political rights. These rights have simultaneously encouraged diversity and strengthened democracy. Other areas like judiciary or law are also based on the principle of equality. A single Constitution, a national flag, common currency, national anthem, etc., further strengthen the unity of India. All Indians are conscious that they have a distinct national identity amidst various diversities. The various historical monuments, temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras attract lot of tourists and reinforce the bond of unity. In situations of war and natural disasters, this unity in diversity can easily be seen, when the entire nation comes together in support of one another. Even during sporting events, the entire nation supports the national team, which itself may comprise members from various regional and religious backgrounds. In spite of the many differences that the potpourri of cultures inevitably entails, Indias people are united with a common cultural heritage. There is no doubt that India is a vast land of myriad physical features. The country is blessed
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with mountains, hilly terrains, plains, and coastal areas, among other geographical features. There are seemingly countless religions, languages and castes. The type of food varies in different regions. Still, people are united and share basic human values. Indias culture is vibrant and tolerant. Even with the advent of foreigners over the last four or so centuries, little has changed. In fact, one can say that the foreign cultures have blended with the Indian culture and the country is better for it. However, narrow-mindedness can weaken national unity. Thus, it is up to people to feel proud of being Indian while retaining their unique features. As for now, India remains one of the best examples of the term Unity in Diversity.
3.4.1 Modernization and Globalization

M. N. Srinivas used the term Westernization to indicate the changes which took place in India during the British Rule in the 19th and early 20th century. Srinivas defined the term Westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of 150 years of British rule, and the term includes changes occurring at different levels, including technology, institutions, ideology, and values (Srinivas, 1966). He considers such changes as important in the context of changes that a non-Western country undergoes as a result of its contact with a Western country. Westernization is therefore a process of cultural change. The term globalization is commonly used in the media these days. The term is used to denote most thingsgood or bad. For some people, globalization means free market capitalism. For others, it is the picture of domination of poor nations by rich ones. Both sides, for and against, however share a focus on economic aspects. A process is series of changes. In that context, globalization is the process of turning global, but that process in not yet complete. There is no one global society, even though processes seemingly point in that direction. These processes are many and over vast areas of social life and human relations, including culture, ideology, economy, polity, religion, etc. Since globalization is still in the works, what a global society looks like is yet to be determined. India saw the process of globalization begin in 1991. Globalization at the economic level involves a worldwide movement of money, capital, goods, services and technology. The export and import regulations for the production and distribution of commodities are being liberalized. Today, McDonald's burgers are available in India, as well as in Russia and China.
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At the political level, globalization is a process initiated by the dominant powers that control organizations such as the World Trade Organization or International Monetary Fund. There is competition among developing countries for sharing power in the UNO. Now, every country, barring a few exceptions, is opening its frontiers for foreign investment. Every country is competing with others in marketing their products. Globalization has given rise to industrialization, consumerism and multi-national companies. This process has increased migration of people from India to other countries There is however much difference between Westernization and similar processes like industrialization. There is evidence of the existence of cities in the pre-industrial world. Though Westernization is more prevalent in large cities, keeping in view the complex nature of Indian society some people in rural areas are also Westernized. Westernization leads to the induction of new institutions (such as newspapers, elections, Christian missions, etc.) and also brings about necessary changes in older institutions. There are certain value preferences like humanitarianism and rationalism implicit in Westernization. Such values became instrumental in bringing about many changes and reforms in Indian society. According to Srinivas, the increase in Westernization does not retard the process of Sanskritization. In fact, both go on simultaneously and, to some extent, an increase in Westernization accelerates the process of Sanskritization. Sanskritization refers to the process by which castes that used to be lower in the hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating customs and rituals of the upper castes. This is a common process in India and was observed by M.N. Srinivas in 1952 in his book Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India. Westernization and Modernization There has been lot of debate regarding application of the term modernization to Westernization. Daniel Lerner used the term modernization in his book The Passing of Traditional Society, Modernising the Middle-East (1958), to the changes brought about in non-western countries by contact, direct or indirect, with a Western country. The term Westernization, unlike modernization, is ethically neutral, i.e., it does not carry an implication of good or bad. Westernization, however, is an inclusive and many-layered concept. It covers a wide range, from Western technology at one end, to the experimental method of modern science and modern historiography at the other. Its incredible complexity is seen in the fact that different aspects of Westernization sometimes combine to strengthen a particular process, sometimes work at cross-purposes,
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and are occasionally mutually discrete. (Srinivas,1966). For instance, Indians used to eat their meals sitting on the floor and observed a number of restrictions within the entire process from cooking the food to serving it. However, in todays day and age, educated and Westernized people prefer to eat at tables. The concept of modernization is plagued with a number of difficulties. Modernization is a comprehensive process of transformation of the traditional society, involving far reaching changes in all aspects of individual life. It symbolizes rational attitudes towards issues and their evolution from a universalistic (and not particularistic) viewpoint. In contemporary India, both modernization and Westernization exist and are easily observed. While modernization refers to a complete transformation in attitudes, including value patterns, Westernization on the other hand, may not lead to transformation. For example, Westernization in behaviour patterns does not mean Westernization of value preferences and a scientific outlook. In this regard, Srinivas has given an appropriate example of a government bulldozer driver in Rampura village in Mysore. While on one hand, he drove the bulldozer, on the other hand he also practiced black magic. In fact there was no inconsistency between driving a bulldozer for his livelihood and indulging in black magic for pleasure. Thus the utilization of Western technology does not mean that people have become more rational and scientific. Hence, Srinivas prefers to use the term Westernization to modernization, whereas other scholars like Lerner and others prefer modernization. Srinivas believes that modernization presupposes rationality of goals which in the ultimate analysis cannot be taken for granted, since human ends are based on value preferences and rationality could only be expected of the means, and not the ends, of social action. (Srinivas,1966) Westernization and Socio-Cultural Changes Westernization in India took place in different forms, and with sub-regional variations. The various changes due to Westernization are as follows: Educational field With Westernization, English education became popular. The Brahmins, and other castes with traditional education methods, shifted to secular education with English as a medium of instruction. School education was open to everyone, irrespective of caste, creed or colour. English education motivated the youth to take up occupations in the government sector and other commercial concerns. Moreover, Western education brought about a change in the outlook and
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perception of people. Values like equality and humanitarianism were internalized, and this promoted a secular outlook. While traditional education promoted uncritical acceptance of ancient works, Western education promoted rationalism and a critical outlook towards events and problems. (Kuppuswamy,1993) Lifestyle Westernization implied and led to changes in the style of life, dress habits, food manners, etc. The Westernized groups adopted a Western style of living and gave up their inhibitions for various types of food. For instance, Brahmins were forbidden from eating meat but such inhibitions were given up later. Western music, dance and dress were adopted by Indians who were Westernized. Political and cultural field Westernization resulted in not only nationalism, but also to other thoughts and behaviours such as revivalism, communalism, casteism, heightened awareness of linguistics, and regionalism. Even revivalist movements used Western-type schools and colleges, as well as books, pamphlets and journals to propagate their ideas. The process of Westernization intensified when India became independent. The extension of agriculture and trading frontiers broke the centuries old isolation of groups that inhabited the forested mountains, and provided them with new contacts and opportunities. The development of communication and the removal of internal customs barriers, integrated the economy of the various regions in the country into a single one. (Srinivas, 1966). The political and administrative integration of India, along with development of transport and communication, increased social and spatial mobility for the elite as well as the masses. This created the grounds for nationwide Westernization. Relation between Sanskritization and Westernization Thus, it becomes evident that Sanskritization and Westernization are both processes of cultural change. Even Srinivas reiterated the fact that social changes occurring in modern India in terms of Sanskritization and Westernization, are primarily changes in cultural terms and not in structural terms. We will now analyse the relationship between the two terms. Sanskritization and Westernization, in the logical sense, are truth-asserting concepts, which oscillate between the logics of ideal-typical and nominal definitions of phenomena. (Zetterberg,1965). Hence their connotation is often vague, especially as one moves from one level of cultural reality to another. While Sanskritization or Brahminization puts a taboo on meat-eating and alchohol
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consumption, Westernization is supportive of meat-eating and consumption of alchohol. The highly Westernized Brahmins shed their inhibitions about these two issues. The Sanskritization process promotes the sacred outlook, while Westernization promotes the secular outlook. The conflict, however, is removed by the Constitution which is secular in outlook and emphasis, though the sacred outlook continues to be dominant among the elite as well as the masses. Sanskritization and westernization are founded upon empirical observations and offer objective insight into various aspects of cultural change. Difficulties arise from the complexity of the contextual frame. Yogendra Singh maintains that there are theoretical loopholes in these concepts. He makes a reference to E.B. Harper who treats Sanskritization as a functional concept, which is distinct from the historical concept of change. Tradition and Modernity The concept of tradition has always occupied an important place in Indian sociological thought. Indian sociologists have often ventured to acquire deeper knowledge of social phenomena prevailing in the country. According to D.P. Mukherji, there is no getting away from tradition for Indian sociologists. This is so, especially because their role is to study the principles that govern social life in India, common living, common sharing of social heritage and the continuity of social structure, in order to guide the future course of the country whose culture is eternal.(Majumdar,1961) The concept of tradition has been defined by many sociologists, social anthropologists and Indologists; however, none have defined it clearly. D.P. Mukherji pleads for a philosophical approach in order to improve the understanding of society. Yogendra Singh contends that tradition means value, i.e., themes encompassing the entire social system of Indian society, prior to the beginning of modernization, were organized on the principles of hierarchy, holism, continuity and transcendence. These four value-themes were deeply interlocked with other elements of Indian social structure. Hierarchy was evident in the caste system with caste and sub-caste stratifications and also in Hindu concepts of human nature, occupational life cycles (ashramas) and moral duties (Dharma). (Singh,1986) Holism meant a relationship between individuals and groups in which the former was encompassed by the latter in respect of duties and rights. The collective aspect always occupied an important place in the life of the individual. The collective life was reinforced in the traditional social structure of India in
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terms of family, caste, village community, etc. The traditional values were never challenged at the cost of rationality derived from non-sacred principles of evaluation. D.P. Mukherjis concept of Indian society is a derivative of what he calls the philosophy of Indian history which remained unrecorded. But it has a history of ideas exemplified in the daily conduct of its people. Indian culture, essentially being social, has a history expressed in Indian society. The history, economics and philosophy of India had always centred on social groups. (D.P. Mukherji, 1958) The concept of tradition has different connotations for Indian sociologists. Ram Krishna Mukherji regards tradition as the schematic point in organism (in the context of Indian society) which can be used as a comparative frame of reference for measuring social change in India. He further stated that Indian traditions provide four dimensions of integration in our people. Social change is almost a variation on this intra-India static four dimensional model: the place where an Indian is born, where he is brought up and dies, the kin group to which a person belongs, the caste to which he is affiliated, and finally the linguistic region with which he is integrated. (R.K. Mukherji,1965) Moreover, R.K. Mukherji quoted D.P. Mukherji to emphasize the economic aspect of structural change which can have a significant impact and bring about an alteration, Traditions have great power of resistance and absorption.Unless the influence is very powerful (which is possible only when modes of production are changed), traditions survive through adjustments. The capacity to adjust is a measure of the vitality of tradition. Indian sociologists should precede the socialist interpretations of changes in the Indian tradition in terms of economic forces. (R.K. Mukherji,1965) Yogendra Singh, has however come out with a paradigmatic concept of tradition in his book, Modernization of Indian Tradition. He refers to traditions as evolving from primordial tradition to modernization with a pattern of change in quality. His concept of Indian tradition, contrary to the meta-social views, is analytical as indicated in a unified worldview, ritual styles and belief systems. He does not delineate tradition as entity or substance, but as a variable identified under the components of little and great traditions, contributing extensively to the process of transformation and synthesis. Great tradition refers to a broader civilization while little traditions imply the folkways found in villages and smaller communities that are none the less part of the great tradition. In other words, great traditions refer to traditions that have their roots in the ancient culture of the Aryans and the Vedas. They also comprise of customs and traditions that are found in the epics, Puranas, Brahmanas, etc. Little traditions are symbolized
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by cultural processes operating among the folks or peasants in rural India. These develop when there is internal growth of a village. Sometimes, the little tradition undergoes change when it comes in contact with the great tradition. These traditions are sensitive to the requirements of the local village, area or community where they operate. Folk artists, medicine men, bards, proverbs, poets, etc., can be found in little traditions. Y. Singh refers to two kinds of changes orthogenetic changes (primary) and heterogenetic changes (secondary). While orthogenetic changes refer to those changes within the cultural tradition of India itself, heterogenetic changes refer to changes brought about due to contact with other traditions. The evolutionary process of modernization is a smooth one, and there is no serious breakdown in the system caused by institutionalization of modernizing changes. Caste, as an institution however, has the potential for negotiating with modernizing trends and adapting to modern institutions. Yogendra Singh is concerned about the constant coordination of modernization with conciliation as an assumed pre-requisite for democratic modernization in India. Modernization, in its initial stages in India, according to Eisenstadt did not lead to any serious system breakdown because of the peculiar structural characteristics of the Indian society. Here, the cultural system was fairly independent of the political system. Modernity in India developed as a substructure and subculture without subsequent expansion in all sectors of life. However, Y. Singhs main concern was with structural changes which would take place due to modernization. Inconsistencies have arisen due to structural changes that India has undergone during the post-colonial phase of modernization. Micro-structures like caste, family and village community have retained their traditional character. Caste per se has shown unexpected elasticity and latent potential for adaptation with modern institutions, such as democratic participation, political party organization and trade unionism. This is even though joint family and particularistic norms continue to prevail. These contradictions are magnified at the level of macrostructures such as the political system, bureaucracy, elite structure, industry and economy. In fact, the major potential sources of breakdown in the process of modernization in India can be attributed to structural inconsistencies such as democratisation without spread of civic culture (education), bureaucratization without commitment to universalistic norms, rise in media participation and aspiration without proportionate increase in resources and distributive justice, verbalization of a welfare ideology without diffusion into the social structure. (Eisenstadt,1966)
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At the outset, it must be said that there has been considerable modernization of Indian traditions and constant adaptation with the process of modernization. There has been no breakdown in the traditional value systems, rather it can be said that there has been a discontinuity between expectation and performance. Y. Singh would deny a policy of controlled suppression in favour of a series of conciliatory steps through a forceful strategy of mobilization. This would lead him to accept that the chances of institutional breakdown are minimal on the Indian scene. (Y. Singh,1986). There is in fact a rational coordination instead of complete reliance on modernization. Activity 2 From your own experience, write a note on how society in India has changed after globalization and liberalization. Have these changes been for the better?
3. State whether true or false. (a) The Industrial Revolution took place in the twentieth century. (b) Westernization is a process of cultural change. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The industrial Revolution began in ________ ________. (b) _________ meant a relationship between individuals and groups in which the former was encompassed by the latter in respect of duties and rights.
3.5 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: In general, human society extends to all human beings and all members of the animal species. But we should not equate the human species with human society. As with other animals, the qualities of the species are
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distributed among individual members. In totality, they make up humankind. It is through their social relations that they constitute societies and the total set of relations at any time makes up what we call world society. The development of culture makes human society a special case, as compared to the societies of other species. The ways of acting, thinking and feeling are transmitted from one generation to the other and across societies, through learning and not through inheritance. Culture includes language and technology, both of which involve the communication of ideas and the possibility of sophisticated coordination of action. Like an organism, a society is a system of relations. These relations are between organisms themselves, rather than between cells. The organism a determined structure and parts of this structure, when in operation, contribute to the existence of the whole. This whole gives it continuity, which is apart from that of constituent individuals. The Social Contract Theory is unique. It gives importance to an individual, as the architect of society. This theory was propounded by three eminent philosophers: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.J. Rosseau. According to this theory, all men were born free and equal and individuals make a mutual agreement and create society. Organism theory states that society is never made by man. It is a natural creation and has begun through the process of evolution. Spencer conceives society as a biological system, a greater organism alike in its structure and functions, exhibiting the same kind of unity as the individual organism and subject to similar laws of development, maturation and decline. Thus, the basic assumption of society is similar to a biological organism; the only difference is in the size. Heredity contains all the potentialities of life, but all its actualities are evoked within and under the conditions of environment. The Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment made significant contributions to modern ideas and liberal democracies.
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3.6 Glossary
Society: A group of people who live together in communities Coevolution: The evolution of two or more interdependent species, each adapting to changes in the other Double-edged: The property of having two possible meanings Ambivalent: The act of showing both, positive and negative feelings towards something Genotype: The combination of genes that a particular living thing carries Analogy: The process of comparing one thing with another, that has similar features in order to explain it Heredity: The process by which mental and physical characteristics are passed by parents to their children Anthropologist: A person who studies the human race and its customs Indologist: A person who studies Indian history and culture Paradigm: A set of practices that define a discipline at any point of time Untrammelled: Something that has no limits or is unconfirned Feral: A term used to denote wild especially in human beings who have been isolated from human contact from a very early age

1. Why is it not right to equate all human species with the human society? 2. How is society similar to an organism as a system of relations? 3. What did J.J. Rosseau opine in his book Contract Social? 4. List the points on the basis of which Spencer tries to draw analogy between the organism and the society. 5. Based on which levels does man adapt himself to his environment? 6. How did the Industrial and French Revolutions influence modern society? 7. What has been the role of Westernization and modernization in India?
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1. (a) True; (b) True 2. (a) Biological; (b) Hereditary Genius 3. (a) False; (b) True 4. (a) United Kingdom; (b) Holism

1. Refer to Section 3.2 2. Refer to Section 3.2 3. Refer to Section 3.2 4. Refer to Section 3.2 5. Refer to Section 3.2 6. Refer to Section 3.3 7. Refer to Section 3.4
3.9 Further Reading

1. Horton, Paul and Chester L. Hunt. 1984. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill. 2. Kingsley Davis. 1937. Human Society, New York: Macmillan. 3. Klineberg, Otto. 1935. Race Differences. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing. 4. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis, New York: Macmillan. 5. Woods, F.A. 1906. Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty. Montana: Kessinger Publishing.
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Structure 4.1 Introduction Objectives 4.2 Society and Community 4.3 Summary 4.4 Glossary 4.5 Terminal Questions 4.6 Answers 4.7 Further Reading
Basic Concepts of Sociology
4.1 Introduction
In this unit, you will learn about community. Community is one of the basic concepts of sociology. Other concepts include institutions, culture, sociolization and social interaction, which will be discussed in later units. Sociology is the study of humans interaction with social forces. As such, an individual is a part of a community and ones ideas are shaped to a great extent by that community. The concept of community has been strongly debated in sociology. This has led to the emergence of some salient definitions of community. These definitions emphasize the fact that a community is a group of people who share a variety of relations and interests. A community could be a tribe, a village, a city or a nation. However, since the advent of the Internet, virtual communities have come up whose members need not be in physical proximity to one another. It is the community that gives an individual a sense of security and at the same time freedom, as its members get along with each other. This gives rise to what has been called social capital. According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital is the collective value of all social networks and species (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these works to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity). He further states, Whereas physical capital refers to physical objects and human capital refers to the properties of individuals, social capital refers to connections among individuals social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In that sense social capital is closely related to what some have called civic virtue. The difference is that social
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capital calls attention to the fact that civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a sense network of reciprocal social relations. A society of many virtuous but isolated individuals is not necessarily rich in social capital. This unit will look at some of the ways in which a community influences an individual and at the same time how individuals make a community and social structure.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Describe a society and community Differentiate between communities and associations Analyse the social structure of a community
4.2 Society and Community

Human society is a group of people related to each other through peristent relations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals sharing a distinctive culture and institutions. Community is also an important concept in social and political life. The social life people lead is affected and influenced by the kind of community in which they live. The word community is derived from Latin, where the prefix com signifies together and the noun munia, munium means duty. Thus, community refers to fulfilling duties together. It implies that the community is an organization of human beings framed for the purpose of serving together. According to a widely quoted definition, a community is a local grouping within which people carry out a full round of life activities. Other definitions of community
Community is any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a whole set of interests Karl Mannheim Community is a group of social beings living a common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which result from that common life which constitutes it Morris Ginsberg
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Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life Kingsley Davis
MacIvers conception of community R.M. MacIver has given one of the most salient definitions and analyses of community. According to him, Wherever the members of any group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest, but the basic conditions of a common life, we call that group a community. A village, a city, a tribe, and a nation are examples of community. The mark of a community, according to MacIver, is that ones life may be lived wholly within it. One cannot live wholly within a business organization or a church; but one can live wholly within a tribe or a city. The basic criterion of community is that all of ones social relationship may be found within it. However all communities need not be self-sufficient. While some communities, especially among primitive peoples, are allinclusive and independent of others, modern communities, even very large ones, are much less self contained. Economic and political interdependence is a major characteristic of modern communities. As MacIver has stated, Communities exist within greater communities: the town within a region, the region within a nation, and the nation within the world community, which, perhaps, is in the process of development. According to MacIver, the basis of community is locality and community sentiment. A community always occupies a territory. The members of a community derive from the conditions of their locality a strong bond of solidarity. Locality however is not enough to create a community. A community is an area of common living. There must be common living along with its awareness of sharing a way of life as well as the common earth which is known as community sentiment. Integral elements of community sentiments We-Feeling: This is the feeling that leads men to identify themselves with others so that when they say we there is no thought of distinction and, when they say ours there is no thought of division. Role-feeling: This involves the subordination to the whole on the part of the individual. Dependence-feeling: This refers to the individuals sense of dependence upon the community as a necessary condition of his own life.
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4.2.1 Characteristics of Community

Like most things in sociology, the term community is difficult to define with any degree of accuracy or certainty. The term is a construct, a model. We cannot touch, see or experience a community. It may come in varying shapes, sizes, colours, etc., with no two communities being alike. Also, a community is much more than the people who already exist in it. That community, more likely than not, was already in existence much before the current residents were born, and will continue to flourish long after they are all gone. A community will have members who go to other places, and who may eventually return. A community sometimes may not be any tangible location but a group of people with similar interests. Let us now look at some characteristics of a community. Sociological construct: A community is a sociological construct. In other words, it is a set of human interactions and behaviours that have meaning between the members. They have actions that are based on shared expectations, values, beliefs, etc., between individuals. Blurred boundaries: When a community is a tiny village, separated by a few kilometers from other villages, in a rural region, its boundaries appear simple. That pattern of human interaction may seem to consist only of relations between community members inside that village. The residents however may interact with people outside the village. They may marry and move out or bring a partner with them to the community. At any one time, the village may have residents living elsewhere. Communities within communities: There may be communities within bigger communities, such as districts, regions, nations, etc. There may be interaction that connects villages on different countries. Movement of communities: Community residents may be nomadic herders walking with their cattle. They may be mobile fishing groups. They may be hunters after animals to kill. Urban Communities: A community may be a small group in urban areas, consisting of a few people of a common origin. That community may be a subpart of a neighbourhood community or a local urban division etc. As the boundaries become bigger, one will find differences in origin, language, religion, etc. In general, urban communities are more difficult to demarcate, are varied, and more difficult to organize, than rural communities.
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A human community is more than a collection of houses. It is social and cultural organization. Also, it is not merely a collection of human beings but a socio-cultural system. A key characteristic of a community is its social cohesion and its willingness to set and strive for common goals. This depends on various factors, such as historical, social, economic and cultural factors. These characteristics provide the necessary incentives to cooperate and obey community rules, and consider the needs of future generations of the community. Historical factors: All activities in a community take place in a historical backdrop. How well a community functions and how its members strive towards a common goal depends on factors such as population history and the history of conflict, or the lack thereof, in the community. Social factors: These may include ethnicity and language, caste, class and other social divisions, family structure and gender relations. Economic factors: These include differences or similarities in livelihood strategies, and the degree of economic stratification in the community. Cultural factors: Cultural factors such as religion, tradition and custom can determine the extent to which members of a community share common goals and co-operate with each other. Traditional, socialist and liberal conceptions of community Traditional or conservative thought emphasizes the idea that community is based upon commonality of originthe blood, kinship, and historic tiesof a people living in a particular location. Village localities as much as national groups are considered to exist on such basis. This commonality of origin may also be derived in another locality or by reference to a homeland as is the case in the Jewish community. Socialist thought identifies conservative versions of community as hegemonic devices to bind members of different classes together in capitalist society, preventing them from seeing their real clash of economic interests, and thus, averting social conflict. Conservatives and socialists may stress different basis for the existence of community, but both identify the social relations inherent in community as something greater than the concerns and interests of each individual living in it added together, and as providing the basis for the longevity of a community.
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Liberals are reluctant to conceptualize community on the same elevated basis because of their commitment to individual freedom. Instead, they see community as based on the freely chosen associations of individuals with common interests and needs.
4.2.2 Community and Association

MacIver has distinguished community from association. An association is a group of people organized for the pursuit of a specific purpose or a limited number of purposes. An association is not a community but an organization within a community. A community is more than any specific organizations that arise within it. It is a permanent social group embracing a totality of ends or purposes. As the association is organized for particular purposes, for the pursuit of specific interests, one belongs to it only by virtue of these interests. Membership in an association has a limited significance. A community, on the other hand is a permanent social group embracing a totality of ends or purposes. This distinction between community and association is also in evidence in Ferdinand Tonnies concept of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (association). Societies characterized by Gemeinschaft relations are homogenous, largely based on kinship ties and have a moral cohesion often founded on common religious sentiment. In small homogenous societies, members interacted with one another on face to face, informal basis. In these groups tradition dictated social behaviour. Relationships seemed to be more natural, organic and emotional. They seemed to have more meaning than today. These relationships are dissolved by the division of labour, individualism, and competitiveness; i.e., by the growth of Gesellschaft relationships. In societies that are large and heterogenous, such as modern industrial societies, relationships among members are impersonal, formal, functional and specialized. According to Tonnies, these societies have contractual relationships, which are based on clear-cut, legal contracts rather than being governed by traditions. Impersonal, superficial and transitory (utilitarian?) relationships tend to characterize modern urban life. He called these societies Gesellschaft, or associational societies.
4.2.3 State and Community

The state is frequently confused with the community. MacIver has stressed the associational character of the state. The state is one form of social organization, not the whole community in all its aspects. The state is an agency of peculiarly wide range, but nevertheless an agency. It may assume at times absolutist or
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totalitarian form, claiming to control every aspect of human life. Even if this claim were fully realized, which could never be the case, the state would not become the community, but an association controlling the community. People are certainly citizens or subjects of the state. Yet, however significant the citizen role may be, it is only one of the many roles each person exercises as a social being. The state, it should also be recognized, is different in important respects from all other associations. Its peculiarities, its power, its limitations, the interests that it can and does pursue, are all different in important respects from those common to other associations. However, we should keep in mind that the state as a form of social organization is, like the church or business organization, an association. Recently, however, the term community has been used to indicate a sense of identity or belonging that may or may not be tied into geographical location. In this sense, a community is formed when people have a reasonably clear idea of who has something in common with them and who has not. The tremendous advance in communication technology has contributed to the reduced importance of the territorial aspect. The growth of information technology has led to the growth of cyber communities. Communities are therefore essentially mental constructs formed by imagined boundaries between groups. Activity 1 Write a note differentiating between the communities and associations that you are a member of.
4.2.4 Communitarianism and Social Order

Communitarianism is the advocacy of a social order in which human beings are bound together by common values that foster close communal (community) bonds. This term is used to describe the ideas of a number of writers, who attach importance to the value of community. They are critical of modern liberal political thought on account of its apparent lack of emphasis on this important aspect of social and political life. The commitment to the individual and his rights forms the core of liberalism. It is the individual, rather than any social group or collective body, who is of supreme importance in liberalism. Human beings are seen as individuals who are of equal moral worth, and each individual possesses a separate and unique identity.
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The origins of communitarianism are usually traced to Hegel and the English idealists, especially T.H. Green. Hegels concept of sittlichkeit or shared values of the community, and the English idealists emphasis on the obligations of citizenship are important ingredients that have formed the nucleus of communitarian philosophy. The socialist and anarchist traditions have also influenced communitarian ideas, especially with its focus on the possibility of community in the absence of state coercion. Ferdinand Tonnies work on Community and Association drew attention to the value of community and the threat posed to it by the industrial society. Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor, and Michael Walzer outstanding philosophers of the Anglo-American worldare some of the leading philosophers of communitarianism today. Not all critics of liberal theory identified with the communitarian movement. Neither did they envisage a grand communitarian theory as a viable alternative to liberalism. Nevertheless, certain core arguments meant to contrast with liberalisms devaluation of community recur in the works of these four theorists. Communitarians have sought to critique the universal claims of liberal theory. They argue that liberal theory uses a universalist perspective disregarding the social and cultural particularities of specific societies and communities. While many liberal thinkers have insisted that ideas of justice have universal validity, communitarians argue that the parameters of justice must be found in ways and modes of life and traditions of particular societies. As these practices vary considerably, so do notions of justice. Thus, there can be no single universal system for measuring notions of what is morally right, or just, which would be applicable to all societies and communities. The British political philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre and the Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor have insisted that value judgments are determined by the languages of reason and worldviews of those who inhabit these sites. Therefore, one ought not to abstract ideas from the interpretative dimensions of human beliefs, practices and institutions. Michael Walzer developed the argument that effective social criticism must derive from the habits and traditions of actual people living in specific times and places. Threre are reasons that support the communitarian argument for cultural particularism that contrast with traditional arguments of liberal universalism. The prioritization of rights is determined by cultural factors. Consequently, different societies would have a correspondingly different ordering of rights. This explains why American citizens may be inclined to compromise an economic benefit to protect a civil right. This case may be contrasted with the case of
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Chinese citizens. Being more nationalistic, the Chinese are wont to surrender political liberties for the economic interests of their nation-state. Cultural factors can also affect the justification of rights. Even when the same rights are acknowledged in different societies, those rights maybe justified on different grounds in different societies. This has led communitarians like Michael Walzer to argue that justifications for particular practices of liberal democracy, when applied to Asian and African societies, should not be made by relying on an abstract and unhistorical universalism, but rather should be made from the inside, from specific examples and argumentative strategies relevant to particular societies. Cultural factors can provide moral foundations for distinctive political practices and institutions, which differ from those found in Western-style liberal democracies. John Rawls has tried to eliminate or tone down the universalist pre-suppositions from his theory. He explicitly allows for the possibility that liberalism may not be exportable at all times and places, sketching a vision of a decent, well-ordered society that liberal societies must tolerate in the international realm. He argues that such a society need not be democratic but it must be non-aggressive towards other communities, and internally, it must have a common good conception of justice. It must also secure basic human rights. However the ultimate view one gets is that though there may be justifiable nonliberal regimes, these should be regarded as second best to be tolerated and perhaps respected, not idealized or emulated. Another fundamental difference between communitarianism and liberalism is about the nature of the self. Communitarians argue that traditional liberalism rests on an individualistic conception of the self. Communitarianism insists upon the interaction of the social context and individuals self-conceptions, while liberalism works with an atomized individual artificially divorced from his or her social surroundings. While liberals like John Rawls argue that we have a supreme interest in shaping, pursuing and revising our life-plans, communitarians argue that such a view neglects the fact that our individual selves tend to be defined or constituted by various communal attachments (e.g., ties to the family or to a religious tradition) so close to us that they can only be set aside at great cost, if at all. This insight led to the view that politics should not be concerned solely with securing the conditions for individuals to exercise their powers of autonomous choice, as we also need to sustain and promote the social
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attachments crucial to our sense of well-being and respect, many of which have been involuntarily picked up during the course of our upbringing. Communitarians are critics of rights theory and claim that liberal individualism cannot provide an adequate theory of rights as universal entitlements. Communitarianism proposes to develop a new theory of rights which gives appropriate attention to community and the social structure. Communitarians argue that there are important collective rights, which apply to social groups such as ethnic communities, religious groups or trade unions. Although there is no necessary connection between communitarianism and welfare rights, there is a relationship between communitarianism and the benefit theory of rights. The communitarian view of welfare is that it is an expression of the common values that bind otherwise disparate individuals together. This is contrasted to the more individualistic conception of welfare derived from the theory of citizenship, which implies that claims to welfare resources are simply an extension of the legal and political rights that are characteristic of liberal democracies and therefore that collective welfare is quite consistent to the theory of liberal pluralism. Welfare states are simply adjuncts to markets; that is, rational deprivationalleviating mechanisms and policies resting on the individualistic principles of reciprocal obligations and exchange. Communitarianism by contrast embodies a vision of a social order that fosters intimate communal bonds. This view is expressed by Richard Titmuss in The Gift Relationship, which argues that people should receive welfare as a gift from strangers, an expression of social solidarity, rather than as mere entitlement or right derived from a complex network of reciprocal relationships. A. MacIntyre and M. Sandel argue that in liberal capitalism there are disagreements about values and that the values that underpin individualistic traditions of rights cannot be judged comparatively and hence the legitimation of rights doctrine is uncertain. There is no common morality that could provide a general endorsement of rights. Communitarianism involves a quest to reconstitute the values and moral codes which individualism has disrupted. Although there are many versions of communitarianism, they share the notion that communities as much as individuals can be rights-bearers. Thus, in The Spirit of Community, A. Etizioni argues that a communitarian moral system is required to rebuild American society, which has been undermined by individualism. He claims that individualistic interpretations of rights have encouraged the erosion of the family, which is an essential basis of social order.
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Etizoni argues that advanced industrial societies of the capitalist West suffer from rampant moral confusion and social anarchy because individuals have been given too much freedom and not enough responsibilities. Communitarians favour a social order in which the community identifies the common good and persuades its members to act towards it. Influence of communitarianism: Communitarians claim to have influenced the development of social policy in America; and Britain, where communitarian ideas are said to have found favour with New Labour Party. Community policing is a policy consistent with communitarian ideas. Critics have however suggested that communitarian arguments are both vague and nave. What happens if the community endorses values such as racism and homophobia? What happens to dissenters who refuse to conform to community values and are not persuaded by mere exhortation alone? Communitarian social policies are also said to be authoritarian in effect if not in intention.
4.2.5 Community Power and Social Structure, Status and Role

Community power is a theory of power that promotes the view that the elites no longer enjoy a monopoly over decision-making. It claims that democracy has dispersed the control of resources to the community. Decision-making occurs in a variety of voluntary associations and opinion formation is shaped by local interest groups. It claims that power is not exercised exclusively through centralized processes associated with the State and bureaucracy. In studying community power, we have to examine decision-making and who influences its outcome. The question of who makes decisions within a community was a debate prominent in American political science in the 1950s and 1960s, and reflected in discussions in other countries like Britain. In 1953, Floyd Hunters Community Power Structure suggested that power in the community he studied (not named in the book, but believed to be Atlanta, Georgia) was dominated by business elites to the exclusion of ordinary people, and the total exclusion of black people. This primarily economic elite ruled by persuasion, intimidation, coercion, and if necessary force. Through its finance of local political parties, it directly influences who is elected and largely controls local politicians from the State governor on down. It also has considerable control over the media trough its patronage power and has a major influence on the formation of local opinion. This control provides a powerful lever to influence decisions in its favour. In 1961, Robert Dahls work Who Governs?, in response to Hunters work suggested that in New Haven, Connecticut, no one group dominated decisionSikkim Manipal University Page No. 77
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making as power was dispersed among interest communities. Dahl used the decision-making method to argue that the only way to discover the distribution of power is to examine actual decisions. Dahl found no evidence of a ruling elite in New Haven. He claimed that power is dispersed among various interest groups and that this plurality of elites did not form a unified group with common interests. Dahl concluded that the advent of representative democracy has shifted power from the elite to various organized interest groups, i.e., from oligarchy to pluralism. Differently constituted groups exercise control depending upon the issue in question. Dahl claims that local politics is a business of bargaining and compromise with no group dominating decision-making. This view was echoed in a study on the national level by Arnold Rose in The Power Structure (1967). Rose rejected the view that the USA is ruled by a unified power elite, arguing instead for a multi-influence hypothesis. This approach conceives of society as consisting of many elites, each relatively small numerically and operating in different spheres of life. Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz in Power and Poverty: Theory and Practice (1970) deem the decision-making approach as inadequate in studying community power. A second dimension to power so called non-decision making involves the mobilization of bias or the manipulation of the political agenda by powerful groups, taking decisions that prevent issues from emerging and are subject to formal decision making. Stephen Lukes in Power: A Radical View proposes that power can also be exercised by preventing people from having grievances in the first place, or as Lukes puts it by shaping their perceptions, cognitions and preferences in such a way that they accept their role in the order of things. The fact that a variety of interest groups are then able to influence these safe decisions does not therefore provide evidence of a wide diffusion of power. In the last instance, the community power approach does not present a very true picture of the power distribution in communities.
4.2.6 Institutions
An institution is a structure of social order and cooperation governing the behaviour of a set of individuals within a human community. Institutions are generally identified with a social purpose and permanence. Institutions are discussed in greater detail in Unit 5.
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4.2.7 Social Interaction

Social interaction refers to a relationship between two, three or more individuals. They are derived from individual agency and form the basis of social structure. Social interaction is discussed in detail in Unit 8. Activity 2 Search the Internet for some more differences between communitarianism and liberalism.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Community is the largest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life. (b) Large, modern communities are inclusive and independent of others. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Societies characterized by ____________relations are homogenous, largely based on kinship ties and have a moral cohesion often founded on common religious sentiment. (b) A fundamental difference between communitarianism and liberalism is about the nature of the _______.
4.3 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Community is an important concept in social and political life. The social life people lead is affected and influenced by the kind of community in which they live. The state is frequently confused with the community. MacIver has stressed the associational character of the state. Communitarianism is the advocacy of a social order in which human beings are bound together by common values that foster close communal (community) bonds.
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Community power is a theory of power that promotes the view that the elites no longer enjoy a monopoly over decision-making.
4.4 Glossary
Community: A local grouping within which people carry out a full round of life activities Associational society: A society characterized by impersonal, superficial and transitory relationships Communitarianism: The advocacy of a social order in which human beings are bound together by common values that foster close communal bonds Social capital: The collective value of all social networks and species and the inclinations that arise from these works to do things for each other Gemeinschaft society: Societies based on kinship ties and moral cohesion founded on common religious sentiment

1. What are the integral elements of community sentiments? 2. What is the difference between an association and a community? 3. What is community power? 4. Elaborate upon MacIvers conception of community. 5. Write a detailed note on state and community. 6. Explain communitarianism in detail.

1. (a) False; (b) False 2. (a) Gemeinschaft; (b) Self
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1. Refer to Section 4.2 2. Refer to Section 4.2.2 3. Refer to Section 4.2.5 4. Refer to Section 4.2 5. Refer to Section 4.2.3 6. Refer to Section 4.2.4
4.7 Further Reading

1. Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi: S. Chand. 2. Horton, Paul. B and Chester L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill. 3. Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory An Introduction to the Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press. 4. Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan. 5. MacIver, R.M and Charles Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India. 6. Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
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Structure 5.1 Introduction Objectives 5.2 Social Institutions 5.3 Forms of Social Institutions 5.4 Summary 5.5 Glossary 5.6 Terminal Questions 5.7 Answers 5.8 Further Reading
Social Institutions
5.1 Introduction
The previous unit introduced you to terms such as society, community, institution, association and group. In this unit, you will learn about the various institutions in a society. One can find social institutions all over the world. A social institution is an organized collection of statuses, roles, values and norms that are designed to fulfil one or many basic needs of the society. Social institutions vary from region to region. An institution is a mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behaviour of individuals within a community. Institutions have a definite purpose, and are marked by their permanence. Therefore, institutions are important objects of study in the social sciences, such as political science, anthropology, economics and sociology. In fact, French sociologist David Emile Durkheim described sociology as the science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning. Family, marriage and kinship are social institutions, just as division of labour and property are economic institutions and political parties and elections are political institutions.
Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Explain the concept of social institutions Describe the features and functions of social institutions
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Summarize the various forms of social institutions Explain the concept of family and kinship Define the different forms of marriage Assess education as an institution Describe the role of politics as an institution Interpret different types of division of labour Analyse the role of religion as an institution Explain property as an institution
5.2 Social Institutions

Socially established ways of doing things are called institutions. Generally, the term institution refers to a group of people who have some specific purpose. But, the sociological understanding is quite different from common usage. Every society is characterized by certain social norms. These norms are very important in interactive social systems. In fact they are institutionalized, i.e., they are widely accepted among members of the society. In this context, it can be said that an institution is neither a building, nor a people, nor an organization. An institution is a system of norms aimed at achieving some goal or activity that people feel is important. It focusses on major human activities. Institutions are structured processes through which people carry on their activities.
Institutions have been defined by MacIver as established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity. So, it can be said that social institutions are the social structures and machinery, through which the society organizes, directs and executes multiple activities that are required to fulfil human needs. An institution is an organized system of social relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society (Horton and Hunt,1984).
Every organization is dependent on certain established norms that are accepted and recognized by the society. These norms govern socio-cultural and interpersonal relationships. They are institutions in different forms like marriage, family, economy, polity, religion, etc. These institutions govern social life. Features of Social Institutions A social norm is said to be institutionalized in a particular social system when three conditions are fulfilled:
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(i) Many members of the social system accept the norm. (ii) Many of those who accept the norm take it seriously. In psychological terms, they internalize it. (iii) The norm is sanctioned. This means that certain members of the system are expected to be guided by the norm in appropriate circumstances. However, the process of institutionalization involves the following characteristics: Institutions emerge as largely unplanned products of social living. People struggle to search for practical ways of meeting their needs; they find some patterns that work and become regular by repeated practice. These patterns are converted into standardized customs. As time passes, these patterns become part of customs and rituals which justify and sanction them. For example, the system of lending has paved the way for banks to emerge as institutions for borrowing, lending and transferring money in a standardized manner. Institutions are means of controlling individuals. Institutionalized role behaviour is guided by expectations of the role and not by personal preferences. For example, all judges act in a similar manner when they are practising, but it is not necessary for them to behave in the same manner in every situation as well. Institutions have some proceedings, which are formed on the basis of certain customs. Institutions have certain cultural symbols. People adhere to certain symbols which serve as convenient reminders of the institution. For example, the citizen is reminded of loyalty to the government by the sign of the flag. Similarly, national anthems, national songs, national flags, etc., strengthen institutional ties. Institutions have certain codes of behaviour. The people involved in certain institutions are expected to carry out some roles which are often expressed in formal codes, such as the oath of loyalty to ones country, marriage vows, etc. Every institution is based on certain ideological principles. An ideology may be defined as any set of ideas that explains or justifies social arrangements, structures of power, or ways of life. These are explained in terms of goals, interests or social position of the groups or activities in which they collectively appear. The ideology of an institution includes both, the central beliefs of the institution and a rational justification for the application of institutional norms to the problems of life.
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Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of members of the society and they have social recognition. Functions of Social Institutions A society is so complex and interrelated that it is impossible to foresee all consequences of any action pertaining to it. Institutions have a list of functions, which are the professed objectives of the institution. They also have latent functions, which are unintended and may not be recognized. If they are recognized, then they may be regarded as by-products. Manifest functions of social institutions These are functions which people assume and expect the institution to fulfil, for instance, families should care for their children, economic institutions should produce and distribute goods and direct the flow of capital where it is needed, schools should educate the young, etc. Manifest functions are obvious, admitted and generally applauded. Latent functions of social institutions These are unintended and unforeseen consequences of institutions. Economic institutions not only produce and distribute goods, but sometimes also promote technological change and philanthropy. Sometimes they promote unemployment and inequality. Latent functions of an institution may support manifest functions. Apart from these functions, social institutions have some other common functions like provision of food, power, maintenance of law and order, shaping of personalities of individuals, manufacture and supply of commodities and services, regulation of morals, provision of recreation, etc. Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski has remarked, Every institution centres around a fundamental need, permanently unites a group of people in a cooperative task and has its particular set of doctrines and techniques or craft. Institutions are not correlated simply and directly to new functions, one need not receive satisfaction in one institution.
5.3 Forms of Social Institutions

The various forms of social institutions are: marriage, family, education, economy, polity and religion. These are now discussed in detail.
5.3.1 Marriage
Marriage as an institution has developed over a long period of time. There cannot be one comprehensive definition of marriage which finds the consent of all
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sociologists. Marriage as an institution can have varied implications in varied societies and cultures. It can be defined as a socially-sanctioned sexual relationship between a man and a woman whose relationship is expected to lead to the birth of children. Malinowski defined marriage as a contract for producing children and maintaining them. Sociologists Horton and Hunt defined marriage as an approved social pattern where two or more individuals set up a family. Marriage is a social institution under which a man and a woman establish their decision to live as husband and wife by law, often through religious commitments and ceremonies. It is a secure association between a man and a woman who are permitted by the society to have children, without affecting their reputation in the society. Marriage is a deep personal commitment to another human being and a public celebration of the ideals of mutuality, companionship, fidelity and family. Marriage is a socially approved way of acquiring a family. It is only through the establishment of culturally controlled and sanctioned marital relations that a family comes into being. The institutionalized form of sexual relations is called marriage. Marriage and family are two sides of the same social reality. From a broader and more collective perspective, marriage ensures survival of the species of the group and its culture. Functions of marriage Marriage brings about a sense of discipline in not just the individual but also the society. The functions of marriage are as follows: Functional division of labour: With marriage, there is a functional division of labour. The wife may take care of the household work and the children, while the husband goes out to work. This way, both can devote time fully to their responsibilities. Financial security: When two people get married, they bring together all the savings and assets accumulated over the years. This combined wealth increases purchasing power and subsequently leads to a higher standard of living. Emotional support: When a partner is depressed, he or she will have the spouse who will provide support through words of encouragement. In fact, it is believed that married people live substantially longer and have better health compared to individuals who never marry. Rearing children: There is no better option than getting married, in order to have children. The children benefit in that environment, where grow up into healthy adults. They get emotional support from their parents, which is very healthy for their psychological development. Generally, the father ensures discipline, while the mother offers intimacy and affection.
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Social and legal recognition: Marriage is an institution accepted by law and society, unlike live-in relationships. A married couple have social status that people past marriageable age who have never married are not quite accorded. Marriage is also recognized by the law. If the partners want to split, there are specific procedures to follow related to division of assets, child custody, etc., apart from the divorce itself. Forms of marriage The forms of marriage are diverse in nature. A cross-cultural study of marriage practices in different societies would include rules. These rules lay down preferences, prescriptions as well as proscriptions in deciding the form of marriage. On the basis of the number of mates, marriage is classified into two types, monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is the marriage between single partners (i.e., a husband having one wife or a wife having one husband). Monogamy is a prevalent form of marriage in most societies. It is also considered an ideal form of marriage. Polygamy is the practice of having more than one partner in marriage. Polygamy may be of two types: polygyny and polyandry. When one man has two or more wives at a time, the practice is known as polygyny. When two or more sisters share one husband, the practice is known as sororal polygyny. When one woman gets married to more than one man simultaneously, the practice is known as polyandry. Polyandry may be of two types: fraternal or adelphic polyandry and non-fraternal polyandry. When one woman marries several brothers at the same time, the practice is known as fraternal polyandry. This practice is prevalent among the Toda community in India. When a woman has several husbands, none of whom are necessarily brothers, the practice is known as non-fraternal polyandry.
Marriage
Monogamy
Polygamy
Polygyny Sororal Polygyny Fraternal Polyandry
Polyandry
Non-Fraternal Polyandry
Figure 5.1 Forms of Marriage
One may consider this with reference to two types of polygamous marriages, namely
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(i) Levirate and Sororate Marriage of a man with the childless widow of his deceased brother is known as levirate marriage. When a levirate marriage prevails, on the death of a husband, it is the duty of one of his brothers to marry his widow and any children that are born as a result of this union are counted as progeny of the deceased man. When a sororate marriage prevails, the husband of a childless woman marries her sister and at least some of the children that are born as a result of this union are counted as children of the childless wife. The term sororate is also used with reference to the custom whereby, upon the death of a wife, her kin provide her sister as wife to the widower. However, any children that are born as a result of this union are recognized as her own. Levirate and sororate customs emphasize the acceptance of interfamilial obligations and recognition of marriage as a tie between two families and not simply between two individuals.
5.3.2 Family and Kinship

The institution of family is the basic and fundamental institution in the life of an individual. It is the basic primary group and an important agency of socialization. Historically, the institution of family has undergone many changes. The term family has been defined by many sociologists and anthropologists. Murdock (in 1949), after studying about 250 multi-cultural societies, defined family as a social group that is characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both the sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children are owned or adopted by the sexually cohabiting adults. A family, according to MacIver and Page, is a group defined by a sexual relationship that is sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children. They also bring out certain characteristic features of a family as follows: It is a relationship that originates from and is bound by marriage. It is formed when two individuals mate and produce offspring. It is a system of finding the hierarchy of ancestry. It must have the financial sufficiency to achieve its economical wants and necessities that pertain to the birth and upbringing of children. It should have a habitat, home or a household which it may either own solely or share with others.
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Forms of families Various sociologists have studied different forms of families. They have taken into consideration different factors for the classification of families. Following are the different types of families: Marriage classifies families into: monogamous and polygamous categories. Based on the location of their residence, families are categorized into two main types, family of matrilocal residence and family of patrilocal residence. On the basis of ancestry or descent, families are classified into matrilineal and patrilineal types. According to the type of authority, families may be identified as matriarchal and patriarchal types. In terms of size or structure, there may be two types of families, nuclear or joint. Families can be divided into conjugal and consanguineous types, based on the relations between the members. In a conjugal family, relations between the husband and the wife are private and their ties with the extended family are voluntarily. A consanguine family consists of close relatives other than parents and children.
Table 5.1 Forms/Types of Family
Basis of Categorization Marriage Types 1. Monogamous family 2. Polygamous family 1. Family of matrilocal residence 2. Family of patrilocal residence 1. Matrilineal family 2. Patrilineal family 1. Matriarchal family 2. Patriarchal family 1. Nuclear 2. Joint 1. Conjugal family 2. Consaguineous family
Location of residence
Ancestry/Descent
Type of authority
E F
Size/structure Relations between members
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5.3.3 Education The word education is derived from educare, Latin for 'bring up', which is related to educere ('bring out potential') and ducere, which means 'to lead'. Education means developing and cultivating various physical, intellectual, aesthetic and moral faculties of an individual. Durkheim defines education as the action exercised by the older generations on those who are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to awaken and develop in the child, those physical, intellectual and moral values which are required of him, both, by his society as a whole and by the milieu for which he is specially destined. It is a social process. Education is imparted by both, formal and informal means. It is an important means of socialization. Aristotles famous concept of education says, education develops mans faculties, especially his mind, so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of the supreme truth, goodness and beauty, in which perfect happiness essentially consists. Durkheim further conceives education as socialization of the younger generation. According to him, it is a continuous effort to impose on the child, ways of seeing, feeling and acting which he could not have achieved spontaneously. Education as a social process Education is viewed as an integral fragment of socialization. Such a process of social learning is continuous. Education is also considered an agent of cultural transmission. The elements of culture are transmitted from one generation to another, through education. Education not only helps in acquiring knowledge but also inculcates the values of morality among individuals. Educational institutions are instrumental in shaping the personality of individuals and also formulating of ideologies. On the whole, education helps in reforming the attitudes of individuals and encourages them by inculcating a spirit of competitiveness in them. Primitive and ancient societies had no educational institutions. Children learnt from their surroundings. Schools only appeared when cultures became too complex for the learning to be handled within the family. Thus, educational institutions grew as time passed by. In India, the historical roots of educational institutions are referred to in the guru-shishya tradition. In this tradition, students had the advantage of being in personal contact with the teacher. The image of the guru was personified and the students were obliged to the guru or teacher. Sociological perspectives on education From a functionalist perspective, it is preferred that education contribute to the maintenance of the social system. Emile Durkheim saw the major function of
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education as transmission of societys norms and values. He maintained that society can survive only if a sufficient degree of homogeneity exists among its members. Education functions to strengthen this homogeneity by maintaining a balance of these similarities in an individual, since his childhood. Due to these similarities, the demands of life in all individuals are similar. Cooperation and social solidarity would never have existed in the absence of these essential similarities. Drawing conclusions from Durkheims concept, the American sociologist, Talcott Parsons, gave a functionalist view of education. Parsons put across the theory that after the spread of primary socialization within a family, the school assumes the role of a central socializing agency. School brings the family closer to the society. It prepares the child for his role as an adult. Davis and Moore shared Parsons view with reference to education. They too considered education to be useful in providing suitable roles to individuals. However, they hold the educational system directly responsible for creating divisions in the society. According to Davis, the education system has proved that it is able to select people on the basis of their capacities and allocate appropriate positions to them. Thus, the process of educational filtering organizes and categorizes individuals on the basis of their skills and capacities. The people with the highest level of talent get the highest level of qualification. Consequently, this leads them to better occupations which are most important in terms of functions to the society. However, the Marxian perspective provides a radical alternative to the functionalist position. Louis Althusser presents a general framework for the analysis of education, from a Marxian perspective. Being a section of the superstructure, the infrastructure finally gives shape to education. According to him, education benefits only the ruling class. For survival and prosperity, it is very important to reproduce the power of labour. Two steps are involved in the process of reproducing labour, the first step is reproduction of skills that are required for a capable labour force. The second step is reproduction of the ideology of the ruling class and socialization of workers. These processes combine to reproduce a technically efficient, submissive and obedient workforce. In a social structure that is dominated by capitalism, education reproduces such a workforce. Althusser stresses that reproduction of labour power not only requires reproduction of its skills, but also a simultaneous reproduction of its submission to the ruling ideology. This submission is reproduced by a number of Ideological State Apparatuses which include the mass media, law, religion and education. Ideological State Apparatus is a trademark of the ideology of the
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ruling class which creates artificial class awareness. This awareness maintains the subject class in its subordinate position to a large extent. Education, according to Althusser, not only transmits the ideologies of the general ruling class (which justifies and legitimates the capitalist system), it also reproduces the attitudes and behaviour that are required by major groups in the division of labour. Ivan Illich has been critical of both functionalist and liberal views of education. In Deschooling Society, that was published in 1971, he raises issues on the incapability of schools in matching educational ideals. In his opinion, schools are institutions that teach students about various means of exploitation. According to him, schools instigate compliance to the society and create a belief in students, to accept the interests of the powerful. However, real learning can never prevail through a set of instructions. It can be inculcated only when an individual is involved in every part of the learning process, on his own. To conclude, the majority of learning processes require no teaching. Illich blames the educational system as the main cause of all problems that have emerged in the modern industrial society. School teaches the individual to delay authority, assume isolation, to absorb and accept the services of the institution and neglect his own needs and wants. He is instructed to view education as a precious product such that it should be taken in large amounts. He, however also presents a solution. According to him, to resolve this issue, it is important to abolish the present system of education, since schools form the base of education. Deschooling is the primary step towards the liberation of mankind. Finally, Illich confirms that deschooling will create a society where every man can be truly liberated and can experience a sense of fulfillment. Education as an instrument of social control and social change The general character of formal education has undergone rapid change through modern science and technology. Technological development today is quite unlike the development that took place in the 19th century. Unlike the present day society, in ancient societies, education was considered as the learning related to a way of life. However, in primitive societies, the terminology of science comprised the production and distribution of labour. Formal education quickens the overall process of education. However, it is incapable of transmitting any practical knowledge. In societies of recent times, the content of education is more scientifically inclined and less scholarly. Thus, it can be concluded that education in modern societies inculcates freedom of thought and values that have an important role in streamlining the attitude of an individual. It has been argued that education by itself does not bring about social change. Rather, it is an instrument which performs the functions that are entrusted
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to it. Innovations in the education system may lead to structural changes in the society. The Indian society has deep-rooted customs and traditions which are strongly embedded in the Indian lifestyle. Changes are resisted because they conflict with traditional values and beliefs.
5.3.4 Division of Labour

Most of the insights of Emile Durkheim that concern economic integration are found in his book, The Division of Labour in Society. In this book, he has analysed the integration of social life. Durkheim set up a dichotomy between two types of societies, segmental and complex. To him, a segmental society is a homogeneous society with the presence of mechanical solidarity. There is a presence of repressive law. It has subordination of the individual to the undifferentiated collective conscience of the society. On the other hand, it differentiates complex societies as powerful forms of integration. He is different from Spencer such that he stressed the increased salience of integration in complex societies, rather than tending to regard it as a by-product of individual interactions. In the course of his enquiry, Durkheim distinguished two kinds of solidarities, mechanical and organic. He associated these with two types of laws, which he called repressive and restitutive. He also analysed the abnormal forms of division of labour, i.e., the anomic and the forced division of labour. By the first, he meant a condition of extreme specialization of labour. In this condition, the individual became isolated in his specialty and particularly a condition in which there was permanent division between capital and labour. Durkheim proposed the fostering of regular and prolonged contacts through professional associations and corporations and through institutional arrangement for discussion and negotiation between capital and labour. By the second form, Durkheim meant a condition in which individuals did not freely choose their occupations, but were forced into them. He regarded this discrepancy between the abilities of individuals and the functions imposed upon them, as the principal source of class conflict. Durkheim thought that modern societies could and would get rid of these abnormal forms of division of labour. However, division of labour has not become so extensive in India, as in advanced industrial countries. Division of labour affects the caste system, where it has the integrative functions, which Durkheim emphasized. In the village economy, caste, like the medieval guilds, ensured the performance of necessary functions (by passing on craft, skills, etc). These functions were organized by the direct exchange of services between castes (the jajmani system). In an
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industrial and money economy, the division of labour becomes far more complex and the exchange of services is accomplished through the market or by central planning. The caste system retains some integrative functions on the cultural level. However, these are likely to be less important as social cohesion comes to depend increasingly on the economic division of labour. Activity 1 Imagine you are running a catering operation. How would you divide the labour? Types of exchange The division of labour and possession by different individuals and groups makes exchange necessary for higher levels of efficiency in production. It is equally true that exchange makes division of labour possible. Exchange is found in every economy, no matter how primitive. There are six possible kinds of exchanges, according to the items exchanged, these are: goods for goods, services for services, goods for services, money for goods, money for services and money for money. The use of money occurs only in advanced economies. Interest was stirred in comparative exchange by the appearance of a volume, edited by Polanyi, Arensberg and Pearson, in the late 1950s. Going though the records of Babylon, Mesopotamia, Greece, Mexico, Yucatan, the Guinea Coast and rural India, they depicted how trading practices were separate from the familiar practices of free market exchange. They criticized the traditional economic theory and suggested an alternative framework for better comparative economics of exchange. Polanyi and his associates identified three major patterns of exchange, reciprocative, redistributive and exchange. Reciprocative exchange is the most common form of exchange among primitive people. It is illustrated by ritualistic gifting practice among families, clans and tribes, as analysed by Malinowski and Mauss. Exchange of gifts like kula exchange in Melanesia is ceremonial in nature. Another illustration is found among farmers of many civilizations, who frequently work for one another, especially during the time of harvest. Economic calculation, price payments and wages are typically absent. Goods or services are given because it is traditional to do so. The only principle of calculation is that giving and receiving should balance among exchanging parties in the long run. Redistributive exchange means that the produce of the group is brought together, either physically or by appropriation. This is then distributed among the members again. This brings economic goods and services to a central source
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that is often governmental. It then redistributes them throughout the populace. Polyani, Arensberg and Pearson identified several instances of this exchange pattern in ancient Asian and African civilizations. Any system of redistribution involves some economic exchange, but redistribution at the same time is political. Modern illustrations of such type of exchanges are tax institutions which redistribute wealth in the society. Potlatch among the Trobriand islanders and the jajmani system in traditional India are also examples of redistributive exchange. The third pattern, which is more familiar in the modern West, is termed exchange. In this case economic goods and services are brought into the market. Prices are not standardized on the basis of tradition, but as a result of bargaining for economic advantage.
5.3.5 Politics, Political Parties and Elections

Every individual is involved in some kind of political institution, as a member of the society. Political systems have existed since ancient times. Our political institutions are amalgamations of modern superstructure, historical delegation of authority, decentralization and inculcation of the basic level of the Panchayati system. These are characterized by the traditional consensus pattern of decision making and are held together by charismatic leadership. The state has been an important governing institution. No study of society is complete without study of the state or the governing institutions of society, because the government occupies an important place in the social lives of people. The State The relation between state and other associations has been a matter of debate among scholars. Some scholars argue that the State is the supreme social institution and all other associations owe their origin to its initiative, acquiescence and support. They exist because the State allows them to exist. On the other hand, the pluralists recognize the special role of the State as a regulator of social life. Laski has argued that the state does not exhaust the associative impulses of men. In his opinion, society should be regarded as essentially federal in its nature. The other associations are real in the sense that the state is real. State is viewed as a community agency that is charged with the responsibility of coordinating and adjusting the claims and activities of various associations. This distinctive function gives the state its unique character. Nature of power Power in general means the ability to carry out ones wishes despite opposition. In any process of interaction, some participants usually have more power than
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others. When we assert that someone has more power than someone else, we usually imply the existence of a more or less extended field of potential conflict. We often have to specify the field of potential conflict. However, it is often true that A has more power than B in some situations, while B has more than A in others. Power is a relative matter. Webers definition of power implies that those who hold power do so at the expense of others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power and therefore everyone does not have access to it. This view is sometimes known as the constant sum of power. Since the amount of power is constant, power is held by an individual or group to the extent that it is not held by others. Arguing from a functionalist perspective, Talcott Parsons rejects the constant-sum concept of power. They view that power is employed in the furtherance of sectional interests. A Marxian analysis of power provides a radial alternative to Parsons functionalist approach. From a Marxian perspective, the source of power in societies is the economic infrastructure. In all stratified societies, the forces of production are owned and controlled by the minority ruling class. This relationship to the forces of production provides the basis for dominance. It therefore follows that the only way to return power to the people involves communal ownership of the forces of production. Since everyone will now bear some relationship to the forces of production, power will be shared by all members of the society. From a Marxian perspective, the use of power to exploit others is defined as coercion. It is seen as an illegitimate use of power which forces the subject class to submit to a situation which is against its interest. If the power of the ruling class is accepted as legitimate by the subject class, it indicates false consciousness. Power of random groups Power is the capability of a person or a group to achieve its goals, irrespective of any resistance from any other person or group. Weber recommends that the access of power is based on the party. Party is a united category of organizational structure that focusses on a common interest. This interest may be on the basis of a class, a status or any similar type. Very few persons are able to act individually in order to achieve their interests. Voting behaviour Marx predicted that class struggle has turned Western society into an institution that would end in the proletarian revolution. With the extension of franchise and the proliferation of interest groups, members of the working class are drawn into the political process. Their interests are represented by political parties and interest groups such as trade unions. They are able to express their discontent with an institutional framework and as a result, more violent expressions of
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class conflicts are unlikely. S.M. Lipset sees national elections as an expression of class struggle and competition between political parties as the institutionalization of class conflict. He argues that more than anything else, the party struggle is a conflict among classes and the most impressive thing about party support is that in virtually every country it is economically sound. The lower-income groups vote mainly for parties of the left front while higher income groups vote mainly for parties of the right front. The voting behaviour does not strictly follow class lines. Pressure groups and political parties Pressure groups are associations or groups which have objectives that are different from political parties. These pressure groups or interest groups have important political functions in all modern societies. These functions may either be useful or harmful to the stability or progress of the society. Interest groups may be based on economic, ethnic, linguistic, religious, regional or other considerations. Sometimes they would convert themselves into political parties or win over some members of the government and pressurize the government to give in to their demands. In this case, the group could be considered a pressure group. At times, when the government introduces a bill or a budget proposal in the Parliament, the interest groups will use their influence and lobby to pressurize the government to either withdraw or to amend it to a form that is acceptable to them. Interest groups and pressure groups use a number of strategies to influence the government and to get their demands accepted. These strategies include threats of direct action like boycott, threat of holding back essential services, protest closure of shops and agitations such as street demonstrations and strikes. Political parties are organized groups of citizens who hold common views on public issues and act as political units. They seek to obtain control of the government with a view to encourage the programme and policy, which they profess. A political party is essentially a social group that has an associative type of social relationship. A political party primarily strives to secure political power and to hold it either singly, or in cooperation with other political parties. Political parties are indispensable for the working of a democratic government. They are the connecting link between people and the government. They are the vehicles which individuals and groups use to secure and exercise political power. Political parties are seen as representing diverse elements in a national tradition and as being concerned to some degree with general, rather than class or sectional interests.
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Political participation Political system functions on the basis of political participation. Lester Milbrath has suggested that members of the society can be divided into four categories, in terms of their degree of political participation. Firstly, the politically apathetic who are literally unaware of the politics around them, secondly, those involved in spectator activities, which include voting and taking part in discussions about politics, thirdly, those involved is transitional activities, which include attending a political meetings or making financial contributions to a political party, finally, those who enter the political arena and participate in activities such as, standing for and holding public and party offices.
Active Participation Politicians Transitional Activities Spectators Politically spathetic
Figure 5.2 Degree of Political Participation
These levels of political participation are not uniformly distributed throughout the population. In general, the higher an individuals position in the class structure, the greater is his degree of participation. Studies have shown that political participation is directly proportional to income level, occupational status and educational qualification. It has also been associated with a variety of other factors. For example, men are likely to have higher levels of participation than women, married people than single people, middle-aged people than either young or old, members of clubs and associations than non-members, long-term residents in a community than short-term residents, etc. However, those with low levels of participation often lack the resources and opportunities to become more directly involved in politics. They lack the experience of higher education, which brings a greater awareness of the political process and knowledge of the mechanics of participation. Secondly, individuals are likely to participate in politics if they are likely to be rewarded for their involvement. Robert Dahl argues that an individual is unlikely to participate in politics, if he feels that the probability of his influencing the outcome of events is low. Thirdly, levels of political participation appear to be related to the degree of
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involvement and integration of an individual in the society. Thus, an individual who is not likely to be involved in local or national politics, does not feel a part of either the local community or the wider society. Finally, Dahl suggests that individuals are not likely to have high levels of political participation if they believe that the outcome of events will be satisfactory without their involvement. However, the significance of differential political participation varies. Pluralists have argued that low participation may be an indication that interests of the politically inactive are adequately represented. Lipset proclaims that the combination of a low vote and a relative absence of organization among the low-status groups means that they will be neglected by politicians who are receptive to the wishes of the more privileged, participative and organized strata. Democratic and authoritarian forms Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Democracy is a mixture of the rational, legal and charismatic types, with a touch of traditionalism in some instances. However, democracy is an emotive term which means for many the freedom of the individual to participate in those decisions which affect his life. This suggests that the individual should be directly and regularly involved in the political process. From a pluralists perspective, democracy is seen as a system of representative government, whereby many elites represent a range of interests in the society. It implies that the representative government is the only way in which the democratic ideal can be realized in a contemporary society. British Marxist sociologist, Thomas Burton Bottomore regards the Western system of governance as an imperfect realization of democracy, as it permanently excludes many from the experience of governance. He argues that only when the democratic ideal becomes an established feature of everyday life, a democratic system of national government can be created. This would involve social democracy, where people directly participate in the management of their firms. He further argues that a truly democratic national government will only be possible when all major institutions of the society operate on the principles of democracy. Therefore, democracy can be seen as a system in which every individual has an equal opportunity to participate in the political process and an equal say in governance of the society. Democracy often means easy, egalitarian manners with no expectation that anyone will show a marked deference to another. In a democratic society, power is distributed among many groups. Democratic governance is characterized by emphasizing on the autonomy of individuals and subsystems. An important feature of the democratic government is rule by the law and equal treatment by the law.
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1. State whether true or false. (a) Manifest functions of social institutions are those functions that people assume and expect the institution to fulfil. (b) Marriage of a man with the childless widow of his deceased brother is known as sororate marriage. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Education is viewed as an integral fragment of ____________. (b) ___________ exchange is the most common form of exchange among primitive people.
5.3.6 Religion
Since the days of the primitive society, religion has always existed in one form or another. There are mysteries and perplexities of life for which there is no adequate explanation. The elements of nature, sunshine, wind and rain affect man in a number of ways. Religion is the expression of the manner and type of adjustment that is effected by people in terms of their conception of the supernatural. In the words of James Frazer, the author of the book The Golden Bough, religion has been explained as a belief in powers superior to man, which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life. According of Ogburn and Nimkoff, Religion is the attitude towards superhuman powers. Such attitude gives rise to coherent systems of beliefs and practices that concern the supernatural order. Thus, religion is a more or less coherent system of beliefs and practices that concerns a supernatural order of beings, forces, places, or other entities. It is a system that, has implications for the behaviour and welfare of its adherents in varying degrees and affects their private and collective lives in a serious manner. The origin and evolution of religion The early sociological studies of religion had three distinctive methodological characteristics, these were evolutionist, positivist and psychological. These are shown in the works of Comte, Tylor and Spencer. According to Comte, sociology is one of the fundamental conceptions of the so called law of three stages. According to Comte human thought had passed through the theological, metaphysical and positive stages. Comte treats theological thinking as an intellectual error which is dispersed by the rise of modern science. He traces,
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within the theological stage, a development from animism to monotheism and he explains religious belief in psychological terms by reference to the perception and thought processes of early man. Later, Comte propounded his own religion of humanity and thus recognized in some sense a universal need for religion. English anthropologist, Sir Edward Burnett Tylor and English Philosopher, Herbert Spencer were concerned with explaining the origin of religion. They believed that the idea of the soul was the principal feature in a religious belief. They set out to give an account, in rationalist terms, of how such an idea might have originated in the mind of primitive man. According to this, men obtained their idea of the soul from a misinterpretation of dream and death. According to Spencers ghost theory of religion, the supposed reality of dreams led to a reality of ghosts. E.B. Tylor believes animism was the oldest practice of religion. He argues that animism was a result of the efforts of mankind to answer the questions of the difference between a living body and a dead one and the human shapes which appear in dreams and visions. The soul is a spirit being which leaves the body temporarily during dreams and visions. Animals were invested with spirits as were human tribes, such as Australian aborigines. Tylor points out that religion, assumes the form of animism with the purpose of satisfying the intellectual capacity of mankind and meet his quest for knowledge about death, dreams and vision. Similarly, naturism endorses the concept that the forces of nature are supernatural. Max Mueller believes this to be the earliest form of religion. He argues that naturism came to exist as a result of mans interaction with nature, typically as the outcome of the reaction of nature on mans emotions. According to him, animism tries to find the source of religion in mans intellectual requirements; naturism seeks it in his emotional needs. Naturism is how man responds to the effect of the power of nature on his emotions. However, there is a lot of criticism about the evolutionary approach. The origin of religion is lost in the past. However, theories about the origin of religion can only be based on speculation and intelligent guess work, according to some critics. Moreover, the exact phases of the evolution of religion do not match with the facts. Andrew Lang has highlighted that the religion of a large number of simple societies is monotheistic in nature, which according to Tylor was restricted to modern societies. The sacred and the profane Durkheim does not believe that the essence of religion lies in the belief of a transcendent God. He proclaims that the true aim of religion is to establish the phenomena of the sacred and the profane in the society. The sacred consists of a body of things, beliefs and rites. Supernatural entities are always sacred,
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that is, they are worthy of being treated with respect whether they are good or evil. Supernatural beings and forces are invisible and intangible, but certain sacred objects are quite tangible and visible, for instance, the alter in a Christian church. On the other hand, everything that is not holy is profane. Profanity is using names without proper respect. Functions and dysfunctions of religion Religion has various social functions. It is an agency of social control. It disciplines human behaviour in terms of the sacred and the profane. Performance of rituals and ceremonies gives a sense of collectivity to the society. The law of karma, the fear of retribution and such other prescriptions, always have a moderating and civilizing impact on human action. The norms of conduct, once established, regulate social relations. Religion has unified the principles of every society. Religion is an integrating and unifying force of the human society. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore reason why religion is necessary and is apparently to be found in the fact that human society achieves its unity through the possession by its members of certain ultimate values in common. Although these values and ends are subjective, the influence of behaviour and its integration enables the society to operate as a system. Though the direct impact of religion remains healthy, elevating and socializing, its indirect effect may be dysfunctional for the society. In Europe, religion hindered the growth of science and inquiry till the decline of the organized church in the 19th century. The superstitious superstructure that developed successively caused immense harm to the society at all levels. Religion inhibits protests and impedes social changes. Religion has resulted in wars, devastations and genocides. While fulfilling the identity function of religion, certain loyalties arise which may actually impede the development of new identities that are more appropriate to new situations.
5.3.7 Property
Property could be a physical or intangible entity owned by a person or by a group of people. An owner of property has the right to consume, sell, rent, mortgage, transfer, exchange or destroy it. Property is the right vested on an individual or group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object, be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes, that right might be opposed to public trust. The main step in the creation of property as an institution is the growth of knowledge regarding it. In the presence of the state, one can hold landed property as the state began granting lordships and ended up conferring property. With that,
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came inheritance, rent and in the exchange of goods, profit. If the value of land is always the same, then there is no evolution of property. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population, benefitting the owner. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, landlords have reaped great profit. Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the state and the church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land and were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord. The state has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property, be it public or private. Activity 2 List out the differences between religion as a form of social control and division of labour as a form of social control.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Emile Durkheim wrote The Division of Labour in Society. (b) Division of labour is extensive in India. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) A political system functions on the basis of political _____. (b) E.B. Tylor believed _______ was the oldest practice of religion.
5.4 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Social institutions are important in every society. Various social institutions include family, marriage, polity, economy, religion and education. All these institutions have been performing various functions and have been catering to individual needs. Various formal means of social control are law, education and coercion. Informal means are folkways, mores, customs and religion. Social institutions and social control are very important for any society.
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5.5 Glossary
Social control: Control that is exerted (actively or passively) by group action Social institution: A group of social positions, connected by social relations that perform a social role By-products: A substance that is produced during the process of making or destroying something else Monogamy: The fact or custom of being married to only one person at a particular time Polygamy: The custom of having more than one wife at the same time Polygyny: The practice of having several wives, at the same time Polyandry: A form of marriage in which a woman has two or more husbands at the same time Levirate: The practice of marrying the widow of ones childless brother Sororate: The custom of marriage of a man to his wifes sister or sisters Family: A social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction Education: Developing and cultivating the various intellectual, physical, aesthetic and moral faculties of an individual Polity: Organization of society on political lines or the state as a political entity

1. Explain the meaning of an institution. Enumerate some features of an institution. 2. Discuss the functions of institutions. 3. Analyse the various types of institutions. 4. What are the different forms of marriage? 5. Discuss how education is a social process. 6. What are the various degrees of political participation? 7. How did religion evolve?
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1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) Socialization; (b) Reciprocative 3. (a) True; (b) False 4. (a) Participation; (b) animism

1. Refer to Section 5.2 2. Refer to Section 5.2 3. Refer to Section 5.3 4. Refer to Section 5.3.1 5. Refer to Section 5.3.3 6. Refer to Section 5.3.5 7. Refer to Section 5.3.6
5.8 Further Reading

1. Black, D. 1976. The Behaviour of Law. New York: Academic Press. 2. Cohen, S. 1985. Visions of Social Control. New York: Cambridge Polity Press. 3. Horton, Paul and Chester Hunt. 1984. Sociology. Singapore: McGrawHill Book Company. 4. Horowitz, A. 1990. The Logic of Social Control. New York: Plenum Press. 5. Johnson, Harry M. 1960. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New Delhi:Allied Publishers Limited. 6. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers. 7. Newman, William H. 1973. American Pluralism. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. 8. Sumner, William. 1906. A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals. New York: Cosimo books.
Unit 6
Structure 6.1 Introduction Objectives 6.2 Nature of Social Stratification 6.3 Summary 6.4 Glossary 6.5 Terminal Questions 6.6 Answers 6.7 Further Reading
Social Stratification
6.1 Introduction
A social category refers to a plurality of persons who share similar social characteristics or statuses. Persons may be classified as members of a common social category without themselves having a common identity. If the members of a social category develop a sense of common awareness and identity, leadership may emerge and the category may become the basis for the formation of a group. However, most social categories do not develop into groups. A social category is a set of persons who are classified together because they share an attribute. However, members do not necessarily interact with one another. For example, Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics are some of the social categories of race in American society. But not all Blacks, Whites or Hispanics have established patterns of interaction among themselves, so they are not a social group. Similarly, there exist social categories based on class, sex, age, religion and occupation. These and some other social categories make up the stratification system of a society. A social group, on the other hand, may be defined as a pattern of social positions, the holders of which Share a common goal or goals Possess a sense of group identity Interact among themselves according to their positions In sociology, social stratification is a concept of class, involving the classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions.
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In Western societies, stratification is generally categorized into upper class, middle class, and lower class. These classes may be subdivided into smaller categories. Stratification can also be defined by kinship ties as well as castes. For Max Weber, social class related to material wealth was different from status class based on honour, prestige, religious affiliation, etc. The concept of social stratification can be interpreted in many ways. Proponents of action theory deem that as social stratification is found in developed societies, only the presence of a hierarchy can stabilize social structure. Conflict theories, such as Marxism, point out the inaccessibility of resources and no social mobility in stratified societies. Here, many sociological theorists have criticized the degree to which the working classes will not advance socioeconomically, with the wealthy holding excessive political power. Ralf Dahrendorf sees hope though, and has noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class due to the requirement of educated labour in technological and service economies. In our study, we are interested in those social categories which develop a sense of common identity and awareness, and are connected to the political arena in this context and capacity. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Define social stratification Describe racial and ethnic groups Interpret the functions of religion Describe the role of class, caste, language, sex and gender in social stratification Differentiate between sex and gender and its various aspects Describe the various dimensions of a community
6.2 Nature of Social Stratification

Stratification mainly refers to the institutionalized inequalities in power, wealth and status between categories of persons within a single social system (e.g., classes, castes, ethnic groups). Almost all human societies display some degrees of institutionalized inequalities based on race, religion and gender.
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It is often claimed that tribal societies are egalitarian. However, a closer look displays inequalities based on age, strength and various other factors. In this unit, however, we shall discuss social stratification with respect to nationstates. The following factors are necessary for a stratified society: Centralized and hierarchical political organization Codified legal system State monopoly on violence (police, army) Taxation, government spending and redistribution Dense and large population Complex economic division of labour Causes of stratification Understanding the origins of stratification is not quite possible, as there is limited archaeological record for this. One major reason is that written records came with stratification, with writing being used to maintain tax records and record histories of hereditary rulers, in stratified societies. Stratification, one can say with certainty, is a relatively recent development. Stratified systems tend to grow at the expense of egalitarian systems, but what is it that drives egalitarian societies towards stratification? Are there any natural explanations? To explain cultural evolution of social stratification in ecological terms, one has to rely on one or another of two fundamental approaches: Stratification as solution to an ecological problem, or Stratification as a system where one class takes resources from another. These approaches are known as functional and conflict theories, respectively. The former sees social stratification as a solution to ecological problems, while the latter sees social stratification as a system by which one class extracts resources from another. Functionalist theory: According to the functionalists, the rise of social stratification and state systems are driven by reciprocity, also known as a social contract. According to this theory, centralized rule benefits everyone. While citizens pay their taxes and give up some freedom, the state, in return, provides public order, security and other infrastructure.
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Conflict theory: According to the conflict theorists, the most influential of whom was Karl Marx, states are essentially exploitative, and only for the benefit of the ruling elites, while masses must submit to dominance and exploitation. As already mentioned, the factors like race, class, sex, gender, religion, occupation shape the social stratification system. Let us discuss these factors in detail.
6.2.1 Race
The dictionary defines 'race' as 'a local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics.' In simple terms, a race is a group of people united together or categorized on the basis of common history, nationality, or geographic distribution. The term race is difficult to explain from a scientific as well as a social viewpoint. European physical anthropologists in the 17th and 18th centuries proposed many different systems of racial classifications founded on skin colour, hair type, physical proportions, skull measurements, etc., each in essence codifying the so-called differences among broad geographic human populations. A race is, thus, a human population that is distinct from others based on physical differences, real or imaginary. One can also say that classifications of humans into relatively large and distinct race is the populations or groups often based on factors such as appearance based on heritable phenotypical characteristics or geographic ancestry, but also often influenced by and correlated with traits such as culture, ethnicity and socio-economic status. Racial and ethnic groups Anthony Giddens has defined race as a set of social relationships, which allow individuals and groups to be located, and various attributes or competencies assigned, on the basis of biologically grounded features. The term race is a controversial and contested concept which is often very loosely used to indicate people differing in physical appearance or skin colour. Race has been scientifically defined as a group of people possessing the same biological inheritance identified on the basis of external physical characteristics like shape of head, colour of skin, eyes, hair, etc. Scientific theories of race arose in late 18th and early 19th centuries. The major racial groups, first put forth by Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (sometimes called the father of modern racism), are Caucasian (White), Negroid (Black) and Mongloid (Yellow). This is not a strict classification and a number of separate racial groups are identified even within these three groups.
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The scientific or biological concept of race, however, is a rather weak one. From the biological perspective, it is impossible to define or identify a genetically isolated group with distinctive gene frequencies which would constitute a race. Thus, race is a highly contested biological concept. However, in the course of time members of a particular race develop a kind of consciousness about their race. This race consciousness becomes a social phenomenon and it has an impact on social relations. In general, sociologists have rejected that human groups can be unambiguously defined in terms of their genetic constitution. Unlike race, ethnicity or ethnic group is a concept that is purely social in meaning. Ethnicity refers to cultural values and norms which distinguish members of a given group from others. An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups around them. Ethnicity defines individuals or groups who consider themselves or are considered by others to share common cultural characteristics, which differentiate them from other groups in society. Different characteristics may serve to distinguish ethnic groups from one another. However, the most common ones are language, religion, history or ancestry (real or imagined), food habits and styles of dress. Ethnic differences are wholly learned. Racial and ethnic group relations in society are an important area of study in political sociology. Racism The concept of race creates the possibility of racialism and racism. Racialism is the doctrine that racial categories are important in determining human behaviour. Racism is the tendency to identify oneself racially and to show hostility or lack of respect for members of other races. It is the attributing of characteristics of superiority and inferiority to a population sharing certain inherited physical characteristics. Racialism does not attribute value judgements of superiority and inferiority as is implicit in racism. However, both create the conditions for false definitions of individuals and groups through prejudice and/or discrimination. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority. It results from ethnocentrism, which is a practice of studying and making judgements about other societies in terms of ones own cultural assumptions or biases. It suggests that beliefs and practices in other societies are inferior to ones own.
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Thus racism, the belief that one race is supreme and others are innately inferior, is a form of prejudice. Prejudices are often grounded in stereotype, fixed and inflexible characterizations of a group of people. The biased attitudes of a prejudiced person often lead to discriminatory behaviour. Discrimination is the process of denying opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons. Prejudiced attitudes should not be equated with discriminatory behaviour. Although the two are generally related, they are not identical and either condition can be present without the other. Early Marxist theories saw racism as a ruling-class ideology which developed under capitalism in order to divide, and hence help control, Black and White workers, who shared a common and fundamental class identity. This argument has been heavily criticized as historically inaccurate and irredeemably functionalist because it attempts to explain the origins of racism by means of the functions that racism has sometimes served under capitalism. Some scholars have argued that racism is more than simply the ideas and attitudes held by a small number of bigoted individuals. Rather, racism is embedded in the very structure and operation of society. The idea of institutional racism suggests that racism pervades all of societys structures in a systematic manner. According to this view, institutions such as the police, the health service, and the educational system all promote policies that favour certain groups while discriminating against others. This idea of institutional racism was developed in the United States in the late 1960s by civil rights campaigners who believed that racism underpinned the very fabric of society, rather than merely representing the opinions of a small minority. Institutional discrimination refers to the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups which result from the normal operations of a society. It continuously imposes more hindrances on, and awards fewer benefits to certain racial and ethnic groups than it does to others. In some cases, even ostensibly neutral institutional standards can turn out to have discriminatory effects. The works of Antnor Firmin and W.E.B. DuBois are foundational in understanding the development of racist theory. Firmin was a lawyer, anthropologist, historian and philosopher from Haiti. He was appointed the ambassador to France. His work, The Equality of the Human Races (1885), was a response to the influence of Gobineau, who was a proponent of modern racist theory. Firmin challenged Gobineaus misrepresentations of Asian and African peoples. In his The Study of the Negro Problems, DuBois enlisted the major challenges to the study of race. He first showed that White was considered to
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be the norm, and coloured was abnormal, or a deviation from the normal. There were gradations of coloured abnormality. Thus, the study of Negro problems implied Negroes as problems. DuBois contributions include his recognition of how race was central to the formation of American sociology, even though the American scientific communities sought legitimacy through the European models. Studying race was considered to be an indulgence, at the expense of studying the universal man. The universal man was visualized in terms of certain particularities that were exclusive, because they excluded racialized people and related ethnic typographies. Thus, a particular kind of man, the White Man, became the universal man. Racial and ethnic minorities The notion of minority groups (often racial and ethnic minorities) is an important concept in political sociology. Anthony Giddens describes minority group as a group of people in a given society who, because of their distinct physical and cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality within that society. Members of a minority group are disadvantaged as compared with the majority population. They have some sense of group solidarity. Thus, racial or ethnic minority is more than merely a numerical distinction and refers to a groups subordinate position within society rather than its numerical representation. There are many cases in which a minority is in fact numerically the majority. For example, women are considered to be a minority, while they form the majority in many countries. However, the term minority is used for women because it reflects their disadvantaged position in comparison to men (the majority). Social distance Social distance refers to the perceived feelings of separation or distance between social groups or between members of different ethnic groups. Conceptions of social distance are formally institutionalized in social systems, such as apartheid and caste, but informally they exist in most societies. The Bogardus social distance scale attempts to measure degrees of tolerance or prejudice between social groups. It was created by E.G. Bogardus who asked a series of questions to his informants representing about forty different nationalities. Each question represented a category of distance. Thus, informants were asked if they would admit a person of a given nationality to close kinship by marriage, allow him membership of a social club, or allow him to be their neighbour, or give him employment in the same kind of occupation.
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It is the social significance of race and ethnicity we are concerned with. We are interested in examining the mutual relationships in society among people of different racial and ethnic groups which take various forms of cooperation, competition, conflict, domination, assimilation, accommodation, integration, exclusion and social distance. Racial and ethnic groups can relate to one another in a variety of desirable and undesirable ways. Patterns of inter-racial and inter-ethnic relations Assimilation Assimilation is the process by which an outsider, immigrant or subordinate group becomes indistinguishably integrated into the dominant host society. Assimilation implies that the subordinate group actually comes to accept and internalize the values and culture of the dominant group. They abandon their original customs and practices, and mould their behaviour to the values and norms of the dominant group. It demands that the subordinate groups change their lifestyles, cultural outlooks, language and dress in order to integrate themselves into the new social order. Assimilation is generally practised by a minority group that wants to conform to the standards of the dominant group. Assimilation can be represented as the ideology of A + B + C = A, where A is the dominant group and B and C are minority racial and ethnic groups. However, assimilation may not necessarily bring acceptance for the minority group individuals. Moreover, it places an unfair burden on the minority as they have to abandon their long held cultural values and traditions wholesale and accept the cultural values and norms of the dominant groups. Amalgamation Amalgamation describes the end result when a majority and a minority group combine to form a new group. Through intermarriage over several generations and through interchange of cultural attributes various groups in society combine to form a new group. Here, rather than the traditions of the immigrants or other subordinate groups being dissolved in favour of those of the dominant group, they become blended to form new evolving cultural patterns. It can be represented as A+B+C=D, where A,B,C, are different groups in society and D signifies the end resulta unique cultural-racial group unlike any of the initial groups. The example of the USA as a melting pot is a reflection of this process. Melting Pot is the idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behaviour drawing on diverse cultural sources. The term that is used more commonly of late is salad bowl instead of the melting pot. Hybrid
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forms of cuisine, fashion, music and architecture are manifestations of the melting pot approach. However, this is a difficult model to accomplish. Even in the USA, throughout most of its history, it has been the dominant White, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant culture which has been pre-eminent. Pluralism In a pluralistic society, a subordinate group will not have to forsake its lifestyle and traditions. Pluralism is based on mutual respect between various groups in a society for one anothers culture. It can be conceived as A+B+C=A+B+C. In a plural society, the equal validity of numerous different subcultures is recognized and promoted. A pluralist approach regards ethnic minority groups as equal stakeholders in society, meaning that they enjoy the same rights as the majority population. The idea of the Indian nation-state embodies this pluralism. Segregation Segregation refers to the act of physically separating two groups. It involves physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace and social functions. It is generally imposed by a dominant group on a minority group. The policy of apartheid in South Africa from 1948 to 1994 enforced segregation of Whites and non-Whites in marriage, area of residence and employment, and in public and private services. Apartheid involved many forms of segregation, ranging from the creation of homelands, where Blacks were assigned to live to maintenance of racially separate facilities (including taxis, park benches and restrooms). Inter-racial marriage was strictly forbidden. Moreover, Blacks were not allowed to vote, and so political representation was closed for them. In the United States, the Southern states practised racial segregation against the Black population until the late 1960s. Here the Jim Crow Laws enforced official racial segregation. A powerful Civil Rights Movement emerged in the US under the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr. It was a non-violent struggle which ultimately succeeded in its campaign against racial segregation. Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing Genocide is the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. Nazi Germanys extermination of 6 million European Jews as well as members of other ethnic minorities during the Second World War is one of the most horrific cases of genocide. Another instance of genocide is the killing of 1 million Armenians by Turkey beginning in 1915. Ethnic cleansing is a contentious term which was used for the first time to describe the systematic policy of mass killings, deportation, rape, internment,
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and intimidation engaged by rival ethnic groups of the former Yugoslav republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina with the goal of rendering ethnically mixed areas homogenous and thereby establishing a de facto claim on ethnic grounds to sovereignty over disputed territory. It is applied principally, though not exclusively, to the actions of Bosnian-Serb paramilitaries. Ethnic cleansing, thus, involves the forced relocation of ethnic populations through targeted violence, harassment, threats and campaigns of terror. Ethnic cleansing has been subsequently used to refer to other instances of minority persecution world-wide. The massacre of ethnic Tutsi minority at the hands of ethnic Hutu majority aggressors in Rwanda is another instance of the policy of ethnic cleansing. Here, a genocidal campaign launched by the Hutus claimed the lives of more than 800,000 people of the Tutsi minority within a span of three months. More than two million Rwandan refugees spilled over into neighbouring states, heightening ethnic tensions in countries such as Burundi and Congo. When seen primarily in terms of its intent, the removal of an ethnic group from a given territory, ethnic cleansing can be conceived of as a spectrum on which at one end lies genocide, and at other, milder administrative measures such as forms of legal discrimination. Genocide represents the most extreme form of ethnic cleansing but not all forms of ethnic cleansing are necessarily genocide. The expulsion of a people is hence an extreme means of acting out racial or ethnic prejudice. In 1979, Vietnam expelled nearly 1 million ethnic Chinese from the country, partly as a result of centuries of hostility between the two Asian neighbours. These boat people were abruptly eliminated as a minority within Vietnamese society. Racial and Ethnic Conflict: USA and South Africa Conflict is a direct and conscious struggle between individuals or groups for acquiring the same goal. The term conflict describes a situation in which two or more actors pursue incompatible, yet from their individual perspectives, entirely just goals. Defeat of the opponent is seen as essential for achieving the goal. It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. In conflict, opponents are primarily oriented toward each other rather than toward the object they seek. In fact, because of the development of strong feelings of hostility, the achievement of the goal may at times be considered secondary to the opponents defeat. The Hobbesian tradition posited an initial social state of war of all against all and this tradition was fortified by the Darwinian notion of a struggle for existence.
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Ethnic conflicts are a particular form of such conflict, in which the goals of at least one conflict party are defined in (exclusively) ethnic terms, and in which the primary fault line of conflict is one of ethnic distinctions. Whatever the concrete issues over which the conflict erupts, at least one of the conflict parties will express its dissatisfaction in ethnic terms; that is, one party to the conflict will claim that its distinct racial or ethnic identity is the reason why its members cannot realize their interests, why they do not have the same rights, or why their claims are not satisfied. Thus, ethnic conflicts are a form of group conflict in which at least one of the parties involved interprets the conflict, its causes and potential remedies along an actually existing or perceived discriminating ethnic divide. Racial and ethnic conflict has been a serious problem which has plagued a number of societies/states at various times. It has been an almost ubiquitous problem. In racial and ethnic conflict two or more racial/ethnic groups in a society struggle against each other either to obtain scarce economic, political, and cultural power or resources or to prevent other groups from obtaining them. In multiracial or multi-ethnic states this problem has been a complex and challenging problem. We shall examine such racial/ethnic conflict by looking at the examples of two such multi-racial societies USA and South Africa. United States of America The USA has had a history of racial conflict between the White and Black (or African-American) population which dates back to the period of slavery in American history. The Black Africans were exploited and deprived of their rights under slavery and were treated as mere property of the White slave-owners. Even in bondage the Africans were forced to assimilate and were stripped of their African tribal heritage. Black resistance to slavery included many slave revolts such as those led by Denmark Vesey in South Carolina in 1822 and Nat Turner in Virginia in 1831. After the American Civil War, slavery was formally abolished in America. However this did not bring genuine freedom and equality for the Blacks. The Jim Crow Laws of the South were designed to uphold official segregation between Whites and Blacks. These were even upheld by the US Supreme Court in 1896. The Blacks also faced the danger of lynching campaigns, often led by the Ku Klux Klan, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The dominance of Whites was maintained formally through legalized segregation and informally by means of vigilante terror and violence. The unanimous decision of the US
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Supreme Court, in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), outlawed segregation of public school students, ruling that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal was a crucial turning point in the Black struggle for equality and justice. In the wake of this decision there was a surge of activism on behalf of Black civil rights, including boycotts of segregated bus companies and sit-ins at restaurants and lunch counters, which refused to serve Blacks. During the decade of the 1960s, a vast Civil Rights Movement emerged, with many competing factions and strategies for change. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference founded by Dr Martin Luther King Jr, who was inspired by Gandhis ideals, used non-violent civil disobedience to oppose segregation. The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) favoured use of the courts to press for legal equality of AfricanAmericans. Some younger Black leaders, most notably Malcolm X, turned to an ideology of Black Power. Proponents of Black power rejected the goal of assimilation into White, middle-class society. They defended the beauty and dignity of Black and African cultures and supported the creation of Blackcontrolled political and economic institutions. As a result of the efforts of these groups and people, the Black Civil Rights Movement was successful in achieving basic civil and political rights for Blacks throughout that country. The Blacks have undoubtedly progressed in socio-economic parameters since then, and the recent election of Barack Obama as President of USA has been a very proud and vindicating moment for the Black community in America. However, Black and White America are still separate and, still unequal. Blacks suffer in terms of life chances and opportunities. Blacks continue to lag behind Whites in social, economic and educational indices. Although there are mixed-race neighbourhoods today, the specifically Black neighbourhoods in America continue to have woefully inadequate infrastructure in terms of housing, schools, hospitals and recreational facilities and other civic amenities. Discrimination against the Blacks has also been found in the jobmarket, as various sociological studies have amply revealed. Racial animosity and tension continue to prevail, and fringe White supremacist groups continue to advocate violence in thought, speech and action against Blacks. The state and federal governments have taken a strong stand against such acts through various Hate Crimes Legislations. A major grievance of the Blacks is the argument that the criminal justice system and the police unfairly discriminate against the Blacks. As a result of this, a disproportionately high percentage of Black male youths are under incarceration in America.
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The Hispanic population is another significant minority in American society. The Hispanic or Latino-American population consists of Americans with origins in countries of Latin America. Hispanics/Latinos are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category rather than a race. They constitute the second largest ethnic group in the USA after Whites, accounting for 15.8% of the total population. Mexican-Americans, Cuban-Americans, Puerto Ricans, ColombianAmericans are some of the prominent Hispanic national origin groups. Like the Black population the Hispanic population also suffers from comparatively lower social, economic and educational attainments as compared to the White population. Housing and civic amenities are of lower standards in Hispanic neighbourhoods. The Hispanic population also faces discrimination and negative stereotypes on account of their language and culture. Moreover, they are also viewed with suspicion because they have been linked to the problem of illegal immigration. These immigrants are compelled to work for low wages and consequently, depress the overall wage-levels among the working classes. The study of race and politics brings to focus the intersection between the individual and the environment. Race has played an important role in transforming American politics, and its growth as a political force has led to a concomitant decline in the importance of class as an organizing principle in contemporary American politics. Thus, race is one of the sites on which political conflict takes place. It is under specific social, institutional and environmental circumstances that race becomes crucial as a line of divisions in politics. It has been argued that racial politics has intensified when political elites choose an apt moment to place the race issue on the political agenda. Other instances of the intensification of racial politics is when the political dominance of the Whites is numerically threatened by the presence of Blacks, and when politicians construct coalitional appeals to exploit the racial divide. South Africa South Africa has been witness to years of racial separation and conflict, of which apartheid, the system of enforced official racial segregation from 1948 to 1994, was the most glaring example. Under apartheid, every South African was classified into one of four categories: White, Coloured (people whose descent is traced from members of more than one race), Asian and Black. The White South African minority, comprising a mere 13% of the population, ruled over the non-White majority, who were systematically denied civil and political rights. Segregation was enforced at all levels of society. Millions of blacks were herded into so-called homelands, located well away from the main cities.
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Apartheid was encoded in law, but enforced through violence and brutality. The South African government used law-enforcement and security organs to suppress all resistance to the apartheid regime. Opposition groups were outlawed and political dissidents were detained without trial and often tortured. After years of international condemnation and strong domestic resistance, spearheaded by the African National Congress (ANC), the apartheid regime began to weaken and, in 1990, the ban on the ANC was lifted, and its leader Nelson Mandela was freed after 27 years of imprisonment. After a series of complex negotiations, the first truly free and democratic elections involving both Whites and Coloured peoples were held in 1994. The ANC received an overwhelming majority of 62 per cent of the vote and Nelson Mandela became South Africas first post-apartheid president. Mandela and the ANC had to face a very challenging task ahead of them. Besides being a highly unequal society in material terms, South Africa was also a highly divided one. Decades of ideological rule premised on a belief in racial superiority had left the country scarred, and in need of lasting reconciliation. The atrocities of the apartheid regime demanded redress, and the culture of racial oppression had to be dismantled. All racial and ethnic groups had to be treated fairly and looked after equally, and the White population had to be reassured that it would not face the blind fury of reprisal attack from the nonWhite population. Mandela laid the foundation for the emergence of an equitable, multiethnic society. The constitution adopted in 1996 is one of the most progressive in the world, outlawing all discrimination on the basis of race, or ethnic or social origin, or religion and belief, alongside sexual orientation, disability and pregnancy. One of the most notable and seminal developments was the work of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). From April 1996 to July 1998, the TRC held hearings in communities across South Africa to examine the abuses of human rights which had occurred under apartheid. The Nobel laureate Archbishop Desmond Tutu led the TRC in investigating acts and abuses committed between 1960 and 1994. Its hearings were designed to uncover the realities of the apartheid era, from the most horrific to the most banal, for all to see. They were not intended to serve as trials or to mete out punishments. Those who committed human rights violations under apartheid were offered amnesty in return for their honest testimonies and the full disclosure of all relevant information.
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The Truth and Reconciliation Commission submitted the report of its findings in 1998 in which the apartheid government was identified as the main perpetrator of human rights abuses, although significantly transgressions committed by other organizations, including the ANC also, were noted. Critics have labelled the TRC as little more than an archive of apartheid-era crimes, unable to set right the wrongs that had occurred. However, many others believe that the very process of gathering testimonies, from those who committed abuses as well as those who were abused, bought into focus the injustices of the apartheid era. The TRC certainly cannot of itself overcome the legacy of decades of racial division and discrimination. South Africa remains a fractured society and continues to struggle against bigotry and intolerance. A series of transformation bills passed in 2000 have outlawed hate speech and established equality courts to hear charges of racial discrimination. The TRC hearings were a powerful episode in South Africas post-apartheid history and have established a new standard for openness and honesty in addressing racial divisions. Migration Migration of people from one place or country to another has been a long practice. Although this is not a new phenomenon, it is one that is accelerating as part of the process of global integration. Immigration refers to people moving into a country to settle, and emigration refers to people moving out of a country to settle in another. The intensification of global migration since the Second World War, and particularly over the last two decades, has transformed immigration into an important political issue in many countries and especially so in Western countries. Immigration has led to the existence of numerous different racial and ethnic groups within the UK, the US and other Western industrial countries. Rising immigration rates in Western societies have challenged commonly held notions of national identity and have forced a re-examination of concepts of citizenship. Often an underlying sense of tension and conflict is found in the relations of the immigrant communities and the host population. Xenophobic tendencies have been found to exist amongst certain sections of the host nation, which have also led to acts of physical violence against and harassment of the immigrant community. Also, the ethnic minorities are accused of not making appropriate efforts to assimilate into the dominant host culture and of not fully integrating themselves with the national culture and national life. This has been a very strong case made against the migrant communities and one that has received
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the support of right wing political parties and even the governments of Western countries. The immigration problem has had political repercussions. It has led to the growth of right wing parties which specifically target the migrants or racial and ethnic minorities in some countries. These parties want to put a stop to immigration and attack the immigrant population on a host of issues. Moreover, an element of racism is also often present in their ideology as they attack only the non-white immigrants. Even apart from such virulent right wing parties and groups, the mainstream centrist and leftist parties have also often wanted to put restrictions on immigration, particularly directed against non-white immigrants. The governments of some Western countries have put severe restrictions on immigration.
6.2.2 Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property and are forced to work against their will. Slaves can be held from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation. Although slavery has effectively been abolished in the developed world, conditions resembling slavery still exist in undeveloped countries and can take the form of debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servants kept in captivity, adoption in which children are forced to work as slaves, child soldiers and forced marriage. Slavery is rare in primitive societies as it is a result of social stratification following the development of agriculture. Mass slavery also requires economic surpluses and a high population density to be viable. Evidence of slavery has been found in ancient Egypt, ancient Greece and Rome, ancient China, India, Islamic empires of the middle ages up to the Ottoman empire, medieval Europe and Africa in various degrees and forms of cruelty. The most documented instances of slavery have been in the Americas, where around 12 million slaves were brought between the 16th and 19th century. Activity 1 Using the Internet for research write an essay on slavery in America in the 19th and the 20th centuries, and whether the evil still exists today.
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1. State whether true or false. (a) According to conflict theory, the rise of social stratification and state systems are driven by reciprocity. (b) Racialism is the tendency to identify oneself and to show hostility or lack of respect for members of other races. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Early Marxism theories saw racism as a ruling class ideology which developed under ________ in order to divide black and white workers. (b) Slavery is a system under which people are treated as __________.
6.2.3 Religion
Religion has been and remains a very powerful force in human history. It excites deep passions and great commitment among individuals and groups. There is perhaps nothing in the world that arouses such deep reverence or has been the centre of such severe criticism as religion. On the one hand, it has been equated with salvation; and, on the other, it has been characterized as the opium of the people. Religion is defined in sociological terms as a set of beliefs, symbols and practices (e.g. rituals), which are based on the idea of the sacred, and which unites believers into a socio-religious community. The sacred is contrasted with the profane because it involves a feeling of awe. This is derived from Emile Durkheims definition of religion, according to which religion begins with the division of the world into two kinds of phenomena: the profane and the sacred. The profane is concerned with the ordinary aspects of everyday life; it has nothing to do with religious beliefs. The sacred refers to all objects and aspects of life set apart from the ordinary, regarded as holy and related to the supernatural. The latter forms the foundation of every religion. Anything that is sacred is so special to the believers that it cannot be questioned. Thus, according to Durkheim, Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, uniting into a single moral community all those who adhere to those beliefs and practices. Sociologists have defined religion by reference to the sacred rather than to a belief in a god or gods, because it makes social comparison possible; for example, some versions of Buddhism do not involve belief in God.
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The sociologist is not concerned with the truth or falsity of any given religion. One has to take an objective look at religionits functions, social foundations and social consequences. We do not have to study religion per se, but the effect of religious beliefs and practices on the social, cultural and political systems. We are concerned with the myriad ways in which society and religion interact. This is a two-way affair and sometimes it is difficult to determine the boundary between the religious and the non-religious. Thus, our notions of justice and our socio-cultural norms may be influenced by religion. Similarly our religion has also been influenced by the political and economic life of our society. The most important and influential sociological approaches to religion are the ideas of the three classical sociological theorists: Durkheim, Marx and Weber. Durkheim on religion Emile Durkheims The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) represents one of the most influential sociological interpretations of religion. The central thesis of Durkheims theory of religion is that throughout history people have never worshipped any other reality, but the collective social reality (i.e. society) transfigured by faith. In religion the object of worship is the society itself. In Durkheims theory the collective aspects of religion are emphasised; the function of religious rituals is to affirm the moral superiority of society over its individual members and thus to maintain the solidarity of society. Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is things set apart and forbiddenbeliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them. Sacred things are considered superior in dignity and power to profane things and particularly to man. In relation to the sacred, mans position is inferior and dependent. This relationship between man and sacred things is exactly the relationship between man and society. Society is more important and powerful than the individual. Belief and practices unite people in a social community by relating them to sacred things. This collective sharing of beliefs, rituals, etc., is essential for the development of religion. The sacred symbols of religious belief and practice refer, not to the external environment or to individual human nature, but only to the moral reality of society. The emphasis was upon the collective activities as the birthplace of religious sentiments and ideas. The social group comes together in religious rituals infused with drama and reverence. Its members express together their faith in common values and
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beliefs. In the highly charged and emotionally passionate atmosphere of collective worship, the integration of society is strengthened. Durkheim argues that social life is impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs which form the collective conscience. In their absence, there would be no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In short, there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs which form the basis of social life. By defining these values and moral beliefs as sacred, religion provides them with greater power to direct human action. The attitude of respect and reverence towards the sacred is the same attitude applied to social duties and obligations. In worshipping society, people are, actually, recognizing the importance of society and their dependence upon it. In this way religion strengthens the unity of the group and promotes social solidarity. Durkheim maintains:
There is no doubt that a society has everything needed to arouse in mens minds, simply by the influence it exerts over them, the sensation of the divine, for it is to its members what a God is to his faithful. For a God is a first being whom man imagines in certain respects as superior to himself, and on whom he believes he depends. The believer feels that he is obliged to accept certain forms of behaviour imposed on him by the nature of the sacred principle with which he feels he is in communication. Similarly society also maintains in us the sensation of a perpetual dependence, because it has a nature peculiar to itself, different from our individual nature, and pursues ends which are likewise peculiar to itself; but since it can attain them only through us, it imperiously demands our cooperation. It requires that we forget our personal interests and become its servants; it subjects us to all kinds of inconveniences, hardships and sacrifices without which social life would be impossible. So it is that at every moment we are obliged to submit to rules of conduct and ideas which we have neither made nor willed and which are sometimes even opposed to our most fundamental inclinations and instincts. Society awakens in us the feeling of the divine. It is at the same a commandment which imposes itself and a reality qualitatively superior to individuals which calls forth respect, devotion, adoration. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
Durkheim derived his understanding of religion after examining the religion of various communities of Australian aborigines. He classified their religion as totemism, for it was the simplest and basic form of religion. A totem is an animal
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or plant considered to have a particular symbolic significance for a group. It is a sacred object regarded with veneration and surrounded by various ritual activities. Aborigine society is divided into several clans and each clan has a totem. The totem is a sacred symbol; it is the emblem of the clan by which it distinguishes itself from all others. It is sacred because it stands for values central to the clan. The reverence which people feel for the totem actually derives from the respect they hold for central social values. The God of the clan can be nothing but the clan itself. Durkheim thus emphasizes the social function that religion performs in strengthening social solidarity. Though religion can undoubtedly be seen as a unifying force in small-scale pre-modern societies, in modern societies characterised by religious plurality, religion is as frequently a divisive as a unifying force. Modern societies have many subcultures, social and ethnic groups and a range of religious beliefs, practices and institutions. Different religious groups frequently come in conflict with one another on both religious as well as secular grounds. There are, of course, many instances of inclusive societies which give equal respect to all religions but in modern societies there is considerable religious diversity and some religious conflict. Moreover, in modern societies, beliefs and doctrines have more importance than ritual, as people tend to unite or divide upon propositions rather than upon sentiments. Max Weber on religion Max Webers sociological study of religion is rooted in his conception of human beings as actors, ascribing meanings to the world around them. He tried to show the influence of ideas, beliefs and world-views on social change, especially the influence of religious ideas and values. Webers studies of religion focus on the ethos or ethics of religions of the world and their interactions with other social sub-systems like polity and economy. Unlike the Marxian perspective which sees religion as a part of the superstructure of society shaped ultimately by the infrastructure and always remaining as a conservative force, Weber highlighted that under certain conditions the reverse can occur and religious beliefs can be a major influence on economic behaviour. He believes that religion is not always a conservative force; at times religiously inspired movements have produced dramatic social transformation. Weber made a thorough study of world religions. In his pioneering/seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904). Weber examines the relationship between the rise of certain forms of Protestantism and the
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development of Western industrial capitalism. The central thesis of this work is that ascetic Protestantism was a vital influence in the creation and development of the spirit of capitalism. He argues that the essence of capitalism is the pursuit of profit and forever renewed profit. Underlying the practice of capitalism is the spirit of capitalism, a set of ideas, ethics and values which emphasis the values of hard-work, discipline, industry and frugality and punctuality. Weber argues that this spirit of capitalism is not simply a way of making money, but a way of life which has ethics, duties and obligations. The development of this spirit of capitalism was influenced by the ethic of this worldly asceticism as preached by Protestantism. He argued that the Protestant ethic is closely associated with the spirit of capitalism. The doctrines of the Protestant sects, particularly Calvinism, created new attitudes towards work, money and pleasure. The guidelines and directives for conduct laid down by a number of Protestant religions, particularly Calvinism, were instrumental in the development of the spirit of capitalism. These guidelines and directives werea person should have a calling in life, a well-defined career which he pursues in a determined, single-minded manner. God has commanded the individual to work for His glory; success in ones calling means the individual has not lost grace in Gods sight; making money is a concrete indication of success in ones calling. The Protestants condemned laziness, leisure, timewasting, idle gossip, and excessive merriment. Living life in terms of these guidelines was an indication that the individual had not lost grace and favour in the sight of God. Weber writes that restless, continuous, systematic work in a worldly calling must have been the most powerful conceivable lever for the expansion of the spirit of capitalism. Making money became both a religious and business ethic. Thus ascetic Protestantism provided an ideological, cultural and psychological framework for the development of a capitalist work ethic. Weber contrasts this Protestant ethic to the religious outlook of Confucianism in China and Hinduism in India. Both India and China had the material conditions like finance, trade and technology to promote capitalism, yet they did not witness capitalist transformation because the value-systems of these societies were such that they did not promote the pursuit of wealth for its own sake and rational organization of work. The capitalist work-ethic did not fit in with the ethos or ideals of these societies. Webers work on religion provides a critical reaction to the economic determinism of social change as found in orthodox Marxist thought. It highlights the relevance of ideas, belief systems and world-views in social change. A common but misguided criticism of Weber is that he naively assigned too
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much significance to the effects of Protestant religions. However, he never argued that the Protestant ethic was necessary for the development of capitalism. In fact he merely said that he perceived an elective affinity between the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Marx on religion Unlike Durkheim or Max Weber, Karl Marx did not make a thorough, detailed study of religion. In his understanding of capitalism, Marx also developed a general theory of society extending over almost all social institutions, especially religion and politics. Marxs model of society had an economic base which determines the contours of the superstructure constituted by religion, politics, arts etc. Marxs ideas on religion were derived substantially from the writings of a number of early 19th century theologians and philosophers, most of all Ludwig Feuerbach who wrote The Essence of Christianity. According to Feuerbach, religion consists of ideas and values produced by human beings in the course of their cultural development, but projected on to divine forces or God. Religion is mans self-consciousness in an object form. Feuerbach uses the term alienation to refer to the establishment of Gods or divine forces as distinct from human beings. Marx in a celebrated/famous quote says Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world. It is the opium of the masses. Marx considered religion to be an illusion or false consciousness which was designed to obfuscate the real causes of the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. Religion acts as an opiate or drug to dull the pain produced by class oppression. It does nothing to solve the problem; it is simply a misguided attempt to make life more bearable for the oppressed. Religion defers happiness and rewards to the after-life, teaching the resigned acceptance of existing conditions in this life. Attention is thus diverted from inequalities and injustices in this world by the promise of what is to come in the next. Marx also believed that religion has a strong ideological content. It acts as a mechanism of social control, maintaining the existing system of exploitation and reinforcing class relationships. It legitimates the existing social structure and promotes stability within society and therefore helps to perpetuate patterns of inequality. Religion reinforces the interests of those in power. Even in societies not as visibly ruled by religious dogma, religion legitimates the political sector. For eg. the Dutch Reformed church in South Africa under apartheid had traditionally insisted that the regimes policy of apartheid reflected Gods intention that certain racial groups be kept separate. The Marxist perspective regards religion as an agent of de-politicization i.e. religion keeps people from seeing
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their lives and societal conditions in political termsfor example, by obscuring the overriding significance of conflicting economic interests. By providing explanations and justifications for social situations, religion distorts reality. It helps to produce a false class consciousness which blinds members of the subject class to their true situation and their real interests. It thus diverts attention from the real source of oppression and so helps to maintain ruling class power. Though there is considerable evidence to support the Marxian view of the role of religion, there is also some evidence which contradicts it. Religious leaders have sometimes been in the forefront of movements for social change. In America during the 1960s, the reverend Dr Martin Luther King Jr, supported by numerous Christian ministers, priests and rabbis, fought for civil rights for the Blacks. Many religious activists, particularly in Latin America, support liberation theology, which refers to the use of the church in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination and other forms of injustice evident in society. The movement is based on following three principles: (i) The recognition of large scale human suffering (ii) Such human suffering on a mass scale is inconsistent with Christian moral principles that there should be equality (iii) As an expression of faith and conscience, Christian must act to relieve this suffering which entails political action and practical strategies. Activists associated with liberation theology believe that organized religion has a moral responsibility to take a strong public stand against the oppression of the poor, racial and ethnic minorities, and women. A number of such activists have allied themselves with the disadvantaged and marginalised sections in a political struggle against the ruling class in whose hands wealth is concentrated. Liberation theology has been strongly resisted by the ruling class as well as the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church has strongly opposed the mixing of religion and politics. It believes that liberation theology diverts attention from other worldly concerns of Christianity to get involved in political controversy. Religion and Politics Politics and religion are both very important aspects of social life. Religion as a part of society is not just restricted to the supernatural realm. It has a wider social significance. Religion and politics interact in two significant contexts. Religion provides moral, ethical vision and guides people and communities. It is also a vehicle of expression, a form of identity around which a group gathers for mustering more power for itself or other secular, political purposes. Politics refers to the organization and utilization of power. Political systems attempt to give the
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impression that their power is legitimate rather than coercive. Any polity which derives its power from the people has to acknowledge and accommodate the religious aspect which remains an important aspect for individuals and communities. Religion is an important part of peoples interests and demands which affect the political system and political authority. Hence religion as an aspect of community life is of significance to the political system. Religion is normally of huge ethical significance. Religion prescribes rules of conduct and morality which guide its adherents even in the secular realm. It would be difficult to be seriously religious in any sense without that religion determining some of ones political beliefs. Often, some of the most crucial political questions have answers which derive from or are influenced by religious ideas and values: the legitimacy or otherwise of regimes, the limits of a particular authority, and the rightness or wrongness of legislation can all be derived from religious revelation. Society does not consist of individuals who are isolated from one another. Individuals are invariably members of differently constituted social groups, which have their own group interests and aspirations. Religious groups are one such important category and the political system and establishment has to contend with the specific interests, demands and requirements of specific religious groups. The suggestion of some social theorists that primordial loyalties like those of religion will be overshadowed by more powerful societal dynamics like modernisation and industrialisation and may ultimately be replaced by more modern identities of class has not been fully realized. Religion remains a strong motivating factor for group mobilization. A democratic polity, concerned and affected with individual and group behaviour, is affected by religion in an intimate manner. In order for power to have legitimacy, it must have the support from the people. This will be forthcoming only if the people feel that their interests and vision of life, which are substantially shaped by religious as much as by secular forces, are being promoted or at least not being threatened by the political system of a particular state. Whenever these interests and values are threatened the authority of the state is questioned, sometimes it is resisted and many times there is a call for reconstitution. Thus, religion can enter into the picture as a mobilizing force in the political arena to either promote or forestall political change. The relationship between religion and politics depends on the following: Degree of religious homogeneity/heterogeneity in society: The degree of heterogeneity of religious beliefs and practices has a
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perceptible impact on the political arena. In homogenous societies the impact of religion on politics is less pronounced, while in heterogeneous societies such impact is more perceptible. In heterogeneous societies there are divergent religious beliefs, values and interests and all of them require protection and promotion, and thus enter the political arena. In such a scenario, often, individuals and political parties have to cater to specifically religious interests. The extent to which religious groupings coincide with other divisions in society based on class, power, ethnicity, etc. The greater the correspondence between such divisions and religion, the greater is the scope for religion in politics. When the people of one religion occupy similar class, ethnic or power statuses which are distinct from those of people of other religions, the scope of religion in politics increases. For example, some religious minorities in India predominantly fall in the lower economic classes. In such circumstances there is the possibility that even the secular economic and political interests of the disadvantaged classes of religious communities are articulated through religion and religion based parties. Nature of religion: Different religions prescribe different world views. There are certain religions that believe in the subordination of all social processes to religionand find it difficult to separate politics from religion. For them politics is an integral part of religion, as they do not believe in the separation of religion from politics. Other religions might share a different worldview which allows for the separation of religion from politics. Secularism Secularism can be defined as separation of a government institution from religion and/or religious beliefs and practices. In one sense, it may assert an individuals right to be free from religious teachings, and from governmental imposition of religion. It may also refer to the view that human activities and human decisions should be made without any religious influence or pressure. Secularism draws its roots from Greek and Roman philosophers like Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus, Enlightenment thinkers like Denis Diderot, Voltaire, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Paine, and modern free thinkers, agnostics and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell, among others.
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In European laicism, it is debated that secularism is a step towards modernization. In the United States, however, some feel that state secularism has protected religion to a great degree from governmental interference. Secularism may also be understood in opposition to religious hegemony, religious tyranny and religion-based exclusion. The goal of secularism is to ensure freedom of religion, freedom to exist outside the folds of religion, freedom to reject religion, freedom to preach and practice any religion, inter-religious equality and equality between believers and non-believers. Features of a secular state The following are the features of a secular state: (i) Non-establishment of religion (ii) Peace between communities (iii) Non-preferential liberty to all religious groups (iv) Liberty to embrace any religion (v) No discrimination by the State on grounds of religion Bhargava, Secularism in Political Theory, p. 280
6.2.4 Caste, Class and Language

Caste Caste may be referred to as a social class that is separated from others by differences in hereditary rank, profession or wealth. The word caste may be defined as ranked groups that based on heredity within rigid systems of social stratification. This was particularly relevant to old India, where the hereditary classes were differentiated by relative degrees of ritual purity and social status. The four basic classes were: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishya (merchants/farmers), and Sudra (labourers). All societies have been historically stratified hierarchically, with the dominant strata having greater access to resources than the lower strata. The division of society into hierarchically ordered classes allows, at least in theory, for upward mobility. However, in a caste ridden society, social mobility is not possible in theory because a persons position is determined by birth and social intercourse outside ones caste is prohibited.
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Three central elements of caste

Hierarchy: Derived from birth and traditionally prescribed status of ranks. Pollution: Peoples, groups, material objects, occupations and the human body are separated into the pure and the polluted, and thus, into clean and unclean, and therefore, ranked high and low. Segmentation: Castes are subdivided into sub-castes, each with its own culture. Human Rights, Gender and Environment (2009)
Other elements of caste include: 1. Restriction of commensurability and social intercourse: Castes imposes certain restrictions on its members regarding food, drink and social intercourse. One rule is that the food to be taken should be one where water used in its preparation is used from their caste or another that is higher than their caste. A similar rule applies with water. 2. Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities: In a caste system, there is unequal distribution of privileges among its members. The gulf in privileges between higher and lower classes is substantial. 3. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation: There is negligible or no choice in matters of occupation, with each caste associated with a specific occupation. Occupations are hereditary and members are expected to follow their parents without fail. 4. Restriction of marriage: Castes are divided into sub-castes, with each being an endogamous group. To some thinkers, this is the essence of the caste system. The word caste is derived from the word casta found in the Iberian languages. The Portuguese, who reached India in the 16th century, used this term to describe the hierarchically organized social system in India. The word casta was originally used to describe the Iberian hierarchical social structure with Muslims forming the upper stratum followed by Jews and Christians, before the Christians gained political ascendancy in over the other two groups. The differences between these groups, or castas, were not only religious but also occupational. The word casta was originally derived from Latin castus meaning chaste, perhaps with reference to notions of purity regarding the nature of occupation.
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The Indian words for caste are jati and varna. The caste in India was determined on the basis of birth, which was controlled by endogamous marriages and social relations. But, it was also determined by the nature of occupation. The dominant castes traditionally used myth in the form of the anatomy of Brahma to explain their origins. Thus, the brahmin, whose occupation was largely priestly, came from Brahmas mouth; the kshatriya, whose occupation was military, came from the arms of Brahma; the vaishya, whose occupation was trade, came from the thighs of Brahma; and finally, the sudras, whose occupation was considered polluting, arose from the feet of Brahma. The first three castes were considered as twice born, perhaps because they were first determined by birth and then by their specific occupation as priests, warriors or tradesmen.19 The last group was considered to be sudras. Besides, the sudras, there were groups that did not form part of this caste structure at all, and perhaps some of them retained their ethnic social structure as tribes. The other significant elements of the traditional caste system in India were norms and regulations concerning physical contact and intake of food and water. Over a period of time, dominant castes were determined also by ownership of land, the principal means of subsistence. Land not only endowed dominant castes with power over territory but also in the exercise of local government, especially the administration of justice and punishment. These are some of the general inferences or premises that one could draw from the extremely complex system of castes that existed in traditional India. The literature on castes in India is extensive. It deals with a variety of subjects like the existence of castes amongst Christians and Muslims, the role of women in relation to caste, economics of caste, caste in rural India, caste and Hinduism, the backward caste movements in Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the role of affirmative action and the judiciary on the subject of castes.20 Since the decade of the 1970s, there has been an exponential growth in literature within the field of Dalit Studies, as an outcome of Dalit consciousness and literature. Castes outside India The system of castes also existed in countries other than India. In Japan, from the early 16th century to the middle of the 19th century, the Shogun rulers established a rigid, hierarchical system of castes and, it was maintained by force of law and other means. The hierarchical structure from top to bottom is as follows: shogunate warrior bureaucrats, samurai military elite, higher aristocracy, peasants, artisans, merchants, and eta or hinin.
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Eta meant heavily polluted and hinin meant non-human. These people were called so because their work was considered to be polluting or undesirable like butchering animals, tanning skins, digging graves, handling corpses and guarding tombs. These people were legally barred from marrying outside their group and living outside their designated zones. These Japanese outcasts were formally emancipated in 1871. In Rwanda, the recent conflict between the Tutsis and the Hutus was could be seen as a caste war between the minority of upper castes and a majority of lower castes. The Tutsis, which constituted one-tenth of the total population, controlled political power. The Hutus, which formed the vast majority of the population, were agriculturists. The lowest caste was known as Twa, a minority group that worked as potters and hunters. Class Class is a group of people within a society possessing the same socioeconomic status. This term was first widely used in the early 19th century, after the revolutions of the late 18th century. Karl Marx's theory on class was perhaps the unsurpassed view of the subject during that time, and focused on how one class controls and directs production while other classes produces for the dominant class. Class is a very important idea in the work of Karl Marx, and yet there is no systematic analysis of the concept, except for the incomplete attempt at the end of volume III of Capital. In this section, he deals with three classes wage labourers, capitalists and landowners. For Marx, classes were basic social groups and the conflict between classes developed depending on the changes in the economic substructure. A class existed only when it was conscious of itself, and consciousness arose out of a sense of hostility towards another social group. This consciousness included a consciousness of the rights of the class as a group and the political will to fight for the corresponding rights. The novelty of the Marxian concept of class was that it was intimately related to a historical period, which was characterized by the modes of production. Much of Marxist analysis of class antagonism is restricted to the hostility between the two great classesthe bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie are defined as the owners of the means of production and the employers of wage-labour; while the proletariat is characterized by those people who do not own the means of production and eke out a living by selling their wage-labour.
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Other classes mentioned by Marx are those of the petty bourgeoisie and the peasants, but these merge into the larger classes of the bourgeoisie depending on how much land they own and how many workers they employ. Between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat lie the middle classes, which are made up of those who work in the service industries. The middle classes arose from the increased use of machinery and the multiplication of the service industry. The intellectuals were a kind of paid wage-labourers of the bourgeoisie, and were referred to as the ideological classes. This is a prime example that not all classes were born out of an economic determinism. The lumpen proletariat formed a class from the drop-outs of society. These were people who had no stake in society and no historical role to play in class struggle, except that they could be reactionary at times by selling their services to the bourgeoisie. Class also depends upon the estate of a person. Estate comprises the sum of a persons assets less liabilities. Estate can be inherited and is a primary marker class.
The first question to be answered is this: What constitutes a class? And this follows naturally from another question, namely: What constitutes wage-labourers, capitalists and landlords into three great social classes? At first glance, it might seem that the identity of their revenues and their sources of revenue does that. They are three great social groups, whose component elements, the individuals forming them, live on wages, profit and ground-rent, or by the utilization of their labour-power, their capital and their private land. However, from this point of view, physicians and officials would also form two classes, for they belong to the two distinct social groups, and the revenues of their members flow from the same common source. The same would also be true of the infinite dissipation of interests and positions created by the social division of labour among labourers, capitalists and landlords. For instance, the landlords are divided into owners of vineyards, farms, forests, mines and fisheries.
Capital, vol. III (1864-5)

The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas: i.e., the class which is the ruling material force of society, is at the same time its ruling intellectual force. The class which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the means of mental production are subject to it. The ruling ideas are nothing more than the ideal expression of the dominant material relationships, the dominant material relationships grasped as ideas; hence of the relationships, which make the one class Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 136
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the ruling one, therefore, the ideas of its dominance. The individuals composing the ruling class possess among other things consciousness and therefore think. Insofar, therefore, as they rule as a class and determine the extent and compass of an epoch, it is self-evident that they do this in its whole range, hence among other things rule also as thinkers, as producers of ideas, and regulate the production and distribution of the ideas of their age: thus their ideas are the ruling ideas of the epoch.
The German Ideology (1845-6)

An oppressed class is the vital condition for every society founded on the antagonism of classes. The emancipation of the oppressed class thus implies necessarily the creation of a new society. For the oppressed class to be able to emancipate itself it is necessary that the productive powers already acquired and the existing social relations should no longer be capable of existing side by side. Of all the instruments of production, the greatest productive power is the revolutionary class itself. The organization of revolutionary elements as a class supposes the existence of all the productive forces which could be engendered in the bosom of the old society. Does this mean that after the fall of the old society there will be a new class domination culminating in a new political power? No. The condition for the emancipation of the working class is the abolition of every class, just as the condition for the liberation of the third estate of the bourgeois order, was the abolition of all estates and all orders. The working class, in the course of its development, will substitute for the old civil society an association which will exclude classes and their antagonism, and there will be no more political power properly socalled, since political power is precisely the official expression of antagonism in civil society. Meanwhile, the antagonism between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie is a struggle of class against class, a struggle which carried to its highest expression is a total revolution.
The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. [...] The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 137
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established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
The Communist Manifiesto (1848) Language

Has a nation anything more precious than the language of its fathers? Herder
Language in India India is a country of great cultural and linguistic diversity. There are a number of distinct languages in India each with substantial number of speakers forming distinct linguistic groups. While the Constitution of India under the 8th Schedule recognises 22 major languages, there are numerous other mother-tongues in India including tribal languages, with or without their own script. The 1961 Census identified 1,652 languages or language dialects in India. According to the Census of India, there are 29 languages in India which are spoken by more than a million speakers each and 122 more which are spoken by more than 10,000. This considerable linguistic diversity in India is a significant factor in Indian society and polity. Linguistic identity and affiliation has been a potent force in social and political life for a multi-lingual country like India. Linguistic diversity has created strong political currents like those centred around the issue of linguistic reorganisation of states and the problem of linguistic minorities in states and other issues linked to language, such as educational and economic development, employment and other economic opportunities and access to political power. Such issues have often created substantial controversy and disputes for the Indian body politic. Such controversies have taken three significant forms in independent India. The official language issue The framers of the Indian Constitution being sensitive to the particularities of a multi-lingual society like India did not prescribe a national language to be spoken all over the country. The dispute was not centred on the question of a national language, that is one language which all Indians would adopt after some time, since the view that one national language was essential to an Indian national
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identity had already been rejected overwhelmingly by the secular majority of the national leadership. The Constitution therefore virtually accepted all the major languages as languages of India or Indias national languages because it perceived clearly the strong linguistic diversity present in the country. However, the question arose as to what would be Indias official language i.e., the language in which the central government would carry on its work and maintain contact with the state governments, or the language of all-India communication. Only the two languages of Hindi or English were considered to be suitable for this role. Both had their particular problems. While English was widely used for inter-provincial communication as well as for international communication there was the emotional argument that an independent country could not be truly free until its people gave up the use of a foreign language and adopted its own at least within the borders of its own state. Hindi while being the language of the largest number of speakers and having extensive spread in the north, fell far short of encompassing the majority of speakers of vernacular languages and its claim to be a link language beyond its own regions of concentration in the north could not be effectively sustained. The official language issue was highly politicized from the time of the constituent assembly debates itself and remained a controversial issue for some time. The two opposing factions in this issue were the advocates of Hindi, overwhelmingly from the northern Hindi speaking states and the proponents for English from the non-Hindi states of which the southern states particularly Tamil Nadu where prominent. After bitter debates, the Constituent Assembly granted Hindi the status of official language, but postponed the final implementation of it for fifteen years. English was to continue for use in all official purposes till 1965, when it would be replaced by Hindi. Hindi was thus to be introduced in a phased manner. The issue remained a subject of intense controversy and became increasingly acrimonious with the passage of time. The official language issue was linked to the tangible issue of employment in the prized all India public services since the language recognized for official purposes would be the language in which those who aspired for these jobs would have to be proficient. The people from the non-Hindi states were apprehensive that the elevation of Hindi would give a clear unfair advantage to Hindi speakers in these much sought after and influential posts. Moreover there was also a fear and suspicion that the elevation of Hindi was part of a process of cultural domination of north India over other parts of the country, one which was especially strongly felt in Tamil Nadu.
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6.2.5 Sex and Gender Distinction between sex and gender The distinction between sex and gender is a prime example of the nature versus nurture debate. The classification of individuals into sexes and genders, on the basis of anatomy or socio-cultural reasons, is eminently fuzzy. One would imagine that there are only two sexes: male and female. That is belied when one comes across people with both male and female genitalia. The matter becomes complex, when individuals resort to clinical alteration of their genitalia. And the issue turns really complicated when one recognizes the truth there are individuals, who believe that they are men trapped in a female body and vice versa.
To simplify, for the sake of understanding and clarity, we could conclude that there are more than two sexesmale, female and transsexuals like eunuchs and hermaphrodites. Similarly, there are also more than gendersfeminine, masculine and transgender. What we know for sure is that the subject of sex and gender is extremely complex, much more than what we would imagine. Hence, it deserves concerted application of the mind with great caution and profound sensitivity. In 2009, the Election Commission of India allowed eunuchs and transsexuals to register under a separate sexual identity. Sexual preferences Homosexuality is a human desire to have intimate relations with those of the same sex. It was until not too long ago considered as a deviant sexual behaviour in many societies around the world. In psychiatric discourses, it was treated as a disorder or perversion. Michel Foucaults path breaking study titled The History of Sexuality (1978) shows how sexual behaviour came to be institutionalized in the West. Human sexual behaviour is often considered to serve only the biological purpose of procreation. This is one important reason why heterosexual behaviour the desire for those of the opposite sex was considered normal. However, recent research has shown that sex for pleasure is necessary for the total well being of the individual. Thus, different sexual orientations, including bisexuality or the desire of an individual to enjoy relations with both sexes, are part of human sexual behaviour. A note on feminism Sexuality is to feminism what work is to Marxism. This classic analogy of Catherine MacKinnon describes the central aspect of feminism. Feminism is a broad field that refuses to identify human experience with male experience. Instead, feminists take up womens interests, identities and issues for analysis
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and action. They are concerned with womens ways of being, thinking and doing. So profound and vast is the field of feminism that the gender of the researcher/ inquirer/knower is considered to be a determining factor of knowledge.26 There are so many different currents of feminisms within the West, where its activism became most notable. However, feminist currents are very strong in Africa and Asia as well. Historians of feminism in the West trace its origins within religious and secular frameworks of Medieval and Early-Modern Europe. Nonetheless, a pamphlet known as the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) drafted by Olympe de Gouges in the immediate context of the French Revolution is a notable starting point in the history of Western Feminism. Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) is the most well-known feminist polemical writing of the late 18th century.
From the tyranny of man, I firmly believe, the greater number of female follies proceed; and the cunning, which I allow makes at present a part of their character, I likewise have repeatedly endeavoured to prove, is produced by oppression. [] Asserting the rights which women in common with men ought to contend for, I have not attempted to extenuate their faults; but to prove them to be the natural consequence of their education and station in society. If so, it is reasonable to suppose that they will change their character, and correct their vices and follies, when they are allowed to be free in a physical, moral and civil sense. Let woman share the rights and she will emulate the virtues of man; [] Be just the, O ye men of understanding! [] A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
During the late 19th century and early 20th century, the right to vote became the central demand of feminists in parts of Europe, Australia and America. As the 20th century wore on, issues such as contraception, employment, sexuality became the core themes. Margaret Sanger (18831966) was an important feminist thinker, whose life mission was to give every woman the right to control her body. She believed that the choice of voluntary motherhood was key to the liberation of women. In her own words, the most far reaching social development of modern times is the revolt of woman against sex servitude. Sanger is especially important in the Indian context because of her debate with Gandhi in the decade of the 1930s on sexuality and contraception. The debate makes for very interesting reading, especially when the version of Mahadev Desai is contrasted with that of Sanger. It reveals how disconcerting the subject was for Gandhi.
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The personal is the political An important contribution of feminism has been the rallying cry of second-wave feminism that the personal is the political. This has highlighted the fact that womens oppression occurs everywhere. If it does occur everywhere, then the separation of the public sphere (of government and politics) and the private sphere (of family and personal relationships) is specious, if the role of the State is restricted to the public sphere alone. More importantly, it has focused on the hitherto ignored social fact that hierarchy, injustice, abuse and violence are as rampant in the private sphere as the public. Therefore, the private sphere of personal relations is a site for politics. Political action in the private sphere is important to school individuals with a sense of justice. The ethics of care: Women and political philosophy One of the central themes of political philosophy, since the time of Socrates, is the question of justice. Justice was, and often continues to be, understood as being based on reason, not emotions. Political philosophers, as recent those like John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin, have mused over the subject of justice, and its abstract and universal, non-prescriptible and specific aspects. Carol Gilligan, who interviewed college students, identified that men and women think differently about morality. While most men focused on justice, most women were concerned about justice and care. Thus, was born, the concept of the ethics of care. The claim of ethics of care is that in close relationships, people focus on human connectedness, self-sacrifice, obligation to others, peace, compromise and stability. The ethics of care has become an important element of moral reasoning, and may even be superior to justice in many ways. Two Problems of Discrimination against Women: Domestic Violence and Employment Domestic violence against women The subject of domestic violence against women and the girl child is important, especially in the case of India, because it enormously influences the formation of the feminine identity. Such violence takes a variety of forms covert and overt, physical, verbal and emotional, as well as neglect. Gender specific violence against women occurs during all phases of a womans lifeas a girl child, as a young adult and in the later periods of the ageing process. In many cases, it is difficult to adequately measure in tangible terms violence against women. The silence of society worsens this situation. Curiously, in some cases, violence against women is part of the prescribed process of socialization. Male violence in sexual relationships within marriage is a prime
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example. Societal attitudes such as the behaviour of women provokes male violence often lead women to act against themselves, and such acts against their self include suicide, self-mutilation, denial of food etc. Violence in the conjugal home is commonly associated with the phenomenon of dowry-giving/taking, where an unequal flow of goods and property takes place between spouses. It reflects the inequality in the relationship between spouses and their corresponding families. Other forms of violence in the conjugal homes include the sexual division of labour and gender hierarchy within the household. The gender disparity in Indian households is most clearly reflected in acts of female foeticide. It is often camouflaged behind the medical technique called amniocentesis, originally evolved to detect serious defects that threaten the infant and the pregnant mother. Women and employment Although women have a significant role in the global economy, they occupy the lowest position in the hierarchy, with considerably less pay and job security. This employment pattern is interwoven with issues of social welfare and population policies. Although some state policies tend to exploit pre-existing gender inequalities, the State has an important role to play by legislating and enforcing laws so that existing gender inequalities are transformed so that parity comes into being. Gendering politics, the rights discourse and the state Recent feminist scholars have altered the discourses on citizenship, rights and the State within academic discipline of political science. The initial contribution of feminist theory was to challenge the social contract philosophy. For Rousseau, political life was a male domain and, consequently, women were confined to the private sphere of family life. Feminists have challenged the fable of Rousseau and, have argued against the prevalence of male-centered political philosophy. The critique of the classical social contract theorists like Locke and Hobbes appeared most notably in the work of Carol Pateman, The Sexual Contract (1988). Throughout the history of feminism, the struggle of women for basic rights, such as education, ownership of property, custody of children and, suffrage have been of great importance. However, the current challenge faced by feminists is to insert the universal category of gender into particular contexts, where other oppressed identities like class, community, ethnicity, sexual preference and disability are no less important at the local, national and supranational contexts.
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According to Radical feminist theory, the state is a system of structures and institutions created by men in order to sustain and recreate male power and female subordination. Over the last few decades, feminists have produced plenty of literature accompanied by political activism that has challenged the patriarchal state by underscoring the importance of the feminine agency. Womens movement in India The complex and varied history of the womens movement in India has been dealt with by Radha Kumar. She has traced the trajectory of the womens movement in India from the 19th century to the decade of the 1990s. Some of the themes that stand out in her history are: the construction of the image of the mother and the daughter within social reform movements in pre-Independence India; the evolution of the womens movement, with the woman seeking the status of an autonomous agent; and, womens struggles on such issues as dowry, rape, personal law and communal identities, sati, and environment. Dealing specifically, with feminist movement in India, Radha Kumar explains why feminism was not a derived discourse from the West, even by feminists in pre-Independence India. She goes further and explains why the comparisons between Indian and Western feminisms are facile, especially because the cultural category of the West itself may be deconstructed. Radha Kumar rightly points out that the Indian feminist movement is amongst the most sophisticated of its kind in the world, and her work is ample proof of that. The essential points of reference in the Indian feminist movement still remain problems of poverty and illiteracy of women in India. To these must be added, the problem of emphasizing personal politics, which has led to depoliticization; and the problem of being too preoccupied with sexual politics. The aim of this brief note given above is to encourage the reader for a direct engagement with issues of women, gender and feminism in India. A good starting point is Writing the Womens Movement: A Reader.35 This book provides an overview of the history of the womens movement; the legal framework within which women have acted and resisted; role of women in the political sphere; women and education; women negotiating violence; women, family and sexuality; and, women and work. Activity 2 Draw a chart describing in what ways women are discriminated against in society. Is it true that such discrimination is limited to women alone?
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3. State whether true or false. (a) Much of the Marxist analysis of class antagonism can is restricted to the hostility between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. (b) Caste in India was determined on the basis of birth and occupation. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) ___________ is the sigh of the oppressed creature Karl Marx. (b) Sexuality is to feminism what __________ is to Marxism Catherine MacKinnon.
6.3 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: The two theories of social stratification are the functionalist theory and the conflict theory Race refers to classifications of humans into relatively large and distinct populations or groups often based on factors such as appearance based on heritable phenotypical characteristics or geographic ancestry. Anthony Giddens has defined race as a set of social relationships, which allow individuals and groups to be located, and various attributes or competencies assigned, on the basis of biologically grounded features. The concept of race creates the possibility of racialism and racism. Racialism is the doctrine that racial categories are important in determining human behaviour. Racism is the tendency to identify oneself racially and to show hostility or lack of respect for members of other races. The notion of minority groups (often racial and ethnic minorities) is an important concept in Political Sociology. Assimilation is the process by which an outsider, immigrant or subordinate group becomes indistinguishably integrated into the dominant host society. Assimilation is generally practised by a minority group that wants to conform to the standards of the dominant group. Amalgamation describes the end result when a majority and a minority group combine to form a new group.
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In a pluralistic society, a subordinate group will not have to forsake its lifestyle and traditions. Segregation refers to the act of physically separating two groups. It involves physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace and social functions. Generally it is imposed by a dominant group on a minority group. Genocide is the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. Ethnic cleansing has been subsequently used to refer to other instances of minority persecution world-wide. The term conflict describes a situation in which two or more actors pursue incompatible, yet from their individual perspectives, entirely just goals. Defeat of the opponent is seen as essential for achieving the goal. Immigration refers to people moving into a country to settle, and emigration refers to people moving out of a country to settle in another. Religion is defined in sociological terms as a set of beliefs, symbols and practices (e.g. rituals), which are based on the idea of the sacred, and which unites believers into a socio-religious community. Politics and religion are both very important aspects of social life. Religion as a part of society is not just restricted to the supernatural realm. The relationship between religion and politics depends on degree of religious homogeneity/heterogeneity in society and nature of religion. Secularism may be understood in opposition to religious hegemony, religious tyranny and religion based exclusion. The division of society into hierarchically ordered classes allows, at least in theory, for upward mobility. For Marx, classes were basic social groups and, the conflict between classes developed depending on the changes in the economic substructure. A class existed only when it was conscious of itself, and consciousness arose out of a sense of hostility towards another social group. Feminism is a broad field that refuses to identify human experience with male experience. Instead, feminists take up womens interests, identities and issues for analysis and action. The subject of domestic violence against women and the girl child is important, especially in the case of India, because it enormously influences the formation of the feminine identity.
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6.4 Glossary
Race: Classifications of humans into relatively large and distinct populations or groups often based on factors such as appearance based on heritable phenotypical characteristics or geographic ancestry Racialism: Doctrine that racial categories are important in determining human behaviour Racism: Tendency to identify oneself racially and to show hostility or lack of respect for members of other races Prejudice: Negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority Discrimination: Process of denying opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons Institutional discrimination: Denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups which result from the normal operations of a society Melting Pot: Idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behaviour drawing on diverse cultural sources Ethnocentrism: Practice of studying and making judgements about other societies in terms of ones own cultural assumptions or biases Social distance: Perceived feelings of separation or distance between social groups or between members of different ethnic groups Genocide: Deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation Religion: A set of beliefs, symbol and practices based on the idea of the sacred, and which unites believers into a socio-religious community Secularism: Belief that a state should not discriminate on the grounds of religion Feminism: A broad field that takes up the issues and interests of the female race Immigration: Refers to the people moving into a country to settle Emigration: Refers to people moving out of a country to settle in another Class: Group of people within a society possessing the same socioeconomic status
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1. What is the difference between racial and ethnic groups? 2. What are the features of a secular state? 3. Write a note on caste. 4. What is the distinction between gender and sex? 5. Briefly elaborate the statement, the personal is the political. 6. Write a note on womens movement in India.

1. (a) False; (b) False 2. (a) Capitalism; (b) Property 3. (a) True; (b) True 4. (a) Religion; (b) work

1. Refer to Section 6.2.1 2. Refer to Section 6.2.3 3. Refer to Section 6.2.4 4. Refer to Section 6.2.5 5. Refer to Section 6.2.5 6. Refer to Section 6.2.5
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6.7 Further Reading

1. Abercrombie, Nicholas, Stephen Hill, and Bryan S. Turner, 2000, The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, Penguin Books, London. 2. Bevir, Mark, ed., 2010, Encyclopedia of Political Theory, vol 3, Sage, California. 3. Blumer, Martin and John Solomos, eds., 1999, Ethnic and racial studies today, Routledge, London. 4. Cornell, Stephen and Douglas Hartmann, 1998, Ethnicity and race: making identities in a changing world, Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, California. 5. Cox, O. C., 1970, Class, Caste and Race, Monthly Review Press, New York 6. Giddens, Anthony, 2005, Sociology, Polity, Cambridge. 7. Goodin, Robert E. and Hans-Dieter Klongemann, 2000, A New Handbook of Political Science, Oxford University Press, New York. 8. Ignatieff, Michael, 1993, Blood and belonging, Viking, Toronto. 9. Kymlicka, Will, 1997, The new debate over minority rights, University of Toronto Press, Toronto. 10. McLean, Iain and Alistair McMillan, eds., 2004, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics, Oxford University Press, Delhi 11. Miles,R., 1989, Racism, Routledge, London. 12. Newman, William, 1973, American pluralism: A study of minority groups and social theory, Harper and Row, New York. 13. Rex, John and David Mason, 1986, Theories of race and ethnic relations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 14. Rex, John, 1970, Race relations in sociological theory, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. 15. Schaeffer, Richard T. and Robert P. Lamm, 1992, Sociology, McGrawHill, New York 16. Smith, Anthony, 1981, The ethnic revival, Cambridge University Press, New York
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17. Abraham, Francis and John Henry Morgan, 1991, Sociological Thought from Comte to Sorokin, Macmillan, India. 18. Abraham, M. Frances, 2008, Contemporary Sociology: An introduction to concepts and theories, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 19. Bhargava, Rajeev and Ashok Acharya, eds., 2008, Political Theory: An introduction, Pearson, Delhi. 20. Durkheim, Emile, 1926, The elementary forms of religious life, Macmillan, New York. 21. Haralambos, Michael, 1996, Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 22. Macionis, John, 1995, Sociology, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. 23. Borgatta, Edgar F., 2010, Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2nd edition, Macmillan Reference, New York. 24. Das, Veena, ed., 2008, Handbook of Indian Sociology, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 25. The Handbook of Political Sociology: States, civil societies, and globalization, eds., Thomas Janozski, Robert R. Alford, Alexander M. Hicks, Mildred A. Schwartz, Cambridge University Press, 2005, USA. 26. Kumar, Radha, 1993 (2003), The History of Doing: An illustrated account of movements for Womens rights and feminism in India, 1800-1990, Zubaan: An associate of Kali for Women, New Delhi. 27. MacKinnon, Catherine A., 1989, Toward a feminist theory of the state, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 28. Wollstonecraft, Mary, 1988, A vindication of the rights of woman, A Norton Critical Edition, 2nd edition, W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 29. Slattery, Martin, 2003, Key ideas in sociology, Nelson Thornes, UK. First Indian reprint 2006. 30. Taylor, Charles, 1985, Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 31. Walzer, Michael, 1983, Spheres of Justice, Blackwell, Oxford.
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Structure
Sociology and Culture
7.1 Introduction Objectives 7.2 Culture and Civilization 7.3 Social Origins of Culture 7.4 Components of Culture 7.5 Attitudes and Beliefs Values and Norms 7.6 Indian Culture 7.7 Summary 7.8 Glossary 7.9 Terminal Questions 7.10 Answers 7.11 Further Reading
7.1 Introduction
Unit 6 introduced you to the nature of social stratification. You learnt that society can be categorized on the basis of race, religion, caste, language and gender. In experiences during their life, people develop an array of regulations and processes. This is accompanied by a sustained collection of concepts and ethics known as culture. Sir Edward Tylor (1871) defined culture in a classical and sociological manner. According to him, Culture is that complex entirety which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities and habits, that are acquired by man, as a member of society. One can define culture as that factor, which is absorbed by society. It is a trait that is adopted collectively and practised by all members of a society. An individual inherits culture as part of social legacy. This inherited legacy is altered and restructured with slight changes and modifications, before it is again inherited by the future generations. Culture can be divided into material and non-material forms. Material culture comprises man-made objects like tools, furniture, roads and buildings. Practically, any physical item that has been altered for use falls in the category of material culture. These man-made things are also known as artifacts. Contrarily, non-material culture comprises language, ideas, knowledge, customs and beliefs.
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According to Anthropologist Bidney, culture is the product of agro facts (product of civilization), artifacts (product of industry), sociofacts (social organization) and mentifacts (language, religion, art, etc.). According to Marett, culture is communicable intelligence. Robert Redfield, an American anthropologist and ethnolinguist, has emphasized a symbolic view of culture. According to him, culture is an organized body of conventional understanding, which is manifested in art and artifacts and characterizes a human group. For Redfield, culture is the complete conventional meaning which is embodied in artifacts, social structure and symbols. Ruth Benedicts, an anthropologist of culture and personality, in her book, Pattern of Culture (1936), has defined culture from personalitys point of view. According to her A culture, like an individual, is more or less consistent pattern of thought and action. Thus, she has defined culture from a formal and aesthetic view point. Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown have proposed an instrumental and humanistic definition of culture. According to Malinowski, culture is an instrument for the satisfaction of the needs of man. Malinowski defines culture as the tool that facilitates mankind to protect and realize his bio-psychic survival. This consequently results in more developed rational and logical mode of survival. All economic, social, religious and linguistic needs of mankind originate from one general and basic need, i.e., human need, hence they are all related to each other. Since all factors within a culture are interrelated, there are no loose strings. Thus, it is evident that any single trait cannot exist all by itself. Its identity emerges when it is seen as part of the whole and not in isolation. Malinowski stressed that culture has a broad range and is self-reliant. According to him, if a slight change occurs in any of the features of a culture, the whole of it will reflect a corresponding change. He was a staunch believer of cultural pluralism, in which the bio-physical requirements of individuals impact the growth of every culture. He recommended that culture can be studied on the basis of these requirements and not on the basis of any fixed standards. Sufficiency, based on basic requirements, is a quality of a culture in which many different parts are closely connected and work successfully together. This is a result of widespread knowledge. On the other hand, Radcliffe Brown regards culture as a social heritage which perpetuates social life. Sociologists who belong to the structural functional school have regarded the whole of culture as a unit of study. They assume a holistic view of the entire culture. R.H. Lowie said, culture is nothing but total or whole of social tradition. Kluckhohn defined culture as all those designs which have been historically created for life. These designs may be, explicit, implicit,
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rational, irrational, or those which exist at any given time as potential guides for the behaviour of men. In this unit you will learn about culture and its origin. You will also read about culture and civilization and the components of culture.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to Distinguish between culture and civilization Explain a sub-culture Analyse the social origins of culture Explain the role of the media in cultural institutions List the components of culture Distinguish between beliefs and attitudes and norms and values Analyse the role of ideology in science Evaluate the culture and society of India
7.2 Culture and Civilization

When the concept of culture first came into the picture in 18th and 19th century Europe, it referred to a process of cultivation or, rather, improvement, regarding horticulture or agriculture. In the 19th century, it connoted refinement of the individual, particularly through education, and also the fulfilment of national ideals. In the mid-19th century, scientists used the term in reference to a universal human capacity. For Georg Simmel, a German non-positivist sociologist , culture was the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history. In the 20th century, culture became vital to the study of anthropology. Today, its definitions, though far from concrete are more comprehensive than before. Culture may refer to the totality of socially transmitted behaviour patterns, beliefs, institutions arts, etc., as well as all other products of human thought and work. Culture can also be defined as the predominating attitudes and behaviour that characterize a group or an organizations functioning. According to McIver and Page, two great areas of human experience and of human activity are culture and civilization. All that man does, all that he creates, all his artifacts, etc., fall permanently into one order or the other. It
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would include not only our systems of social organization but also our techniques and our material instruments. It would include the ballot box and the telephone alike; our laws, schools and banking systems as well as our banks. They argued that technology is a part of civilization. Within the order of civilization, they distinguished between basic technology and social technology. Basic technology is directed towards mans control over the natural phenomena. It is the area of the engineer and the mechanic. It applies the laws of physics, chemistry and biology to the service of human objectives. It rules the process of production in industry, agriculture and extractive industries. It constructs ships, planes, armaments, tractors and elevators and an endless variety of artifacts. It shapes and assembles the objects of every scale. It plans the modernized city and its parkways and also the newest design of womens hats. Social technology, on the other hand, is a collection of techniques that are directed towards the regulation of the behaviour of human beings. It has two essential divisions, economic technology and political technology. Economic technology is concerned with economic processes and the immediate relationships between men, for the pursuit of economic means. Political technology regulates a wide range of human relationships. While McIver and Page describe culture, they believe that, just as the typewriter belongs to one great order, similarly the book that has been typed on it belongs to another great order. All material things that we bring into existence, give us something that we crave for or we need. All of them are expressions of us. They have been created to satisfy the need within us. This need is not an outer necessity. They belong to the realm of culture. This is the kingdom of principles, styles, emotional strings and intellectual ventures. They argue that culture is then the antithesis of civilization. It is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday intercourse, in art, in literature, in religion, in recreation and in enjoyment. MacIver and Page pointed the difference between culture and civilization in the following ways: Civilization has a precise standard of measurement, but not culture: When we compare the products of civilization, we can prove which is superior and which is inferior. Since they are means to ends, their degree of efficiency can be readily estimated. This efficiency can be measured only if the end is clearly postulated. For instance, a lorry runs faster than a bullock cart, an airplane runs faster than a lorry, a power loom produces more than a handloom, etc. On the other hand,
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cultural aspects that raise the ultimate problem of value cannot measure the culture. Civilization is always advancing, but not culture: Civilization not only marches, it marches continuously, provided there is no catastrophic break of social continuity in the same direction. An achievement of civilization is generally exploited and improved, until it is superceded or rendered obsolete by some new invention. It is true that in the past, some achievements of civilization have again been lost. Men forgot the art which raised the pyramids of Egypt and constructed the roads and aqueducts of Rome. The reason for this was that these losses were a result of catastrophic changes which blotted out the records of civilization. With a wide area of civilization and superior methods of recording discoveries, any utilitarian or technical gain becomes a permanent possession within the social heritage. It then conditions further gains. It is otherwise a cultural achievement. Since man first invented the automobile, it has continuously improved. Our means of transportation develop constantly. They are much superior to those which the ancient Greeks employed. But the same cannot be opined about our dramas and sculptures, our conversation and our recreation, etc. Here certitude fails us. There are no automobiles which are today comparatively inefficient as the first vehicle of Henry Ford. His work and that of other inventors inevitably prepared the way for better cars. But our plays are not necessarily better today because of the achievements of Shakespeare. Culture is subject to retrogression as well as advancement. Its past does not assure its future. Civilization is passed on without effort, but not culture: Culture can only be assimilated by the like-minded. It can be had only by those who are worthy of it. No one can appreciate art without the quality of an artist. Civilization, in general, makes no such demand. We can enjoy its products without sharing the capacity which creates them. Civilization is the vehicle of culture; its improvement is no guarantee of finer quality in that which it conveys. Television can show movies, but there is no guarantee of their quality. Civilization is external and mechanical, while culture is internal and organic: Civilization is inclusive of external things. Culture is related to internal thoughts, feelings, ideals, values, etc. According to MacIver, Civilization is what we have, culture is what we are.
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Though culture and civilization have certain demarcation lines, they are interdependent. One can believe that they hardly exist apart from each other. Both are not only interdependent but also interactive. The articles of civilization called artifacts are influenced by articles of culture known as mentifacts. Similarly, culture is influenced by articles of civilization. The objects of civilization gradually acquire cultural aspects. The tools and artifacts of primitive communities are not tools, but actually symbols of culture.
7.2.1 Culture and Sub-Cultures

A subculture is a group of people with a culture that differentiates them from the mainstream culture to which they belong. The subculture could be prominent and visible, such as contemporary urban youth subcultures, or hidden, such as gay or lesbian subcultures in conservative societies. According to American sociologist Ken Gelder, there are six key methods by which sub-cultures can be identified. They are as follows: 1. Often negative relations to work (as idle, parasitic, at play or at leisure, etc.); 2. Negative or ambivalent relation to class (since subcultures are not class-conscious and dont conform to traditional class definitions); 3. Association with territory (the street, the hood, the club, etc.), rather than property; 4. Movement out of the home and into non-domestic forms of belonging (i.e. social groups other than the family); 5. Stylistic ties to excess and exaggeration (with some exceptions); 6. Refusal of the banalities of ordinary life and massification. Subcultures strongly value the symbolism attached to the clothing, music and other visible manifestations by members, and also the ways in which these symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.
7.3
Social Origins of Culture
Culture is not a simple accumulation of folkways and mores; it is an organized system of behaviour. Culture is always organized with cultural traits and complexes. Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture, for instance, shaking hands, offering prayer, saluting a flag, etc. Every culture includes thousands of traits. Culture complex is a combination of different elements like
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religious ceremonies, magical rites, a courtship activity and a festivity, etc. The culture complex is intermediate between the trait and the institution. Culture can be characterized in the following ways: Culture is man-made Culture is learned Culture is transmitted Culture is specific to each society Culture is social, not individualistic Culture is an ideal for a group Culture satisfies human need Culture has adaptability Culture has integrative quality Culture shapes human personality Culture is both super-individual and super-organic
Folkway
Folkways can be defined as practices, customs, or beliefs shared by the members of a group (specifically rural groups) as part of their common culture. Willam Graham Sumner, in his book, Folkways(1906), defined folkways as the usual, established, routine and regular way in which a group performs its activities. These activities can range from shaking hands, eating with knives and forks, driving in the left side of streets, etc. Folkways are established ways in which a social group behaves. This pattern of behaviour is exhibited to counter the problems faced by a group which lives in a society. Life in society has many problems and different problems give rise to different efforts to tackle them. Various societies come up with a variety of operational models for resolving their problems. Social groups may achieve a probable set of solutions through an experimental approach or some strange observation, etc. Irrespective of the means by which they come upon a solution, its success establishes its acceptance as a normal way of behavior. It is inherited by successive generations and surfaces as a behavioural tendency of the group of the folk, thus it is known as a folkway. As stated by Sumner, psycho-physical traits have been transmitted genetically into men from their brutish ancestors. These traits include skills, nature of character and temperament that provide a solution to the problem of food supply, sex, business
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and self-importance. The outcome of this is a collection of occurrences like, flows of likelihood, harmony and collective inputs, which result in folkways. Folkways are thus outcomes of continuous recurrences that are seemingly insignificant activities, generally in large numbers. These activities arise when similar needs are experienced by a group. Lundberg agrees that folkways assign similarities in group behaviour to the way of life of individuals in that group. These are born out of recurring or occasional needs or happenings. In this manner, it is believed that the collection of instinctive behavioural patterns governs and protects the existence and development of a social group. This collection includes rituals and practices that have been transmitted from one generation to the other, along with alteration and addition of new features, corresponding to the fluctuating needs of time. These symbolize mans exclusive trait of changing himself to become accustomed to the environment. None of the individuals within the group is ever skeptical about a folkway nor is he required to introduce a folkway forcefully. The concept of culture can be visualized as an ongoing repository, which keeps on adding material and non-material elements that have been socially inherited by future generations, from past generations. Culture is incessant because its patterns have surpassed the boundaries of time to recur in succeeding generations. Culture keeps on getting updated since every generation adds a new feature or quality to it. Diffusion Though invention contributed largely to cultural development, over a period of time, diffusion benefited it more. Diffusion means adopting the characteristics of culture from other societies, irrespective of their means of emergence in the source society. For diffusion to prevail on a large scale, the societies should be segregated and their origin should be old enough so as to support the development of unique cultures. In addition to this, it is important for these societies to be in touch mutually. This would provide options for substantial borrowing. Such scenarios have gained momentum only in the later stages of evolution. Once the process of cultural borrowing began, it turned so persistent that a large number of elements of modern cultures were borrowed. Both invention and diffusion have contributed to the development of culture. The initial start was slow, because it was mostly caused by invention. However, with the growth of the culture base, societies were further set apart. This caused an expanded increase in the diffusion of traits and a simultaneous increase in
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the growth factor. At present, the growth factor of culture has scaled spectacular heights, especially in the Western countries. Custom A habit, once formed, becomes a normal way of life. Customs usually comprise mutual give and take, accompanied by compulsive responsibilities. Additionally, customs also abide by the law, in the absence of which they would be worthless. According to Maclver and Page, custom sets up its own kind of social order which curbs the disagreements that rise between custom and law. Thus, customs streamline the entire social life of an individual. Law is not equipped enough to cover all activities of social behaviour. Practices of rituals and customs add to the harmony within a social group. Often, the effect of customs crosses the boundaries of ones own community. In certain cases, custom is the measure of the relations between two enemy communities, for instance, it is the custom of the Bedouins of the Arabian desert not to damage any water-well, even if it belongs to the enemy. However, a few of the customs have no impact on social control. These customs exist simply because they have been there since ancient times and people of all generations have been practising them. A perfect example of this is the custom of people bathing in an unclean pond or lagoon simply because it has been an age-old religious practice. Although, in many traditional societies, religious rituals and customs are losing their significance. In other words, custom is viewed just like public opinion. It has a strong impact on life in social groups simply because it is the only factor which textually influences social behaviour.
7.3.1 Cultural Institutions and Media

Cultural institutions are an ideal support centre for a community to sustain its culture. A healthy culture has the ability to cope with changes to remain relevant. Today, in the age of the Internet and new media, cultural institutions have ample opportunities to connect with the wider world. They include the following: An attractive website that is regularly updated with the latest events Promotional pages on Facebook, Twitter and other social media Uploading videos of events on Youtube Maintaining a blog and discussion forum on the website Inviting local bloggers to write about cultural events Connecting to other organizations through LinkedIn
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Activity 1 Name some customs that affect your daily life.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Basic technology is directed towards regulating the behaviour of humans. (b) Culture is an organized system of behaviour. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Though culture and civilization have demarcation lines, they are _____________ . (b) Customs have to abide by the __________ .
7.4 Components of Culture

The major components of culture fall under four heads. They are: Communication components Cognitive components Behavioural components Material components Communication components include language and symbols that enable members of a group to communicate with one another and share their thoughts, ideas and feelings. Cognitive components include ideas, knowledge, belief and values. Ideas can be used to create larger systems of information, that can become knowledge, which can be passed down from one generation to another. A belief assumes the truth of a proposition or statement, while values serve as guidelines for social living. Behavioral components is concerned about the way individuals who are members of a culture act and can further be categorized into mores, laws, folkway and rituals. They are discussed in greater detail in Unit 9 in the context of social control.
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Material components includes objects created by humans for practical use or for artistic reasons, such as art and architecture. These components vary across cultures, and certain concepts need to be kept in mind while analysing those differences. These are discussed as follows: 1. Cultural relativism This is a concept of analysing various societies or cultures in an objective way without comparing them with each other. It is not possible to study the activities of another group if they are analysed on the basis of our motives and values. Their activities must be analysed on the basis of their motives and values, for an unbiased understanding. Cultural relativism can be defined as the function that measures trait on the basis of its cultural environment. In an isolated form, a trait is neither positive, nor negative. It can be regarded as positive or negative only on the basis of the culture in which it exists and thrives, for instance, fur clothes are important in the Polar region, but serve no purpose in deserts. In some societies, being fat is considered to be a sign of health and prosperity. However, in other societies, being fat is not only a waste but it also signifies bad health and ugliness. Thus, the idea of cultural relativism does not make all customs equally important or harmful. It believes that some customs may be extremely beneficial in some places, and may be very harmful elsewhere. It is a phenomenon that is related to the environment. The most prominent feature of cultural relativism is that in a certain type of environment, specific traits are just right because they are beneficial to that environment. However, if the same traits are shifted to an entirely different setting, they may result in a disaster by colliding with other traits of that culture. 2. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is interrelated with cultural relativity. Ethno is derived from a Greek term which means, people, country, and cultural bonding. Centric is derived from a Latin word, which means centre. Thus, ethnocentrism means the inclination of every society to place its own culture patterns at the centre of things. Ethnocentrism is the act of evaluating other cultural practices, in terms of ones own and obviously rating them as inferior. It is the tendency of considering ones own culture superior. This converts ones own culture into a yardstick which can be used to gauge all other cultures and rate them as right or wrong. Ethnocentrism is the way humans respond in every society, group and walk of life. It is a part of the growth of every individual. It is reflected in the possessive nature of a child, who learns the difference between the toys which belong to him and which do not belong to him. He exhibits a superiority complex
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when he feels that his toys are better then those of other children, unless corrected by his parents or elders. Though parents may not encourage such ideas in their children in public, in the privacy of their homes, they may give him the feeling that his possessions are genuinely nice. The teaching of ethnocentrism may either be direct and intentional or indirect and unintentional. But at least a small part of it is purposeful. History has several evidences where it often teaches to place the accomplishments of ones own country higher than those of other countries. Religious, civic and other groups belittle their rivals in the most explicit ways. In the case of fully developed individuals, ethnocentrism simply translates as a reality of life. As the awareness of ethnocentrism spreads, the urge to validate it in moral terms rises. However, it is to be noted that ethnocentrism is one of the characteristics of culture. Thus, similar to the remaining part of culture, it can be appraised only on the basis of its involvement in the maintenance of social order and in the promotion of social change. Ethnocentrism has largely contributed to the maintaining of social order than for promoting social changes. Similarly, the efforts of ethnocentrism for maintaining social order too are obvious. It begins by consolidating the unity of the group. This is based on the level of faith between companions. Ethnocentrism has both positive and negative influences. On the positive side, it brings about a steady status quo and on the negative side, it puts off change. Ethnocentrism also obstructs the importance of collaboration between different groups. It believes that if one group functions in the best way, it does not need to interact with other groups which have lower standards of functioning. In reality, this stimulates the mental outlook of skepticism, disregard and animosity. Generally disputes and clashes are caused by severe levels of ethnocentrism. This is evident by the historical details pertaining to wars and religious and racial conflicts. Conflict brings about social changes through ethnocentrism, which in turn, promotes this change. There are cases when these changes are encouraged through peaceful evolution. In general, scientists advocate a peaceful evolution of social changes. They are against conflicts. As a result, they use diplomatic means to disregard ethnocentrism. They discourage their students to support and adopt ethnocentrism by defining it as a hindrance to the learning process. For this purpose, sociologists use a blend of the concepts of evolution and functionalism. On the other hand, ethnocentrism is used by radical groups (belonging to the downtrodden blacks, the poor, women and young people) to
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intensify their power and functioning. This is clearly visible in the form of slogans like black power, etc. 3. Acculturation This is an expression that explains the manner in which different cultures interact with each other. It also defines the customs of such interactions. These interactive processes between cultures may either be socially interactive in a direct way or through media, or other forms of communication. As a result of these interactions, the identity and culture of the interacting groups change. In some cases, hostility between both the cultures may result in the emergence of a new form of culture. This new culture may adopt the characteristics of both the cultures. Cultural Lag According to William F. Ogburn, objective inventions (technology) have greatly influenced social changes. Ogburn played a key role in promoting the theory that the number of inventions within a society is directly proportional to the magnitude of the existent culture. He also observed that the number of material inventions was growing with the passage of time. Ogburn held that both material and non-material cultures experience different changes. Changes that are affected in material culture have a particular direction and are dynamic in nature. This is because they have specific values of effectiveness, which are used as a base for estimating them. An instance of this can be seen in the use of airplanes. The development of airplanes involves continuous efforts to produce planes that can fly, higher and faster and can carry heavier cargo at minimum cost. Since these standards can be applied to the development of airplanes, all related inventions are directed to achieve these goals. On the contrary, in the case of non-material culture, such accepted standards are not a general occurrence. For instance, a person interested in paintings may prefer the work of either M.F. Hussain, or Picasso, or Gainsborough, etc. This choice is a result of his preference. Additionally, it is not necessary for these choices to remain constant. Likewise, government or economic organizations comprise contending forms of styles. These styles may be dictatorships, oligarchies, republics or democracies. The economic system may have communist, socialist, feudal or capitalist style of functioning. Target-oriented changes, which are a feature of material culture, do not exist in most of the areas of non-material culture. Thus, Ogburn and other sociologists were of the opinion that changes in material culture are more dynamic than those in non-material culture. Surely, one of the most obvious highlights of modern life is the continuous growth of technology. Mans life has
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undergone tremendous changes with inventions like radio, TV, automobiles, airplanes, rockets, transistors, computers, etc. These changes are within material culture. On the other hand, transformations in governments, economic systems, family lives, education and religion have been very gradual. These changes are non-material in nature. Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag after observing this disparity in the rates of cultural changes. According to him, material inventions promoted changes that required amendments to different domains of non-material culture. An invention like the automobile led to two different types of changes. On the one hand, it made traveling easier and on the other, it provided an easy escape for criminals. Culture lag is the duration or gap of time that exists between the emergence of a new material invention and the process of adapting it to the corresponding non-material culture. This duration is usually long, for instance, the period between the invention of the typewriter and its practical use in offices was fifty years. Even today, most of the family systems are more suited to an agricultural economy rather than an industrial one. Thus, the theory of cultural lag is related to the type of social problems that are associated with it. Academics have visualized an equilibrium and tuning between material and non-material cultures. This tuning is disturbed when raw material objects appear. This disturbance results in a disproportion which is known as a social problem. This social problem continues till the non-material culture adapts itself to the new technology.
7.4.1 Culture and Personality

Culture is the hallmark of every society. It is the distinguishing mark of human society. The term personality has been used in contexts, both popularly and psychologically. However, its comprehensive and satisfactory use is integrated. The dynamic organization of physical, mental and social qualities of an individual is apparent to others, in the exchange of social life. One can define personality as the collection of habits, mindsets, behaviour and qualities of a person. These focus externally on specific and general roles and statuses. Internally, they are focused on self-consciousness and the concepts of self, ideas, values and purpose. Following are the characteristics of personality: It is influenced by social interaction It is acquired It refers to persistent qualities of an individual
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It is an individual unit It is not related to bodily structure alone The type of personality is generally defined by the culture which prevails in a specific social group. Culture plays a vital role in influencing the personality of a group. This has attracted the attention of the scholars of culture and various schools of thought that are concerned with personality. The relationship between culture and personality involves on one side, the total social heritage available to the individual and to which he consciously and unconsciously responds and on other, the integral character of the individual being. It can be argued that personality is everything that makes an individual. Personality comprises the total organized aggregate of psychological processes and states pertaining to the individual. The culture personality focus is one that reminds us that the pattern of any culture basically determines the broad contours of individual personalities. These individual personalities, in turn, provide evidence of the culture pattern and tend to strive for its perpetuation. Studies in culture and personalities Ruth Fulton Benedict, in her famous book, Patterns of Culture, developed the concept of culture pattern. She also focused on the significance of culture. The culture which is described in her book illustrates Benedicts idea that culture can be viewed as consisting of cultural configurations. These configurations are integrated under the domination of one general pattern. Therefore, a culture is analogous to individual beings, such that it is a more or less consistent pattern of thought and action. According to Benedict, integration of any culture is due to the arrangement of its content in a contemporary or permanent style, or design. This arrangement is defined as pattern, by Benedict. There is a particular style or design in every part of a culture. These separate designs, together present a grand design of culture as a whole. This is the configuration of culture. The emergence of this reunion in culture is due to a common tendency to see all aspects of culture. Benedict termed this main tendency a special genius of culture. It is this genius of culture, that brings about its integration. This alone, is the basis of integration of form. Benedict proposed that two kinds of geniuses are found in human society. One is Appollonian and the other is Dionysian. The word Appollonian has been derived from Apollo, the Greek sun god. Greek people regarded the Sun as the God of Peace, discipline, kindness and humanity. Therefore, in the Appollonian pattern of culture, one finds the existence of peace, discipline and kindness. Benedict has cited the example of Pueblo (a term used to describe modern and ancient communities of Native Americans). They are
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peace loving and disciplined. They extend help and cooperation to each other. Not only in Pueblo, but the Appollonian genius is found in all societies, which have peace and tranquility as their main qualities. These are the causes of their integration. The term Dionysian has been derived from the Greek God Dionysius, who appeared to be connected to drinking and a luxurious way of life. In his way, the Dionysian genius is found in a culture, which experiences many storms and changes. Benedict cited the example of the Dobu and the Kwakitul cultures of the north-west coast of America as representatives of the Dionysian genius. Thus Benedict has accepted patterns or geniuses as an ideal or an induced theory, which determines the behaviour of human beings. Benedict was also concerned with showing the influence of personality on culture. She argued that Appollonian and Dionysian geniuses are integrated personalities of two cultural groups. These groups are quite opposite in their behaviour pattern. She also held how these two geniuses molded the personality of members of their cultural groups. The Appollonian personality compels the members of the group to behave peacefully and in a disciplined way. This ultimately forms special cultural characteristics of the concerned group. In the same way, the Dionysian personality shows its influence on the characteristics of the culture of a particular group. In this way, personality influences culture. Margaret Mead, through her studies, has attempted to show the impact of culture on the formation of personalities. An individual is born in a particular culture and he or she enters into a preformed cultural environment, which plays a significant role in the formation of his or her personality. An individual adopts not only the material aspects of a culture, i.e., house, tool, furniture, art, etc., but also its non-material aspects. The non-material aspects may include parts of culture, such as religion, tradition, custom, rituals, beliefs, norms, values, ideals, etc. It is culture which teaches an individual to behave in society, in a systematic way. An individual adopts culture through the processes of enculturation and assimilation. Mead studied the impact of culture on the personality formation of three primitive groups of New Guinea. These groups were Mundugumor, Arapesh and Tschambuli. Though these tribes lived in the same geographical region, they had different character and personalities. This was due to differences in their culture. Ralph Linton, in his book, Cultural Background of Personality (1945), attempted to define and classify culture on the basis of behaviour. He has also defined personality and attempted to show how it was formed in a given cultural situation. He emphasized how personality influenced culture. According to Linton, culture may be defined as the sum total of knowledge, attitudes and natural behavior pattern, shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.
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He divided culture into three groups, based on the behavior of their members. These groups are: (i) Real culture (actual behaviour) (ii) Ideal culture (philosophical and traditional culture) (iii) Culture construct (what is written about culture) Real culture is the aggregate of the behaviour of the members of a society, which are learned and shared in particular situations. It is the way of life of a community member. The ways of life differ from culture to culture. Ideal culture pattern is formed by philosophical traditions. In this, some traits of culture are regarded as ideals. When a culture is studied, it also reflects our understanding of that culture, which is to be written. This is known as culture-construct. Linton has also differentiated among cultural universals, cultural alternatives and cultural specialties. He argued that some cultural traits are necessary for all members of the society, while the other traits are shared only by some members. The traits, which are followed by all members, are called universals of culture. For instance, man must clothe certain parts of body. This is a universal of culture. On the other hand, a person may choose among a number of religious beliefs, or even adopt none. Specialists are the elements of culture, which are shared by some, but not all groups, within a society. Linton used the term contraculture pattern to designate those groups, which not only differ from the prevailing pattern, but sharply challenge them. For instance, a group of thieves has its own norms and standards, which are compelling for all members of the group. However, these norms and standards sharply differ from the conventional prevailing patterns.
7.5 Attitudes and Beliefs Values and Norms

An attitude is a state of mind or feeling with regard to some matter. It can be related to belief, which is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true. Characteristics of attitudes and beliefs include the following: They are difficult to measure They are indicated by behaviour, reactions to individual situations and social values They may create inflexibility and stereotypes based on inconsistencies, incorrect assumptions or other false data
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They are formed from the continuous process of socialization They can be positive or negative Once formed, an attitude or belief cannot easily be changed; however, they may be affected by age, position and education Values determine our attitude, behavior and our course of action. Common examples of values include giving equal rights to all people and treating everybody with respect and dignity. We tend to avoid situations that do not live up to our values, and in certain situations, we may even protest. Certain values may be common to all individuals. Those are known as objective values and they may include the desire to seek personal well-being and avoid pain. Other values may be subjective, such as those shaped by ones religion, ideology, society and sense of aesthetics. These values are relative in nature, and what may be ethical to one may be unethical to another person. Cultural values are largely shared by all members of a particular group. This group could be a nation, a religion, or even sub-cultures within a particular society. An example of difference in cultural values lies in the way women are treated in western cultures as opposed to the way they are treated in more conservative eastern cultures. Values can often change over time. In India, especially in urban areas, we can see this happening in front of our eyes, as more groups and communities now share rights and dignities that were previously denied to them. At the same, there has also been a shift in values towards greater material consumption at the expense of altruism. Ones values are shaped by what one considers to be ethical and moral. Thus, it is due to ones values that one may refrain from committing criminal acts or hurting other people. At a more personal level, ones values can also determine how one interacts with others, be it at home, at work or in other everyday situations. Social norms are the accepted modes of behaviour within a group or society and can be defined as the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. These rules may be explicit or implicit. They have also been described as the customary rules of behavior that coordinate our interactions with others. A great share of norms is dependent on body language and non-verbal communication. Norms can change in time and also across social classes and ethnic groups. For instance, dress, speech or behaviour that is acceptable in
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one social class may be unacceptable in another. Failure to abide by norms can lead to social mild rebuke at one extreme to ostracism social ostracism at the other. Cultural norms are learnt through the process of growing up and socialization. Values are related to norms but are more global and abstract in nature. Whereas norms are rules for behaviour in certain specific situations, values identify what should be judged as good or evil.
7.5.1 Ideology and Science

Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research. There have often been attempts, however, to make science fit a particular ideology, be it for political or religious reasons. In the 19th century, for instance, research in anthropology was based on the belief that Europeans were superior to other races in the world. Even today, the fact that ideology can still dominate science can be seen in the nature vs nurture debate, or the global warming debate, where both camps claim to have enough scientific proof to back up their argument. Science is based in very particular and neutral values that should ideally not be coloured by ideology. The scientific method requires following of facts and experiments, and often, the results may lead one to discard long-held assumptions and beliefs. Ideologies, on the other hand, especially nationalist, political and religious ideologies, cling to a long-held belief system even in the face of opposing evidence. Activity 2 Name any attitude or belief that you strongly held but later changed.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Knowledge is a cognitive component of culture. (b) Cultural relativism is a concept of analysing various societies or cultures without comparing them with each other.
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4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Social norms are the accepted modes of ________ within a group or society. (b) Cultural norms are learnt through the process of growing up and __________.
7.6 Indian Culture

India is a vast country with a geographical area of 3,287,240 sq km and a population of over one billion. The society in India is quite old and complex in nature. Many scholars have diverse opinions on the origin of Indian society. However the old heritage of Indian society has shown enough evidence of immigrants from various racial, ethnic and religious groups. Indias cultural heritage is one of the most ancient, extensive and varied among all those who make up the cultural heritage of mankind. Throughout the ages many races and peoples contributed to Indias culture. Some came into contact with her only temporarily, others settled permanently within her borders. The keynote of the distinctive culture thus evolved was synthesis on the basis of eternal values. So India has a long history and its cultural tradition is very rich. Indian society has undergone crises and turbulences in the past. Various aspects of Indian society have contributed to its dynamic character. Noted sociologist and ex-President of the International Sociological Association T.K. Oommen believes that the social formation of the Indian society is the end product of a long historical process. According to him, the most significant elements that moulded the processes are: (i) Aryan invasion of 3500 years ago which brought Hinduism, the caste system and Sanskrit to the region. Before the invasion, the land was occupied by pre-Aryan adivasis and non-Aryan Dravidians. (ii) Emergence of Hindu religions such as Jainism and Buddhism, some 2600 years ago. (iii) Introduction of Christianity in the first century and Islam in the 7th century. (iv) Arrival of tiny immigrant religious communities like Jews, Zoroastrians, and the Bahais.
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(v) Muslim conquest of North India around the 8th century. It was responsible for turning the subcontinent into the worlds largest Muslim congregation. (vi) The emergence of Sikhism, nearly 450 years ago. (vii) Western Christian colonialism that started in South India and slowly spread to the rest of the subcontinent. The population of India on 1 March 2001 stood at 1,028,737,436 (i.e. more than 102 crore or more than 1,027 million or more than one billion), according to the provisional results released by the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. Of this, 532,223,090 were males and 496,514,346 were females. Thus India became the second country in the world after China to officially cross the one billion mark. Indias rich cultural heritage is reflected in its 28 states, each unique in its own way and contributing to the glory of India. Among the states in India, Uttar Pradesh is the most populous with a population of 166,197,921 and the state with the lowest population is Sikkim with 540,841 as its population. Indias sex ratio is 933 females per 1000 males. The state with the highest sex ratio is Kerala which is 1,058 per thousand, slightly more than the national average. However, Haryana has the lowest sex ratio which is 861 per thousand males. The sex ratio is an important social indicator of the equity prevailing between males and females. Though India has witnessed women being accorded a high status during the Vedic times, this has deteriorated with the passage of time. Muslim invasion during the medieval period was also an important factor for the deploring condition of women today. A lot of effort was made by social reformers to enhance the status of women. But gender equality still has a long way to go since patriarchy is deeply embedded in the Indian social structure. Mahatma Gandhi had said, India lives in its villages. The majority of the population in India lives in villages with agriculture as the main means of livelihood. The Census from the office of Registrar General and Census Commissioner, 2001 shows Indias rural population as 742,490,639 (72.2 per cent) while, the urban population is 286,119,689 (27.8 per cent). Therefore, Gandhiji envisioned Gram Swaraj wherein there would be social and economic changes in the villages. About Harijans he remarked, I have believed and repeated times without number that India is to be found not in its few cities but in its 7,00,000 villages. We town dwellers have believed that India is to be found in its towns and the villages were created to minister our needs. We have hardly ever paused to inquire if those poor folk get sufficient to eat and clothe themselves
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with and whether they have a roof to shelter themselves from sun and rain. (Gandhi,1936:63) This illustrates how the entire edifice of Indian culture and civilization is built on a platform of tradition. Activity 3 Research on the Internet and describe some major material components of Indian culture.
5. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Indian society is old and __________ . (b) According to Gandhi, India lives in its __________.
7.7 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Two great areas of human experience and human activity as culture and civilization. All that man does, all that he creates and all his artifacts, fall permanently into one order or the other. They argued that civilization is the whole mechanism and organization which man has devised, in his endeavor to control and condition his life. It would include not only our systems of social organization but also our techniques and material instruments. A subculture is a group of people with a culture that differentiates them from the mainstream culture to which they belong. The subculture could be prominent and visible, such as contemporary urban youth subcultures, or hidden, such as gay or lesbian subcultures in conservative societies. Cultural institutions are an ideal support centre for a community to sustain its culture. A healthy culture has the ability to cope with changes to remain relevant. Today, in the age of the Internet and new media, cultural institutions have ample opportunities to connect with the wider world. Culture is not simply an accumulation of folkways and mores; it is an organized system of behavior. Culture is always organized with cultural traits and complexes.
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The major components of culture fall under four heads. They are communication components, cognitive components, behavioural components and material components Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture. Traits are, for instance, the actions of shaking hand, offering prayer, saluting a flag and small material objects like pen, cloth, etc. Each culture includes thousands of traits. Willam Graham Sumner, in his book, Folkways (1906), defined folkways as simply the customary, normal habitual ways the group does things. Shaking hands, eating with knives and forks, driving on the left side of the street, etc., are folkways. Cultural relativism implies that the operation and significance of a trait is affected by its cultural setting. If regarded independently, a trait is neither positive, nor negative. It can only be categorized as positive or negative, when it is considered relative to the culture in which it operates. Ethnocentrism is the inclination of every society to place its own cultural patterns at the centre of things. It is the act of regarding the cultural practices of others as inferior to ones own.
7.8 Glossary
Material culture: A term used by archaeologists as a non-specific way to refer to the artifacts or other concrete things left by past cultures Non-material culture: A component of culture that consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of society (such as attitudes, beliefs, and values) that influence peoples behavior Sociofacts: A term used to describe how cultural traits take on a life of their own, spanning over generations Mentifacts: A term used to represent the ideas and beliefs of a culture, for example religion, language or law Culture complex: A combination of related cultural traits (e.g., prevailing modes of dress; nationalism) Folkway: A practice, custom, or belief shared by the members of a group as part of their common culture Cultural relativism: The principle that an individual humans beliefs and activities should be understood in terms of his or her own culture
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Ethnocentrism: The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own ethnic culture Subculture: A group of people with a culture that differentiates them from the mainstream culture to which they belong Norms: Accepted modes of behaviour within a group or society

1. What are the differences between culture and civilization? 2. What is a subculture? 3. What are the characteristics of culture? 4. Write a note on the social origins of culture. 5. What are the major components of culture? 6. What are the differences between values and norms? 7. Write a note on Indian culture.

1. (a) False; (b) True 2. (a) Interdependent, (b) Law 3. (a) True; (b) True 4. (a) Behaviour; (b) Socialization 5. (a) Complex; (b) Vilages

1. Refer to Section 7.2 2. Refer to Section 7.2.1 3. Refer to Section 7.3
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4. Refer to Section 7.3 5. Refer to Section 7.4 6. Refer to Section 7.5 7. Refer to Section 7.6
7.11 Further Reading

1. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis, New York: Macmillan. 2. Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society, New York: Macmillan. 3. Horton, Paul and Chester L. Hunt. 1984. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill. 4. Sumner, W.G. 1906. Folkways: A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals. New York: Cosimo books. 5. Benedict, R. 1934. Pattern of Culture. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 6. Linton, R. 1945. Cultural Background of Personality. New York: Appleton. 7. Mead, M. 2001. Coming of Age in Samoa. New York: Perennial Classics. 8. Upadhay, V.S. and G. Pandey. 1997. History of Anthropological Thought. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
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Structure
Process and Changing Patterns of Socialization
8.1 Introduction Objectives 8.2 Socialization 8.3 Agencies of Socialization 8.4 Changing Patterns of Socialization, Culture and Social Structure 8.5 Summary 8.6 Glossary 8.7 Terminal Questions 8.8 Answers 8.9 Further Reading
8.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about culture. The process that teaches an individual his culture is called socialization. In this unit, you will learn about socialization. This process goes on throughout ones life and it develops a sense of self and converts the individual into a member of society. In order for this to succeed, the individual needs consistent and organized interaction with his culture and social surroundings. The growth of the self is influenced by contact with family, peers and the media. Infants are born without any culture. It is through the process of socialization that individuals acquire culture and this is done with the help of parents, teachers and others. Socialization teaches us language, as well as the roles that we are expected to play or fit into, in society. Socialization also teaches individuals about the norms of the society of which one is a member. Socialization also contributes to the formation of ones personality. Although personality type may depend on ones genes, it is the process of socialization that can shape it into particular directions.
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Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Analyse the agencies of socialization Explain the changing patterns of socialization Define the changing patterns of culture Evaluate the changing patterns of social structure
8.2 Socialization
Socialization involves the processes by which an individual is taught the skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations needed to competently function in a culture one is part of. According Robert MacIver, Socialization is the process by which social beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one another, in which they come closer to each other and build a complex structure of association. According to Kimball Young, Socialization means the process of inducting the individual into the social and cultural world of making him a particular member of a society and its various groups and inducing him to accept the norms and values of that society. Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and not of biological inheritance. Socialization can lead to uniformity in a society. As children grow up, the nature of socialization they receive is important in shaping not only their own personalities, but also the nature of the society they live in. If all children receive the same nature of socialization, then they may share the same beliefs and expectations. This is one of the reasons why many governments want a standardized educational curriculum in schools. In large, multi-cultural societies, however, such uniformity is difficult to achieve as children belonging to different cultures receive different kinds of socialization. Process of socialization Socialization begins right after birth. Early childhood is a crucial period in the socialization of an individual as this is when the learning of language takes place and the child becomes aware of the culture that surrounds him and how it shapes his personality. Of course, socialization continues throughout life, and as children get older, they become aware of the roles they are expected to fulfil and their personalities are also shaped by the various experiences that they face.
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8.2.1 Theories of Socialization

Some important theories of socialization were developed by Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead and Sigmund Freud. Charles Horton Cooley Cooley, in his book Social Organization, writes that the construction of self and society are twin-born and that we know one as immediately as we know the other. He further says that the notion of a separate and independent ego is an illusion. He reiterates that self consciousness can arise only in a society and it is inseparable from social consciousness. According him, the self is social. The basic idea of the conception is, the way we imagine ourselves to appear to another person is an essential element in our conception of ourselves. He believes that there are three steps in the process of building looking-glass self. (i) Our perception of how we look to others (ii) Our perception of their judgement of how we look (iii) Our feeling about these judgements Thus, we are constantly revising our perception of how we look. Just like a mirror that gives an image of physical self, so the perception of the reaction of others gives an image of the social self. Another important point is that the perception of the judgement of others, is the active factor in the self-image forming process. G.H. Mead, basically a psychologist, agreed completely with Cooley that it is absurd to look at the self or the mind from the viewpoint of an individual organism. Although it may have its focus on the organism, it is undoubtedly a social product and a social phenomenon. He believes that the self arises in interaction with the social and nonsocial environment. The social environment is particularly important. The basic argument which Mead developed was in support of this conclusion and also in support of his theory of Me and I. For Mead, Me is that group of organized attitudes to which the individual responds. He called the acting self I. Me on the other hand, is part of the self which consists of the internal attitudes of others. The process of personalizing the attitudes of others has been aptly described by Mead, who developed the concept of generalized other. This generalized other is composite of the expectations that one believes, others hold towards one. Awareness of the generalized other is developed through the process of taking and playing roles. Playing a role is acting out the behaviour of
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a role that one actually holds, whereas in taking a role, one only pretends to hold the role. Mead argues that a three-stage process is through which one learns to play adult roles. These three stages are: (i) Preparatory stage (13 years): It is the stage in which a child imitates adult behaviour without any real understanding. (ii) Play stage (34 years): It is the stage when children have some understanding of the behaviour but switch roles erratically. At one moment, the boy is a builder who is piling blocks and a moment later, he knocks them apart. Similarly, at one moment, he is a policeman and a moment later he becomes an astronaut. (iii) Game stage (45 years): It is a stage where the role behaviour becomes consistent and purposeful and the child has the ability to sense the role of the other players. To play baseball, each player must understand his or her own role, as well as the role of all the other players. Thus, one develops an ability to see ones own behaviour in relation to others and sense the reaction of the people involved. Meads theory of role taking is an essential learning process in socialization. Both Cooley and Mead explain the process of interaction. They saw personality as shaped through our social interaction with others. Both assumed a basic harmony between self and society. To Cooley, the separate individual was an abstract idea that had no existence apart from society, just as society has no meaning apart from individuals. The socialized self is shaped by the society and the society is an organization of the persons it socializes. Thus, self and society were two aspects of the same thing. Sigmund Freud saw self and society in basic conflict, not harmony. He believed that self is the product of the ways in which basic human motives and impulses are denied and repressed by the society. Freud believed that the rational portion of human motivation was like the visible part of an iceberg. The larger part of human motivation that rests within the unseen forces has a powerful effect on human conduct. He divided the self into three parts: (a) The Id (b) The ego (c) The super ego
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The Id is the pool of instinctive and unsocial desires and impulses, which are selfish and anti social. Ego is the conscious and rational part of the self, which oversees the super egos restraint of the Id. Super ego is the complex of social ideals and values which one has internalized and which form part of consciousness. Ego is the control centre, whereas super ego is the police officer and Id is a combination of selfish, destructive desire. Since society restricts the expressions of aggression, sexuality and other impulses, the Id is continually at war with the super ego. The Id is usually repressed, but at times it breaks through in open defiance of the super ego, creating a burden of guilt that is difficult for the self to carry. At other times, the forces of the Id find expression in misguided forms which enable the ego to be unaware of the real and underlying reasons for its actions. For example, a parent relieves hostility by beating the child, believing that this is for its own good. Thus, Freud finds that self and society are often opponents and not merely different aspects of the same thing. Freud sees self and society in eternal conflict. Types of Socialization According to Ian Robertson, the socialization that a person undergoes in the course of his lifetime may be divided into the following four types: (i) Primary socialization is the most fundamental and essential type of socialization. It takes place in early childhood. In this stage, a child internalizes norms and learns language and cognitive skills. (ii) Anticipatory socialization is where human beings learn the culture of a group of which they are immediate members. They also learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group. This is referred to by R.K. Merton as anticipatory socialization. (iii) Developmental socialization is the kind of socialization that is based on the achievement of primary socialization. It builds on already acquired skills and knowledge as the adult progresses through new situations, such as marriage or new jobs. These require new expectations, obligations and roles. New learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous process of development. (iv) Re-socialization takes place mostly when a social role radically changes. An individual not only changes roles within a group, but also changes groups.
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8.3 Agencies of Socialization

One can conceive of socialization, then, as a succession of processes occurring at various stages of development, with the childs family of origin being the first. There are various agencies of the socialization process: The family The family gets the baby first. Therefore, the process of socialization begins in the family. The child is born with some basic abilities that are genetically transmitted from his parents. These abilities and capacities are shaped in a way that is determined by culture. The mother, with whom the relation of child is most intimate, plays a significant role in the process of moulding the child in the initial stages. Subsequently, the father and older siblings transmit other values to the child. Values like knowledge and skill are transmitted, that children are expected to acquire in a particular society. The peer group As the child grows older, his contemporaries begin to influence him. He spends most of his spare hours outside his work and study schedule, with his peers in the playground and places outside his/her home. The attraction of peers is virtually irresistible to him. He learns from them and they also learn from him. As time passes, the peer group influence surpasses that of his parents, significantly. Teenage is the stage when misunderstanding occurs between parents and children. In socialization of the child, the members of the family, particularly those who exercise authority over him and members of his peer group exercise two different types of influences on him. Both, authoritarian and equalitarian relationships are equally significant to him. He acquires the virtues of respect, constraint and obedience from the first type of relationships and the virtues of cooperation that is based on trust and mutual understanding, from the second. The importance of equalitarian element in the socialization process rests on altogether different grounds. There is free and spontaneous interaction instead of coercion among those who have equalitarian relationships. They view the world in the same way, share the same subjective attitude and consequently have perfect understanding of one another. This applies to age mates, sex mates and class mates. They learn shades of meaning, fads and crazes, secret modes of gratification and forbidden knowledge from one another. Part of this knowledge is often socially useful and yet socially tabooed. Kingsley Davis has
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given the instance of knowledge of sex which is supposed to remain undisclosed until marriage. If this were followed, the problems of maladjustment and aberration of many kinds would not have been infrequent. Fortunately such knowledge is transmitted as a part of the lore that passes from child to child. The school The school is the second agency of socialization. When a child comes to school, his formal indoctrination into the culture of the society begins. In school the child gets his education, which moulds his ideas and attitudes. He is formally introduced to the lore and the learning, the arts and the science, the values and beliefs, the customs and taboos of the society, from a wider circle. His teacher plays a very significant role. Education is of great importance in socialization. A well planned system of education can produce a socialized person. The books In literate societies, another important agency of socialization is the printed word in books and magazines. Experiences and knowledge of the cultural world, values and beliefs, superstitions and prejudices are expressed in words. According to Bierstedt, words rush at us in torrent and cascade; they leap into our vision as in newspaper, magazine and text book. Text books are written by authors. They join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process. The mass media Apart from newspapers which carry printed words, the two other mass media, viz., radio and television, exercise tremendous influence in the socialization process.
Family
Pee r gr oup
Sch ool
Agencies of Socialization
as s
ed i
o ks Bo
Figure 8.1 Agencies of Socialization
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Activity 1 Draw a chart of the various agencies of socialization and show how they affect an individual.
1. State whether true or false. (a) The school is the first agency of socialization. (b) Sigmund Freud wrote the book Social Organization. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The process of socialization begins in the ________. (a) The ________is the pool of instinctive and unsocial desires and impulses.
8.4 Changing Patterns of Socialization, Culture and Social Structure

Social interactions are actions or practices of two or more mutually oriented people towards each others selves; in other words, it is any behaviour that tries to influence or take account of one anothers subjective experiences. Thus, parties involved in social interaction must have each others self in mind. This does not mean that two people have to be tangible to each other to socially interact. A letters, for instance, can be used for social interaction. Social interaction necessitates a mutual orientation. For instance, spying on a person is not social interaction as that person is unaware of what is going on. Criminal behaviour of individuals who treat people as objects is also not considered as social interaction. As a matter of fact, wherever people treat each other as objects, there is no social interaction. These days, with the advent of social media, the patterns of social interaction have changed and this has influenced social culture and social structure to a great extent. There are so many different social media these days, which includes Internet forums, social blogs, weblogs, podcasts, photographs or pictures, etc., that the world is smaller and better connected than ever before. Nothing is quite a secret anymore.
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Social interaction is the most important aspect of social life. When people live in a community they interact with each other, they communicate with each other. Such interaction is a continuous process. Social interaction is also essential for the survival of any community and culture. One can study social interaction in two levels, micro and macro. Micro means limited to an individual level. Micro interaction at a larger scale is within a community, state, nation and international level. One can also argue that social interaction is the basic ingredient of social relationships. Social interaction refers to the entire range of social relationships, wherein there is reciprocal stimulation and response between individuals. An aggregate of individuals becomes a community and communities form a society. Social interaction is the base of social relations. It also establishes cultural and physical relations. According to Park and Burgess, social interaction has two essential aspects: (i) Social contact (ii) Communication Social contact can be established through a medium of conversation, letters, messages, mobile phone/telephone and other modes of communication, even between people who are separated by thousands of miles. Social contact is also strengthened by physical contact. Forms of Social Interaction Social interaction essentially takes place in associative and dissociative forms. These forms of social interaction are also designated as social processes. Associative social processes Associative forms of social interaction can be divided into three categories: (i) Cooperation (ii) Accommodation (iii) Assimilation (i) Cooperation Cooperation is the most pervasive and continuous form of social processes. It integrates one individual with the other, it also integrates one community with the other. The word cooperation has been derived from two Latin words, co means together and operari means work. Cooperation generally means working
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together in pursuit of continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished. According to Merrill and Eldredge, Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end. Cooperation always requires joint or organized efforts and a common end. According to Cooley, Cooperation arises when men see that they have a common interest and have at the same time, sufficient intelligence and selfcontrol to seek this interest through united action. Perceived unity of interest and faculty of organization are the essential facts in intelligent combination. Cooperation also requires mutual aid. Cooperation is possible when there is similarity of purpose, mutual awareness, mutual understanding and mutual helpfulness. Cooperation is brought about by several circumstances like desire to achieve a common goal, situational necessity, desire to achieve larger objective, etc. The modes of cooperation in social life may be divided into two principal types: (a) Direct cooperation (b) Indirect cooperation Direct cooperation may include all activities that people perform together. The essential character of these activities is that people perform them in company, which they cannot do separately or in isolation. When two or three companies carry a load together which would be very annoying for one of them to carry alone, such a cooperation may be characterized as direct cooperation. Indirect cooperation may include those activities which people perform, unlike tasks towards a common goal. The principle of division of labour, that is embedded in the nature of social life, exemplifies indirect cooperation. This mode of cooperation is revealed wherever people combine their differences for mutual satisfaction or for a common goal. Cooperation is a universal phenomenon. Without cooperation, neither an individual nor a community will survive. Mutual aid starts with cooperation in rearing of progeny and in the provision of protection and food. Even among the lowest group of animals such as ants and termites, cooperation is evident for survival. (ii) Accommodation Accommodation is essentially a process of adjustment, a sort of working arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed towards
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each other. Just as adaptation is a biological process, is accommodation a social process. The question of accommodation arises only in situations of conflict. Had there been no conflict, there would have been no necessity for adjustment and hence no need for accommodation. A compromise that is reached by conflicting parties is termed as accommodation. Accommodation is the resolution of conflicts which generally means adjusting oneself to the new environment. Adjustment may be to the physical or social environment. Adjustment to physical environment takes place through organic or structural modification that is transmitted by heredity and is termed as adaptation, while adjustment to social environment is achieved by an individual through the acquisition of behaviour patterns. These behavioural patterns are transmitted socially and through adoption of new ways of behaving and are called accommodation. Therefore, animals that are lower than man adjust themselves most frequently through adaptation; man does this primarily through accommodation as he lives in a truly social environment. Accommodation is a social process, whereas adaptation is a biological process. Modes of accommodation Accommodation is social adaptation that involves the invention or borrowing of devices whereby one ethnic group develops modes of life, economic and otherwise. These modes complement or supplement those of others groups. It is primarily concerned with the adjustment issuing from the conflict between individuals and groups. In a society, individuals have to resolve their conflicts sooner or later. This compromise that is reached by conflicting parties is accommodation. According to Park and Burgess, in accommodation the antagonism between conflicting elements is temporarily regulated. This is why Summer referred to accommodation as antagonistic cooperation. Accommodation or resolution of conflicts may be brought about in many different ways and accordingly, may assume various forms. The most important of these forms are: Compromise: When the combatants are equal in strength and neither may be able to prevail over the other, they attain accommodation by agreeing to a compromise. In compromise each party to the dispute makes some concessions, yields to some concessions and yields to some demand of the other. The all or nothing attitude gives way to a willingness to yield up to a certain point in order to gain another. A compromise is a state in which everyone can find consolation for his disappointment by reflecting that every one else is disappointed too. The settlement of disputes in the parliament involves accommodation of this kind.
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Arbitration and conciliation: Accommodation is also achieved by means of arbitration and conciliation which involves attempts on the part of the third party to bring an end to the conflict between contending parties. The labour management conflict may be between a husband and a wife or sometimes it may be a political conflict. These are resolved through the intervention of an arbitrator or a mediator in whom both the parties have complete confidence. In the international law, mediation or arbitration is a recognized mode of settling international disputes. Toleration: Toleration is the form of accommodation in which there is no settlement of difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict. In toleration, no concession is made by any of the groups and there is no change in the basic policy. It involves accepting a group despite some state of affairs that are definitely objectionable to the other group. However, each group must bear with the other. Toleration is best exemplified, particularly in the field of religion where the different religious groups exist side by side. Each has some rights over others which it can also claim for itself. The coexistence of states with radically different economic and social systems such as communist and capitalist systems is an example of toleration. The difference in such cases cannot be resolved as they involve irreconcilable ideologies. Superordination and subordination: The most common accommodation is the establishment and recognition of the order of superordination and subordination. The organization of any society is essentially a result of this type of accommodation. In a family, relationships among parents and children are based in terms of superordination and subordination. In larger groups, whether social or economic, relationships are fixed on the same basis. Even under a democratic order, there are leaders and followers who give orders and others who follow them. When individuals ordinarily accept their relative positions as a matter-of-fact, accommodation is said to have reached a state of perfection. Accommodation also checks conflicts and enables persons and groups to maintain cooperation, which is an essential condition of social life. It also enables individuals to adjust themselves to changed conditions. Therefore, it not only controls but also maintains the necessary security of a social order, without which it may be difficult for the individuals to carry on their activities together. Society is the result of accommodation. Conversion: The process of conversion occurs when one of the contending parties tries to convert the other party/parties to his point of view by
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proving that his views are right and the other party/parties viewpoints are wrong. Though widely used in the religious context, conversion takes place in the political, economic and other fields as well. Sublimation: In this method non-aggressive attitudes and activities substitute aggressive ones. For instance, conquering hatred through love and compassion is an act of sublimation. In psychology, it is referred to as a mature type of defence mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable behaviour. Rationalization: Rationalization is an imaginary premise that justifies action or conduct. In this method of accommodation, contending parties attempt to justify their actions based on imaginary grounds. Thus, rationalization involves reasonable excuses or explanations for an individuals behaviour. For instance, an athlete who does not win a race due his for his own negligence and lack of training, blames his schools coaching system for his failure. (iii) Assimilation Assimilation refers to a process whereby a group of people that has lived among another group of people for a considerable period of time adopts the way of life of the latter. This way both groups are completely indistinguishable from each other. Assimilation is both psychological and social. According to Nimkoff, Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups, once dissimilar, become similar and identified in their interests and outlook. According to Lundberg Assimilation is a word used to designate a process of mutual adjustment through which culturally different groups gradually obliterate their differences to the point where they are no longer regarded as socially significant or observable. According to Horton and Hunt, The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation. According to Park and Burgess, Assimilation is a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments, attitudes of other persons or groups and by sharing their experiences and history are incorporated with them in a cultural life. When different cultures come into contact, originally it is the sentiment of mutual conflict that is most prominent, but they gradually assimilate elements from each other. In the process of assimilation, the two distinct groups do not just compromise to get along with each other, they also become much like each
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other, such that they are no longer distinguishable as separate groups. Assimilation is a social and a psychological process. Assimilation also takes place with foreigners or migrants, who are being assimilated in the host culture. Assimilation also takes place the other way round. It is a very slow and gradual process, it takes quite some time for individuals or groups who were once dissimilar to become similar, that is become identified by their interests and outlook. Acculturation takes place before assimilation, when one cultural group which is in contact with another appropriates or borrows certain cultural elements from it and incorporates them into its own culture. Social contact and acquisition of new values and norm are also part of assimilation. Assimilation is not a simple but an essentially complex process. There are certain factors which facilitate assimilation and others, which create hurdles in the process of assimilation. According to Gillin and Gillin, factors that favour assimilation are: (a) Tolerance (b) Equal economic opportunity (c) Sympathetic attitude on part of the dominant group, towards the minority group (d) Exposure to dominant culture (e) Similarity between cultures of the minority and dominant groups Factors that go against assimilation are: (a) Isolated condition of life (b) Attitude of superiority on part of the dominant group (c) Excessive psychological pressure (d) Cultural and social difference between the groups (e) Persecution of the minority group by the majority group According to Maclver, cultural differences, particularly those of language and religion are usually considered to be the main constitutions of culture. Immigrants having the same religion and language as the people of the country of their adoption can easily adjust themselves there. For example, in the US English speaking people are assimilated quickly and easily, whereas those who do not speak English face difficulty in being assimilated there. Customs and beliefs are other cultural characteristics which can aid or hinder assimilation.
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Prejudice may also impede assimilation. As long as the dominant group prejudices those who have been set apart, neither the other group nor their individual members can easily become assimilated to the general culture. Prejudice also impedes assimilation between constituent elements within a given society. Religious groups often allow the social distance that is created by prejudice to maintain there separateness. Prejudice may be the outcome of some unpleasant experiences such as, fear of losing superior status, dread of economic competition or some form of collective phobia. The differences between assimilation and accommodation are shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Differences between Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation Assimilation is permanent. Assimilation is a slow process. Assimilation is unconscious. Accommodation Accommodation is non-permanent. Accommodation may be a sudden process. Accommodation is deliberate.
Dissociative social processes Dissociative forms of social processes can be divided into two categories: (i) Competition (ii) Conflict (i) Competition According to Kingsley Davis, Competition simply aims to outdo the competitor in achieving a mutually desired goal. The urge to outdo arises only when the desired goal is in scarce supply. Competition is actually the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is also considered to be very healthy and a necessary social process. Competitive spirit is deliberately inculcated in order to produce a result which is considered to be socially desirable. According to Anderson and Parker, Competition is that form of social action in which we strive against each other for the possession of or use of limited material or non-material good. According to Bogardus Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity that is sufficient to meet the demand. Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell defined competition as, ... an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not have.
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(a) Competition is an impersonal struggle: According to Park and Burgess, Competition is an interaction without social contact. It means that it is an inter-individual struggle that is impersonal. It is usually not directed against any individual or group in particular. The competitors are not in contact and do not know each other. (b) Competition is an unconscious activity. It takes place on an unconscious level (c) Competition is universal. It is found in every society and in every age group. (d) Competition is not an inborn tendency; it is a social phenomenon. It takes place only when the desired thing is in short supply. (e) Competition can be seen at different levels like social, cultural, political and economic. (ii) Conflict According to Gillin and Gillin, Conflict is the process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist either by violence or by threat of violence. As a social process it is the anti-thesis of cooperation. Conflict is conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose. Conflict is also universal. Conflict expresses itself in numerous ways and in various degrees and over every range of human conduct. Its modes are always changing with changes in social and cultural conditions. Some types disappear and new types emerge. According to Maclver, conflict can be divided into two types: (a) Direct conflict: When individual or groups thwart, impede, restrain, injure or destroy one another in an effort to attain a common goal, direct conflict occurs. (b) Indirect conflict: When individuals or groups do not actually impede the efforts of one another but nevertheless, seek to attain their ends in ways that obstruct the attainment of the same ends by the other, indirect conflict occurs. Kingsley Davis has argued, Conflict is a part of human society because of the kind of society. He further observed, As a matter of fact, society itself engenders conflict situations and cannot avoid doing so. By allotting different statuses to different people, it lays the base for envy and resentment. By giving authority to one person over another, it sets the stage for the abuse of authority
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and for retaliation by force. By instilling ends that are competitive, it makes it possible for competition to convert into violence. As we have discussed, conflict is universal. It occurs at all times and in every place. There has never been a time or a society in which some individuals or groups did not come into conflict. According to Malthus, scarce means of subsistence is the cause of conflict. According to Darwin, the principle of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest are the main causes of conflict. According to Freud, the innate instinct for aggression in man is the main cause of conflict. It arises primarily due to a clash of interests within groups and societies and between groups and societies. Conflict also arises as a result of the difference between the rate of change in moral norms of a society and mens desire, hopes, dissatisfactions and demands. Cultural differences among groups sometimes cause tension and lead to conflict. Religious differences have occasionally led to wars and persecution in history. Clash of interests also cause conflict. The interest of workers, clash with those of employers which leads to conflict among them. When a part of society does not change along with changes in other parts, then conflict occurs. Social change causes a cultural lag which leads to a conflict.
8.4.1 Changing Patterns of Culture

Culture constantly changes and goes through innovation. Presently, one can say that humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and the population explosion. It is not only change that affects or shapes cultures. It is also the resistance to change that shapes a particular culture. Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce numerous changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models. Along with these changes may come ideological and cultural changes. For instance, the late 20th century change in the role of women led to long-lasting changes in gender relations. War can also make a great impact on culture and social dynamics. One culture may also be affected by another, which may produce great social changes through acculturation and diffusion. In diffusion, a component of one culture is transferred to another in form, if not in meaning. For instance, hamburgers, which are mundane in USA first seemed exotic when introduced in India. In acculturation, the traits of one culture are replaced with those of another, as has been seen in colonial experiences.
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8.4.2 Changing Patterns of Social Structure

Changing patterns in culture often go hand in hand with changing patterns of social structure. Social structure is subject to change, as has been seen in the last 100 years in particular, as old orders have caste, class and race have collapsed. In India, for instance, formerly deprived communities today have political power, and along with that social prestige. In China in the aftermath of the cultural revolution, there was a great upheaval in social structure as the former elite found themselves victims. In South Africa under Apartheid, Blacks had no power whatsoever. In Post-Apartheid South Africa, however, Blacks rule the country and many former oppressed are now better off than their former oppressors. Activity 2 Write a note, based on your personal experience, on how your social interaction skills changed with age.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Social interaction may be associative or dissociative. (b) Accommodation is a process of adjustment. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) ____________simply aims to outdo the competitor in achieving a mutually desired goal. (b) ________ is the process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist either by violence or by threat of violence.
8.5 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: The term socialization refers to processes whereby individuals are taught the skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivation needed for competent functioning in the culture in which the child is growing up. Paramount among these are the social skills, social understandings, and emotional maturity needed for interaction with other individuals.
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Socialization processes include all those wherein culture is transmitted from one generation to the next, including training for specific roles in specific occupations. Social interaction is the most important aspect of social life. Social interaction is also essential for survival of any community and culture. Cooperation is the most pervasive and continuous of the social processes. It integrates one individual with another individual; it also integrates one community with another community. Cooperation is brought about by several circumstances: desire to achieve common goal, situational necessity, desire to achieve larger objective, etc. Accommodation is essentially a process of adjustment, a sort of working arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed towards one another. Accommodation is social adaptation that involves the invention or borrowing of devices whereby one ethnic group develops modes of life, economic and otherwise. This complements or supplements those of the others. Assimilation refers to a process whereby a group of people, having lived among another group of people for a considerable period of time, adopts the way of life of the latter in such a way as to be completely indistinguishable from the latter. Assimilation is both a psychological and a social process. According to Kingsley Davis Competition simply aims to outdo the competitor in achieving some mutually desired goal. The question of out-doing arises only when the desired goal is in scarce supply. Competition is actually the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is also considered to be very healthy and a necessary social process. Competition spirit is deliberately inculcated in order to produce a result which is considered to be socially desirable. According to Gillin and Gillin Conflict is the process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence. As a social process it is the antithesis of cooperation. Conflict is a conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose.
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8.6 Glossary
Socialization: The process by which somebody, especially a child, learns to behave in a way that is acceptable to the society Interaction: The activity of communicating Subordination: The act of treating someone/something as less important to someone/something else Assimilation: The activity of someone becoming a part of a group rather than a separate entity The Id: Pool of instinctive and unsocial desires and impulses, which are selfish and anti-social Ego: Conscious and rational part of the self, which oversees the super egos restraint of the Id Super ego: Complex of social ideals and values which one has internalized and which form part of consciousness Developmental socialization: Kind of socialization that is based on the achievement of primary socialization. It builds on already acquired skills and knowledge as the adult progresses through new situations, such as marriage or new jobs. Accommodation: Process of adjustment, a sort of working arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed towards each other Toleration: Form of accommodation where there is no settlement of difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict Conflict: Process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist either by violence or by threat of violence

1. Discuss the agencies of socialization. 2. Discuss the theories of socialization. 3. What are the essential aspects of social interaction? 4. What are the three categories of associative form of social interaction?
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5. List the factors that go against assimilation. 6. What is the difference between accommodation and cooperation?

1. (a) False; (b) False 2. (a) Family; (b) Id 3. (a) True; (b) True 4. (a) Competition; (b) Conflict

1. Refer to Section 8.3 2. Refer to Section 8.2.1 3. Refer to Section 8.4 4. Refer to Section 8.4 5. Refer to Section 8.4 6. Refer to Section 8.4
8.9 Further Reading

1. Bierstedt, Robert. 1974. Social Order. US: McGraw-Hill. 2. Cooley, C.H. 1902. Human Nature and the Social Order. Cornell University Library. 3. Giddings, Franklin H. 1904. Principle of Sociology. New York: Macmillan Publishers. 4. Harry, Johnson and Robert Merton. 1966. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New Delhi: Allied Publisher. 5. Horton, Paul. B and Chester L. Hunt. 1968. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill.
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6. Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan. 7. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis. Macmillan. 8. Mead, G.H. 1934. Mind, Self and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Structure
Social Control and Deviance
9.1 Introduction Objectives 9.2 Social Control: Meaning and Types 9.3 Agencies of Social Control 9.4 Deviance 9.5 Social Control and Social Order 9.6 Summary 9.7 Glossary 9.8 Terminal Questions 9.9 Answers 9.10 Further Reading
9.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you read about the changing patterns of socialization. Conformity plays a major role in the socialization process. A number of societal and political mechanisms and regulations have been put in place so that all individuals can function in harmony. While law enforcement is perhaps the most obvious form of social control, other methods of social control also exist. They include religion, education, social mores and customs. Each of these processes regulate individual and group behaviour to enable conformity and compliance to rules laid out in a society, state or social group. It is possible that in the absence of such controls, a society or social group would descend into chaos. Social control can take place through the internalizations of norms and values, in which education and tradition play a major role. It can also take place through external sanctions, such as fines or imprisonment for breaking the law. In this unit, you will read about the types of social control and the agencies of control.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Define deviance Discuss the types of social control
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Describe the agencies of social control Analyse social control and social order
9.2 Social Control: Meaning and Types

Maclver defines social control as the way by which a social order sticks together, maintains itself, and how it operates as a whole. Mannheim deems social control to be the sum total of the methods through which society attempts to influence human behaviour in order to maintain a certain order. The influence of social control may be exerted through channels such as public opinion, social suggestion, coercion, religion, etc., among other methods. The society exerts the influence on the individual, which is a better and effective exercise than one individual having to do it. This social group may be the state, the family or the trade union, etc. The success of the influence however depends on different factors. A family, for instance, may sometimes exert better influence than a church or a state. Social control is a vital aspect of a person's socialization process. All members of a society have to follow a set of rules and norms. Deviation from these rules can lead to punishment. Social control encourages conformity. Its two most common forms are formal and informal controls. Formal control is exercised by authorized agents including police, military, etc. It is often carried out as the last resort where discipline is not possible through informal social control. Informal control is exercised by a society without stating any obvious laws or rules. This control is expressed through norms and established customs. Traditional societies use social control culture to help in establishing social order.
9.2.1 Types of Social Control Formal control is law as statutes, regulations and rules against deviant behaviour. For instance, laws like prohibition of murder apply to everyone in the society. Some laws are less stringent, such as fishing regulations that are applicable to certain groups. Corporate laws govern social institutions. Formal control is also exercised through law enforcement mechanisms. Formal sanctions like fines and imprisonment are also mechanisms of social control.
Sarcasm, criticism, ridicule, etc., are some informal sanctions. Social discrimination and exclusion are used as informal control at extreme deviant cases. Severity and nature of informal control mechanisms vary across individuals, groups, and societies. Informal control is prevalent in small-group settings like family, friends, neighborhood, work group, etc.
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According to sociologist Edward A. Ross, social control comprises the mechanisms by which society exercises its dominion over its component individuals and enforces conformity to its norms, i.e. its values. Social control as a field of study became popular in the 20th century. Sociologists have identified two types of social control, formal and informal. Formal social control is exercised through the law in the form of rules and regulations against deviant behaviour. Formal social control is generally exercised by the government, but is also found in corporate organizations. Informal social control is exercised through customs, norms and mores that are generally internalized by individuals. These social controls are not laid out in a strict framework as the law or rules and regulations and Ross believes that such belief systems act as a greater form of control than laws laid out by the government. Failure on the part of an individual to conform to informal control does not lead to fines or imprisonment, but rather criticism, shaming and ridicule and in extreme cases exclusion and discrimination. In traditional societies, informal controls such as religion and custom may be more important in maintaining conformity, whereas in others, such as the former Soviet Union, formal social control played a bigger role.
9.3 Agencies of Social Control

Social control is carried out through series of agencies, many of which are discussed below as both formal and informal agencies of control. The regular channels of social control are as follows: Law Law constitutes one of the primary mechanisms through which social control is enacted. Simple societies are characterized by homogeneity among individuals and operation of informal social control. However, when societies grew in size and complexity, they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which defined certain behaviour patterns. Due to increased differentiation and division of labour, there has been interdependence between different individuals who portray heterogeneous relations. In a society that is marked by extreme differentiation, the old informal means of control like folkways, mores, etc., seem to be insufficient to exercise control. So there is a need to regulate individual behaviour by formulating a set of common laws which are backed by the political machinery of the state.
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For Black (1976), law is governmental social control, being the rules and processes that the state uses to intervene in social conflicts between both organized and individual interests. Law is a body of rules that is enacted by legally authorized bodies and enforced by authorized agencies. It is enforced with the help of the police, the court and even the armed forces. Law is an instrument of control that eliminates and suppresses the homicidal activities of individuals. It also motivates individuals to pay attention to the rights of others and act in cooperation with others. Law has become the most pervasive and indispensable agency of social control in the contemporary society. Education Apart from law, education is also an important agency of social control. Durkheim conceived of education as socialization of the younger generation. He also stated that it is actually a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting. Education does not restrict itself only to the transfer of a way of life. In modern times, a large section of it is dedicated to communicate empirical knowledge. Through education, the new generation learns about the social norms and about the penalties that can be awarded for violating them. Education converts social control into self-control. In the absence of a wellorganized educational system, social control would remain merely as an arbitrary pressure, which may not last long.
Coercion Coercion is the practice of attaining a specific goal by using compulsion or power. Whenever people are refrained from doing a particular work, whenever
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limits are imposed on the range of their choices through the use of force, or through threat of its consequences, it may be defined as coercion. This emerges as the final method to achieve social control when every other method fails. State is the only association which is empowered to use coercion in social control. No other association is vested with this power. State resorts to coercion to combat anti-social tendencies. Coercion may or may not be of a physical nature. Physical coercion can also comprise of bodily harm, captivity or capital punishment. Physical coercion is the most degrading means of social control and societies should avoid using it unless it becomes a necessity. Non-violent coercion, on the other hand, consists of strike, boycott or non-cooperation.
Human experience has revealed that coercion or force is necessary as a guarantee of political laws. Its service is best rendered when it is used to the minimum. Where a common rule is considered necessary or beneficial for the common good, some degree of compulsion is involved. Hence force becomes necessary for common rule. But only when the use of force is limited, it becomes subjugated to the liberties of the people. Informal means of social control are exercised by informal institutions like family, peer group, neighborhood, etc. These are discussed below:
Figure 9.1 The Law and Police Forces Play an Active Role in Enforcing Social Control Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 203
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Folkways Folkways are informal means of social control in the sense that they are some customary norms which individuals conform to. These are actually ways of thinking, feeling and acting in a human group that has certain prescribed modes of conduct. W illiam Graham Sumner (1906), in his book Folkways: A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals, defined folkways as folkways are a societal force. They are instinctive in nature. The folkways simultaneously serve every need of life. In one group, they are consistent and global, crucial and constant. As time passes by, folkways become increasingly random, constructive and inevitable. The process of producing folkways comprises of activities that are repeated continuously, when faced with the same need. It inculcates habits in the individuals and customs in the group. Through the use of habit and custom, every individual within its domain feels the stress. Thus, it emerges as a force of the society. Folkways are not a creation of human purpose or wit. They are like products of natural forces which men, unconsciously set in operation and are handed down by tradition. As a consequence of this, the life of entire mankind, in all ages and stages of culture, is mainly governed by a large collection of folkways. These folkways are transferred from the primitive races and undergo changes by human philosophy, ethics and religion.
Mores Mores are established practices of the society rather than written laws. They are basically in the form of social regulations and have a significant impact on social conduct. Sumner used the concept of mores for folkways which were very significant to groups and highly important for their welfare. According to Sumner, mores comprise of popular usages and traditions when they include a
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judgment that they are conducive to social welfare and when they exert coercion on the individual to conform to them. They are not coordinated by any authority. Sumner believed that mores represent the living character of the group. They are always considered right by the people who share them. Mores help an individual in realizing that living in a community or a group is possible only when one conforms to the norms of that community or group. A distinction is always made between folkways and mores. Sumner says that when folkways work on the ideology of correct living and are directed to the wellbeing of life, then they are converted to mores. Thus, in this context, it can be said that mores are important means of social control. They determine much of our individual behaviour, such that they compel behaviour and also forbid it. In a society, many mores like monogamy, democracy, prohibition, etc., operate. These mores also identify an individual with a group and help in maintaining social bonds. Moreover, violations of these mores entail some punishment in the form of penalties. Therefore mores are considered one of the strongest means of informal social control.
Customs Custom is also an informal means of social control. According to Kingsley Davis, customs refer primarily to practices that have been often repeated by a multitude of generations. These practices tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in the past. The socially accredited ways of acting are the customs of the society. Many of our daily activities are regulated by customs. Custom is a broader term that comprises of both, folkways and mores. Customs are social habits, which through repetition become the basis of an order of social behaviour.
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Customs are long established habits and usages of people. Whenever there is a widespread habit, there is a corresponding custom as well. According to Lundberg, they are folkways that persist over relatively long periods of time. Thus, they attain a degree of formal recognition and are passed down from one generation to another. A particular characteristic of custom is that it exists only as a social relationship and an external sanction for the individual. Customs not only regulate social life but also bind it together. Customs guide human behaviour and enlighten man in social life. Customs are conformed to most unconsciously. Man learns about them from early years of socialization and diligently follows them. They are rarely opposed and mostly adhered to. Customs form the base for collective human life and are found in almost every society. They are more influential and dominant in the primitive society rather than in modern societies. In the struggle for existence, only those societies survive which are able to evolve through customs that bind them together, assimilate their actions to the accepted standards, compel control of the purely egoistic impulses and exterminate individuals who are incapable of such control. Custom is obeyed more spontaneously because it grows slowly. People follow similar behaviour patterns. Thus, customs play an important part in regulating our social behaviour. They determine our culture, preserve it and transmit it from one generation to the next. Religion Religion implies mans faith on some supernatural power or force. According to MacIver and Page, religion encompasses relationships among men and also those between man and the supernatural forces. Religion regulates the activities of people in its own way. It regulates human conduct through religious code. Religion fulfils social, psychological, emotional and spiritual needs of human
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beings. Religion conserves the norms and values of life through agencies like family, church and school. Religion inculcates the values of life in the minds of growing children. Religion has its own methods to deal with those individuals who violate religious norms and conduct. Various religious institutions like churches, temples and monasteries also help to control the disobedient. Religion has its own ways and means to re-integrate people into a social group. Moreover, religious sanctions are widely used to support ethical codes and moral practices.
Family: Family is an important agency of social control. It is the first place where a person is socialized. He learns methods of living, behaviour patterns, convention, etc., from the family. He is taught to obey social control. Neighbourhood: This is a simple and specific part of the community. It has the feeling of a local unit. Elder members of the neighborhood keep modes alive and enforce them in the society. Church: This was once a very powerful agency of social control. The priests of the church were held in high esteem. Its authority was such that nobody could argue its decisions. It even has the power to dethrone kings. Public opinion: In the present democratic age, public opinion is important. The state controls the publics behaviour through the use of public opinion. Propaganda: This is a systematic attempt by individuals to control the attitudes of people through suggestions, and their actions. Activity 1 What forms of social control have been the most active and important in your life.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Law constitutes the primary mechanism through which social control takes place. (b) Social control can be formal or informal.
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2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Social control is carried out through a series of _________. (b) Through _______, a new generation can learn about the social norms and about the penalties that can be awarded for violating them.
9.4 Deviance
Talcott Parsons defines deviance thus: Deviance is a motivated tendency for an actor to behave in contravention of one or more institutionalized normative patterns and a tendency on the part of one or more of the component actors to behave in such a way as to disturb the equilibrium of the interactive process. All societies have rules and norms that are expected to be followed by all members. There is perhaps no society that does not have rules and norms. Some societies have strict norms, while others may have more liberal norms, but anything goes is not a norm found in any society. If there are rules and norms, then it is expected that those who violate those rules and norms are to be punished. Some deviance may deal with breaking official written codes, also known as the law. The punishment for breaking the law may include fines, imprisonment, and in extreme cases, even the death penalty. Deviating from other social norms have less harsh punishments, such as social shaming and avoidance. There are many theories of deviance. They include Robert K. Mertons strain theory which we shall discuss in the next unit. Another approach is the structural-functionalist approach to that argues that deviant behavior plays an important role in society because it helps distinguish between what is acceptable behaviour, and what is not. It can also promote social unity at the expense of the deviant individuals. Deviance can also be seen as one means for society to change over time. According to the labeling theory of deviance, individuals become deviant when a deviant label is applied to them and then they adopt that label by exhibiting the behaviours, actions, and attitudes associated with that label.
9.5 Social Control and Social Order

Social solidarity is necessary for a society to exist. No two individuals are alike in their ideas, attitudes, and existence. Every person is a unique and separate personality. There are many differences in people. Society is heterogeneous in
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nature. If people are left to do everything, good or bad, of their own free will, disorder is inevitable. For an orderly social life, social control is essential. Social control aims at bringing out conformity, solidarity and stability of a particular group. Social control maintains social order in the society. It is imperative for every society or group to maintain its social order; this is possible only when members behave in harmony with the social order. One vital objective of social control is to maintain established order. One can debate that enforcement of the old order may be a hindrance to progress and modernity; however, this very order helps to maintain continuity and uniformity. Without social control, social order and unity is merely a pipe dream. Social control regulates behaviour in accordance with set norms, which consequently fosters conformity and unity among the individuals. The family maintains its unity when its members behave in accordance with family norms. Every individual is unique in his ideas, interests and habits. Children born of the same parents are different. Men have the freedom to choose and believe in different religions, ideologies, dress codes, etc. There are numerous differences in ways of living, and without an order clashes are unavoidable. In modern times, this possibility has increased as man has become more greedy and self-centred. Thus, social control is necessary to guard individual interests. If social control is removed, the society would be one of anarchy. The following points will shed light on the importance of social control to society: Maintain old order: It is vital for every society to maintain its social order and this is possible when members behave in accordance to set rules. One important and paradoxical objective of social control, however, is not to maintain the old order. Family helps in realizing this objective. Establish social unity: Without social control, social unity is not possible. Social control regulates behaviour in respect to established norms which helps in uniting members of the society. Control individual behaviour: No two people are alike. Without social control, lawlessness is inevitable. When people are given freedom, they can do anything at extremesgood and bad. Social control is necessary, or else the society would be reduced to a jungle state. Provide social sanction: Social control puts sanctions on deviant behavioural ways. Every individual has to follow these set customs.
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An individual is compelled through this system to adhere to rules. Thus, social control gives sanction to social norms. Check cultural maladjustment: Every individual has to adapt his behaviour to the ever-changing society. However, it is not possible for all individuals to adjust. While some progress, others remain conservative. A villager in a metropolitan city will find it difficult to adapt. This transitional phase is important as it is here that a person is likely to become a deviant. Activity 2 Write from your own experience about an incident when you deviated from social norms.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Deviance always leads to punishment. (b) Social control regulates behaviour in accordance with set norms. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Deviant behaviour plays an important role in society because it helps ___________between what is acceptable behaviour, and what is not. (b) One vital objective of social control is to maintain ___________order.
9.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: All societies have rules and norms that are expected to be followed by all members. Those who violate those rules and norms are generally punished. Social control generally refers to some form of organized reaction to unexpected activities. Social control can be formal or informal. Agencies of social control include the law, education, coercion, religion, folkways, customs and mores.
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9.7 Glossary
Deviance: Differing from the accepted standards of society Formal social control: Enactment of laws, rules and regulations against lack of cooperation Informal social control: The role of customs, traditions, norms and other usages that an individual inherits Coercion: Practice of attaining a specific goal by using compulsion or power Folkways: Informal means of social control in the sense that they are some customary norms which individuals conform to Mores: Established practices of the society rather than written laws. Propaganda: Systematic attempt by individuals to control the attitudes of people through suggestions, and their actions

1. What is the difference between formal and informal social control? 2. What are the agencies of social control? 3. What are folkways? 4. Is coercion an effective way of social control? 5. How does social control establish unity? 6. What is the relationship between social control and social order?

1. (a) True; (b) True 2. (a) Agencies; (b) Education 3. (a) True; (b) False 4. (a) Distinguish; (b) Established
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Answers to terminal Questions

1. Refer to Section 9.2.1 2. Refer to Section 9.3 3. Refer to Section 9.3 4. Refer to Section 9.3 5. Refer to Section 9.5 6. Refer to Section 9.5

1. Black, D. 1976. The Behaviour of Law. New York: Academic Press. 2. Cohen, S. 1985. Visions of Social Control. New York: Cambridge Polity Press. 3. Horton, Paul and Chester Hunt. 1984. Sociology. Singapore: McGrawHill Book Company. 4. Horowitz, A. 1990. The Logic of Social Control. New York: Plenum Press. 5. Johnson, Harry M. 1960. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Limited. 6. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers. 7. Newman, William H. 1973. American Pluralism. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. 8. Sumner, William. 1906. A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals. New York: Cosimo books.
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Structure 10.1 Introduction Objectives 10.2 Society and the Time Process 10.3 Adjustment to a Total Environment 10.4 Internal Processes 10.5 Conflict, Strain and Cooperation 10.6 Summary 10.7 Glossary 10.8 Terminal Questions 10.9 Answers 10.10 Further Reading
Society as a Process
10.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about social control and deviance. Social control is an important component of a society. However, society is not static. As humans keep changing the way they interact with their environment, society also changes. Since the origin of mankind, man has been closely associated with his environment. In fact, the manenvironment relationship has been one of the central themes of many social sciences. Here, environment refers to the surrounding conditions, influences or forces that mould or modify; as the aggregate of social and cultural conditions (such as religion, custom, language, law, and economic and political organization) that influence the life of an individual. It has been emphasized by most early scholars and thinkers that given a particular region, the physical environment leaves a lasting imprint on human life in that region. Hardly anyone can say that human activities and the spatial patterns produced by humans are immune to the physical environment. Human beings have always tried to adjust to their physical environment and create their own social-cultural environment. It is true that cultural and technological achievements have helped human beings a great deal in this adjustment and today humans can not only adjust to their environment, but can also adjust their environment according to their needs. The methods of adjustment often become cultural elements and habits of human groups and societies.
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In this unit, you will learn how society changes with time and how people adjust to the society. You will also read about confict, strain and cooperation. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Define how society has changed with time Evaluate how humans tend to adjust to their total environment Describe how strain can cause conflict in society Analyse the role of cooperation in society
10.2 Society and the Time Process

Everything changes with time. Society and culture also change with time. From the primitive state of hunter gatherers, humans have evolved to the Neolithic state and agriculture, metal working, alphabets, and over time to what we know of as civilization. This is a gradual process, and is covered in the study of sociocultural evolution. Over the years, various theories of socio-cultural evolution have been proposed. In the 19th century, it was believed that Western civilization was the pinnacle of human achievement and that all societies are passing through various stages, starting from the primitive, to reach that pinnacle. The study of socio-cultural evolutionism is associated with Auguste Comte, Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, Benjamin Kidd, L. T. Hobhouse and Herbert Spencer. They compared human societies to biological organisms and argued that just as organisms have been shown to develop, over time, under discernible laws, so could societies. It was thought that human societies progressed through a series of stages, usually three, of savagery, barbarism and civilization. With the growth of anthropology as a scientific discipline, traditional views of primitive races, based on religious views, were discarded in favour of socio-cultural evolutionism. Herbert Spencer believed that societies progressed over time, and that progress was accomplished through competition. He also added that the individual, and not the collective, is the unit of analysis that evolves; that evolution takes place through natural selection; and that it affects social as well as biological phenomenon. Although his views predated those of Charles Darwin, the publication of Darwins works on biological evolution came to take the centre-
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stage and was seen as an attractive explanation for many questions about the development of society as well.
Stage 1 Savagery
Stage 2
Barbarism
Stage 3
Civilization
Figure 10.1 Stages of Progress of Human Societies
Spencer and Comte saw society as an organism that was capable and subject to the process of growthfrom simplicity to complexity, from chaos to order, from generalization to specialization, from flexibility to organization. The growth from one stage to the next made the society more evolved and this was seen as social progress. As was explained in earlier units, comte developed the law of three stages, which were: (1) The theological stage, in which man sought to explain all natural phenomenon in terms of the supernatural, (2) The metaphysical stage, in which man sought the abstract explanation of nature as a series of obscure forces, and finally, (3) The positive stage, in which natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationship. It was the development of the human mind and a greater application of thought, reason and logic that led to this progress. Herbert Spencer believed that evolution of a society should be aimed at an increasing individual freedom. He focussed on internal regulations within societies and differentiated between military societies of the past, which were centralized, collectivistic, willing to use force to ensure loyalty and discipline, and industrial societies, which are decentralized, focused on trade and economic cooperation and voluntary relations. He believed that evolutionary processes within society led to the transition from a military society to an industrial society.
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American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan, on the other hand, believed that social progress came with technological progress. He divided society into the three stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization, and associated each of them with technological innovations. Fire, pottery and arrowheads were associated with the savage era, agriculture, metal-working and the domestication of animals were the characteristics associated with the barbarian era and the use of the alphabet and writing is associated with the civilization era. According to German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, society evolved from the informal, where there were no laws, to a formal and rational form, in which individuals cannot just do as they please. Tonnies also noted the process of standardization, as many smaller societies merged into one large, modern society, foreshadowing the concept of globalization. Tonnies was also the first to point out that societies need not necessarily progress for the better, as often, the progress of a society comes at a high cost leading to dissatisfaction. Starting from the 20th century, such theories of socio-cultural evolutionism came to be strongly criticized for ethnocentrism. Cultural anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Margaret Mead claimed that even so-called primitive societies have a history and are as evolved as modern societies.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Herbert Spencer believed progress was achieved through competition. (b) Comte developed the law of three stages. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Lewis Morgan believed social progress came with ___________ progress. (b) According to Tonnies, society evolved from the _________ to the formal and rational.
10.3 Adjustment to a Total Environment

In general, mans environment is divided into two broad categories: natural and cultural.
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Natural Environment The natural environment includes elements like location, water bodies, landforms, climate, soil and mineral deposits, natural vegetation, forests and wildlife. All these elements are provided by the environment and humans have to utilize these resources in the best possible and sensible manner to suit their present and future needs. Cultural Environment The cultural environment comprises man-made features and human talents. It is human skills applied to the natural environment or surroundings that constitute the cultural landscape. The elements of cultural environment are religion, race and systems of political government, density and distribution of population. It has been found that this extensive manenvironment relationship has resulted in the emergence of many different approaches. But the premise is that man, either as a part of or apart from nature, is greatly affected by the environment or affects the environment. To understand this relationship between man and environment, scholars and thinkers have presented several approaches which trace the theoretical development of the manenvironment relation.
10.3.1 Deterministic Approach

This approach focusses on the manenvironment interrelationship. According to this approach, man is the slave of his environment. All the activities of human beings are affected by environmental controls and determined by them. Thus, man is not free to have his own choices and his achievements are to be explained as consequences of natural conditions. The main features of the deterministic approach are: The environment provides certain forms to human society. Mans needs of food, shelter and clothing, lifestyle, settlement pattern, etc., are all determined by the environment. Aborigines and ethnic racial groups everywhere in the world are slaves of the environment. Evolution of the deterministic approach The deterministic approach can be traced back to classical antiquity. To ancient scholars, a group of people and their country were inseparable, and whenever some unusual customs or strange physiognomies were encountered, a cause was sought in the physical elements, climate, relief or soil. According to them, the physical environment of an area determined the actions, ways of living and
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level of development in that area. Among the ancient scholars, Plato, Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy propounded the deterministic approach to understand the manenvironment interrelationship. Plato (428348 BC) He insisted that the observable things on the earth were only poor copies of ideas or perfect predicates from which observable things had degenerated or were in the process of degeneration. However, he was not an extreme determinist like his predecessors; rather, he missed the chance to change the whole history of speculation concerning the manland relation by identifying man as the destructive agent. Aristotle (384322 BC) Aristotle is credited with the most speculative concept of environmentalism of his period. He markedly differed from Plato, who was rather hesitant to accept the extreme form of determinism. Aristotle tried to conceptualize varying habitability with differences of latitude. He contended that parts of the earth that were close to the equatorthe torrid zonewere uninhabitable; that parts of the earth far away from the equatorthe frigid zonewere constantly frozen and also were uninhabitable; and that the temperate zone in between constituted the habitable parts of the earth. Emphasizing the importance of climate in shaping human skills and their sustainability, Aristotle observes in his Politics, that The inhabitants of the colder countries of Europe are brave, not deficient in thought and technical skills, and as a consequence of these they remain free longer than others, but are wanting in political organization and unable to rule their neighbours. The people of Asia, on the contrary, are thoughtful and skilful but are without spirit, whence their permanent condition is one of subjection and slavery. Eratosthenes (c. 234 BC) Eratosthenes not only redefined Aristotles zones of habitability, but also emphasized climatic determinism while describing the ekumene, that is, the inhabited earth. Posidonius, who lived shortly before the time of Christ, however, contradicted Aristotles assertion that the equatorial part of the torrid zone was uninhabitable because of heat. The highest temperatures and the driest deserts, he said, were located in the temperate zone near the tropics and the temperatures near the equator were much less extreme. It is not clear whether he refuted the contemporary assertion of climate control on human activities because his belief concerning the habitability of the equatorial region was overlooked.
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Ptolemy Ptolemy, who lived in the second century after Christ, repeated Aristotles heritage of equating habitability with latitude, and the effect of the position of the celestial bodies on human affairs. Strabo (64 AD20 BC) Strabo carried forward Aristotles standpoint on habitability in his book Geography. Like Eratosthenes, he also redefined the habitable part of the earth, the ekumene, but held the view of environmental control on human activities. He sought to explain how shape, relief, climate and space relation of Italy affected the rise and strength of Rome. Deterministic Approach in the Middle Ages The first medieval writer to make use of Aristotle was Albertus Magnus, whose book on the nature of places combined astrology with determinism. The Greek theory of equating habitability with latitude became popular in medieval writings. Scholars of the Arab world in the medieval period greatly subscribed to the Greek idea of deterministic approach. Al-Masudi was more clear in his assertion on environmental control. He was quite emphatic in describing the effect of environment on the mode of life and attitude of people. To him the powers of earth vary in their natural vegetation and topography. He prepared a new division of the world into fourteen climatic regions, described human activities, particularly in the torrid and temperate regions, emphasizing the importance of climate on human action. Al-Biruni in his book on India also made implicit references to the impact of the monsoon on the Hindu culture, particularly while describing the cultural landscape and the socio-economic institution of contemporary India. His view was deterministic and idealistic in nature and was based on his visit to India. Ibn-Khaldun was the last Arab scholar to have contributed to and enriched the medieval deterministic approach. He repeated the old idea of climatic determinism that people turned black when they live too close to the sun and that when black people move to the temperate zone they gradually turned white and produced white children. Thus, the physical environment impressed its characteristics on people in many subtle ways. Deterministic Approach in the 19th Century Scholars and thinkers in the 19th century were more involved in framing the deterministic approach and attempting at empirical validation of such hypotheses through field observation and experience. Some well-known scholars of the
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19th century who presented the deterministic approach on the man environmental inter-relation are Ritter, Humbolt, Frederic Le Play and Demolins. Ritter Ritters view of science sprang from his firm belief in God as the planner of the universe. He regarded the earth as an educational model of man, where nature had a God-given purpose, which has to show the way for mans development. He believed that the unity of nature would be severely jeopardized if nature was regarded as dominant and man as subordinate to it; he felt that there was a mutual interaction between the two. Humboldt He viewed the problem of determinism in a remarkably clear and scientific manner. He realized that environment influenced man. Humboldt did not consider man as a primary determinant in environmental change probably because he worked in an area in which nature was so overwhelmingly dominant. Frederic Le Play Frederic Le Play, the renowned French sociologist, provided a broad portrayal of the socio-geographic structure of human societies. He postulated that the development of the European people took place in three very different geographical environments, namely, the Steppes, the maritime shores and the forested lands. The Asiatic Steppe was the home of stable nomadic families under the control of patriarchs. Along the maritime shores of Europe, fishing resources, the boat and habitation were the patrimony of the family which was made up of parents, all unmarried children and the eldest son with his family. Forested land covering with its variety of grass openings, heath and varied soils, was the birth place of the unstable family that had also developed in the urban environment. Demolins Demolins, a pupil of Le Play, provides an analysis of the social structure of the worlds people on the basis of what he calls their geographical environment, their resultant type of work and their resultant type of social organization. The basic idea of Demolins is expressed in the preface to the first volume as follows:
The primary and decisive cause of the diversity of people and races is the route which has been followed by the peoples. It is the environment which created the race and social type. It has not been an indifferent matter for a people which environment they followed: that of Great
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Asiatic Steppes, or of the Tundras of Siberia, or the American Savanas, or African forest. Unconsciously and fatally these routes fashioned either the Tartar Mongol type, Eskimo-Lapps, the Red-skin or the Negro. In Europe, the Scandinavian type, the Anglo-Saxon, the French, the German, the Italian, and the Spanish are also the result of the route through which their ancestors passed before arrival at the present habitat.
Modern and New Deterministic Approach Friedrich Ratzel is considered the founder of new determinism. In his approach, he gave more importance to location than to topographical features. He argued that similar location leads to similar modes of life. He regarded cultural forms as having been adapted and determined by natural condition. He did not merely explain phenomena in human geography in terms of natural conditions but stressed the significance of the historical development and cultural background of the population. By the beginning of the 20th century, determinism had become a most popular approach in the United States. The names of Ellen Semple and Elsworth Huntington stand prominent among the proponents of this approach. Ellen Semple Semples study is an examination of the influence of physical environment on man. The opening paragraph of her book states,
Man is a product of the earths surface. This means not merely that he is a child of the earth, dust of her dust, but that the earth has mothered him, fed him, set him tasks, directed his thoughts, confronted him with difficulties that have strengthened his body and sharpened his wits, given him his problems of navigation, or irrigation, and at the same time whispered hints for their solution. She has entered into his bones and tissues, into his mind and soul.
According to Semples thesis, man is a product of the earths surface. In mountainous areas he does not develop leg muscles and in coastal areas he does not develop his chest and arms because nature gives them to him; he is the plastic form which nature moulds. According to her, even religious ideas are not exempted from natures control. Buddha born in the steaming Himalayas piedmont, fighting the lassitude induced by heat and humidity, pictured his heaven as Nirvana, the cessation of all activity and individual life. This is the psychological effect of environment. The opening paragraph of Semples book sets the tone of the whole book and every chapter includes examples of deterministic interpretation.
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Elseworth Huntington Elseworth Huntington was also a strong protagonist of the deterministic approach. He developed the idea of the importance of climate in the advancement of human civilization. He believed that climate was the fundamental factor in the rise of a civilization. According to him, the northeastern parts of the United States had the best environment. On the basis of his opinion of North Americans, he concluded that temperate climates had the highest level of health and energy and civilizations. He estimated that an inhabitant of the temperate belt produces, on an average, five or six times of what inhabitants of any other part of the world produce. According to him, the supreme achievements of civilization in any region were associated with a particular type of climate, and variations in climate led to pulsations in the history of culture. He divided the world into the mild and the harsh climatic zones and emphasized that ancient civilizations like the Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Indus Valley civilizations flourished in fertile river valleys which had mild climates. He also attributed the advancement of Europeans in the field of science and technology to climatic conditions. Besides Hungtington, a number of other scholars like Mackinder, Chisholm, Bowman, Robert Mills, Geddes and Herbertson also interpreted the progress of societies on the deterministic approach. A number of scholars emphasized that climate influences the physical properties of soil, which ultimately determine the cropping patterns, dietary habits, physique and attitudes of people. Objections to the Deterministic Approach The major objections to the deterministic approach are the following: Similarity in natural environment does not necessarily result in similarity in human activities. Physiological adjustments need not agree with tropical climate in all instances. Man influences environment, just as environment influences man. This approach does not stress on the religious and cultural influences on environment. It fails to explain the distribution of population. This approach also fails to explain the influence of industry and industrial development on environment. Although there is no denying the fact that physical environment affects human actions and patterns of life in various parts of the world, yet it cannot be said that man is a total slave of nature. Therefore, the deterministic approach as
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advanced by scholars like Semple and Huntington could not hold for long in its original form. A closer look at human activities reveals many facts for which environmental forces provide no satisfactory explanation. Similarly, environments do not always evoke the same response. Eskimos differ markedly from the Tundra tribes of Siberia, although they live in similar environments. Thus, similarity in natural environment does not necessarily result in similarity in human activities. Further, though environment does influence man, man in turn changes his environment and the interaction is so intricate that it is difficult to know when one influence ceases and the other begins. Many landscapes that appear natural to us are in fact the work of man. Religious and cultural factors often leave a strong imprint on economic activities in different regions. Buddhist objections to killing life, for example, set a man-made limit to the cultivation of mulberry and rearing of silkworms. Hindu religious beliefs have similarly hampered the development of a meat industry in India. Thus, the deterministic approach does not consider such cultural or religious factors nor does it take into account the influence of man on environment. Industry and industrial development also cause serious problems for the environment. It is man and not nature that decides the development of industries. Thus, the deterministic approach ignored the influence of industry and industrial development on environment.
10.3.2 Teleological Approach

The word, teleology comes from the Greek word telos, which means end, goal, aim, purpose. The teleological approach in environmentman interrelation reflects that nature is the gift of God and that it affects mans development. The teleological approach shows events which can only be explained as stages in a movement towards a preordained end; the end may be defined by those involved in the event or it may be externally defined as in many religions. It seeks to understand events in relation to their underlying principles. In order to understand the relation between man and environment from the teleological approach, various scholars and thinkers came up with different views. Some of the famous ones are Karl Ritter, Alexander von Humboldt and Immanuel Kant. Karl Ritter (AD 17791859) Karl Ritter used the teleological approach as a framework for his presentation of data and as a means to arrive at some simple empirical generalizations.
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According to him, the concept of spatial unity presumed a casual interrelation of all the individual features in nature. He wrote, The phenomena of nature had to be studied in order to establish the coherence and unity. His teleological philosophy cannot be tested empirically and does not qualify as scientific explanation because religion cannot provide explanation of natural phenomena. Ritters concept of unity of nature was shaped by his deeply religious outlook and by the accepted natural philosophy of his time. He studied the working of nature in order to understand the purpose behind its orders. His views of science sprang from his firm belief in God as the planner of the universe. He regarded the earth as an educational model for man, where nature had a God-given purpose which was to show the way for mans development. To him the shape of the continents was determined by God, so that their form and location enabled them to play the role designed by God for the development of man. The teleology in Ritters view seems to be an attempt to interpret, philosophically, that which science could not explain. Ritter found that these were the fundamental facts of the environment for which science could not offer any explanation. These were the unique features of the earth in the universe; the earth as the home of that unique creature, man; and finally, the explanation of a host of environments factsthe differentiation in the character among the major land units of the world. The idea of a geographical whole, as in the integral nature of place and people, reflects Ritters attempt to develop a more scientific holism. His philosophy seems to have an all-embracing explicatory holism, particularly in the notion of teleologythe theory that the evolution of anything can be validated by the consideration of the purpose to which it is in the end directed. His philosophy seeks to understand the whole, rather than the parts, and suggests that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; that is, it has emergent properties not predictable from knowledge of its constituent parts. Criticism Ritters teleological standpoint was criticized by his contemporaries who felt that religion could not provide an explanation of natural phenomena, especially in the arrangement of the major regions. His view that among all creatures of the earth only man could comprehend the existence of the divine plan and so could adjust his life to it and make maximum use of Gods gift was also criticized as being valueless and unscientific because it did not take into account the concept of struggle and survival.
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10.3.3 Possibilistic Approach

The possibilistic approach holds that the physical environment tends to provide the opportunity for a range of possible human responses and that people can choose between them through their creative genius and ability. Some thinkers who contributed to the possibilistic approach of man environment relations were Plato, Montesquieu and Comte De Buffon. Plato (429347 BC) According to Plato, the observable things on the earth were only poor copies of ideas, or perfect predicates from which observable things had degenerated or were in the process of degeneration. Proceeding from the general to the particular, Plato sought to infer that men tended to make changes in the land they occupied; and soil erosion and land destruction were outcomes of their material culture. It was he who formulated the idea of man as an agent of change on the earths surface. The view expressed by Plato about capabilities of man was very close to the philosophy of possibilism. It can, therefore, be said that a philosophy resembling possibilism had its origin in the classical antiquity which Plato did not describe very clearly. Montesquieu (AD 16891755) Montesquieu developed a philosophy resembling the paradigm of possibilism. According to him, the interplay of physical and moral causes was extended to be the factor which established the character of a society or nation which guided the choice of the society or nation to operate freely in the environment. Montesquieu held the view that men did possess free will and were able to make, consciously or subconsciously, choices from among a series of avenues of escape or adaptation. He also held that even though the physical environment remained relatively static, man had been growing in ability and becoming more complex. Montesquieus view of mans freedom vis--vis the physical environment was too crypto-possibilistic to allow easy assimilation by later readers. Comte De Buffon (AD 17071788) Comte De Buffon believed in the creative power of man. According to him, man was commended to conquer the earth and transform it. He thought that man had changed the face of the earth in the process of developing a civilization. According to him, man is an agent of change and possessed the free will to make desired changes on the landscape. He insisted that man could adjust to
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any climate on the earth. According to him, Man was not compelled to react to any climate the way uncivilized native people would react. With proper clothing he could protect his skin color. Buffon also speculated on climate changes mostly as a result of man made changes in the landscape and suggested that the removal of forests and the draining of marshes might lead to increase in temperature. In fact, he insisted on the conservation of forests. Possibilistic Approach in the 19th and 20th Centuries Some famous thinkers of this period are Lucien Febvre, Jean Brunches, Paul Vidal de La Blache, Isaiah Bowman and Carl O. Sauer. Luvien Febvre The critical French philosopher Febvre was a great supporter of the possibilistic approach. He also endorsed the Vidalienne tradition of possibilism and carried forward the heritage in a more neo-Kantian way. According to him, man is not a passive being but an active force.
Through centuries and centuries, by his accumulated labours and the boldness and decision of his undertakings, he appears to us as one of the most powerful agents in the modification of terrestrial surface. And this action of man on his environment is the part which man plays in geography. There are no necessities, but everywhere possibilities; and man as the master of these possibilities is the judge of their use. This by the reversal which it involves puts man in the first place, man and no longer the earth, nor the influence of climate, nor the determinant conditions of localities.
Febvre, probably the most caustic of the possibilists, discussing the matter of uniform regions of physical and human geography within which everything had identicalor merely identicalcharacteristics, enunciated this possibilist viewpoint: And this is a Ratzelian dogma. If the space is limited and not greatly differentiated, the physical and human types found there are monotonous. Our contention is quite otherwise. We admit regional frames in a general sense, but in the collection of physical features they represent, we see only possibilities of action. Febvre, speaking for the possibilists, stated their case that a homogeneous region did not necessarily produce, for all time, a homogeneous society. The inhabitants of any region were able to choose, from time to time and in the quantity they desired, some of the benefits, or chances for benefit, which the region possessed. However, the number of choices or opportunities for choice was not infinite in each region; each region had an upper limit.
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Jean Brunches Jean Brunches spread the philosophy of possibilism into a philosophical and methodological framework. According to him, in this terrestrial unity, a greater emphasis is placed on the works of man by the possibilists than by determinists. The works of man, not the earth and its influence, are the starting point of study according to the possibilistic viewpoint. Brunches divided the essential facts of human geography into three categories: Unproductive occupation of soil: Houses and roads (including rural habitations, urban agglomerations and circulation pattern). Plant and animal conquests: The cultivation of plants and the raising of animals. Destructive exploitation: Plant and animal devastation, mineral exploitation. He also established a link between earth and man. According to him, it is not influences that are sought but geographical relations between physical facts and human destinies. His approach, therefore, seems to be more conducive to unbiased research. According to Brunches,
Everything on the earths surface is for men a matter of habitat, of sound understanding, of physical facts, and of skilful adaption to these facts. Moreover, the adaptations take place promptly and at the right time, proceeded, prepared for, and brought about by exact scientific investigation. These investigations should also tend to moderate our ambitions and turn us away sometime from undertakings that would mean such bold opposition to the forces of nature that man would run the risk of seeing sooner or later his patient work annihilated at a single stroke. The more imposing and glorious the mans conquest, the more cruel the revenge of the thwarted physical facts.
Isaiah Bowman and Paul Vidal de La Blache Isaiah Bowman and Paul Vidal de La Blache have also stressed Brunchess viewpoint. They stressed that by interacting with his environment, man gradually replaces the variety of nature by uniformity. Blache set forth a conceptual framework of possibilism. According to him Nature sets limits and offers possibilities for human settlement, but the way man reacts or adjusts to these given conditions depends on his own conditions and traditional way of living. What he meant was that the physical environment provided a range of possibilities which man turned to his use according to his needs, wishes and
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capabilities, in creating his habitat. He also said that in a human settlement, nature changed significantly because of the presence of man, and these changes were greatest where the level of material culture of the community was highest. He further added that through his occupation and imprint on the land, man created distinctive countries, be they states or minor unit areas. Blache emphasized the concept of a way of living in supporting and furthering his philosophy and possibilistic view. According to him, the same environment has different connotations for people with different genre de vie which literally means way of life. According to de la Blache, man chooses from a variety of choices offered by nature to shape his life. In respect of the possibilistic approach, Bowman argues, There are no necessities but everywhere possibilities; and man as a master of these possibilities is the judge of their use. This by the reversal which it involves puts man in the first place, man and no longer, the earth, or the influence of neither climate nor the determinant conditions of localities. He further argues that even plant societies, which are less adaptable to environment than human ones, do not suffer exclusion from external conditions. The elements of the environment are fixed only in the narrow and special sense of the word. The moment we give them the human associations they are as changeful as humanity itself. He also stated that each fact does not determine the form and nature of human society in development. They condition it. New earth facts are continually being discovered and old earth facts given new significance as human knowledge, thought and social action develop. The relations are reciprocal.
10.3.4 Economic Deterministic Approach

In order to understand the various aspects of society, various thinkers formulated an approach called the economic deterministic approach. This approach addresses mans mastery over increasingly larger parts of the environment. This approach favours continued economic and industrial expansion, and it sees in scientific research and industrial development the opportunity for increasing control over individual parts of the environment. Economic Determinism is one of four phrases which is used interchangeably by modern writers in referring to a sociological law which is the joint discovery of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Engels in his Dialectics of Nature, presented the view that natural phenomena are not unchallengeable but form an ever-changing current. This attitude became the basis of the radical environmentman model wherein information about the natural world is
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monitored by the systems executive and can be interpreted by social man to produce an ever-revised view of nature which will play a role in processing social vision and in promoting action leading to an enhancement of the human circumstance. For Marxists, human occupation of land is a dialectic symbiosis in which society faces nature and, by a nature of force and coercion, achieves power. According to the famous thinker Zelinsky, the economic deterministic approach offers a more sound explanation for understanding the size and distribution of human population than does the direct impact of the physical environment, but he also identifies two fallacious assumptions inherent in this line of thinking. These are: (i) the number of inhabitants in a region is positively correlated with the level of economic development and activity and (ii) universal economic principles govern the interaction of people, resources and society.
10.3.5 Ecological Approach

Mans relation to the natural environment is one of intricate and perpetual association historically, culturally and biologically. The very conception of the natural environment is moulded by human history and culture. The natural environment is not to be understood as a causal factor but rather as an allpervading and all-enveloping condition of human life. The history of the world with all its complexities and the culture of the world with all its constituent varieties belongs only in the environment of this world and its region, even as living things, including man, are biologically conditioned by their natural environment. The natural environment can be understood only in terms of human life and history and culture can be understood fully only in the natural environment. Human life and environment are intimately interwoven in every aspect of their being, biologically and culturally, from the beginning of life on earth. Both nature and man are intrinsic to the particular characteristics of areas, and indeed in such intimate union that they cannot be separated from each other. It is also in this relationship that the subject has faced two of its most difficult methodological problems, of the dualism between man and environment and that between human and the physical environment. The ecological viewpoint has been used to overcome these problems. It provides an alternative approach to a central theme in geographical inquiry, that of the relationship of man and environment in an area. In the manenvironment relation, the ecological approach is the latest approach cutting through the theme of possibilism and determinism. The ecological approach stresses that man is an integral part of nature, and his
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relationship with the natural environment should be symbiotic and not exploitative or suppressive. Here, ecology signifies the relationship between organisms and their environment and among the various ecosystems in the biosphere. The word ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos meaning household or place to live and logos meaning study or teaching about the habitat. The word was developed by German naturalist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. In socio-environment study, the word ecology suggests the relation between man and his environment, and does not allow one to be the supreme power over the other or to exert his/ its influence. It describes the cause-and-effect interplay between cultural and physical environment. Man and nature are acting and reacting together. Man is modifying nature, for instance, by deforestation, by setting up industries and causing pollution and changing the ecosystem. At the same time, nature or the environment is modifying man, for example, in high altitude areas by giving many hardships to him and making him bold enough to face them. Thus, according to the ecological approach, man and environment are equally important. The ecological approach is the most scientific approach and at the same time most commonly accepted by most thinkers and scholars. With the adoption of the ecological viewpoint, scholars have rid themselves of native determinism and misinterpretation in both physical and human environments. According to Eyre and Stoddart, the ecological concepts provided a research method that scholars so badly lacked. The concept of Ecosystem lies at the base of the philosophy of ecological viewpoint. In the year 1972, famous scholars Ward and Dubos propounded the view that man must accept responsibility for the stewardship of the earth and apply appropriate environmental management strategies based on ecological principles. The term ecosystem was formally proposed by Tansley, a plant ecologist, in 1935 as a general term for both the biome, that is, the whole complex of organisms including animals and plants naturally living together as a social unit, and their habitat. All the parts of such organic and inorganic ecosystems or biome or habitat ecosystems may be regarded as interacting factors that, in a mature ecosystem, are in equilibrium. It is through their interactions that the whole system is maintained. Tansleys concept of ecosystem effectively broadens the scope of ecology itself, which is no longer purely biological in content. The ecological concept has four properties, which are discussed below: 1. The ecosystem is monistic, that is, it brings together environment, man, plant and animal worlds within a single framework, within which the
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interaction between the components can be analysed. The ecosystem being functional in design, offers a sound principle for geographical analysis of manenvironment interaction in specific areas and regions. Besides, since the ecosystem concept combines both the physical and the biological environments in a single interacting system; it helps to resolve the age-old problem of dualism. 2. The ecology is structured in a more or less orderly, rational and comprehensible manner. The essential fact here is that once the structure is recognized, it may be investigated and studied, in sharp contrast to the transcendental properties of the earth, and its regions as organisms or organic wholes. 3. The ecosystem is the functioning system involving continuous throughput of matter and energy. The system involves not only the framework of the communication net, but also the goods and people flowing through it. Once the framework has been defined, it may be possible to qualify the interaction and interchanges between component parts and at least in simple ecosystems, the whole complex may be quantitatively defined. 4. The ecosystems are a type of general system, and the ecosystem processes the attributes of this general system. In general system terms, the ecosystem is an open system tending towards a steady state and obeying the laws of open system thermodynamics. An ecosystem may be conceptualized at different levels of complexity; for example, from a single farm unit to the national agriculture system in any country. The ecosystem possesses structural properties of theoretical models so that a first approximation of system structure may be reached by selection, simplification and ordering of data at a series of levels. Accordingly, with the adoption of the concept of an ecosystem, the geographical system may be examined at a series of levels or scales, beginning with the framework level, to simple information systems focused on analysis of the mechanisms of supply and demand, to the still more complex levels of social organization. Thus, the emergence of the ecological concept as a tightly knit interacting complex of man and environment awaited the development of the growing body of systems theory. In the last few years, it has begun to be applied by many scholars both as a research tool and as a methodological instrument. In the ecosystem concept, the ecology makes its most profound and powerful contribution to many social sciences.
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Activity 1 Do you think man has been able to conquer nature fully? If not, do you think it is possible for man to do so? Give reasons.
3. State whether true or false. (a) According to the deterministic approach, man is the slave of his environment. (b) The teleological approach to environmentman interrelation reflects that nature is the gift of god. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Jean Brunches extended the philosophy of possibilism into a ________ and methodological framework. (b) Dialectics of Nature was written by ______________.
10.4 Internal Processes

Social empowerment is a process of accessing opportunities and resources in order to make personal choices and have some control over the environment. Social Empowerment is a process by which people reclaim their power, the power to shape their own lives and to influence the course of events around them. They use their power against oppression and exclusion, and for participation, peace and human rights. This power is not about domination, but rather the power to stand against political repression, repression by institutions and the social patterns that pervade within society and diminish people's lives. This power is about redistributing power and influence within society and using resources properly. Phases of empowerment The process of empowerment usually starts in response to crisis: an emotional or physical experience which causes a break or change in daily routines. When this happens, sometimes people realize that something has to change. They begin to lose confidence in politicians and decision-makers and look to their own ability to influence the situation.
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In the second phase people are seeking and finding social support, locating other people who have, had similar experiences or have similar interests. At this point people discover their own abilities and take their first visible actions. By the third phase people have reached a better understanding about societal connections. They have gained experience in taking action and may have begun to experience conflict, not only arising from the roles they have chosen within the group, but also with their family and among friends. The fourth phase is a phase of conviction and burning patience. Peoples skills and abilities in handling conflict have developed, they understand that there is a link between conflict and growth and have come to the conclusion that they can influence society and change it, partially. This attitude helps us to continue the slow and difficult processes and also to support other people who are starting similar empowerment processes.
10.5 Conflict, Strain and Cooperation

Strain is one major factor of conflict in society. At the same time, societies are able to resolve such conflicts with the help of cooperation. Conflict and Strain As socialization makes individuals conform to the rules of society, people are expected to lead a law-abiding life, work hard and succeed. According to American sociologist R.K. Merton, strain is the anger, frustration and resentment that the lower classes may feel when their goals are not met due to lack of opportunities. As a result, many of them may resort to criminal behaviour, which is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. Of course, not all strain leads to criminal behaviour. There are other methods by which individuals adapt to it. One is retreatism, in which an individual rejects the goals and means of society. Such people include drug addicts, the psychoneurotic and psychotic, outcast, vagrants and others. Innovation is when individuals try to achieve culturally approved goals by using unconventional means. This includes fraud, corporate crime, not paying taxes or running a software piracy business. This is often the result of a society that places greater emphasis on success itself rather than the means of attaining it.
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Another mode of adapting to strain is ritualism, in which people give up their goals, but continue with their unrewarded existence by adhering to rules and are thus considered good citizens. Another adaptation is rebellion, which rejects both the cultural goals and cultural means. Rebels advocate alternatives to the existing social order, either through political change, or through religious cults. Cooperation and Conflict Conflict occurs whenever individuals or groups have competing goals. Most conflicts between humans appear in the context of a human society. Cooperation, on the other hand, is the process of working or acting together, be it intentionally or non-intentionally. Cooperation can take place on a simple level, such as when two persons work in harmony, or it can take place on a massive scale, as in a nation. Cooperation is the alternative to working separately in competition. Even when individual components which may appear to be selfish join together and create a complex, fully functioning system, we can say that cooperation is taking place. Individual action that causes the cooperation, however, may often be coerced or unintentional. Activity 2 What type of adaptation to strain would you call a student cheating at an exam?
5. State whether true or false. (a) Spencer and Comte saw society as an organism that was capable and subject to the process of growth. (b) Strain inevitably leads to criminal behaviour. 6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Comtes three stages are the theological, ____________ and positive stage. (b) Cooperation is the alternative to working separately in ____________.
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10.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: The relationship between man and his environment has traditionally been a focal point of environmental enquiry. In this context, environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point in space and time. There are a number of ways in which the manenvironment relationship can be perceived. In this unit, we have examined the relationship between man and environment from five different perspectives. In the first approach, you have learned determinism in the context of the manenvironment relationship. The approach stresses that man is subordinate to, and hence largely controlled by, the natural environment. The views of several renowned scholars and thinkers have been discussed. The second perspective is the teleological approach of manenvironment relationship which stresses that man is superior to nature, and he thus has the potential for complete control over all aspects of nature. The third perspective describes the manenvironment relationship from the possibilistic approach. According to this approach, the physical environment tends to provide the opportunity for a range of possible human responses and that people have considerable direction to choose between them through their creative genius and creativity. The fourth approach is economic determinism; that is how economy determines the manenvironment relationship. The approach addresses mans mastery over increasingly larger parts of the environment. This approach favours continued economic and industrial expansion, and it sees in scientific research and industrial development the opportunity for increasing control over individual parts of the environment. The last perspective is the ecological approach. This is the latest approach in understanding the manenvironment relationship. According to this approach, man is an integral part of nature and his relationship with the natural environment should be symbolic and not exploitative or suppressive.
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The study of socio-cultural evolutionism is associated with Auguste Comte, Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, Benjamin Kidd, L. T. Hobhouse and Herbert Spencer. They compared human societies to biological organisms and argued that just as organisms have been shown to develop, over time, under discernible laws, so could societies. Herbert Spencer believed that societies progressed over time, and that progress was accomplished through competition. Comte developed the law of three stages, which were (1) the theological stage, (2) the metaphysical stage and (3) the positive stage. According to R.K. Merton, strain is the anger, frustration and resentment that the lower classes may feel when their goals are not met due to lack of opportunities. Conflict occurs whenever individuals or groups have competing goals. Most conflicts between humans appear in the context of a human society.
10.7 Glossary
Cultural environment: The environment that comprises man-made features and human talents, such as religion, races and systems of political government, density and distribution of population Deterministic approach: A sociological approach that focusses on man environment interrelationship and propounds that man is the slave of his environment Teleological approach: A sociological approach that shows that events can only be explained as stages in a movement towards a preordained end; the end may be defined by those involved in the event or it may be externally defined as in many religions Possibilistic approach: A sociological approach that holds that the physical environment tends to provide the opportunity for a range of possible human responses and that people have considerable direction to choose between them through their creative genius and ability Economic deterministic approach: A sociological approach that addresses mans mastery over increasingly larger parts of the environment Ecological approach: A sociological approach that claims that man and environment are equally important. It is the most scientific approach and most widely accepted
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1. Describe the background of the study of socio-cultural evolution. 2. Critically analyse the deterministic approach on manenvironment relationship. 3. Write a detailed note on the teleological approach on manenvironment relationship. 4. What are the various viewpoints regarding the possibilistic approach on manenvironment relationship? 5. Analyse the economic deterministic approach on manenvironment relationship. 6. Discuss the ecological approach on manenvironment relationship. 7. Describe any three methods of coping with strain.

1. (a) True; (b) True 2. (b) Technological; (b) Informal 3. (a) True; (b) True 4. (a) Philosophical; (b) Engels 5. (a) True; (b) False 6. (a) Metaphysical; (b) Competition

1. Refer to Section 10.2 2. Refer to Section 10.3.1 3. Refer to Section 10.3.2 4. Refer to Section 10.3 5. Refer to Section 10.3.4
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6. Refer to Section 10.3.5 7. Refer to Section 10.5

1. Black, D. 1976. The Behaviour of Law. New York: Academic Press. 2. Cohen, S. 1985. Visions of Social Control. New York: Cambridge Polity Press. 3. Horton, Paul and Chester Hunt. 1984. Sociology. Singapore: McGrawHill Book Company. 4. Horowitz, A. 1990. The Logic of Social Control. New York: Plenum Press. 5. Johnson, Harry M. 1960. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Limited. 6. MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers. 7. Newman, William H. 1973. American Pluralism. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. 8. Sumner, William. 1906. A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals. New York: Cosimo books.
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Unit 11
Structure
Social Conflict
11.1 Introduction Objectives 11.2 Conflict as a Process 11.3 Forms of Conflict: Coser and Dahrendorf 11.4 Marxs Contribution: Interaction, Conflict and Contradiction 11.5 Summary 11.6 Glossary 11.7 Terminal Questions 11.8 Answers 11.9 Further Reading
11.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about society as a process. In this unit you will be learning about Karl Marxs view on class and conflict. You will also learn about Coser and Dahrendorfs views on social conflict. So, what exactly is social conflict? Social conflict is the struggle for power in society. Competition over resources is usually the main cause for conflict. One of the primary examples of social conflict is feudal Europe. The oppression of the kings and nobles over the subjects ultimately led to the masses revolting for their rights. The consequences of European feudalism significantly affected society. It was from European feudalism that various forms of constitutional governments evolved. New ideas resulted in greater resistance to feudal lords. The rights of the majorities and the early representative institutions came up. The effects were powerfully felt once European feudalism declined. Experts hold different views on social conflict. According to Coser, conflict is instinct-based. Thus, it can be found everywhere in society. Like Coser, Dahrendorf views conflict as being present in all human relations. However, he does not see conflict as part of human nature, but rather as a social part of how one structures society and brings about social order. According to Marx, the struggles for power that result from class interests are the basic agents of social process.
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Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Evaluate conflict as a process Explain Cosers view on conflict Explain Dahrendorfs view on conflict Discuss Marxs view on social class
11.2 Conflict as a Process

According to conflict theory, human behaviour in society is a consequence of conflicts between competing groups. Karl Marx came up with the theory in the mid-1800s. Marx understood human society in terms of conflict between those who had control over the means of economic production and those who did not. He essentially saw this in the context of a capitalist society. Conflict theory deals with interests, rather than norms and values, regarding conflict. When human beings pursue interests, its inevitable that conflicts are produced along the way.
Figure 11.1 Conflict
Thus, we can say that conflict is a normal aspect of social life and not something out of the ordinary. One of the primary causes of conflict is competition over resources. The three tenets of this theory are: 1. Society is comprised of several groups that fight for resources. 2. Societies do show cooperation; however, there is a constant struggle for power between social groups when they are looking after their own interests. Within societies, certain groups control certain resources and means of production.
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3. Social groups use resources to their benefit while pursuing their goals. This results in the ill-treatment of those lacking resources. As a result, many of these subjugated groups struggle with other groups while trying to get some semblance of control. Mostly, the groups with more resources will gain or maintain power. This phenomenon is known as The Matthew Effect. Critical Criminology is another branch of conflict theory. This subject is based on the view that the essential cause of crime is oppression, which is a consequence of social and economic forces that operate within a specific society. This perspective is derived from the German philosopher, Karl Marx, who believed that justice system and laws favour the powerful in a society and that the poor are punished far more for lesser crimes. Another branch of conflict theory is that of aging. This theory became quite popular in the 1980s in the United States as a result of a lack of federal spending and a loss of jobs; the older generations regularly competed with younger people for employment. Women, low-income families, and minorities were the worst affected of the lot. Activity 1 Justice system and laws favour the powerful in a society and the poor are punished far more for lesser crimes. Do you agree with Marxs view on the justice system? Using the Internet for reference, write an essay on the same.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Society is comprised of several groups that fight for resources. (b) Social groups do not use resources to their benefit while pursuing goals. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) _____ _______is based on the view that oppression is the essential cause of oppression. (b) The conflict theory of _________ became quite popular in the 1980s in the United States.
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11.3 Forms of Conflict: Coser and Dahrendorf

There are essentially three types of conflicts: 1. Conflict involving social positions: This is the most common of all social conflicts and takes place between different classes of the society. 2. Conflict of interest: This is a situation where a person has a private interest that influences the objective exercise of his official duties as, say, an employee, an officer, etc. 3. Role conflict: This corresponds to conflict among roles corresponding to two or more statuses. In the following paragraphs, we will be discussing the views on conflict of three of the most influential voices in the subjectCoser, Dahrendorf, and Marx.
11.3.1 Coser
War is the obvious type of conflict; there is also conflict that we experience in our daily lives and experiences. Coser argues that conflict for humans is quite different from animals in that human conflicts are goal related. In other words, when human beings engage in any form of conflict, there is a gain lying in there somewhere, and there are different ways to reach that destination. The existence of these different paths leads to opportunities for negotiation and consequently different levels of conflict. Coser views conflict as a normal and unavoidable part of human life; his works speak of several variations, such as violence level and functional consequences.
Figure 11.2 Coser
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Conflict can be violent. Coser gives two factors that can lead to violence in conflict: emotional involvement and transcendent goals. People who are emotionally engaged are more liable to be violent. Durkheim, a noted French sociologist saw that group interaction could lead to increased emotional involvements and bring out moral boundaries around group values and goals. However, he did not see any relevance in applying this to conflict, which Coser does. Our level of emotional involvement is directly related to how intensely we are involved in a group. If the group is threatened, there is a greater chance of violent conflict. Violence during conflicts tends to be more when the goals of a group become transcendent. As long as the group works toward taking care of everyday concerns, people moderate their emotional involvement and conflict is kept at a manageable and rational level. However, if the goals of the group are greater than the group and the general concerns of daily life, then conflict tends to be more violent. For instance, when a country goes to war, the reasons given by the government is not ordinary. When the US fought the First Gulf War, many felt that it was to protect oil interests. However, the reasons that were given were defeating oppression, preserving freedom, and protecting human rights. Whenever the government deems it necessary to resort to violence of any kind, the reasons are inevitably covered in moral terms (capitalists tend to say they fight for individual freedoms; communists for social responsibility, etc). Coser refers to two kinds of functional consequences of conflict: conflict that takes place within a group and conflict that happens outside the group. One example of internal conflict is the tension that may take place between indigenous populations and the national government. Here, internal conflict is between groups functioning within the same social system. Examples of external group conflicts are wars where the entire nation is involved. When Coser talks about consequences for internal group conflict, he is concerned with low-level and more regularly occurring conflict. For external conflict, he is thinking more in terms of violent conflict.
11.3.2 Dahrendorf
Dahrendorf is concerned with the same issue as American sociologist Talcott Parsons: How can social order be achieved? However, unlike Parsons who assumes collective agreement about values, norms, and social positions, Dahrendorf debates that power defines and puts into motion the guiding principles of society. Dahrendorf like Coser talks about the level of violence and its consequences, but with the addition of another variable: conflict intensity.
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Figure 11.3 Dahrendorf
Dahrendorf argues that capitalism has undergone great changes following Marxs initial theory on class conflict. This new form of capitalism, which Dahrendorf identifies as postcapitalism, is marked by a different class structure and a flexible system of power. Therefore, there is a much more complex system of inequality. Dahrendorf contends postcapitalist society has institutionalized class conflict into two different spheres: state and economic. For instance, class conflict is characterized by unions, the court system, collective bargaining, and legislation. The severe class strife that is an essential feature of Marxs time is irrelevant. Dahrendorf believed that updating Marxs theory could better reflect modern society. He felt Marxs two-class system to be too simplistic and stressing on property ownership. With joint stock companies in vogue today, ownership does not quite reflect control of economic production in todays society. So, instead of dealing with the basic differences of class regarding property, Dahrendorf claims that people must replace the possession, or nonpossesion, of effective private property by the exercise of, or exclusion from, authority as the criterion of class formation. This way, society can be divided into the command class and the obey class, and class conflict must refer to struggle between those with and without authority. Dahrendorfs work was different from those published by social theorists in the 1950s. Dahrendorf acknowledged Marxs theory on class interests. He agreed, like Marx, that conflict is still an essential fact of social life. He argued that class conflict could be beneficial to society; for example, progressive change. Dahrendorf is seen as being somewhat radically different from the structural functionalist tradition of the 1950s. Dahrendorf criticized and tried to oppose false, utopian representation of societal harmony, stability, and consensus by the structural functionalist school. This is not to say that Dahrendorfs views completely differ from structural functionalists; he had a lot of belief in the capacity
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of political and economic institutions. Dahrendorf, like Weber, criticized Karl Marxs opinion that the working class will eventually become a group of unskilled machine operators. Dahrendorf argued that in postcapitalist society, there are elaborate distinctions regarding income, skill level, and life chances. Dahrendorf had a more pluralist outlook of class and power structures and saw hierarchies of authority as inevitable in modern societies. Dahrendorfs class conflict theory has its fair share of criticism. One, it leads to unexplainable conclusions owing to his definition of social class. Going by his definition, if one is to view authority relations as class relations, then a parentchild conflict is a class conflict. Two, there is no clear difference between authority that comes from truly legitimate power and authority that results through circumstances where a subordinate is obedient to a superior for varying reasons. This lack of distinction facilitates an infinite number of classes, which consequently eliminates significant meaning of the concept of class. Dahrendorf also claims that conflicts involve only two parties. In an advanced society, this view appears simple and out of place. Activity 2 Research and present the views of any two sociologists (apart from Coser, Dahrendorf, and Marx) on social conflict.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Like Coser, Dahrendorf sees conflict as universally present in all human relations. (b) Coser makes the case for two kinds of functional consequences of conflict: conflict that occurs within a group and conflict that occurs outside the group. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Very much like_______________, Dahrendorf agreed that conflict is still a fundamental fact of social life. (b) Coser also argues that conflict for humans is different than for other animals in that our conflict is ______________.
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11.4 Marxs Contribution: Interaction, Conflict and Contradiction

Karl Marx is widely regarded as one of the greatest social thinkers. His ideas were only posthumously recognized. Karl Marx believed that social change was necessary for a better society, and class conflict was the only way to achieve social change. Marxs main concern was economic change. HIs best work is the one on class conflict, the fight between the capitalists and the working class. The capitalists (bourgeoisie) are the ones responsible for controlling the land, factories, etc. The working classes (proletariat) are the workers who are exploited by the capitalists. All in all, there are essentially six elements in Marxs view of class conflict. (i) Classes are authority relationships that are based on property ownership. (ii) Class defines groupings of individuals with shared life situations and interests. (iii) Classes are, by nature, antagonistic due to their interests. (iv) Lurking within modern society is the growth of two antagonistic classes and their struggle, which ultimately takes over all social relations. (v) Political organization and Power is instrumental in class struggle, and present ideas are its reflection. (vi) Structural change is a result of the class struggle. While explaining the theory of social change, Marx brought out the notion of social class. According to Marxs class theory the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle. According to this view, from the time human society emerged from its primitive state, it has remained fundamentally divided between classes that clash in the pursuit of class interests. The relationship of men always depends upon their positions vis--vis the means of productions and Marxs analysis centres on such differential access to scarce resources and scarce power. Every unequal society would definitely have the potential for class struggles as such a system will generate conflicts of class interests. He analysed the various social and economic positions and the negative experiences therein that led to individuals taking action to improve the collective fate of their community.
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Marx termed a social class as a group of people in an organization of production, who performed the same function. However, the social or financial position of the person in a society is not really important; what mattered were the functions he performed in the process of production. Self-conscious classes were completely different from aggregates of people sharing a common fate. The self-conscious class needs a method of communication, a common bond between people, a form of organization and of course, a common enemy in order to evolve into a better and equal society.
Figure 11.4 Karl Marx
According to Marx, social classes have been there right from the beginning of human history. He differentiated between stages of human history on the basis of their economic regimes or modes of productions which he called primitive, ancient, feudal and capitalist. In all these societies, there had been a two-fold class distinction. However, primitive communism was the first and lowest form of organization of people and it existed for many years. It was a hunting and gathering society which provides an only example of a classless society. Then all societies were developed into two major classes, masters and slaves in ancient society; feudal lords and serfs in feudal society, and bourgeoisie and proletariat in capitalist societies. The subject class is formed of a majority of people while the ruling class is a minority. In primitive communism, societies were based on socialistic mode of production. Classes did not exist and all members shared the same relations to the forces of production. As man learnt the technique of agriculture, this subsistence economy got changed to a surplus economy. The rudimentary division of labour of hunting and gathering band was replaced by a complex and specialized division.
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As a result of this, a group started establishing hegemony over other groups through its skills. They were the capitalists who became the repository of private property and their accumulation of surplus wealth started ingraining the concept of class in society. However, Marx believed that the relationship between the two classes is of mutual dependence and conflict. He visualized that the capitalist society moves through a number of contradictions as there is undervaluation of labour power of the labourer, i.e., the wages paid to the labourer are below the value of goods they produce. The gulf between the producer and consumer is huge. Though real production is accelerated by the labourer, profit is appropriated by the capitalists. Capitalists and workers need each other, but their economic agendas are vastly different. Such contradictions inevitably meant conflict. Adding to the instability are unpreventable needs for ever-wider markets and burgeoning capital investments. Marx expected that the consequent economic cycles of expansion and contraction, combined with the revelation of the working class that they are being exploited (achieving class consciousness), will ultimately result in a socialist revolution. There is also a situation of poverty amidst plenty. Due to the process of stratification and highly unequal distribution of wealth, poverty appears in its highest magnitude. The capitalist continue to be property owners and the havenots are pushed further down with the passage of time. The contradictions contained in the capitalist societies will lead to its eventual destruction. It would give birth to class consciousness and the twin concept of class-in-itself and class-for-itself would become the offshoots of differing class interests in society. Activity 3 Visit a local library for research and present an essay on Marxs view on class conflict and how it applies to the Indian context.
5. State whether true or false. (a) Marxs class theory rests on the premise that the history of all hitherto existing society is not the history of class struggle. (b) According to Marx, social classes have not been there right from the beginning of human history.
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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) ________communism was the first and lowest form of organization of people and it existed for many years. (b) Marx visualized that the _________ society moves through a number of contradictions as: there is undervaluation of labour power of the labourer.
11.5 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Conflict theory stresses on interests, rather than norms and values, in conflict. The pursuit of interests produces various types of conflict. Coser argues that conflict in us is instinctual, so we find it everywhere in the human society. Dahrendorf doesnt see the inevitability of conflict as part of human nature; he sees it, rather, as a normal part of how we structure society and create social order. While explaining the theory of social change, Marx brought out the notion of social class. Marxs class theory rests on the premise that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.
11.6 Glossary
Conflict theory: Stresses on interests, rather than norms and values, in conflict Social class: Group of people in an organization of production, who performed the same function Subject class: Formed of a majority of people while the ruling class is a minority Critical Criminology: Branch of conflict theory based on the view that the essential cause of crime is oppression, which is a consequence of social and economic forces that operate within a specific society Social class: According to Marx, a group of people in an organization of production, who performed the same function
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Bourgeois: Social class between the lower and upper classes; the middle class Proletariat: Class of industrial wage earners who must earn their living by selling their labour; the lowest class

1. Discuss conflict as a process. 2. Explain Cosers view on social conflict. 3. Write a detailed note on Dahrendorfs view of conflict. 4. Discuss at length Marxs view on the class system

1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) Critical Criminology; (b) Aging 3. (a) True; (b) True 4. (a) Marx; (b) Goal-related 5. (a) True; (b) True 6. (a) Primitive; (b) Capitalist

1. Refer to Section 11.2 2. Refer to Section 11.3.1 3. Refer to Section 11.3.2 4. Refer to Section 11.4.1
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1. Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan. 2. Hadden, W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory An Introduction to the Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press. 3. Horton, Paul. B and Chester L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGrawHill. 4. MacIver, R.M and Charles Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis. New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India. 5. Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
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Unit 12
Structure
Social Mobility
12.1 Introduction Objectives 12.2 Social Mobility: Meaning, Types, Causes and Consequences 12.3 Mobility and Stratification 12.4 Process of Conformity and Deviance 12.5 Socialization, Social Control and Mobility 12.6 Summary 12.7 Glossary 12.8 Terminal Questions 12.9 Answers 12.10 Further Reading
12.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about social conflict and its effects. In this unit, you will learn about the factors influencing social mobility, and about socialization and social control. Social stratification and social deviance are also discussed at length. Social mobility can be explained in total and relative terms. The former refers to processes of adjustment in the economys income or work-related structure. The latter, also called social fluidity, refers to an individuals opportunities for development within the hierarchy. Social mobility can also be seen as intra-generational (chances for social development within a persons lifetime) and inter-generational (comparison of an individuals achieved social position in relation to his parents social position). Some of the more popular examples of social mobility include Abraham Lincoln and Bill Clinton, who were raised in working-class families and rose to become presidents of their country. In their cases, they experienced upward social mobility. Social mobility can be separated into a sociological tradition and an economic tradition. The former is based on the knowledge of society structure as defined by a work-related hierarchy, while the economic custom focusses more on income groups. Both these approaches have significant merits in the study of social mobility.
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Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the meanig, types, causes and consequences of social mobility Explain social stratification and mobility Analyse conformity and deviance Discuss socialization, social control and mobility
12.2 Social Mobility: Meaning, Types, Causes and Consequences

Social mobility means the shift from one social status to another, to a higher or a lower status. For instance, a child of a farmer who goes on to become a prominent novelist achieves upward social mobility. In sociology, social mobility refers to the changes or the lack of changes in social status. Societies organized by social class normally allow for greater social mobility; here, an individuals capacity to get to a higher social status is dependent on many factors, such as social connections, effort, wealth and education. So, what is the relation of social mobility with inequality and economic progression? There is no definite answer to that question. High levels of inequality can at times limit the capacity for movement within the social hierarchy; the consequences are high inequality and low mobility. However, high inequality levels and mobility is related, which suggests that enough incentives are integrated into the social structure that allows the economy to make optimum use of its resources; for example, allocating skillful labour to high-skilled jobs. The evidence usually favours the former argument, with countries with higher levels of mobility having lower inequality. Now, let us look at some types of social mobility: Horizontal and Vertical Social Mobility: Horizontal mobility is the change of occupational position of an individual or a group without any change in the position in the social hierarchy; vertical mobility refers to changes in the position of an individual or group along the change in social hierarchy. Inter-Generational Social Mobility: Time factor is a fundamental element in social mobility. Based on that, there is a type of inter-generational mobility. It is a change in status of an individual from childhood to adulthood. It also refers to a change in the status of members of a family over generations; for instance, a farmers son becoming a politician.
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Intra-Generational Mobility: This may be understood as a change in social status which happens within a persons adult career; for instance, a person working as a junior-level executive becoming a manager. Structural mobility: This is a type of vertical mobility which occurs through changes in the stratification hierarchy. It is a vertical movement of a particular group, class or occupation in relation to others in the system. This type of mobility is forced as it takes place because of structural changes. Causes and Consequences Social mobility is a complex subject. Exploring various factors that influence social mobility reveals significant themes; still the relationship between them is so complex that to make firm judgments about the relative importance of any one of them does not seem appropriate. In reality, these factors tend to overlap and work in different ways for different individuals. The factors are: Social capital There is enough evidence to suggest that established working class social capital has seen a decline, which could possibly have weakened the negative effects on social mobility. On the other hand, negative forms of social capital have come up, such as anti-social behaviour, cultures of worklessness, and substance abuse. There are several barriers to social mobility, such as peer pressure, lack of good role models, risk aversion, etc. By contrast, middle-class families tend to have more access to social networks, which is an advantage in that it facilitates upward mobility and guards against downward mobility. Cultural capital Cultural capital has the capacity to help middle-class families offer social advantages to their children, and increasing the latters chances to move upwards in the social hierarchy. Early years influences An individuals early years influence later chances. There has been evidence to show that the quality of the environment at home, family structure, pre-school care, etc., leads to a pattern of development in later life which is hard to change even through schooling. Education Education is one of the major factors that influence social mobility. Evidence shows that the introduction of universal education systems in the UK and Western Europe have not resulted in any increase in social mobility. This is due to several factors, such as the ability of middle-class families to make best use of educational opportunities.
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Employment and labour market experiences Recent decades have witnessed the presence of important labour market trends with the capacity to influence social mobility. First, long-term economic inactivity is seen to be present among specific population groups. Also, there is the low-pay no-pay cycle for some groups. There is no doubt that specific groups face specific disadvantages in the labour market and that women who are working and take maternity breaks have difficulty breaking into the labour market in the same position, and experience downward social mobility following childbirth. Health and wellbeing Ill-health is a direct result of social and environmental factors identifiable with lower socio-economic status; and ill-health and subsequent caring responsibilities often lead to a decline in socio-economic status. Area-based influences Local environmental problems combine with socio-economic factors and lead to negative area-based influences on possibilities for social mobility; for example, disparities in private transport added to the lack of quality provision in some public services in poor areas could mean that lower socio-economic classes do not have proper options regarding to these services. Social mobility can have negative and positive consequences. Let us look at some of the more obvious effects of social mobility. Social Classes: Social mobility brings about new social classes. These days, the society is not merely restricted to rich and poor classesyou have the middle class, the upper class, the lower class, etc. However, more and more people are falling into the middle class distinction, which can lead to one classless society, with the substantial majority falling into one classthe middle class. Educational Drive: The desire for upward social mobility has put greater emphasis on education. Those who do not pursue higher education often end up with lower-paying jobs, making higher education all the more attractive. Job Opportunities: Social mobility can have negative effects on job opportunities. First, social mobility makes competition fiercer, as individuals fear a downward movement in social class. Second, lower-paying jobs are shunned, and people prefer to remain jobless than be attached to low-paying jobs. Financial Potential: The desire and the possibility of prosperity come with social mobility. This generally involves good education, hard work and skill. A poor individual will have the opportunity to create more opportunities for himself and his family.
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Societal Anomie: When people in society experience upward mobility, values of a society can disappear as everyone wants to attain success at any cost. People in these societies can suffer from emotional distress that can lead to suicide or murder. Activity 1 Do you see any case of social mobility in your area? Observe your surroundings and write an essay on the same.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Horizontal mobility is the change of occupational position of an individual or a group without any change in position in the social hierarchy. (b) Inter-generational mobility is a change in social status which happens within a persons adult career. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) _____ ______ has the capacity to help middle-class families to offer social advantages to their children. (b) __________ is the direct result of social and environmental factors identifiable with lower socio-economic status.
12.3 Mobility and Stratification

Social mobility and class stratification are related. Social mobility can at times be a direct reflection of an individuals job status and income level. A low-level marketing executive who becomes an area manager has not only successfully moved up in the social strata but his rise indicates a vertical move in social mobility as well. Now, let us look at the views on stratification of two of the greatest thinkers in the subjects realmKarl Marx and Max Weber. Karl Marx While explaining the theory of social change, Marx brought out the notion of social class. Marxs class theory rests on the premise that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle. According to this view,
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ever since human society emerged from its primitive and relatively undifferentiated state, it has remained fundamentally divided between classes that clash in the pursuit of class interests. Marx developed his theory of class conflict in the context of capitalist society. The main ingredients of the theory may be summarized as: (i) The development of proletariat: The capitalist economic system transformed the masses of people into workers, created for them a common situation and inculcated in them awareness of common interest. Through the development of class consciousness, the economic conditions of capitalism united the masses and constituted them into a class for itself. (ii) The importance of property: Classes are determined by the basis of individuals relation to the means of production. Development of class consciousness and conflict over the distribution of economic rewards fortified the class barriers. (iii) The identification of economic and political power and authority: Since the capitalist society is based on the concentration of means of production and distribution in the hands of a few, political power becomes the means by which a ruling class perpetuates its domination and exploitation of the masses. The capitalists who hold the monopoly of effective private property take control of the political machinery and their interests converge in the political and ideological spheres. (iv) Polarization of classes: Interest in the capitalist society leads towards the tendency of radical polarization of classes. The whole society breaks up into two increasingly hostile camps, two great directly antagonistic classes; the bourgeois and proletariat. (v) Theory of surplus value: Capitalists accumulate profit through exploitation of labour. The value of any commodity is determined by the amount of labour it takes to produce it. The labour time necessary for a worker to produce a value equal to the one he receives in the form of wages is less than the actual duration of his work. So, surplus value refers to the quantity of value produced by the worker beyond the necessary labour time. (vi) Pauperization: Poverty of the proletariat grows with increasing exploitation of labour. In a mode of production which invokes exploitation, the majority of people are condemned to toil for barest
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necessities of life. So, to Marx, poverty is the result of exploitation and not of scarcity. (vii) Alienation: The economic exploitation and inhuman working conditions lead to alienation of man. The worker becomes estranged from his own self and loses interest in work. (viii) Class solidarity and antagonism: With growth of class consciousness, the crystallization of social relations into two groups becomes streamlined and the classes tend to become internally homogeneous, and the class struggle more intensified. (ix) Revolution: A violent revolution breaks out at the height of class war which destroys the structure of capitalist society. This revolution is most likely to occur at the peak of an economic crisis which is part of the recurring booms and repressions, characteristic of capitalism. (x) The dictatorship of proletariat: The revolution terminates capitalist society and leads to the social dictatorship of the proletariat. The revolution is violent which leads to the loss of power of bourgeoisie and transforms them to the ranks of the proletariat. Thus, the inevitable historical process destroys the bourgeoisie and the proletariat establishes a social dictatorship, merely a transitional phase, to consolidate the gains of the revolution. (xi) Inauguration of the communist society: A new zeal starts to constitute a classless society. In this socialistic society, the State as an agent of exploitation withers away and everyone will give to the society according to their needs. So, capitalist society, at a mature stage, through class struggle, will lead to abolition of class struggle and will lead to abolition of classes. Marx maintains that this abolition will culminate in a classless society, i.e., communism. Thus Marx observes the history of humanity as the history of class struggle. The history reveals the struggle of the economic underdogs against their masters, the bourgeoisie. Thus, the very statement that the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle no doubt bears the tone and temper of the Marxist philosophy of class struggle. Max Weber According to Max Weber, class refers to any group of people that is found in the same class situation. Class, in his opinion, is distinguished by the following three characteristics:
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1. Individuals share a particular causal facet of life. 2. These facts are represented by economic drive, in the possession of goods and opportunities for accumulation of property. 3. Class situation is essentially market situation. However, it must be remembered that classes are not communities; these are only the foundations for community actions. What we refer to as status groups are usually communities. Status is the positive or negative social estimation of honour and has no link with the class situation. Therefore, class is a status group. The highest prestige in society does not always belong to the richest class. The status groups are distinguished on the basis of status symbols such as special attire, exclusive clubs and unique lifestyles. Classes are often classified depending on their relation to the means of production and acquisition of goods. Status groups are stratified according to the principle of their consumption of goods as marked by unique lifestyle. While status groups belong to the social order, classes make up the economic framework within a society. Weber defines class in terms of two variables: the ownership of property and the possession of skills that can be sold. This provides a simple but widely applicable stratification of societies. Slave-owners, patriarchal owners of landed estates, capitalists who own companies and stocks are positively privileged, in terms of class, by virtue of property. Underneath and economically subordinated are the slaves, the peasants and serfs, and the wage-earners. Possession or nonpossession of skills provides a more complex picture of stratification, in that skills are often more graduated through a society. In todays societies, the economic division of labour produces a variety of gradations in terms of types of skills in particular areas: semi-skilled, unskilled and professional skills. These gradations are not fixed, but change according to the development and dynamics of the economy, as certain skills are made redundant while new ones appear. In a medieval economy, skill differences were institutionalized through guild regulations as well as by status ascription; if one were born a peasant, one almost always remained a peasant on the lords estate. According to Weber, parties exist in a social club as well as state; they seek to influence communal action and acquire power. Weber acknowledged that the dimensions of economic power interact with social power. In European medieval society, status distinctions defined economic opportunities. In todays capitalistic societies, class distinctions are becoming almost completely dominant over status distinctions, and this can be seen in the inability of professional groups to defend their special skills in the face of those who control economic
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and financial power. This is referred to as the marketization of society. Status distinctions can also be used to buttress economic class position and, conversely, economic power may be consolidated into status distinctions. Weber discusses and illustrates the interactions that occur in different periods of history and in different societies between leadership, economic power (class) and social power (status).Though Weber never defined society, it is inferred that he considered society to consist of complex of human interrelationships characterized by meaningful behaviours of a plurality of actors. The fundamental element of sociological investigation for Weber is typical social action or even the single individual whom he called the basic unit of society. However, Weber is justifiably considered to have been one of the greatest sociologists of the 20th century for valid reasons. First, his work provides magnificent examples of the kind of painstaking study of concrete social situations and process that must form the foundation of any adequate sociological theory. Secondly, as in the case of Durkheim, he helped to make clear the significant role of values in social life, while emphasizing the necessity of keeping social science value free. Thirdly, he demonstrated that much can be achieved by using the ideal type procedure in social science. Finally, he contributed enormously to the understanding of social causation and its inseparability for the problem of meaning in human affairs. Activity 2 Using the Internet for research, write an essay on the most important factors of social mobility.
3. State whether true or false. (a) According to weber, class situation is essentially market situation. (b) Marx observes human history as a history of class struggle. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) According to _________, parties exist in a social club as well as state. (b) Marx developed his theory of ______ _______ in the context of capitalist society.
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12.4 Process of Conformity and Deviance

Conformity is the act of matching beliefs, attitudes and behaviours to what a person thinks is normal for a society or a group. This kind of influence happens in societies as well as smaller groups, and could either be as a result of unconscious influences, or direct social pressure. Conformity occurs in solitude or in the presence of others; for example, people follow social norms when eating or watching television, even if there is no one there with them. Human beings desire for security within a specific group. This group is typified by similar age, religion, or educational status. If one does not conform, he or she faces the danger of being socially rejected. So, one can say that conformity is a means of avoiding bullying or averting peer criticism, though it also reflects restraint of personality. Conformity affects human beings at all ages, though it is commonly associated with adolescence and youth culture. Peer pressure may show negatively, but the reality is that conformity can be good or bad depending upon the situation. For instance, driving on the correct side of the road could be seen as beneficial conformity. Conformity has an influence over the formation and maintenance of social norms, and aids societies to function in a better manner by eliminating behaviour that may seem contrary to several unwritten rules. Here, conformity can be seen as a positive force that prevents acts that are perceived to be disruptive or bad.
Figure 12.1 Deviance
Although sociologists have come up with different definitions for the term deviance, many are in fact simply variations of the same broader conceptual theme. The disagreement traditionally is the result of a choice between two
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prevailing definitionsnormative definition versus a relativistic definition. The normative definition of deviance is older and according to it, deviance refers to behaviour that breaks set social norms or to individuals engaging in such behaviour. Over the past few decades, this definition has been challenged by sociologists who tend to view the relativistic alternative more favourably. According to this definition, deviance refers to behaviour or individuals that are defined as deviant by society. Non-conformity to social norms is called deviance. Deviance is a concept formed by sociologists to cover various forms of human conduct that have been defined or referred to in a social system as wrong, illegal, bad, immoral, or deserving of punishment. The most important study in the early evolution of sociology of deviance was arguably Emile Durkheims study of suicide (1897). Suicidal behaviour is of great interest for the sociology of deviance; for example, Durkheim felt that homicide and suicide were two separate streams of deviance with nations that had high suicide and low homicide rates. It can therefore be said that deviant behaviour encompasses the study of relationship between criminal and non-criminal violations of shared norms. Various theories of deviance are as follows: Mertons Theory of Social Structure and Anomie The theory of anomie offers something of an explanation for the high rate of crime not only in the lower class urban areas but also in minority groups in general; it also tries to explain the crime rate in American society. The theory takes its arguments from Durkheims theory. Durkheim used the term anomie to explain a state without norms and regulations in modern society as the one factor that promotes higher suicide rates. Robert Merton (1938) also applied this approach to the condition of modern societies, especially in America. An integrated society, according to Merton, maintains a balance between approved social means and approved goals. According to Merton, the emphasis on success in America is not matched by the emphasis on socially approved means. Everyone wants achievement and success. Competitiveness and success are glorified in schools and in the media and encouraged by the values that are passed through generations. Material and monetary success defines a persons worth. In America, it is said that anyone can become big. However, this success should be defined by honest efforts within societal norms. Societal norms regulate approved ways of attaining success, distinguishing them from unlawful avenues to the same destination. Merton perceived American values to be more in tune with acquiring success, and
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earning at any cost, than with the legitimate means of reaching the same end. There is no doubt that all industrial societies are afflicted by the same problems. However, American society is particularly prone to achievement through any means whatsoever, legitimate or otherwise. When success goals are stressed more than required, the norms become weaker, and a state of anomie is unleashed. Americans, therefore, are liable to break the law in order to achieve success, somewhat because legitimate efforts to succeed do not hold adequate value in the society. Pursuing success through innovative, illegal, means is seen as a variation to this form of disorganization. Illegal innovation is generally viewed as lowerclass response to high, seemingly unattainable ambitions, but Merton argues that other ways to adapt exist as well. Sometimes, when these goals are not reached, people might adapt through the use of drugs or suicide. Others take the rebellious route and attempt to change the system. The logic of Mertons theory that stresses on widely shared goals combined with unequal opportunity is the basis for strain theory. Other theorists have used similar logic and introduced other forms of inconsistency between goals and means as a cause of frustrated ambitions. Social structure and anomie, according to Merton, are closely related. A social structure that changes quickly creates circumstances that are favourable for the growth of deviant behaviour. When social structures change, structural alternatives for social functions develop. Social units performing these functions hence become ineffective and they attempt to reestablish their authority. Under these circumstances, deviant behaviour becomes the norm. A change in social structure alters the status and roles of members of society. Responding to new roles and statuses is not easy. Consequently, conflict takes place between established social relationships and that culminates in deviance. Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture Albert K. Cohen (1955) also emphasized the structural sources of strain that lead to deviant behaviour by lower classes. In his studies, Cohen applied it to the delinquent subculture prevalent in lower-class adolescent males. Cohen saw that delinquent subculture has influences lower-class boys to become involved in deviant behaviour. However, he offered no explanation in variations in individual behaviour or why this kind of culture was sustained over a length of time. He simply tried to explain why it occurs in the first place. His version of anomie/strain theory is somewhat in agreement with Mertons theory, as both see blocked goals as resulting in deviance-inducing strain. However, in Cohens view, it is the inability to get recognition and acceptance in conventional society
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that leads to the strain. Status in conventional society can be achieved through meeting societys standards of behaviour, dress, etc. The most all-encompassing of these standards are those of the middle class, according to him. Adolescents are most susceptible to middle-class criteria of decorum and acceptance in the public schools. Middle-class expectations are imposed on students from backgrounds. Some of these standards are good manners, appropriate demeanor, non-aggressive attitudes, studying, and participation in school activities. Middle-class adolescents best meet these standards, supported by their middle-class parents. Should they measure up to these standards, they gain recognition, in the eyes of senior people as well as contemporaries. However, lower-class youths cannot always meet these high standards. They lack certain verbal and social skills of middle-class values. Consequently, status deprivation leads to status frustration. Cohen believes that delinquent subculture is a combined response to this frustration, and the nature of its activities is a direct result of reaction formation. The criteria for acceptability are different and can be met by lower-class individuals, who acquire status in delinquent gangs by sticking to negativistic values that oppose normal standards. For instance, if non-aggression is acceptable for the middle class, then aggressive toughness is the best way to gain status in the delinquent subculture. Cohen opposed Mertons image of deviants turning to illegitimate means due to deprivation of legitimate means as being too rationalistic to apply to delinquent subculture. For instance, property offenses are far from being intended to produce income or gain material success through illegal means. Rather, they are responses to status frustration which tend to meet the approval of delinquent peers. Activity 3 Make a list of the most common acts of deviance among teenagers today. Which among them is the most harmful? Elaborate.
5. State whether true or false. (a) Human beings do not necessarily desire for security within a specific group. (b) Durkheim was the first person to use the term anomie.
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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) _________ are most susceptible to middle-class criteria of decorum. (b) According to Merton, _____ _______ and anomie are closely related.
12.5 Socialization, Social Control and Mobility

The term socialization refers to processes whereby individuals are taught the skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations that are needed for competent functioning in the culture in which they are growing up. The most dominant among these are social skills, social understandings and emotional maturity. These are needed for interaction with other individuals to fit in with the functioning of social dyads and larger groups. Socialization includes all those processes in which culture is transmitted from one generation to the next, including training for specific roles in specific occupations.
According to Maclver, Socialization is the process by which social beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one another, in which they come closer to each other and build a complex structure of association. According to Kimball Young, Socialization means the process of inducting the individual into the social and cultural world of making him a particular member of a society and its various groups and inducing him to accept the norms and values of that society. Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and not of biological inheritance. Importance of Socialization A new born individual human infant comes into the world as a biological organism with animal needs. He/she is gradually moulded into a social being and learns the social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding, neither
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the society nor the culture would exist, nor would the individual become a social person. Stages of Socialization Socialization takes place within a simplified social world. The social system in which the infant or the child is being trained is much less complex than the society as a whole. This simplification makes it possible for the child to attend to relatively few things at a time. There are four stages of socialization from infancy to adulthood. The names given to these stages have become fixed in usage and they are fairly appropriate although far from being adequately descriptive. They are: (i) First stageThe oral stage (ii) Second stageThe anal stage (iii) Third stageThe oedipal stage and latency (iv) Fourth stageAdolescence In all these stages, especially in the first three, the family is the main socializing group. Therefore, one can consider the structure of the family as it bears on socialization. The family varies in composition from one society to another, but the nuclear family is universal. One can ignore the variation in particular families and concentrate on the institutional structure of the nuclear family. A nuclear family has four roles: husband-father, wife-mother, son-brother and daughter-sister. The details of these roles vary from one society to another. One obvious feature is the division according to generation. This is division is also according to the relative power to control interaction; father and mother are able to control their son and daughter more than the son and daughter being able to control parents. (i) First stageThe oral stage In the womb, the fetus is presumably warm and comfortable. At birth the infant faces its first crisis, it must breathe, exert itself to be fed, it is susceptible to cold, and other discomforts; it cries a lot. The essential goal of the first stage of socialization is to establish oral dependency. The infant builds up fairly definite expectations about feeding time and it learns to signal its pressing needs for care. During this stage, the infant is not involved in the family as a whole. It is involved only in the subsystem consisting of itself and its mother. For other members of the family, as Parsons says, the
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baby is little more than a possession. If the father or anyone else shares the task of caring for the baby with the mother, no role differentiation is involved. The person will also be performing the role of a mother. Freud called this stage primary identification. In the personality of the infant, by the time oral dependency has been established, its own role and that of the mother are probably not clearly distinguished. Mother and infant are merged. Some control over the hunger drive has been established. (ii) Second stageThe anal stage The crisis with which this stage begins is caused by the imposition of new demands. These are the demands for the child to take over some degree of care for himself. Toilet training is the main focus of new concern. During this stage, the child recognizes two roles, its own and that of its mother. The child not only receives care but receives love and gives love in return. In this stage one can clearly see the importance of a general fact about socialization; the socializing agent always has a dual role. During this stage, the mother first participates in a limited social system. She is the instrumental leader relative to the child, for she is still chiefly responsible for meeting his specific needs. The childs contribution to the system is mainly expressive. He helps to integrate the system by cooperating and giving love. He is still too young and dependent to contribute much to the accomplishment of tasks. The dual role of the socializing agent is to train the child so that he will ultimately be able to participate in a more complex social system. Obviously the socializing agent has to know the roles and common values of the larger system. Secondly, socialization is an unpleasant task, to some extent for the socializing agent as well as for the child. The mother does not enjoy seeing her child suffer through the process of weaning, toilet training, etc. Though she can console herself with thoughts of the final accomplishment, but probably she is forced to some extent, by pressure from the larger social system, of which she is a member. At the same time, the mother as a socializing agent, mediates between the subsystem and the larger system. She is also supported by that larger system. Her husband will understand the strain she is undergoing and will relieve her off some other burdens, for instance by spending more time with other children, etc. (iii) Third stageThe oedipal stage and latency The third stage extends from the fourth year to puberty (the age of twelve or thirteen). The Oedipal crisis occurs typically during the fourth and fifth years, followed by the latency period. In the course of the third stage, the child becomes a member of the family as a whole. He must accept all four roles of the family
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and he must, above all, identify himself with the social role ascribed to him on the basis of his biological sex. The Oedipus complex as Freud named it, is the feeling of jealousy the boy is believed to have toward his father on account of their rivalry for the mother. For a girl, the Electra complex is the corresponding set of feelings that she has for her father and is therefore jealous of her mother. When the proper stage of socialization has been reached, many social pressures are brought to bear on the child, to identify with the appropriate sex. Boys begin to get rewarded for behaviour that is appropriate towards boys and girls are rewarded for acting feminine. Moreover, the toys given to boys are different from those given to their sisters. Fairly striking anatomical differences make the correct identification easy, yet the correct identification is largely an achievement of socialization. The term identification has been used in different ways. Firstly, one is said to identify with a social role, if one not only recognizes the role but also adopts it as ones own. One strives to attain the necessary skills and to conform to the role norms. Secondly, one is said to identify with a social group if one recognizes the role system of the group and considers oneself to be a member of it. Identification in its first sense links a boy with his father and brother, for example, but not with his mother. Identification in its second sense links a boy with his family, including both parents and all siblings. (iv) Fourth stageAdolescence The fourth stage is adolescence which is roughly at puberty. This is the stage during which young boys or girls are ordinarily more and more emancipated from parental control. The crisis of this period is the strain that is produced by greater demands for independence. At the same time, in the middle class of a different society, the adolescent may still be controlled to some extent by his parents in many activities wherein he might like greater freedom. This is especially true when individuals become aware of their sexuality. The psychological changes that accompany adolescence would not produce problems till sexual maturity. The goal of adulthood is considered to be attained when a person can support himself or herself, entirely independent of the parental family. Full adulthood also implies the ability to form a family. Social Control Social control is the most significant characteristic of modern social and political sciences. There are many writings on how different types of societies are based on fluctuations in the order of institution and specifically the gradual destruction of traditional methods. These were the constituents of modernity. Paradoxically, the extent of freedom directly affects the need to control. In a world where the common belief is that customs, relationships and the links of social structures
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of the society are persistently delicate and structured, our cognitive and affective response is to try to gain a higher level of social control. In contemporary usage, social control generally refers to some form of organized reaction to unexpected activities. Stan Cohen calls social control those organized responses to crime, delinquency and allied forms of deviant and/or socially problematic behaviour, which are actually conceived of as such, whether in the reactive sense (after the putative act has taken place or the actor has been identified) or in the proactive sense (to prevent the act). E.A. Ross defines social control as the mechanisms by which society exercises its dominion over its component individuals and enforces conformity to its norms, i.e., its values. However, social control is not only the exercise of control on individuals, but it is also the practice of control by individuals. Thus, it is generally accepted that social control is a set of methodologies that is used to improve people who are believed to be destructive, crime-oriented, or destructive in one or more ways, by others. Reviewing the literature pertaining to sociology, Meier (1982) proposes the theory that social control is available in three key contexts: (i) As a means to describe the basic social process or condition. This methodology relates to classical sociological theory and thus, was the most popular way to define it in the first half of 20th century. (ii) As a mechanism to ensure compliance with norms. (iii) As a means to study social order. In the more recent times, Horowitz (1990) has proposed that, Social control emerges out of and serves to maintain the ways of life and social practices of groups. Types of Social Control Social control is broadly categorized into two types: formal and informal. According to Black (1976), formal social control refers to an activity where the imposition of control has a legal base. Activity apart from this directly or indirectly implies the power to control can be defined as informal control. However, formal social control involves enactment of laws, rules and regulations against lack of cooperation. It is usually enforced by the government and organizations that use methods to enforce law and other formal sanctions such as, fines and imprisonment. Societies where the control is democratic get a large degree of support and voluntary compliance from the population. The reason for this is that the goals and methodologies of formal social control are ruled by elected representatives.
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On the other hand, informal control means signifying the role of customs, traditions, norms and other usages that an individual inherits. The society executes this without a clear statement of rules. This is done through customs and norms that originate from informal sanctions like, criticism, disapproval, guilt and shame. Activity 4 Social control is the most significant characteristic of modern social and political sciences. Do you agree with the statement? Present your view in the form of a detailed report. You can use library books and the Internet for reference.
7. State whether true or false. (a) The social system where the infant is being trained is much less complex than the society as a whole. (b) Social control can be broadly categorized into two types: formal and informal. 8. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The process of socialization begins in the _______. (b) ________ control means signifying the role of customs, norms and other usages that an individual inherits.
12.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Social mobility can be thought of in total and relative terms. Reviews suggest that social mobility is complex in nature. Conformity is the act of matching beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours to what individuals deem is normal of their society or social group. Deviance means non-conformity to social norms. The term socialization refers to processes by which individuals are taught the skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations needed for competent functioning in the culture in which they are growing up.
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12.7 Glossary
Social Mobility: Movement of individuals, families, or groups through social hierarchy or stratification Conformity: Act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to what individuals perceive is normal of their society or social group Deviance: Refers to non-conformity to social norms Socialization: Refers to processes whereby individuals are taught the skills, values and motivations required for competent functioning in the culture in which they are growing up Social Control: Most significant characteristic of modern social and political sciences

1. Discuss the meaning of social mobility. 2. Elaborate on the term stratification. 3. What is deviance? Explain in detail. 4. Write a detailed note on social control and socialization.

1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) Cultural Capital; (b) Ill-health 3. (a) False; (b) True 4. (a) Weber; (b) Class conflict 5. (a) False; (b) True 6. (a) Adolescents; (b) Social structure 7. (a) True; (b) True 8. (a) Family; (b) Informal
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1. Refer to Section 12.2 2. Refer to Section 12.3 3. Refer to Section 12.4 4. Refer to Section 12.5

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Unit 13
Structure 13.1 Introduction Objectives 13.2 Meaning of Social Change 13.3 Social Evolution and Social Development 13.4 Social Progress 13.5 Explanations of Change 13.6 Globalization 13.7 Summary 13.8 Glossary 13.9 Terminal Questions 13.10 Answers 13.11 Further Reading
Social Change
13.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about social mobility. In this unit, you will learn about the meaning of social change social evolution and how society has evolved and developed. You will also be learning about the concept of change and how globalization has affected society. Social change refers to any alteration in the social structure of society; this could be anything, including change in the nature, social institutions, social relations, etc. Social evolution is the process of social development from a simple to a more specialized and complex type of social organization. Social development is the development of the society as a whole. Also, social development occurs when an individual develops and that development happens for the society. Change and continuity are the inevitable facts of life. Not only people themselves undergo the process of change, but also the habitat they live in. Thats why change is often called as the unchangeable or inescapable law of nature. Change is the only reality. Looking at the inevitability of change, the Greek Philosopher Heraclitus pointed out that a person cannot step into the same river twice since in between the first and the second occasion, both the water in the river and the person concerned get changed.
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Primitive societies considered change as external and problematic phenomena. However, in modern times, change is seen as natural and necessary. Every new generation faces different and new socio-economic challenges and yet they forge ahead with new possibilities of life keeping continuity with the past. Like natural scientists study different aspects of change in the nature, social scientists study change in the social life of man. Change and continuity have long been the subjects of research and study for social scientists and philosophers.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: Discuss the meaning of social change Analyse social evolution and social development Discuss social progress Explain the concept of change Evaluate the effects of globalization on society
13.2 Meaning of Social Change

History reveals that mans life has been transformed from the caves and jungles to the palatial buildings. People, family, religion, value system, etc. will not remain same forever. Societies grow, decay and modify to changing conditions. Every society, from primitive to industrial and post-industrial, has witnessed continuous state of transformation. Change is permanent, although the intensity or degree of change is different in different societies. As to Giddens (2001), in human societies, to decide how far and in what ways a particular system is in a process of change or transformation, we have to show to what degree there is any modification of basic institutions during a specific time period. There are social systems which change very fast, whereas there are others which have ties with the remote past. World religions like Christianity and Islam maintain their ties with ideas and value systems pioneered thousands of years ago. Scholars like Aristotle, Plato, Hegel and others have written at length on various aspects of change during their times. In fact, sociology as a separate discipline emerged in the middle of the 19th century as an effort to explain the socio-cultural and economic changes that erupted in Europe following the
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industrialization and democratization processes. It will not be wrong to state that major classical sociologists were preoccupied with explaining change, more precisely articulating on the change that followed the rise of capitalism in the West. Considering change as an important aspect of study, the father of sociology, August Comte, even remarked that the role of this discipline is to analyse both the Social Statics (the laws governing social order) and Social Dynamics (laws governing social change (Slattery 2003). Similarly, Herbert Spencer also talked about change in his analysis of Structure and Function. Structure indicated the internal build-up, shape or form of societal wholes, whereas function signifies their operation or transformation (Sztompka 1993). He has measured change or progress taking into consideration the degree of complexity in society. According to Spencer, society passes from simple, undifferentiated, homogeneity to complex, differentiated, heterogeneity. Another classical sociological thinker, and one of the founders of the discipline, Emile Durkheim talks about evolutionary change in his famous work The Division of Labour and observes that society passes from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. Karl Marx explains societal change with his economic deterministic model and describes change of society from primitive communism to socialism. Max Webers analysis of religious codes and its impact on economic development in his The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism examines the major aspects of change. Activity 1 What do you think has been the biggest change in Indian society since independence? Research the Internet and write an essay on the same.
1. State whether true or false. (a) Every society has witnessed a continuous state of transformation. (b) There is no social system that has ties with the past. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Karl Marx explains societal change with his _______ ________model and describes change of society from primitive communism to socialism. (b) Change is _________, although the intensity or degree of change is different in different societies.
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13.3 Social Evolution and Social Development

Following the meaning and definitional analysis of the concept, the features of social change can be discussed as given below: (i) Social change is universal: Social change is inevitable. It is not only inevitable, it is also universal. It is found in every society. From primitive society to the post-industrial one, change is found everywhere. No society or culture remains static forever. Human beings changed themselves from nomads, food gatherers to agriculturists and later modern, industrial beings. (ii) Social change is continuous: Right from the time mother earth came into being to the present times, society/life has been in a continuously changing mode. No society or people can be stopped from the influences of change. It is a never-ending process. (iii) Social change may produce chain reactions: Change in one aspect of a system may lead to changes of varying degrees in other aspects of that system. As to Biesanz and Biesanz (1964), the change from hunting and food gathering to agriculture was a revolution in technology that led eventually to the development of civilization by making large and diversified societies possible. Similarly, the Protestant emphasis on Bible reading as a road to salvation led to a great rise in literacy. Further, introduction of the system of reservation for backward communities in Government institutions and offices in India has brought changes in their socio-economic status, interpersonal relationships and also in the social and economic structure of the country. Similarly, improvement in literacy in the country leads to economic independence of women which in turn brings changes in the whole notion of family, marriage and husband-wife ties. (iv) Social change may be planned or unplanned: Change may occur with or without proper planning. People, government or any other agent may initiate change through plans or programmes and may determine the degree and direction of change. The Government of India after Independence devised several socio-economic developmental programmes to bring the country out of poverty and unemployment through the broader provision of Five Year Plans. In the 60 years of Independence, the country has seen phenomenal improvement in literacy, health, infrastructure and industry, and considerably managed to overcome poverty, hunger and unemployment problems. Apart from the planned
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social change, there can be changes which are unplanned and happen accidentally. Changes due to natural calamities like earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, etc. belong to this category. (v) Social change is temporal and directional: Change can be directional. It happens in a particular direction. In several instances, such direction is planned, predetermined and is fixed ideally. Such changes are called as progress. However, change in general may happen in any direction. Similarly, the rate or tempo of change varies from time to time and place to place. Some changes may take months and years while some may occur rapidly. Social change is temporal in the sense that it involves the factor of time. It denotes time sequence. It can be temporary or permanent. Time is an important component in the process of change. (vi) Social change is value-neutral: The concept of social change is not valueladen or judgemental. It doesnt advocate any good or desirable and bad or undesirable turn of events. It is an objective term which is neither moral nor immoral. It is ethically neutral. Development Development refers to improvement in the quality of life and advancement in ones state of condition. It may refer to improvements in ones well-being, livingstandards and socio-economic opportunities. However, the term development is multifaceted due to which lots of confusions and disagreements have taken place with regard to its meaning and definition. Nevertheless, influenced by the scholars like Amartya Sen, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) created a Human Development Index (HDI) that combines indicators like health, life expectancy, literacy, political participation and access to resources (UNDP 2001). Noted economist, Amartya Sen argues that development can be seen as a process of expanding real freedoms that people enjoy. This contrasts with the narrow view of development that identifies it with growth or Gross National Product (GNP) or personal income or industrialization or technological advancement or social modernization (Sen 2000). Sen argues that growth of GNP and personal income can be important means that can expand individual freedom. However, freedom depends also on other determinants like proper arrangements for schooling or education, proper healthcare system, civil and political rights, etc. Sen Says, Development requires the removal of major sources of un-freedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as
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intolerance or over activity or repressive state (Sen 2000). Further, Gunner Myrdal (2003) defines development as the upward movement of the entire social system, and this social system encloses, besides the so-called economic factors, all non-economic factors, including all sorts of consumption by various groups of people; consumption provided collectively; educational and health facilities and levels; the distribution of power in society; and more generally economic, social and political stratification; broadly speaking, institutions and attitudes to which we must add, as an exogenous set of factors, induced policy measures applied in order to change one or several of these endogenous factors. Nature of Development Development is a process that makes the human society a better place to live in. It brings social well-being. The nature of development is analysed below (Jena and Mohapatra 2001; Mohanty 1997). (i) Development is a revolutionary process. In many cases, it involves sudden and rapid change of the social structure. In its technological and cultural dimensions, it is comparable to Neolithic revolutions which had turned food gatherers and nomads into settled agriculturists. Now, during the development revolution, society is getting transformed from rural agricultural one to urban and industrial. (ii) Development is a complex and multi-dimensional process. It involves a lot of economic, behavioural and institutional rearrangements. It involves equity, socio-economic and political participation, etc. (iii) Development is a systematic process. Change in one aspect brings chain reaction and corresponding changes in other aspects also. (iv) Development is a lengthy process. The process of development needs substantial level of efforts over a long period of time. (v) Development is an irreversible process. It always moves forward. Although some aspects of the process might have some occasional downfalls, but the whole process of development is irreversible. (vi) Development is a universal process. Developmental ideas and know-how are diffused from centre of origin to other parts of the world. There are transformations of ideas and techniques between nations world over. (vii) Development is directional. It is a process that moves in a direction. In that sense development is also called an evolutionary process. As stated by Spencer, it can be from simple to complex. As stated by Marx, it can be from class-less primitive communism to capitalistic mode of production
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and finally to socialism. As discussed by Durkheim, it can be from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity and so on. (viii) Development is a value-loaded concept. Qualitatively, it talks about improvement of something over some other. It talks about improvement in lifestyle, infrastructure, education, health system and so on. Quantitatively, it always advocates for more (of anything) in number. So it is a process that involves value-judgement. Activity 2 How much do you think India has developed in a social context compared to Western countries? Has the development been too slow? Research the library or the Internet and give reasons for your answer.
3. State whether true or false. (a) Change only occurs without planning. (b) Development is a process that moves in a direction. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) _________involves a lot of economic, behavioural and institutional rearrangements. (b) Social change is _________ in the sense that it involves the factor of time.
13.4 Social Progress
Figure 13.1 Social Progress Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 281
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Progress is a change in a desirable direction. It can also refer to change for the better. It involves value judgement because it implies betterment or improvement. Progress is different from evolution. Evolution is merely change in a given direction. Evolution describes a series of related changes in a system of some kind. Evolution cannot be evaluated as good or bad. Progress, on the contrary, means change for the better, and hence must imply a value judgement. Progress involves change that leads to certain well-defined goals. It is also a type of social change. However, there are differences between the two. Every change is not progress, but every progress can be called as a change. Moreover, change is a value-free concept, while progress always denotes change for the better. In that sense, progress is a value-laden concept. It has been discussed before that change can be planned and un-planned. Nonetheless, progress is always planned and ideally fixed. Besides, change is obvious and certain. Small or big, slow or fast, change takes place in every society, but progress is uncertain (Mohanty 1997). The term economic development on the other hand is far more comprehensive and broad in nature. Economic development in a broader sense refers to social and technological progress. It implies changes in a progressive manner in the social and economic structure of a nation. Scholars view that change in economic structure refers to the transformation of a country from an agricultural economy to largely an industrial one where industries, trade, etc., contribute a lot to the GNP of the country. Further, economic growth refers to increase in the output of the country in terms of goods and services, but development implies change in technological knowhow and institutional arrangements of production along with change in the distributive pattern of income. In comparison to development, growth is easy to accomplish. Through greater mobilization of resources and raising productivity, production of goods and services in a country can be raised. However, the process of development is more extensive and broad. Apart from a rise in the level of productivity, it also involves changes in the real composition of goods and services, removal of poverty, unemployment, inequality and establishing an all-encompassing society, a society that distributes the fruits of growth and development among all sections of the society. It is a fact that economic development is not possible without economic growth but growth can be achieved without development. As said above, growth is just increase in countrys GNP but development is a multi-dimensional process. However, despite the difference, both these concepts go hand in hand and are very much related. Besides, a countrys economic development is related to its
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human development that includes health, education, standard of life, etc. India in post-independence times adhered to the path of socialism and policies for its economic development. These were formulated in accordance with the socialistic principles and planned governmental control which was initiated by countrys first Prime Minister Pandit Nehru. However, in the last part of the 20th century several critical macro-economic situations broke out in the country due to the longstanding controlled economic regime by the government and many more reasons. Following this in 1991, the Government of India came out with its structural adjustment policies and economic reforms bidding adieu to its earlier suppressive license raj. In fact in June 1991, India came close to defaulting on its international debt commitments, with balance of payments deficit running high, foreign exchange balance going precariously low (enough for only 13 days of normal imports) and fiscal deficit high which prompted major reforms in 1991 through liberalization (Basu 2006). So India opened up its economy and adapted to globalization in the early nineties of the 20th century. As the liberalization and globalization strategy for its economic development came through, several changes were initiated like scrapping of the industrial licensing regime, reduction in the number of areas reserved for the public sector, beginning of the privatization programme, reduction in tariff rates, etc. Following this, Indias export, import and foreign trade increased substantially. Many Indian companies have started becoming respectable players in the international market. The liberalization of the domestic economy and the increasing integration of India with the global economy have helped step up the GDP growth and it is now the fastest growing economy in the world after China. Since the advent of economic liberalization and globalization in 1991, India has experienced a lot and its policies for economic development are evolving. During the post-liberalization phase, India is performing fairly in international trade and also its domestic economic development is showing remarkable progress. Indias export and import in the year 200708 was to the extent of `65, 5864 and `10, 12312 crores, respectively (Economic Survey 200809, A82A88). As said above, the liberalization process has helped step up GDP growth rates. As shown in the Economic Survey of India (200809, A7), in the year199192, the GDP growth was just 1.4 per cent, but in 199293 it reached at 5.4 per cent. Year 199697 witnessed a remarkable growth of 8.0 per cent. In 200304, the GDP growth of the country was 8.5 per cent while in 200607 it was 9.7 per cent. Although there has been a comparatively low growth rates in between, for example the year 199798 that recorded a 4.3 per
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cent growth, a global comparison shows that India is the fastest growing economy after China. Activity 3 Do you think you have progressed as an individual over the last five years? Give reasons for your answer.
5. State whether true or false. (a) Progress is a change in a desirable direction. (b) Evolution is merely change in a given direction. 6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) ______ ________in a broader sense refers to social and technological progress. (b) Progress is a type of ______ change.
13.5 Explanations of Change

There are different types of social change. The term social is so vast in scope that different forms of change which carry several names of their own can actually be brought under the broader concept of social change. However, different types of change are discussed below for better understanding of the concept. (i) Social change and cultural change: Social and cultural changes are often regarded as the same and denote similar kind of change. However, there are differences between the two. Social refers to interactions and interrelationship between people. Culture on the other hand refers to the customs, beliefs, symbols, value systems and in general the set of rules that are created by people in society. It can be both material and nonmaterial. Material culture consists of manufacturing objects and tools like automobiles, furniture, buildings, roads, bridges, books, mobiles, TV sets and anything of that sort which is tangible and is used by the people. Non-material culture includes belief systems, values, mores, norms, habits, language, etc. The concept of culture relates to the body of knowledge
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and techniques and values through which a society directs and expresses its life as an interacting entity (Mohanty 1997). So, the change in social relationships, human interactions, modifications in role expectations and role performance, etc. are regarded as social change, whereas changes in human artifacts, beliefs, values, body of knowledge, etc. are called as cultural change. Culture changes through time and it spreads from place to place and group to group. As Biesanz and Biesanz (1964) put it, in the span of time since World War II began, immense changes have taken place. Television, since the experimental stage before the war, has entered almost every living room in the world. From the first atomic reaction in the early decades of 20th century, we have progressed to space capsules and satellites and in a few short post-war years, plastics and synthetic fabrics, wash-and-wear clothes, stretch socks, automatic washers, dishwashers, clothes driers, food freezers and packaged mixes have changed the housewifes fate. It is important to mention here that sometimes changes that occur in a cultural system dont go smooth and face maladjustment with other parts of the system. Such a situation is termed as cultural lag. Defining the concept, Ogburn (1957), wrote, A cultural lag occurs when one of the two parts of culture which are correlated changes before or in greater degree than the other parts does, thereby causing less adjustment between the two parts than existed previously. However, any cultural change has its impact on human relationships and, therefore, influences social changes too. The advent of mobile telephony and internet has far-reaching consequences on interpersonal relationships. Thus, cultural change positively affects social change and change in a society comes through both social and cultural changes. As Kingsley Davis stated, cultural change is broader than social change and social change is only a part of it (Shankar Rao, 2000). All social changes are cultural changes, but not vice versa. Those cultural changes that affect social organizations and human interpersonal relations can be called as social changes. (ii) Social change and social progress: Progress is a change in a desirable direction. It can also refer to change for the better. It involves value judgement because it implies betterment or improvement. Progress involves change that leads to certain well-defined goals. It is also a type of social change. However, there are differences between the two. Every change is not progress, but every progress can be called as a change.
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Moreover, change is a value-free concept, while progress always denotes change for the better. In that sense, progress is a value-laden concept. It has been discussed before that change can be planned and unplanned. Nonetheless, progress is always planned and ideally fixed. Besides, change is obvious and certain. Small or big, slow or fast, change takes place in every society, but progress is uncertain (Mohanty 1997). (iii) Social change and social evolution: The use of word evolution or social evolution in sociology is borrowed from biology. Biology studies organic evolution which denotes the evolution of all kinds of organisms. Social evolution on the other hand refers to the process of evolution of human society, human social relationships, societal values, norms and the way of life. It involves the idea that every society passes through different phases, from simple to complex. Sociologists and social anthropologists were impressed by the idea of organic evolution which could convincingly explain how one species evolves into another, and wanted to apply the same to the social world (Shankar Rao 2000). As put forward by MacIver and Page (2005), evolution means more than growth. Growth does connote a direction of change, but it is quantitative in character. Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not merely in size, but at least in structure also. Social evolution is also a type of social change. Both of them are natural and are inevitable facts of life. However, there are differences between the two. First, every change is not evolutionary in nature, whereas, evolution always implies change. Second, evolution, unlike change is a continuous process. Third, the cause of social change may be both internal and external, whereas evolution is mostly affected through the operation of internal factors. Fourth, social change can be planned or unplanned but evolution is an automatic process. Firth, social change is a value-neutral concept, whereas evolution is value-loaded. Sixth, there can be slow or fast social change, but evolution is always a slow process (Mohanty, 1997). As discussed in the beginning of this sub-section, any kind of change that we witness in the society, can come under the broader definition of either social or cultural change. However, some specific variety of change can also be discussed here, although they come under the umbrella term of social or cultural change. (iv) Demographic change: Demography deals with the size, distribution, growth, etc., of population over a period of time. Demographic change is
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change in the patters of fertility, mortality, age structure, migration, etc. High fertility or high mortality can have important implications in any society. The same can happen if the rate of such indicators are too slow. High fertility might lead to large-scale instances of poverty and unemployment, and might affect the developmental efforts of a state. Over-population also leads to greater use of natural resources and affects environmental sustainability. High birth and death rates bring about change in the attitude of people towards family and marriage. In India, demographic change in the form of high fertility led to the adoption of family planning programmes and following which there was a decrease in the population growth rate. The small family norm has introduced change in social relationships between husband and wife, parents and children, the status of women and so on. (v) Technological change: The human civilization is moving from the most rudimentary technology of bow and arrow to the modern and highly sophisticated instruments of the present day. The invention of computers, Internet, mobile phones, jet planes, atomic bomb and discoveries of men like Vasco da Gama and Columbus have changed the socio-cultural space of the modern man dramatically. Ancient man walked on bare feet. Then came the bullock cart which made movement comparatively faster. Subsequent technological innovations brought about bicycles, automobiles, jet planes and so on. These have helped the movement of people faster than ever before. These technological changes have enormous societal implications. The introduction of high-yield seeds in the form of Green Revolution in India that ensured massive increase in foodgrains like rice and wheat managed the hunger situation in the country quite well. Dramatizing the fact that technological change may lead to social change, sociologist William F. Ogburn once attributed the emancipation of women to the invention of the automobile self-starter, which enabled women to drive cars, freed them from their homes and permitted them to invade the world of business (Biesanz and Biesanz 1964). The modern means of entertainment and communication like TV, Radio, Internet, cell phones, etc. have drastically changed the family life in India and substantially affected the role of women in society. Not only they are empowered and emancipated but also the husband-wife ties are now being seen as that of co-partners rather than that of superiors and inferiors. Although technological changes have not spread equally everywhere in the country, still phenomenal improvement in this respect cannot be ignored.
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(vi) Economic change: Economy plays a cardinal role in mans daily life. Noted sociologist and philosopher, Karl Marx pointed out the significance of economy as a factor in social change. He propounded that economy which constitutes the means of production like labour, instruments, etc. and the relations of production is the infrastructure and all others like family, legal system, education, religion, polity, etc. are the superstructure. As he says, a conflict between the oppressor and the oppressed, haves and the have-nots brings change in the society and the society transforms to a new mode of production. In this manner, Marx says, society gets transformed from primitive communism to slavery, slavery to feudalism, from feudalism to capitalism and from capitalism, Marx predicted, socialism a classless society will emerge (Morrison, 2006). In Indian society, industrial economy brought enormous change in the lives of people. Not only it changed the occupation structure in the society but also it affected interpersonal relationships. People from rural areas migrated to cities to work in factories. This drastically reduced the effect of caste/untouchability and also transformed joint families to nuclear households. India, once an agricultural economy, is now manufacturing industrial products to emerge a world leader in producing software, making it a service economy. The software giants like Infosys, Wipro, TCS, etc. are renowned world over. So the economic change is one of the important forms of social change. Morris Ginsberg made a systematic analysis of the factors which have been invoked by several writers to explain social change. These are: (i) The conscious desires and decisions of individuals (the development of the small family system in western countries) (ii) Individual acts influenced by changing conditions (iii) Structural changes and structural strains (contradictions between forces of production and relations of production); external influences (cultural contact); outstanding individuals or groups of individuals; confluence of elements from different sources at a given (revolution). These factors have been examined form different perspectives and some sociologists have found them deterministic. In case of India, two elements have played a decisive part in bringing about social change: western science and technology, and social planning. Activity 4 According to you, how much has change in technology affected society? Research the Internet and give reason for your answer.
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7. State whether true or false. (a) Social and cultural changes are often regarded as the same and denote similar kind of change. (b) Growth does connote a direction of change, but it is quantitative in character. 8. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) _________deals with the size, distribution, growth, etc., of population over a period of time. (b) In case of India, two elements have played a decisive part in bringing about social change: western science and technology, and ______ ________.
13.6 Globalization
Figure 13.2 Globalization
Globalization refers to the growing integration of societies, economies and cultures around the world. In recent times, it has become one of the most hotly debated topics and key area of research among the policy-makers, statesmen, corporate, politicians and academia. Globalization literally means the process of transformation of local/regional phenomena into global ones. It is described as a process by which people around the world are amalgamated
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and unified to form a single global society. Rapid economic growth and poverty reduction in China, India and other developing countries that were poor two decades ago, has setup profound prospects for globalization. However, at the same time increased inequality, exploitation, marginalization and environmental degradation, most particularly the now much-hyped and alarming global warming along with others that have resulted due to the process of globalization, have also generated significant national and international opposition to the very process of globalization. Anthony Giddened (1990) defines globalization as, The intensification of world-wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This is a dialectical process because such local happenings may move in an obverse direction from the distanced relations that shape them. A local transformation is as much a part of globalization as the lateral extension of social connections across time and space. Similarly, Held et al. (1999) defined globalization as the processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. As to Thomas Friedman (1999), Globalization is the integration of markets, finance and technologies in a way that is shrinking the world from a size medium to size small and enabling each of us to reach around the world farther, faster, and cheaper than ever before. Globalization is a very complex process and it involves multiple factors. Likewise, the impact of globalization on societies and cultures is bound to be different in different time periods and places. The socio-cultural repercussions of globalization vary from place to place and country to country and even in the same country from time to time. Owing to its multiplicity and complex nature, different scholars have interpreted globalization differently looking at its both positive and negative outcome. Those skeptical to the process of globalization, see it as a calculated imperialist design of hegemonization in economic, political, ecological and cultural terrains, threatening loss of economic, self-reliance and political sovereignty, erosion of democratic structure and damaging of plural cultural identities(Mishra, 2004). They argue that globalization process leaves the poor countries with little capabilities to compete with developed and rich countries and the motto of the multinationals is to grab power and profit rather than the welfare of the masses. Contrary to what has been said and promised as the free-market mantra, liberalization policies have wrongly and unjustly bestowed all economic power on big corporate houses, like the Transnational Corporations (TNCs) which benefit from the global trade. Poor farmers from
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impoverished countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America fail to compete in the global economy and live in most disadvantaged conditions. Adding to it, Ritzer and Ryan point out that in the globalization era there is a fear that indigenous culture is being undermined and overwhelmed by either a global culture or one associated with another nation especially America (2004), something that is called as Americanization. According to Kelvin Robins, the development of the world market has farreaching consequences for cultures, identities and life-styles where there is focus on a single commodity world and where local cultures and identities are uprooted and replaced with symbols from the publicity and image departments of multinational corporations (cited in Malik 2004). Samir Amin (1997) in similar vein argues that the global capitalist system has proved to be exploitative and destructive for the Third World countries. This creates underdevelopment, marginalization, disintegration, exclusion, polarization, inequality, etc. of income and wealth. Therefore, rejecting the apparent inevitability of globalization in its present form, he advocates that underdeveloped countries in the Third World need a new strategy of development and asserts the need for each society to negotiate the terms of its inter-dependence with the rest of the global economy. On the other hand, there are different groups of scholars who argue in favour of the globalization process saying that, it opens up the geographical borders to transnational trade leading to global competition. As they say, developments linked with globalization have opened up boundless possibilities for human development, enormous new opportunities and enhanced quality of life for many people in the third world countries (Sinha 2004). Jagdish Bhagwati (2004) while advocating for free trade and globalization observes that freer trade is associated with higher growth and that higher growth is associated with reduced poverty, therefore, growth reduces poverty. Illustrating India and China, he argues that according to World Bank estimates, real income (gross domestic product) grew at an annual average rate of 10 per cent in China and 6 per cent in India during the two decades ending in 2000 and the Asian Development Bank data show, poverty declined from an estimated 28 per cent in 1978 to 9 per cent in 1998 in China and poverty fell from 51 per cent in 197778 to 26 per cent in 19992000 in India according to an official Indian Source. He says, this is in contrast to what happened in India during the quarter of a century prior to the economic reforms and the abysmally low annual growth rate of 3.5 per cent. During that period, the poverty rate remained stagnant, fluctuating around 55 per cent (Bhagwati 2004). Many protagonists of globalization argue that the process brings emancipation and is instrumental in eradicating orthodox practices
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and superstitious beliefs. It gives the spirit of freedom and rationality. It brings immense dynamism in human life and promotes vertical mobility. In religious sphere, it promotes ethics and rationality. Economically speaking, globalization promotes interdependence between national and international markets. In political sphere, globalization brings activism, and encourages active concern to remove poverty, malnutrition, environmental degradation, terrorism, etc. To discuss the case of India, it can be stated that after the country gained freedom, Mahatma Gandhi, the father of nation, favoured the revival of rural economy and cottage industries and endorsed his economic theory of Sarvodaya meaning the universal uplift or progress of all the people. The Mahatma and his followers viewed urban industrial development more as a polluting blight than a liberating force of modern society, while hand labour and locomotion by foot were encouraged as the healthiest sources of economic strength. Further, Indias rural masses were taught to take pride in the simplicity of their daily lives and to use their idle time in productive handcraftsmanship (Wolpert 1991). However, countrys first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and most of his party colleagues favoured to develop industries and make India economically self-sufficient and a progressive nation. Nehru, who was convinced with the Five Year Plans of the then Soviet Union, initiated the same in India in 1950 being the first chairman of the Indian Planning Commission. Since then the Government of India has been pursuing its developmental agendas through successive Five Year Plans. However, during the last part of the 20th century several critical macro-economic situations erupted in the country due to the longstanding controlled economic regime by the Government and many more reasons following which in 1991, the Government of India followed the Structural Adjust Policies (SAP) and economic reforms bidding farewell to its earlier suppressive license raj. In fact in June 1991, India came close to defaulting on its international debt commitments, with balance of payments deficit running high, foreign exchange balance going precariously low (enough for only 13 days of normal imports) and high fiscal deficit which prompted major reforms in 1991 through liberalization (Basu 2006). The strategies involved a sharp devaluation of the rupee; removal of quantitative restrictions on imports, reduction of import tariffs and a unification of the exchange rate as the rupee was made convertible for current-account transactions and on the domestic front the strategies like removing the system of industrial licensing, minimizing the number of items in the list reserved for the small-scale producers, etc. were also followed and besides the programme also saw fiscal reforms though the maintenance of
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important subsidies, particularly on the agricultural front, continued to plague the budget (Mazumdar and Sarkar 2008, 2; Ahluwalia 2002; Joshi and Little 2000). Since liberalization was introduced in Indian economy and with the onset of the process of globalization, Indian society and culture have witnessed several changes. Although in several sectors, the impact of globalization has been fruitful and encouraging, its harmful and damaging repercussions have raised concerns at various levels. The integration of Indian economy with that of the world economy has helped in raising the countrys exports. Many Indian companies have become successful business players in foreign countries. Nonetheless, at the same time, poverty, malnutrition, gender inequality, etc. have become greater challenges before the country. The intervention of multinational corporations in the forest lands and the natural habitats of indigenous peoples has affected their livelihood and also raised environmental concerns. Although globalization is an irreversible process and one cannot stop it, planned measures can be taken to minimize the negative consequences and harvest its advantages. Activity 5 Elaborate on the consequences of globalization in the Indian society. For research, you can refer the Internet.
9. State whether true or false. (a) Globalization refers to the growing integration of societies, economies and cultures around the world. (b) Poor farmers from impoverished countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America are competing well in the global economy. 10. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The intervention of ____ ___ ________in natural habitats of indigenous peoples has affected their livelihood and also raised environmental concerns. (b) _____ ___opens up the geographical borders to transnational trade.
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13.7 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Change and continuity are the inevitable facts of life. Not only people themselves undergo the process of change, but also the habitat they live in. Social change is inevitable. It is not only inevitable, it is also universal. It is found in every society. Change may occur with or without proper planning. People, government or any other agent may initiate change through plans or programmes and may determine the degree and direction of change. Every society, from primitive to industrial and post-industrial, has witnessed continuous state of transformation. The term economic development is comprehensive and broad in nature. Economic development in a broader sense refers to social and technological progress. It implies changes in a progressive manner in the social and economic structure of a nation. Progress involves value judgement because it implies betterment or improvement. Social refers to interactions and interrelationship between people. Culture on the other hand refers to the customs, beliefs, symbols, value systems and in general the set of rules that are created by people in society. It can be both material and non-material. Globalization refers to the growing integration of societies, economies and cultures around the world. In recent times, it has become one of the most hotly debated topics and key area of research among the policymakers, statesmen, corporate, politicians and academia.
13.8 Glossary
Development: Improvement in the quality of life and advancement in ones state of condition Progress: Change in a desirable direction
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Social: Interactions and interrelationship between people Culture: Customs, beliefs, symbols, value systems and in general the set of rules that are created by people in society. It can be both material and non-material Globalization: Growing integration of societies, economies and cultures around the world

1. What is social change? Explain in detail. 2. Discuss the features of social change. 3. What is social progress? Elaborate. 4. Write a detailed note on the different kinds of change. 5. Explain the effects of globalization on social change.

1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) economic deterministic; (b) Permanent 3. (a) False; (b) True 4. (a) Development; (b) Temporal 5. (a) True; (b) True 6. (a) Economic development; (b) Social 7. (a) True; (b) True 8. (a) Demography; (b) Social planning 9. (a) True; (b) False 10. (a) Multinational corporations; (b) Globalization
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1. Refer to Section 13.2 2. Refer to Section 13.3 3. Refer to Section 13.4 4. Refer to Section 13.5 5. Refer to Section 13.6

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Unit 14
Structure 14.1 Introduction Objectives 14.2 Applied Sociology 14.3 Sociology and Social Problems 14.4 Sociology and Social Change 14.5 Sociology and Social Policy and Action 14.6 Sociology and Development 14.7 Sociology and Professions 14.8 Value-free Sociology 14.9 Summary 14.10 Glossary 14.11 Terminal Questions 14.12 Answers 14.13 Further Reading
Uses of Sociology
14.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about social change. In this unit, you will learn about the relationship of sociology with social problems, social change, and social action. Also covered in this unit is the impact of sociology on development and professions, as well as the concept of value-free sociology. Applied Sociology is a branch of sociology that is concerned with mobilizing scientific principles and procedures to solve problems. Many applied sociologists perform evaluation research. Some are policy specialists, while others engage in specific problem solving in organizational settings. Their work is informed by social theories and bodies of experimental research findings. Numerous sociological practices fall under applied sociology. For instance, the term clinical sociology has been used since the 1930s to explain sociologically based interventions, typically while referring to sociological work done in the health sector, in social work, and also in forensic settings. This work has to do with collaborating with medical practitioners, psychologists, psychiatrists, nutritionists, and also advocacy and support in mental health
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programmes; the methods used being counselling, interpersonal therapy, intervention programmes, substance abuse services, grief counselling, etc. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the term applied sociology Elaborate on social problems Explain sociology and social change Discuss social policy and social action Analyse the relationship between sociology and social development Analyse the relationship between sociology and professions Explain value-free society
14.2 Applied Sociology

According to Morris Ginsberg, the scope of sociology includes a broad study of human interactions, their conditions and consequences. Some writers would restrict its scope to the relations arising out of acts of will, but this is an unjustifiable and unworkable limitation. Many interactions between individuals are not consciously determined or apprehended. One of the most interesting problems confronting the student of society is to determine the respective roles of reason or rational purpose and of impulse and the unconsciousness in social life. In this case, sociology must be capable of dealing with the complete issue or network of social relationships. Since these relationships are assumed to be dependent on the nature of individuals; (i) to one another, (ii) to the community, (iii) to the external environment. This can be explained if every social event can be traced back to its origin, as influenced by complex interactions. A combination of these interactions is comprised within a community, with respect to external influences. But this ideal, if generously conceived, is clearly too ambitious. Sociology involves a systematic and objective study of human society. Sociologists study individuals social actions. Social relationships, for instance, those between a husband and a wife, a teacher and a student, a buyer and a seller and social processes, namely, cooperation, competition, conflict and organizations, communities and nations and social structures (family, class and state), give rise to sociological queries. Explanations that are derived from norms
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and values result in the formation of social institutions. Thus, sociology can be defined as the study of social life. Sociology comprises a variety of apprehensions and interests. It is aimed at providing classified forms of relationships within societies, institutions and associations. These relationships pertain to economic, political, moral, religious and social aspects of human life. Though, so far no collective agreement has been reached on the essence of sociology, yet it is established that sociology deals with the study of interaction systems, which shape social institutions, the state and the non-native order. Therefore, in sociology we study about social organization, social structure, institutions and culture. The discipline of sociology is recognized widely today. Nowadays, there is growing realization about the importance of the scientific study of social phenomena and means of promoting what Giddings calls human adequacy. It is of great value in modern complex society. (i) Sociology makes a scientific study of society: Sociology has made it possible to study society in a systematic and scientific manner. Scientific knowledge about human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields. (ii) Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man: Sociology delves deep into the social nature of man. It tells us why man is a social animal, why he lives in groups, etc. It examines relationships between individuals and the society. (iii) Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of social action: The science of society assists an individual to understand himself, his capacities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust to the environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, etc., helps us to lead an effective social life. (iv) Sociology has contributed generously to enhance the value of human culture: Sociology has trained us in building a rational approach to questions that concern ourselves, our religion, customs, etc. It teaches one to have an object-oriented and balanced approach. It emphasizes the importance of ignoring petty personal prejudices, ambitions that are influenced by ego and envy. (v) Sociology studies the role of institutions in the development of the individual: The home and family, school and education, church and religion, states and government, marriage and family, etc., are
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important institutions through which a society functions. Furthermore, they are conditioners of an individuals knowledge of sociology. (vi) Sociological knowledge is indispensable for understanding and planning of the society: Sociological planning has been made easier by sociology. Sociology is often considered a vehicle of social reform and social organization. It plays an important role in reconstruction of the society. (vii) The need for sociology in underdeveloped countries: Sociologists have drawn the attention of economists regarding the social factors that have contributed to the economic backwardness of a few countries. Economists has now realized the importance of sociological knowledge in analysing the economic affairs of a country. (viii) Study of society has helped several governments promote the welfare of tribal people: It is not only civilized societies, also tribal societies have several socio-economic problems. Studies conducted by sociologists and anthropologists regarding tribal societies have helped many governments in undertaking various social measures to promote the welfare of tribal people. Activity 1 Name and elaborate on two professional fields (social work excluded) where the knowledge of sociology is most relevant. You can use the Internet or appropriate books for research.
1. State whether true or false. (a) According to Morris Ginsberg, the scope of sociology includes a broad study of human interactions, their conditions and consequences. (b) Sociology does not involve a systematic and objective study of human society. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Sociology has made it possible to study society in a _______ and _______ manner. (b) Sociology delves deep into the _______ nature of man.
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14.3 Sociology and Social Problems

In sociology, there is no one accurate definition of a social problem. A social problem for one group may not be so for another. Social problems can change over time, as law, ethics and social standards also go through transformation. Some sociologists have also suggested that a political component is involved in the definition. Taking everything into account, we can say that the term social problems refers to societal-induced conditions that adversely affects the population, and acts that abuse societal norms and values. C.Wrightmills (1959) had stated quite aptly that the structure and culture of a society, its history, and what happens within it at any time and place affect everyone within it more or less directly. When personal troubles take on the status of mutually recognized and shared difficulties for a sufficient number of people, these exigencies may be perceived as social problems that require social action. From a broader sociological perspective, social problems are defined through a process of social construction in which a situation or condition is collectively perceived as harmful to a sufficient number of people or society itself. The process of constructing a social problem entails gaining public attention and legitimacy for recognizing the troubling aspect of the situation or condition, proposing and obtaining acceptance for solutions, and implementing strategies for change. What is constructed as a social problem differs by society, historical time, place and culture. Thus, the same condition may be defined as a social problem at one point in time or for one group of people, yet as non-problematic at other time periods or for different constituencies. Social problems are behaviour patterns or conditions that are considered objectionable or undesirable by many members of a society. These members recognize that the corrective policies, programmes and services are necessary to cope with and reduce the scope of these problems (Fuller and Meyers, 1941). Merton and Nisbet consider social problem as a way of behaviour that is regarded by a substantial part of social order as being in violation of one or more generally accepted or approved norms (Merton and Nisbet 1971). Social problems involve actions or patterns of behaviour that are viewed by a substantial number of persons in the society as being harmful to the society or in violation of societal norms, and about which ameliorative action is seen as both possible and desirable. Therefore, social problems are undesirable situations or conditions or behaviour concerning society, social institutions, social relationships, social structure, social organization, etc. It is always disintegrating and disorganizing.
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Moreover it is pathological in nature and requires proper attention for its cure. Understanding Crime Fear of crime is widespread among people in many Western societies, affecting far more people than the personal experience of crime itself; as such, it constitutes a significant social problem. Criminality has been a problem confronting India and has become an important area of research in social sciences. In his classic discussion on the normality of crime, Durkheim (1964) argues that crime is closely connected with the conditions of all social life, leading him to arrive at a conclusion that there cannot be a society devoid of crime. Therefore, criminal behaviour exists in every society and it has become an important area of research for criminologists, sociologists and psychologists. So far as the meaning of the word crime is concerned, it has come from Latin Crimen which means charge or offence. The Concise Encyclopedia of Crime and Criminals defines crime as an act or default which prejudices the interests of the community and is forbidden by law under pain of punishment. It is an offence against the state, as contrasted with a tool or a civil wrong, which is violation of a right of an individual and which does not lead to a punishment. However, it can be said that Crime is an act or omission which is punishable under law. It is an act which is believed to be socially harmful, to which law prescribes certain penalty on the doer. Crime is linked with social norms, i.e., society prepares the crime and the criminal commits it. Crime is not vice. It is not punished as offence against God, but it is prejudicial to society. It is something done against the dictates of society or law and is due to a failure to adjust oneself to such dictates. Therefore, crime implies a disturbance in social relationship. The nature of criminal and non-criminal conduct is determined by social values which the larger defining group considers important. Wherever the social equilibrium is upset, there develops crime. Activity 2 Do you agree to the generally held view that majority of the crime in India is related to poverty and lack of proper education of the masses? Undertake adequate research and give reasons for your answer.
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3. State whether true or false. (a) Fear of crime is widespread among people in many Western societies, affecting far more people than the personal experience of crime itself. (b) Crime is linked with social norms, i.e., society prepares the crime and the criminal commits it. 4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) The word 'crime' has come from the Latin word ______which means charge or offence. (b) Wherever the social___________ is upset, there develops crime.
14.4 Sociology and Social Change

Different scholars have defined social change in different ways. A glance at some of them can make understanding clear. According to Morris Ginsberg (1986), Social change is the change in social structure, i.e. the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organisation. The term social change must also include changes in attitudes or beliefs, in so far as they sustain institutions and change with them. Here, he talks about two types of changes: changes in the structure of society and changes in the values system of society. Different scholars debate over if change is a revolutionary process or it happens gradually. However, they settle with the fact that it is both an evolutionary and a revolutionary process. Every change has an effect over different aspects of life and different components of the societal system. The development of the Internet for example in contemporary society has enormous implications for other institutions and ideasit affects psychology, ideology, the political system, industry, education and the media. It is a revolutionary force but it builds upon previous developments so that it is both gradual and insurrectionary (Hoffman 2006). Finally, social change in the context of sociology refers to change in the social order of a society. It could also mean social progress or sociocultural evolution; a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic structure, for instance shifting from feudalism to capitalism; a social revolution, such as the one present
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in Marxism; or social movements like Womens suffrage, Civil rights movement, etc. This change may come about due to several factors, such as cultural, religious, economic, scientific, etc. Generally, social change may include changes in social institutions, social relations and social behaviour. Let us now look at some models of social change. Marxist: Marxism presents a materialist concept of history; according to this theory, humankinds history is essentially a consequence of struggle between social classes. Kuhnian: Thomas Kuhn argues that people will not move away from a paradigm, however unworkable, until a better paradigm is seen. Heraclitan: The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to present his case of social change. What he means is that a river is constantly in motion, and for it to stay a river, change is a must. This theory parallels a living organism, which must be constantly changing in order to survive. Daoist: The Chinese philosopher Dao De Jing used the metaphor of water. Water, though soft, can wear away stone over time. Thus, social change in this model is to be natural and steady, even though it will, most times, be barely noticeable. Activity 3 Write a report on the cultural change in India over the last twenty years.
5. State whether true or false. (a) 'Change' refers to any alteration or transformation in any object, situation or phenomena over a certain period of time. (b) Change is an evolutionary but not a revolutionary process. 6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) According to ______ _________, the term social change must include changes in attitudes or beliefs, insofar as they sustain institutions and change with them. (b) Social change, therefore, is change in the _______ system as a whole.
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14.5 Sociology and Social Policy and Action

Sociology attempts the interpretive understanding of social action to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects. It looks at formulating type concepts and generalized uniformities of empirical processes. Action is human behaviour to which the individual attaches personal meaning. Action can be obvious or subjective. Action is considered social when, because of the subjective meaning attached to it by the individual(s) performing the act, it looks at others behaviour and is influenced to act in a certain way. Social action could be oriented to others past, present, or predicted future behaviour. Not all action can be considered social. If action is not oriented to the behaviour of other people then it is not social. Action can be influenced by the behaviour of people, while still not being meaningfully determined by others actions. If an individual does something that is fashionable or leads to social distinction, the action can be considered meaningful. Modes of orientation of social action Uniformity of social action: Widespread action, repeated by one individual or performed along with many individuals and which corresponds to a subjective meaning that can be attributed to the same actors. Usage: Probability of uniformity in the orientation of social action, when the probability is determined by its actual practice. Custom: Usage when the actual performance depends on familiarity. Nonconformance is externally sanctioned. If the actor acts in self-interest then action can be uniform. The uniformity rests as long as behaviour is determined by rational actions to similar hidden expectations. Types of Social Action 1. Rational orientation to a system of different individual ends. Individuals have the option of choosing and judging between both means and ends, though these considerations could be with reference to other unconditional values. 2. Rational orientation to an absolute value that involves conscious belief in the value for its own sake and is independent of prospects for other external success. Absolute values are irrational in nature.
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3. Affectional orientation. If this orientation is some uncontrolled reaction to a special stimulus, it is not considered meaningfulgrey areas. 4. Traditional orientation. If this orientation is imitation, it is not considered meaningfulgrey areas. Activity 4 Using the Internet for reference, make a list of the five most anti-social actions prevalent in the Indian society.
7. State whether true or false. (a) Action is human behaviour to which the individual attaches personal meaning. (b) Absolute values are rational in nature. 8. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) ______ is considered social when, because of the subjective meaning attached to it by the individual(s) performing the act. (b) If an individual does something that is fashionable or leads to social distinction, the action can be considered________.
14.6 Sociology and Development

Development is a form of change. However, there are differences between the two. Change is a value-neutral concept while development is value-loaded one. Change is ethically neutral and suggests alterations or modifications in the structure and functioning of society over a period of time. Development on the other hand, advocates change for good. It is a process of desired change. Although development leads to change, all forms of change dont indicate development. Those changes which are planned are termed as development. A change to be defined as development must occur continuously in a desired direction. These desired goals are set looking at the values, norms and needs of any society. Any change in society must get absorbed in the system and must be felt by the people to make it more effective. Such change can then be regarded as development. Advancement in education and modern means of transport
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and communication has resulted in high female literacy in the modern societies. This has led to women joining in various jobs in both government and nongovernment establishments, changing the family relationship as a whole. Such a move leads to a situation like role conflict where modern women are confused whether to perform the role of a traditional family woman, a mother, a daughter, a wife or to play the role of a teacher, an administrator or an engineer. Such a phenomenon is an example of social change. However, such change can be regarded as development only when proper institutional arrangements and social adjustments are made so that working woman doesnt face the situation like role conflict and manages both her roles well. Such institutional arrangements and social adjustments will then be called as development (Jena and Mohapatra 2001; Mohanty 1997). Development is a multi-faceted term and there are lots of confusions over its meaning and definition. Questions are often raised on how one should count the development parameters. How can a society be called developed and underdeveloped? What should be the basis? To understand the concept clearly, the indicators of development are discussed below. (i) Literacy or education: Education is the medium through which the members of society are socialized and the modern means of knowledge, skill and technique are imparted to them. Formal education and training expands opportunities for people and increase their capacities. Availability of educated labour force in a country is a pre-requisite for development, better governance system and healthy functioning of democracy. In India, to eradicate illiteracy, the successive governments have come out with policies like Sarva Shiksga Aviyan (SSA), Mid-day Meal Scheme, Mahila Samakhya Scheme, Teacher Education Scheme, etc. Following the National Literacy Mission (NLM), set up in 1988, the Total Literacy Campaign was initiated to eliminate illiteracy. Indias soaring literacy helped the country to become a knowledge economy. From a mere 12 per cent during independence, Indias literacy has reached at 65 per cent (2001 census) now. This is a strong indicator of development. (ii) Health: Health is as the World Health Organisation (WHO) defines it a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Good physical health is the basic requirement for a stable society. Low maternal and infant mortality, good quality of life and availability of proper health facilities to all sections of a society are necessary conditions for a healthy and developed society. In India although phenomenal improvements
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in various health indicators have been witnessed in postindependence period, still several facts need wide attention. Year 2007 data show, in India, the infant mortality rate (IMR)the probability of a child dying before the first birthdayis still high, i.e., 55 per one thousand live births, although it has shown continuous decline over the years. Again 43 per cent of children in India under age five are underweight (India 2010, 519 522). According to UN World Food Programme report released in 2009, more than 27 per cent of the worlds under-nourished population lives in India. Besides, 40 per cent of women are found with chronic energy deficiency and around 30 per cent of babies in India are born underweight (Bhattacharya 2010). Development of any country with such bad health indicators will be difficult. (iii) Income: Adequate level of employment generation is essential for a country to raise income level of its populace. High incomes per capita and increased Gross National Product (GNP) makes a country economically healthy. When a country has enough economic resources and its per capita income is high, it can invest in social sectors like health and education. Therefore, income and economic welfare are most important indicators of the development process. (iv) Democratic participation: Participation in the political process of a state is a rational thing every citizen would want to carry out. The political process can enable or hamper developmental process. The participation of people in every developmental activity makes it more effective and serves the developmental goals. Right to choose ones representative and the right to choose ones government are important for the people in polity. The introduction of adult franchise in India soon after independence is a significant step in this context. However, only right to vote is not enough for a country to be called as developed. People must also have the right to choose the development that is meant for them. This makes a state democratic and people friendly. It is an important indication for development when people enjoy such freedom. Activity 5 Do you agree that education is the most important medium through which socialization of the masses takes place? Using the Internet for reference, give reasons for your answer.
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9. State whether true or false. (a) Development is not a form of change. (b) Right to vote is enough for a country to be called developed. 10. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Right to choose one's ________ and the right to choose one's _________ are important for the people in polity. (b) ______ and ______are most important indicators of the development process.
14.7 Sociology and Professions

Apart from the obvious influence of sociology on social work, sociology tends to influence other professions as well. There are many big advertising firms that have research departments analysing and studying advertisements and cultural climate so as to generate successful advertisement campaigns and increase product sales. Added to that, there are market research companies. They study consumer behaviour and track consumer trends in interviews as well as through observation. They study anything from peoples reactions, preferences, etc., to a commercial to what types of people give to charities, etc. Public health is a very applied field. It is characterized by a populationbased approach, and statistical methods are typically used for this field. Public health is a science that tries and prevents large-scale processes capable of negatively affecting the publics health. As it covers society in its entirety, there is a strong and logical fit of sociological principles and practices within the domain. However, the study of psychology is considered more important than sociology in public health, where the stress on individual behaviour goes more with a biomedical model. Notwithstanding this, several primary concerns of present-day public health, along with large-scale variables like social capital, social status, social inequality, and health care organization and financing, are topics that are best suited to the sociological perspective. One can say that the emphasis in public health is shifting more towards a sociological perspective.
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Sociological Concepts in Public Health Sociology in public health can be seen in the several sociological concepts that permeate the practice of public health. Sociology, more than any other science, discusses socio-economic status at its very core. Social class variation within a society is the major explanatory variable in sociologyfor everything from variation in social structure to differential life experiences of health and illness. Indeed, there appears to be overwhelming evidence that Western industrialized societies that have little variation in social class experience have far better health outcomes than societies characterized by wide social-class dispersion. In short, inequalities in health are directly related to social and economic inequalities. Much of later-20th-century public health is devoted to the reduction of these inequalities. Sociological Methods in Public Health Methodologies are vital to sociological research. The great debate in the subject has been on the roles of quantitative versus qualitative approaches, with both these approaches being widely used for public health. It has been accepted since long that the social world consists of both an objective and a subjective reality. For instance, the objective reality of having a life-threatening disease is accompanied by the subjective reality of the patients experience of the disease, as well as the experiences of the patients family and friends. Both the subjective and the objective realities have some relevance to the sociological approach. The subjective, qualitative approach is typically discussed in theory as well as the methods concerned with illness behaviour; qualitative approaches are applicable to the understanding of social policy, world systems, areas of sociology where statistical measurement is irrelevant, etc. Within public health, surveillance is an essential approach that describes the dynamics of disease. In sociological approaches, the role of social and behavioural factors become vital. Survey methodology holds an important place in sociological research. The concern has been with the collection, analysis, management, interpretation, and use of big quantities of data acquired by direct interview with respondents. Social surveys are characterized by random samples, extensive questionnaires, and multivariate statistics for analysis. Sociological variables are inherently complex to measure as well as analyse. For instance, the evaluation of socio-economic status of a person necessitates the accurate measurement of numerous variables that can be found within a larger social context. Socio-economic status (SES) is the product of several factors, including
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income, education, residence, and occupation. Determining the relative weight of these components is a big analytical problem. Thus, regarding the role of socio-economic status on health care outcomes, there is no answer to what mechanism works to determine the relationship between SES and health. Sociology and Evaluation in Public Health Sociological variables can mostly be found at the macro level; the opportunity to intervene is minimal. For instance, the SES of a group is influenced by complex components, like education and occupation that make up the total life course of individuals within groups. So, changing the SES of a group would require massive redistribution of resources of the larger social structure. Time and effort is required to change these macro variables. This is, however, not different from challenges in public health, like the long-term and time-consuming effort to change lifestyles and alleviate behavioural risk factors that are lined to chronic diseases. The primary role of sociology in public health is the thorough assessment of the macro components of society affecting public health at the population level. These evaluations are necessary as they provide an insight on inequalities in health; also, they help elaborate upon the mechanisms that sustain these inequalities. This is relevant to sociologists long-standing theoretical concern with social structure. Also, sociology helps in bringing out mechanisms for longterm changes that could lead to reduction in health inequalities. The benefit of sociological thinking in public health is not easily understood by those seeking solutions to the suffering of humanity. However, the long-term role of sociology in public health is the improvement of public health. Activity 6 Make a list of five professions that are most influenced by sociology. Write briefly on the relationship of sociology with each of those professions.
11. State whether true or false. (a) Apart from the obvious influence of sociology on social work, sociology tends to influence other professions as well. (b) The study of psychology is considered more important than sociology in public health.
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12. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) Methodologies are vital to ______ _______. (b) Public health is characterized by a _____________approach, and statistical methods are typically used for this field.
14.8 Value-Free Sociology

The core matter of sociology is human behaviour in society. Values guide social behaviour. As a consequence, social behaviour can never be value-free if value freedom is seen as absence of values. In addition, social research is inherently a form of social behaviour and is guided by the search for true knowledge. Thus, value-free sociology according to Weber means that the sociologist during his research must find something called value relevance. This way, values are operational at three levels: Philological interpretation Ethical interpretation while assigning value to an object of enquiry Rational interpretation where sociologists seek the true nature of relationship between phenomena regarding causal analysis. Value interpretation seeks to establish value where an activity is directed. Sociologists should observe value impartially during social research. Ideological or non-scientific assumption should not be present in the research. Evaluative judgment should be avoided. Value judgment should be within the realms of the sociologists technical competence. He should stay away from endorsing particular values. Value neutrality facilitates the fulfillment of the real value of scientific enquirythe search for true knowledge. Sociology as a science advocates the goal of value neutrality. According to Alvin Gouldner, value-free principles made sociology freer. It added to the intellectual growth and liberation of the subject. Value-free doctrine offered freedom from moral compulsiveness and offered a partial escape from the narrow-minded doctrines of the sociologists native culture. However, valuefree doctrine is paradoxit no doubt allows individuals to make better value judgments and encourages a habit that helps individuals in discerning between their punitive drives and their moral sentiments. However, in practice, this goal of value neutrality is near impossible.
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But now, one comes across such titles as Sociology in Crisis which questions the arguments of value-free sociology. Now societies are demanding from social sciences the answers of the emerging crises in society. Therefore, the concept of value-free sociology has become debatable. Activity 7 Do you agree with Gouldner's view that value-free sociology has made society freer? Give reasons for your answer.
13. State whether true or false. (a) Values do not necessarily guide human behaviour. (b) Value-free sociology according to Weber means that the sociologist during his research must find something called value relevance. 14. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words. (a) According to ______ _________, value-free principles made sociology freer. (b) During social research, ________ ________ should be avoided.
14.9 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Applied Sociology is a branch of sociology dealing with mobilizing scientific principles and procedures to solve problems. Sociology involves a systematic study of human society. Sociologists study individuals social actions. Social problems are behaviour patterns considered objectionable or undesirable by many members of society. Fear of crime is widespread among people in many Western societies, affecting far more people than the personal experience of crime itself; as such, it constitutes a significant social problem. Apart from the obvious influence of sociology on social work, sociology tends to influence other professions as well.
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The core subject matter of sociology is human behaviour in society. Social behaviour is guided by values. As a consequence, the study of social behaviour can never be value-free if value freedom is seen as absence of values.
14.10 Glossary
Applied Sociology: Branch of sociology concerned with mobilizing scientific principles and procedures to solve problems Social problems: Behaviour patterns or conditions considered objectionable or undesirable by many members of a society Action: Human behaviour to which the acting individual attaches some subjective meaning Crime: Act or omission punishable under law Participation: Political process of a state every citizen would want to carry out Development: Process of desired change that advocates change for good Public health: Science that tries and prevents large-scale processes capable of negatively affecting the publics health Social change: Refers to, in the context of sociology, change in the social order or working of a society

1. Elaborate on the term applied sociology. 2. Discuss the relationship between sociology and social problems. 3. What is social change? Elaborate. 4. Explain the relationship between sociology and social action. 5. How is sociology and development connected? Explain. 6. Elaborate on the relationship between sociology and professions. 7. What is value-free sociology?
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1. (a) True; (b) False 2. (a) Systematic, Scientific; (b) Social 3. (a) True; (b) False 4. (a) 'Crimen'; (b) Equilibrium 5. (a) True; (b) False 6. (a) Morris Ginsberg; (b) Societal 7. (a) True; (b) False 8. (a) Action; (b) meaningful 9. (a) False; (b) False 10. (a) Representative, government; (b) Income, Economic welfare 11. (a) True; (b) True 12. (a) Sociological research; (b) Population-based 13. (a) False; (b) True 14. (a) Alvin Gouldner; (b) Evaluative judgment

1. Refer to Section 14.2 2. Refer to Section 14.3 3. Refer to Section 14.4 4. Refer to Section 14.5 5. Refer to Section 14.6 6. Refer to Section 14.7 7. Refer to Section 14.8
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Edition: Fall 2011

SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY

SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY (SMU DDE)

Author: Dr Biswaranjan Mohanty Copyright Reserved, 2011

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Page No. (iv)

Contents Subject Introduction

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Page No. (vi)

Nature and Scope of Sociology

1.2 Definition and Development of Sociology

1.2.1 Nature of Sociology

Figure 1.1 Nature of Sociology

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1.2.2 Scope of Sociology

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1.2.3 Importance of Sociology

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1.2.4 Methods of Study

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1.3 Scientific Status of Sociology

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1.6 Terminal Questions

1.7 Answers Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

Answers to Terminal Questions

1.8 Further Reading

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Sociological and Other Forms of Knowledge of Society

2.2 Relation of Sociology with Other Subjects

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2.2.1 Sociology and Social Anthropology

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2.2.2 Sociology and Social Psychology

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Race Age Peers

2.2.3 Sociology and History

2.2.4 Sociology and Political Science

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Metaphysical Stage Questioning of concepts

Positivist Stage Scientific method

Monotheism Animism Polytheism

Figure 2.2 Comtes Law of Three Stages

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2.5 Terminal Questions

2.6 Answers Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

Answers to Terminal Questions

2.7 Further Reading

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3.2 Theories about the Origin of Human Society

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Sikkim Manipal University

Sikkim Manipal University

Sikkim Manipal University

Sikkim Manipal University

Sikkim Manipal University