Meat

Science
LPT 321
URVISHMISTRY

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STRUCTUREOFMUSCLE..........................................................................................................................................................6 GROSSSTRUCTURE ..............................................................................................................................................................................6 . CONNECTIVETISSUEASSOCIATEDWITHMUSCLE.........................................................................................................................................6 HISTOLOGICALSTRUCTUREMUSCLEFIBER..............................................................................................................................................7 ORGANELLESOFMUSCLEFIBER...............................................................................................................................................................7 ULTRASTRUCTUREOFMUSCLE................................................................................................................................................8 MYOFIBRILS .......................................................................................................................................................................................8 . MYOFILAMENTS..................................................................................................................................................................................8 SARCOMERE.......................................................................................................................................................................................9 ZLINEULTRASTRUCTURE.....................................................................................................................................................................10 PROTEINSOFTHEMUSCLE...................................................................................................................................................................10 SARCOPLASMICRETICULUMANDTTUBULES...........................................................................................................................................12 MITOCHONDRIA................................................................................................................................................................................13 LYSOSOMES......................................................................................................................................................................................14 GOLGICOMPLEX................................................................................................................................................................................14 SMOOTHMUSCLE..............................................................................................................................................................................14 CARDIACMUSCLE..............................................................................................................................................................................14 DEVELOPMENTOFMEATINDUSTRY......................................................................................................................................14 ECONOMICIMPORTANCE....................................................................................................................................................................15 LIVESTOCKRESOURCE.........................................................................................................................................................................15 MEATPRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................................................15 DOMESTICSCENE ..............................................................................................................................................................................16 . PROCESSEDMEAT..............................................................................................................................................................................17 PROBLEMSENCOUNTERED...................................................................................................................................................................18 PROMOTIONALAGENCIESANDASSISTANCE.............................................................................................................................................18 CONVERSIONOFMUSCLETOMEAT.......................................................................................................................................19 LOSSOFHOMEOSTASIS.......................................................................................................................................................................20 POSTMORTEMGLYCOLYSISANDPHDECLINE...........................................................................................................................................20 RIGORMORTIS..................................................................................................................................................................................21 LOSSOFPROTECTIONFROMINVADINGMICROORGANISMS.........................................................................................................................21 CONVERSIONOFMUSCLETOMEAT .......................................................................................................................................................21 . AGEING...........................................................................................................................................................................................22 CHEMICALCOMPOSITIONANDNUTRITIVEVALUEOFSKELETALMUSCLE...............................................................................23 Chemicalcompositionofmuscle..............................................................................................................................................23 Carcasscomposition.................................................................................................................................................................23 Chemicalcompositionofatypicalanimalmuscle ...................................................................................................................24 . NUTRITIVEVALUEOFMEAT .................................................................................................................................................................25 . Meatproteins...........................................................................................................................................................................25 Meatfats..................................................................................................................................................................................25 Minerals...................................................................................................................................................................................25 Vitamins...................................................................................................................................................................................26 FRAUDULENTSUBSTITUTIONOFMEATANDITSRECOGNITION..............................................................................................26 PHYSICALMETHODS...........................................................................................................................................................................27 Differentiationofcarcassesoffoodanimals............................................................................................................................28 Characteristicsofmeat............................................................................................................................................................29 Characteristicsoffat................................................................................................................................................................30

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CHEMICALMETHODS..........................................................................................................................................................................30 ELECTROPHORETICMETHODS...............................................................................................................................................................31 IMMUNOLOGICALMETHODS................................................................................................................................................................32 RECENTTECHNIQUESINMEATSPECIESIDENTIFICATION.............................................................................................................................32 PRESERVATIONOFMEAT......................................................................................................................................................33 PRINCIPLESOFPRESERVATION..............................................................................................................................................................33 Historyofpreservationoffood................................................................................................................................................33 Factorsinfluencinggrowthofmicroorganisms........................................................................................................................33 Principlesoffoodpreservation.................................................................................................................................................34 Preservationofmeat................................................................................................................................................................35 Classificationofpreservationofmeatmethods.......................................................................................................................35 Pointsforconsiderationforchoosingamethodsofpreservation............................................................................................36 PRESERVATIONBYCONTROLOFMOISTURE.............................................................................................................................................37 Drying.......................................................................................................................................................................................37 Freezedryingorlyophilization.................................................................................................................................................37 Intermediatemoisturemeatproducts.....................................................................................................................................38 Saltingandpickling..................................................................................................................................................................39 Curing.......................................................................................................................................................................................40
Chemistryofcuringreaction.....................................................................................................................................................................42 Curingmethods.........................................................................................................................................................................................43 Curingtime................................................................................................................................................................................................44

Smoking....................................................................................................................................................................................44
Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................................................................44 Componentsofsmoke..............................................................................................................................................................................44 Productionofsmoke.................................................................................................................................................................................45 Methodsofsmoking.................................................................................................................................................................................45 Typesoffuelused.....................................................................................................................................................................................45 Effectofsmokeonnutritivevalue............................................................................................................................................................46

PRESERVATIONOFMEATBYLOWTEMPERATURE......................................................................................................................................46
Principleofarefrigerator..........................................................................................................................................................................47 Factorscontrollingefficiencyofchilling....................................................................................................................................................48 Physicalchangesinchilledmeat...............................................................................................................................................................49 Chemicalchangesinchilledmeat.............................................................................................................................................................49 Chillingofcarcasses..................................................................................................................................................................................50 Refrigerationinstrumentation..................................................................................................................................................................50 Coldshortening.........................................................................................................................................................................................51 Electricalstimulation.................................................................................................................................................................................51

Refrigeratedmeattransport....................................................................................................................................................52 Freezing....................................................................................................................................................................................53
Methodsoffreezing..................................................................................................................................................................................54 StillAir,Plate,Blast,LiquidImmersionandLiquidSpraysandCryogenicFreezing...................................................................................54 PhysicoChemicalchangesduringFrozenstorageofMeat.......................................................................................................................56 Undesirablechangesinfreezerstorageofmeat......................................................................................................................................57 Thawingoffrozenmeat............................................................................................................................................................................57 Effectoffreezingonthepathogenicmicroorganismsandparasites........................................................................................................58

Precautionsforefficientchillingofmeat.................................................................................................................................59 PRESERVATIONOFMEATBYHIGHTEMPERATURECANNING.......................................................................................................................59 Canning(ThermalprocessingorThermalPreservation)..........................................................................................................59

Canstypesofcans..................................................................................................................................................................................60 Outlineofcanningoperation....................................................................................................................................................................61

Spoilageofcannedfoodsdistortionofcans..........................................................................................................................63
Bacteriaincannedfoods...........................................................................................................................................................................64

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Factorsaffectingmicrobialspoilage .........................................................................................................................................................65 . Flatsouring................................................................................................................................................................................................65 Chemicalspoilagehydrogenswell.........................................................................................................................................................66 Sulphiding.................................................................................................................................................................................................66 Rustordamage.........................................................................................................................................................................................66

Thepublichealthaspectsofcannedfoods ..............................................................................................................................67 . Microbialexaminationofcannedmeat...................................................................................................................................68 PRESERVATIONOFMEATBYDIRECTMICROBIALINHIBITION........................................................................................................................69 Preservationbyuseofantibiotics............................................................................................................................................69 Radiationpreservationofmeat...............................................................................................................................................70 Chemicalpreservation..............................................................................................................................................................71 MODERNPROCESSINGTECHNOLOGIESOFMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS...............................................................................72 PROCESSINGOFMEAT........................................................................................................................................................................72 PRINCIPLESOFPROCESSINGMEAT.........................................................................................................................................................72 MODERNPROCESSINGTECHNOLOGIESINCOMMINUTIONOFMEAT..............................................................................................................72 MODERNPROCESSINGTECHNOLOGIESINCURINGOFMEAT........................................................................................................................73 FORMULATIONANDDEVELOPMENTOFMEATANDSEAFOODPRODUCTS.............................................................................74 SAUSAGES........................................................................................................................................................................................74 Classification............................................................................................................................................................................74 Sausageingredients.................................................................................................................................................................75 Formulationanddevelopmentofsausage...............................................................................................................................78
Stepsinprocessing....................................................................................................................................................................................78 Stepsinproductionofemulsion...............................................................................................................................................................80

FORMULATIONANDDEVELOPMENTOFMEATBALLS/PATTIES....................................................................................................................81 FORMULATIONANDDEVELOPMENTOFMEATPICKLES...............................................................................................................................81 FORMULATIONANDDEVELOPMENTOFMEATSOUP..................................................................................................................................82 FORMULATIONANDDEVELOPMENTOFMEATKEBAB.................................................................................................................................82 SURIMI............................................................................................................................................................................................83 Formulationanddevelopmentofsurimi..................................................................................................................................83 Usesofsurimi...........................................................................................................................................................................84 SMOKEDFISH....................................................................................................................................................................................84 Formulationanddevelopmentofsmokedfish.........................................................................................................................84 TANDOORICHICKEN...........................................................................................................................................................................86 PACKAGINGOFMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS........................................................................................................................87 PACKAGING......................................................................................................................................................................................87 PACKAGINGREQUIREMENTSOFMEAT....................................................................................................................................................87 Modernpackagingmaterialandpackagingforms..................................................................................................................88 TYPESOFPACKAGING.........................................................................................................................................................................89 PACKAGINGOFMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS ...........................................................................................................................................90 . PHYSICOCHEMICALQUALITYANDCHARACTERISTICSOFMEAT.............................................................................................91 WATERHOLDINGCAPACITY.................................................................................................................................................................91 PH .................................................................................................................................................................................................92 . MICROBIALQUALITYOFMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS...........................................................................................................92 MICROBESINVOLVEDINDECOMPOSITIONOFMEAT..................................................................................................................................92 MICROBIALCOUNTSCOMPUTEDFORASSESSINGQUALITYOFMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS............................................................................93 MISCELLANEOUSUNDESIRABLECHANGESCAUSEDBYMICROBESINMEAT...................................................................................................94

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BASICSOFSENSORYEVALUATIONOFMEATPRODUCTS........................................................................................................95 EATINGQUALITYOFMEAT...................................................................................................................................................................95 SENSORYEVALUATIONPRINCIPLESANDMAJORCONSIDERATIONS...........................................................................................................97 DIFFERENTMETHODSANDUSESOFSENSORYEVALUATION.........................................................................................................................98 CHEMICALCOMPOSITIONANDNUTRITIVEVALUEOFEGG.....................................................................................................99 CARBOHYDRATESANDLIPIDSOFEGGS....................................................................................................................................................99 PROTEINS,VITAMINSANDPIGMENTSOFEGGS.......................................................................................................................................100 NUTRITIVEVALUEOFEGGS................................................................................................................................................................100 PRESERVATIONANDPACKAGINGOFEGGS..........................................................................................................................101 PACKAGINGOFSHELLEGGS ...............................................................................................................................................................101 . TYPESOFPACKAGINGOFEGGS...........................................................................................................................................................101 PRESERVATIONOFEGGS....................................................................................................................................................................102 LAWSGOVERNINGNATIONALANDINTERNATIONALTRADEINMEATANDMEATPRODUCTS..............................................104 MEATFOODPRODUCTSORDER(MFPO) .............................................................................................................................................104 . BISSTANDARDSFORTHEMEATINDUSTRY............................................................................................................................................106 MICROBIALSTANDARDSFORMEATBYICMSFANDEEC.........................................................................................................................111 ISO9000STANDARDS.....................................................................................................................................................................112 ORGANICMEAT...................................................................................................................................................................113 RAISINGLIVESTOCKTHEORGANICWAY................................................................................................................................................113 Handlingofmeattheorganicway.........................................................................................................................................114 FOODPRODUCTSOFGENETICALLYMODIFIEDANIMALANDMARINEORIGINE....................................................................114 ATRYN..........................................................................................................................................................................................115 AQUAADVANTAGESALMON...............................................................................................................................................................115 GLOSSARY...........................................................................................................................................................................116

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Structure of Muscle

Meatisthepostrigoraspectofmuscleandthemostabundantconstituentofthecarcass. Meataccountsforabout3565%ofcarcassweightand30to40%ofliveweightofmeatanimals,exceptin caseofobeseanimals. Meatisprimarilycomposedofskeletalmuscle,butbloodvesselspresentinmusclearecomposedofsmooth muscle.Howevertheensuingdiscussionwillberestrictedtothatofskeletalmuscle.

Gross structure

Ameatanimalpossessesasmanyas600distinctmuscles. Variationsexistinrespectofsizeandshape(triangularfanlikeorfusiform;longorshort;broadornarrow)in theattachments(bones,cartilages,orligaments);inbloodornervesupply;inassociationwithothertissue; andintheiraction(fast,sloworintermittent)amongmuscles. Thesevariationsallowmusclestoperformvarioustypeofmovementrangingfromgrossasinthecaseof movementoflimbstoveryfineasinthecaseofeyes. Howeverabasicstructuralpatterniscommontoeverymuscle,despitethevariationslistedabove. Skeletalmusclesarealsoknowntoasstriatedmusclesastheyappearasparallelstriationsofalternating lightanddarkbands. Musclesarecomposedofindividualcellsreferredtoasmusclesfibers,whichinturnismadeupmyofibrils, whichinturniscomposedofmyofilaments.

Connective tissue associated with muscle

Musclesarecomposedofmusclefiberormusclecells,thestructuralunitsofmuscles. Aconnectivetissuesheath,referredtoasepimysiumistheoutermostlayerofeverymuscle. Afinerconnectivetissue,referredtoasperimysiumemergefromtheepimysium,penetratethemuscle,and dividemuscleintomusclefiberbundlesbyaggregatingmusclefibers,andcoversthemusclefiberbundles. Afinerconnectivetissueframeworkknownastheendomysiumemanatesfromtheperimysiumandcovers eachindividualmusclesfiber. Connectivetissuenetworksactaschannelsforpassageofbloodvesselsandnervefibers. Endomysiumisanamorphous,nonfibroussheathandiscollagenousinnature. Thecollagenousfibersoftheendomysiumareassociatedwiththecellmembraneofthemusclefiber, sarcolemmabymeansofthebasementmembrane Sarcolemmaissimilartoplasmalemmaofanyotheranimalcellinrespectofstructure,compositionand functionandisendowedwithgreatelasticitytoendurethegreatdistortionitundergoesduringmuscular contractionandrelaxation. 6|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

7|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thesarcolemma,basementmembraneandendomysiumthoughcloselyassociated,aredistinctentities.

Histological structure muscle fiber

Musclefibers,ormusclecellsarelongunbranchedthreadlikemultinucleatecellsthattaperslightlyatboth ends. Musclesfibersmayattainthelengthofmanycentimetersthoughonlyrarelydotheyextendtheentire lengthofamuscleasinthecaseofsartoriusmuscles,butisonlyabout10100mindiameter. Invaginationsofsarcolemma,referredtoastransversetubulesorTsystemformanetworkoftubulesand runalongtheentirelengthandaroundtheentirecircumferenceofthefiber. Motornervefiberendingsterminateoninvaginationsofthesarcolemmaatthemyoneuraljunction. Thestructurespresentatthemyoneuraljunctionformasmallmoundonthesurfaceofthemusclesfiber. Theentirecomplexiscalledmotorendplate.

Organelles of muscle fiber

Thecytoplasmofthemuscleiscalledassarcoplasm,inwhich,asisthecaseofanyothercell,organellesand colloidalsubstancesaresuspended. Sacroplasmiscomposedofabout7580%water,andcontainlipiddroplets,glycogengranules,ribosome, numerousproteins,nonproteinnitrogenouscompoundsandseveralinorganicconstituents. 7|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

8|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thenucleiofthefibersareregularlydistributed;aboutoneevery5m,withincreasednumberspresentat tendinousattachmentsandatmyoneuraljunctions. Nucleiarelocatedimmediatelybeneaththesarcolemmaincaseofmammals,whiletheyarecentrally locatedincaseoffishes. Thenucleiareellipsoidalinshapeandtheirlongaxisisorientedparalleltothelongaxisofthefiber. Thenumberandsizeofmitochondriainmusclefibersvarygreatly. Mitochondriaarerelativelyabundantattheperipheryofthefibernearthepolesofthenucleiandespecially abundantatmotorendplates. Mitochondriaarelocatedbetweenmyofibril,adjacenttoZdisk,IbandsorAIjunction(discussedbelow). Lysosomesarealsopresent,asalsoaregolgibodies,plentyofwhicharefoundnearthenuclei,thoughtheir totalnumbersaremuchlessthanincaseofsecretorycells. Theendoplasmicreticulumisverywelldevelopedandisknownassarcoplasmicreticulum. Apartfromtheseorganelles,musclesfibersareprincipallycomposedofauniqueorganelleknownas myofibrils.

Ultrastructure of muscle
Myofibrils

Myofibrilsarelongthin,cylindricalrods,bathedbythesarcoplasmandusually12mindiameter. Amusclefiberwithadiameterof50mfrommeatanimalswillhaveatleast1000andcouldhaveasmany as2000(ormore)myofibrils. Onmicroscopicexamination,themyofibrilspresentanappearanceofalternatinglightanddarkbands. Acrosssectionofmyofibrilsrevealsawellorderedarrayofdotsoftwodistinctsizes.Thesedotsareactually themyofilamentswithdifferentsizescorrespondingtothethickandthinfilamentsofthemyofibril. Thethinfilamentsarealmostallcompletelymadeupofaproteinactin(actinfilaments),whiletheprotein myosin(myosinfilaments)isthesoleconstituentofthethickfilaments. Inlongitudinalsection,thethickfilamentsarealignedparalleltoeachotherandarearrangedinexact alignmentacrosstheentiremyofibril.Similarly,thethinfilamentsareexactlyalignedacrossthemyofibril, paralleltoeachotherandtothethickfilaments. Thisarrangementofthemyofilaments,andthefactthatthethickfilamentsoverlapincertainregionsalong theirlongitudinalaxes,accountsforthecharacteristicbandingorstriatedappearanceofthemyofibril. Thisbandingeffect,whichtakestheformofalternatelightanddarkareas,explainstheuseoftheterm striatedmuscletodescribeskeletalmuscle. Thelongaxisofmyofibrilsinmostmusclesandinallmammalsisparalleltothelengthofthemuscleand extendstheentirelengthofthemusclefiber.

Myofilaments

Areasofdifferentdensityarevisiblewithinthelightanddarkbandsofthemyofibrils. Thelightbandissinglyrefractivewhenviewedwithpolarizedlight,owingtothefactitexclusivelycontains actinfilamentsonly,henceitisdescribedasbeingisotropicandiscalledtheIband. Thebroaddarkbandisdoublyrefractivewhenviewedwithpolarizedlight,asitcontainsbothactinand myosinfilaments,henceitisdescribedasbeinganisotropic,andthusreferredtoastheAband. TheAbandismuchdenserthantheIband.BoththeAandIbandsarebisectedbyrelativelythin lines.AdarkthinbandcalledtheZlinebisectstheIband.Anarrowdenseband,knownastheMline, bisectsthecenteroftheAband. Thethickandthethinfilamentsdifferintheirdimensions,chemicalcomposition,propertiesandposition withinthesarcomere.Thethickfilamentsareapproximately1416nm(nanometers)indiameter(1nm= onebillionthofameter)and1.5mlong. ThethickfilamentsconstitutetheAbandofthesarcomere.Sincetheyconsistalmostentirelyofprotein myosintheyarereferredtoasmyosinfilaments.Theyareheldintransverseandlongitudinalregistersby thincrossbandslocatedperiodicallyalongthelengthandbycrossconnectionsinthecenteroftheAband. 8|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

9|U R V I S H M I S T R Y ThealignmentofthesecrossconnectionsinthecenteroftheAbandcorrespondstothetransversedensity characteristicsoftheMline Thethinfilamentsareabout68nmindiameterandtheyextendapproximately1.0moneithersideofthe Zline.ThesefilamentsconstituteIbandofthesarcomere.Theyconsistprimarilyoftheproteinactinandare referredtoastheactinfilaments.

Sarcomere

TheunitofthemyofibrilbetweentwoadjacentZlines(anAbandandtwohalfIbandslocatedoneither sideoftheAband)iscalledasarcomere. Thesarcomereistherepeatingstructuralunitofthemyofibrilanditisalsothebasicunitinwhichtheevents ofthemusclescontractionrelaxationcycleoccur.Thus,thesarcomereisthefunctionalunitofmuscle. Sarcomerelengthisnotconstantanditsdimensions,aswellasthoseofIband,aredependentonthestate ofcontractionatthetimethemuscleisexamined. InthecentralregionoftheAband,thereisanareathathasslightlylessdensitythantheremainderofthe band.ThislighterregioniscalledtheHzonewhichconsistsonlyofmyosinfilaments. Additionally,aregionofrelativelylowdensityappearswithintheHzoneoneithersideoftheMline.This lowdensityregionisreferredtoasthepseudoHzone,whichcomprisesonlythetailfractionofmyosin. TheHzoneislessdensethantherestoftheAbandbecauseitisthecenterregionbetweentheendsofthe opposingactinfilamentsandcontainsonlymyosinheads.ThepseudoHzoneconsistsonlyofmyosintail. ThewidthoftheHzonevarieswiththestateofcontractionofthemuscle. ThedensestareaoftheAbandisontheeithersideoftheHzone,whereboththeactinandmyosin filamentsarepresent. SinceIbandcontainsonlythethinactinfilaments,itistheleastdensebandoftheentiremyofibril. ThemyosinfilamentsintheHzoneregionofthesarcomereareorientedinadefinitehexagonalpatternsix thinfilamentssurroundeachthickfilament. TheHzoneiscompletelyobliteratedwhenthemusclecontractsfully,astheactinfilamentsarepulled towardsitselfbythemyosinhead,whilethepseudoHzoneisnotobliteratedbyanyamountofcontraction.

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Z line ultrastructure

Inlongitudinalsection,anactinfilamentononesideoftheZlineliesbetweentwoactinfilamentsonthe oppositesideoftheZline.Thisarrangementindicatesthattheactinfilamentspersedonotpassthrough theZline. TheactinfilamentsarebelievedtoterminateattheZline.Ultrathinfilaments,calledZfilaments,constitute thematerialoftheZlineandtheyconnectwithactinfilamentsoneithersideofit. NeartheZline,eachactinfilamentconnectstofourZfilamentsthatpassobliquelythroughtheZline. EachofthefourZfilamentsthenconnectswithanactinfilamentintheadjacentsarcomere.Thisstructural arrangementoftheZlineshowseachactinfilamentofonesarcomereorientedinthecenteroffouractin filamentsfromthenextsarcomere. Inlongitudinalsections,thisoffset(oroblique)arrangementoftheZfilamentsresultsinthecharacteristic zigzagpatternoftheZlineandexplainswhyanactinfilamentononesideoftheZlineappearstolie betweentwoactinfilamentsoftheopposingsarcomere.

Proteins of the muscle

ProteinsofthemuscleareclassifiedbasedontheirsolubilitycharacteristicsasSarcoplasmicproteins,which aresolubleinwater;Myofibrillarproteins,whicharesolubleinhighionicstrengthsolutionsandConnective tissueorStromalproteins,whichareinsolubleinhighionicstrengthsolutions,atlowtemperatures. Myofibrillarproteins,asthenameindicatesareassociatedwiththemyofibrils. MyofibrillarproteinsarefurtherclassifiedintoContractileproteins,RegulatoryProteinsandCytoskeletal proteins Contractileproteinsascalledsoastheyareinvolvedinmusclecontractionandthecontractileproteins includeactinandmyosin. Theproteinsactinandmyosinconstituteapproximately65percentoftheproteininthemyofibril. Regulatoryproteinsaresonamedbecauseoftheirdirectorindirectregulatoryfunctionsontheadenosine triphosphateactinmyosincomplex. Theregulatoryproteinsincludetropomyosin,troponin,twoMproteinsactinin,andactininlistedinthe decreasingorderofconcentrationinthemyofibril. Thecytoskeletalproteinsareinvolvedmaintainingthemyofibrillarproteinsinregisterandincludetitin, nebulin,Cprotein,Mprotein,desmin,filamentin,syneminandvinculin. 10|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

11|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Actinisaglobularmoleculeabout5.5mindiameter.ThisisreferredtoasGactin(forglobularactin)andit constitutesthemonomeric(singlemolecule)formofactin. o Thefibrousnatureoftheactinfilamentisduetothelongitudinalpolymerization(linking)ofGactin monomerstoformFactin(fibrousactin). o InFactin,theGactinmonomersarelinkedtogetherinstrands,similartobeadsonastring. o TwostrandsofFactinarespirallycoiledaroundoneanothertoformasuperhelixthatis characteristicoftheactinfilament. o TheisoelectricpH(pHofminimumelectricalchargeandsolubility)ofactinisapproximately4.7. o Actinpossessesarelativelylowcharge. Myosinconstitutesapproximately5055percentofthemyofibrillarproteinandischaracterizedbyahigh proportionofbasicandacidicaminoacids,makingitahighlychargedmolecule. o TheisoelectricpHofmyosinisapproximately5.4. o Myosin,withlowerprolinecontentthanactin,hasamorefibrousnature. o Thestructureofthemyosinmoleculeisanelongatedrodshape,withathickenedportionatone end. o Thethickenedendofthemyosinmoleculeisusuallyreferredtoastheheadregionandthelongrod likeportionthatformsthebackboneofthethickfilamentiscalledthetailregion. o Theportionofthemoleculebetweentheheadandthetailregionsiscalledtheneck. o Theheadregionofthemoleculeisdoubleheadedanditprojectslaterallyfromthelongaxisofthe filament. o Whenmyosinissubjectedtotheproteolytic(proteinbreakdown)actionoftheenzymetrypsin,itis splitneartheneckintotwofractionsthatdifferinmolecularweight;lightmeromyosinandheavy meromyosin.

InthecenteroftheAband,oneithersideoftheMline,themyosinfilamentcontainsthetailportionofthe myosinmoleculeswithoutanyoftheglobularheads.ThisregionwithintheHzone,oneithersideoftheM line,iscalledthepseudoHzone. ThepolarityofthemyosinfilamentsissuchthattheheadsoneithersideofthebarecentralregionoftheA bandareorientedatanobliqueangleawayfromtheMline. Theprotrudingheadsarethefunctionallyactivesitesofthethickfilamentsduringmusclecontraction,since themyosinheadsformcrossbridgeswithactinfilaments. DuringmusclecontractionseachmyosinheadattachestoaGactinmoleculeoftheactinfilament. Theformationofcrossbridgesthroughthisinteractionofactinandmyosinfilamentsproducesthechemical complexknownasactomyosin. o Theformationofactomyosinresultsinarigidandrelativelyinextensibleconditioninthemuscle. 11|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

12|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Actomyosinisthemajorformofthemyofibrillarproteinsthatisfoundinpostmortemmuscleand therigidityassociatedwithrigormortisislargelyduetothiscomplex. o Itisatransientcompoundinthelivinganimal,sincethecrossbridgesbetweentheactinandmyosin filamentsarebrokenduringtherelaxationphaseofthecontractioncycle.(Crossbridgesarealmost nonexistentinmusclewhenitisatrest.) Tropomyosinconstitutes810percentofthemyofibrillarproteinandlikemyosin,ishighlychargedmolecule withahighcontentofacidicandbasicaminoacids. o TheisoelectricpointoftropomyosinoccursatapHofabout5.1. o Tropomyosinhasaverylowprolinecontentthatcontributestoitsfibrousnature. o Tropomyosinmolecules,consistingoftwocoiledpeptidechains,attachendtoendtooneanother andthusformlong,thinfilamentousstrands. o Intheactinfilament,onesuchtropomyosinstrandliesonthesurfaceofeachofthetwocoiled chainsofFactin. o Thetropomyosinstrandsliealongsideeachgrooveoftheactinsuperhelix. o Asingletropomyosinmoleculeextendsthelengthof7Gactinmoleculesintheactinfilament. Troponin,aglobularproteinwithrelativelyhighprolinecontent,alsoconstitutes810percentofthe myofibrillarprotein. o Liketropomyosin,troponinispresentinthegroovesoftheactinfilamentwhereitliesastridethe tropomyosinstrands. o Itisalsoprobablypresentneartheendofthetropomyosinmolecules. o Thetroponinunitsshowaperiodicrepetitivenessalongthelengthoftheactinfilament. o Thereisonemoleculeoftroponinforevery7or8Gactinmoleculesalongtheactinfilament. o Troponinisacalciumionreceptiveproteinandcalciumion(Ca2+)sensitivityisitsmajorfunctionin theactomyosintropomyosincomplex.

actininhasprolinecontentcomparabletothatofactinandittooisaglobularmolecule. o actininispresentintheZlineandconstitutesabout22.5percentofthemyofibrillarprotein. o IthasbeensuggestedthatactininfunctionsasthecementingsubstanceintheZline. actinin,whichisalsoaglobularprotein,islocatedattheendsofactinfilamentsandisbelievedtoregulate theirlengthbymaintainingaconstantlengthofabout1mineachhalfsarcomere. o Intheabsenceofactinin,actinfilamentsinvitroattainlengthsof34mormore. Sarcoplasmicproteinsincludealltheenzymesinvolvedinglycolysis,TCAcycleandalsomyoglobin,whichis thepigmentresponsibleforthecolorofmeat. Connectivetissueproteinsincludecollagen,reticulinandelastin.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum and T tubules

Theendoplasmicreticulumofthemuscle,theSarcoplasmicreticulum(SR)isverywelldevelopedandisa membranoussystemoftubulesandcisternae(flattenedreservoirforCa2+)thatformsacloselymeshed networkaroundeachmyofibril. 12|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

13|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Periodicallyalongthelengthofthemusclefiber,andarounditsentirecircumference,invaginationofthe sarcolemmaformsthenetworkoftubulesthatarecalledtransversetubules.TheseareusuallycalledasT systemorasTtubules. ThusSRandtransversetubules(ttubules)aretwoseparatedistinctmembranesystemsandthettubules areassociatedwiththesarcolemmawhiletheSRisintracellularinnature. ThereticulummembranesoftheSRarethestoragesitesofCa2+inrestingmusclefibers. TheSRconsistsofseveraldistinctelements. o Thintubulesorientedinthedirectionofthemyofibrillaraxis,constitutethelongitudinaltubulesof thereticulum. o IntheHzoneregionofthesarcomerethelongitudinaltubulesconvergeformingaperforatedsheet thatiscalledafenestrated(windowlikeopening)collar. o AtthejunctionoftheAandIbandsthelongitudinaltubulesconvergeandjoinwithapairoflarger, transverselyoriented,tubularelementscalledterminalcisternae. o Thelongitudinaltubulesextendinbothdirectionsfromthefenestratedcollartotheterminal cisternae. o Thetwotubularelementscomprisingtheterminalcisternaelieparalleltoeachotherwithone tubuleofthepairtransversingtheAbandandtheothertransversingtheadjacentIband,ofthe sarcomere. o A"T"tubulealsorunstransverselyacrossthesarcomere,attheAIbandjunctionandliesbetween thetwotubularelementsoftheterminalcisternaepair. o Thecentral"T"tubuleandthetwotubularelementsoftheterminalcisternaecollectivelyforma structureknownasthetriad. o Eachsarcomerehastwotriads,oneineachhalfsarcomereattheAIbandjunction. o ThetriadsencircleeachmyofibrilattheAIbandjunctionofmammals,birdsandinsomefish. o InsomespeciesthetriadsarelocatedattheZlines. TheSRvolumevariesfromonemusclefibertoanother,butitisestimatedasconstitutingapproximately13 percentofthetotalfibervolume. TheTtubulesontheotherhand,compriseonlyabout0.3percentofthefibervolume.

Mitochondria

Mitochondriaareoblongorganelleslocatedinthesarcoplasm.Theyarefrequentlyreferredtoasthepower houseofthecell"because,theycapturetheenergyderivedfromcarbohydrate,lipidandprotein metabolismandthenprovidethecellwithasourceofchemicalenergy. Theycontaintheenzymesthatthecellusesintheprocessofoxidativemetabolism. Thereexistsaconsiderablevariationinmitochondrialnumbersandsizeinmusclefibers.

13|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

14|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Skeletalmusclemitochondriaarerelativelyabundantattheperipheryofthefibernearthepolesofthe nucleiandareespeciallyabundantatthemyoneuraljunctions. Additionally,anumberofmitochondriaarelocatedbetweenthemyofibrils,adjacenteithertotheZlines, theIbandsortotheAIbandjunctions.

Lysosomes

Lysosomesaresmallvesicles,locatedinthesarcoplasm,thatcontainanumberofenzymescollectively capableofdigestingthecellanditscontents. Theselysosomalenzymescontainagroupofproteolyticenzymesknownasthecathepsins. Severalcathepsinshaveproteolyticeffectsonsomeofthemuscleproteins.

Golgi complex

Golgicomplexislocatedinthesarcoplasmnearthenuclei. Theyconsistofflattenedvesicles,whichapparentlyfunctionastheconcentratingandpackaging apparatusfortheproductsfromthemetabolicproductionlineofthecell. Themusclefiber,beingmultinucleated,hasnumerousGolgicomplexes. ThevesiclesoftheGolgicomplexresemblethemembranesofthesarcoplasmicreticulum.

Smooth muscle

Smoothmuscleispresentinthegreatestquantityinthewallsofarteries,lymphvesselsandin gastrointestinalandreproductivetracts. Itisinvoluntaryinnature. Smoothmusclefibersarelong,unevenlythickenedinthecenterandtaperingonboththesides. Themyofibrilsarehomogenousanddonotshowalternatingdarkandlightbandslikethoseofskeletal muscle. ThereisnoZorMlines. TheSRisalsonotmuchdeveloped.Smoothmuscleispoorlysuppliedwithblood.

Cardiac muscle

Cardiacmusclepossessestheuniquepropertyofrhythmiccontractility,whichcontinuesfromearly embryoniclifeuntildeath. Cardiacmusclehaspropertiesthatresemblecharacteristicpropertiesofbothskeletalandsmoothmuscle. Itisalsoinvoluntary. Themusclefibersareroundedtoirregularinshapeandgiveoffbranches,whichgetmixedupwiththoseof nearbyfibers. Thenucleusisplacedinthecenterofthefiber. Myofibrilsdepictstriationssimilartoskeletalmuscle. Thesarcoplasmshowsnumerousandmuchmoremitochondriathantheskeletalorsmoothmuscle. TheintercalateddiscsarepresentatthepositionofZlines.

Development of Meat Industry

Themeatproductionandprocessingindustryisslowlygettingorganizedtomeettheeverincreasing demandformeatwiththegrowinghumanpopulation. ButthewordMEATisconsideredasatabooinourcountryandthissocialprejudiceistherootofallthe problemsthatthisageoldindustryfacesinitshealthygrowth,scientificimprovementandcontributionto thespeediergrowthofLivestockIndustry. Todaytheconsumersareintheprocessofchangingtheirmeateatinghabitsfromfreshtofrozenmeatand processeditems.

14|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

15|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Economic importance

LivestocksectorisanimportantcomponentoftheIndianagriculture,rankinginimportanceaftercrop production,fromtheviewpointofitscontributiontotheGrossNationalProduct(GNP)aswellasthe employmentpotentialinruralareas. Theshareofthelivestockproductisestimateda5.21%ofGDPin20072008. NationalsamplesurveyhasreportedthatinIndialivestockactivitiesarecarriedoutbyover90%ofsmall cultivatorsandlowwageearnerstosupplementtheirincome. ThevalueofoutputoftheLivestockandFisheriesSectorin200910amountedtoRs.4,08,386croresat currentpricesabout29.7%shareintheagricultureandalliedactivitiessector.

Livestock resource

Indiahasthelargestlivestockpopulationintheworld. Thereare226.1millioncattle,96.9buffaloes,59.0millionsheep,124.50milliongoatsand18.5millionpigs and842millionchickensintheCountry(FAO,2004)BAHStobeusedinsteadofFAO. Ourcountrysharesabout50%ofthebuffaloesandnearly15%eachofcattleandgoatpopulationofthe world. Indiaranksthefirstintheworldinbuffalopopulation,secondincattleandgoat,thirdinsheepandfifthin chicken. Thisisincontrasttotheconceptoflargesizedlivestockfarmsinthedevelopedcountries. Itisalsonoteworthythat75%ofourlivestockpopulationdoesnotconformtothespecificbreed characteristicsandhassignificantlylowinproductionpotential. Animalsthataregenerallyusedforproductionofmeatarecattle,buffaloes,sheep,goats,pigsandpoultry. MithunisalsoslaughteredformeatinNorthEastandSikkim. Rabbit,quail,duckandturkeymeatarealsousedasaspecialtyinKerala,AndhraPradesh,Karnatakaand someotherstates. RecentlyemuandostrichhavealsobeenintroducedinAndhraPradesh,TamilNaduandPondicherry. Forlongtimemeatindustryhasremainedconfinedtoaverysmallsectionofpeopleinourcountry. Thesepeoplehadlittleknowledgeofwholesomemeatproductionandeffectiveutilizationofvalued slaughterhousebyproducts. Thesceneisnowchanging. However,industryisstilllargelybasedonspentanimalsexceptforpigsandfarmpoultry. Mostanimalsareutilizedformeatproductionafterlosingtheireconomicviabilityintheprimaryfield. CowslaughterisbannedinourcountryexceptinWestBengalandKeralastates. Theconceptofmeattypeanimalsisyettotakerootsinourcountry,althoughanawakeninginthisregardis discernible. Oflate,particularlyduetoexportpotential,buffaloisemergingasaprospectivemeatanimalattheendof itsproductiveorworkinglife. Thisisafactorfavoringmeatexportasthebuffalocarcasscomparesfavorablyintermsofconformation,fat contentandweight,withinternationalterm. Besides,buffalomeathastheadvantageoflowprimarycost.Muttonoccupiesadistantsecondpositionin termsofvalueofexports.

Meat production

Meatisanimportantlivestockproduct,whichinitswidestsenseincludesallthosepartsoftheanimalsthat areusedasafoodbyman. Thoughmeathasaveryhighbiologicalvalue,itsproductionandprocessinghasalwaysbeenthesubjectof socialprejudice. Thisfactorhasadverselyaffectedthegrowthofmeatindustry. Inmanycases,socialresistanceandignorancehaveresultedininordinatedelayanddetermentofabattoir modernizationschemes. Animportantmilestoneinthisareawastheestablishmentofamodernabattoir(DeonarAbattoir)at Govandi,Mumbaiin1973. 15|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

16|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thishasacapacitytoslaughtertwomillionsheepandgoatsandonehundredthousandeachbuffaloes, bullocksandpigsinayear. Further,inthefourthfiveyearplan,eightbaconfactories(in1970)wereestablishedwiththeforeign assistance. Afewmeatcorporationswerealsoformedtotakeupthedevelopmentofslaughterhouses. Meatproductionincreasedalmostfivetimesduringthelastfifteenyearsandwasestimatedat4.9million tonsin1998andanannualgrowthrateof4.1%achievedduringthelastdecadeascomparedto4.7%for eggsand4.3%formilk.APEDAdatatobeincorporated. ICMRrecommended34gofmeat/capita/day. Actualconsumptionisaslowas14gm./capita/day. PercapitameatproductioninIndiaincreasedfrom4.6Kg/annumin1991to4.9Kg/annumin2000. Thetotalconsumptionofmeatin1981was38.28lakhmetrictons,whichhasincreasedto45.49lakhmetric tonsin2000showinganannualgrowthrateof1.7%. Duringtheyear2004thequantityofmeatproducedinrecognizedslaughterhousesinTamilNaduwas43 millionKg.withthevalueofmeatatRs.410crores. Atpresent,almost91.01millionanimalsareslaughteredannuallyyielding4.9milliontonsofmeat. Fromthis60.6%iscontributedbythesheepandgoatsand15.6%bycattleandbuffaloes. Nearly,99%pigpopulationisslaughteredannuallycontributing9.9%ofthetotalmeatproduction. Poultrywithapopulationof467millioncontribute0.44milliontonsofmeat(10.7%oftotalmeat production). Therehasbeenanimpressiveriseintheshareofpoultryandpigmeatovertheyearsandthesametrendis likelytocontinueinfuturealso. Thetraditionalformofmeatindustryischaracterizedbyunorganizedsectorinthehandsofbutcherworkers withverylittleknowledgeofpersonalhygiene. Thereareabout3600licensedslaughterhousesinthecountry,whichincludes128inTamilNadu. Alargenumberofthemareoutdatedandsubstandardaccordingtothepresentproductionandprocessing technologyspecifications. Theseslaughterhousesoperateasserviceabattoirswherebutchersslaughtertheanimalsforafeeandboth edibleandnonediblepartsofthecarcassesaredeliveredtothebutchers. Mostofthemneedmodernizationwithfacilitiesforlairage,slaughterhall,chillingroom,renderingplant, etc. Whileitisimperativetohaveallthesefacilitiesinbigcities,asemimodernapproachwithmechanicalhoist facilityistheworkablepropositionformodernandsmallsizedtowns

Domestic scene

ThemeatindustryinIndiaisreallyconcentratedinU.PandWesternregions. Thereareabout12largemeatprocessingplantsinIndiawhoseturnoverrangesfromRs.10crorestoRs.30 croresandabout5060smallmeatprocessingindustrieslocatedintheseregions. Mostoftheseprocessorsdependupontheslaughteringofthecattleatthelocalmunicipalslaughterhouses. TheAsiaslargestslaughterhouseisatDeonarGreaterMumbai. Sincemanyofourslaughterhousesarenotproperlymanagedandorganizedonmodernscientificlines,the slaughteroflargenumberoflivestockandproperutilizationofallthebyproductsprofitablyisverydifficult togetthecompetitivepricetofighttheglobalcompetition. Duringthelastdecade,tenmodernabattoircomplexeshavecomeupinpublicsector. Anequalnumberhavebecomefunctionalinprivatesectoralso. Eightnewprojectsonmodernmechanizedabattoirswereinitiatedin199091. IntheEighthPlan,fiveprivatesectorexportabattoirsarenearingcompletion. ThesedevelopmentalactivitiesarenecessarytoimprovetheimageoftheIndianmeatsector. AmongthelargeplayersinthefieldofmeatindustryinourcountryareAllanasons,AlkabeerandHind Industriesallofthemaremajorexporthouses. MeatindustryinIndiabelongstoahandfulofbusinesshousesinsmallandmediumsectorsparticularly dominatedbyonereligiousgroup. Largecorporatehousesdidnotventureinthisbusinessatall. 16|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

17|U R V I S H M I S T R Y TheonlymajorventurefromcorporatesectorinmeatprocessingwasfromBrookeBond. Inseventies,BrookeBondhadsetupalargemodernprocessingplantforexportatAurangabadin Maharashtra. Theplanthadacapacityofhandling500buffaloesperdayandwasequippedwiththeprocessingfacilitiesto producebloodmeal,bonemeal,etc. Theprojectfailedmainlyforthreereasons o Nonavailabilityofrequirednumberofbuffaloeseveryday. o Highercostofproductionandthereforedifficultyinmarketingthesameand o Marketingproblemsofbyproducts TheplantwasfinallysoldtoAllanasons,whoareorganizedwellinsellingchilledandfrozenmeatinthe MiddleEastthroughtheirownretailoutletslocatedthere.

Processed meat

Outofthetotalmeatproducedinourcountry,lessthan3%ofthemeatproducedissoldasprocessedmeat. Indevelopedcountries6580%ofthemeatproducedissoldintheprocessedform. UnderMFPO1973,220licensedmanufacturersproduce22,000tonsofprocessedmeatcomprising50%of curedproducts,20%sausagesand20%cannedproducts. Lately,however,Indiandynamicsischanginginfavorofprocessedmeatproductsespeciallyinmetropolis andbigcities. Theretailbutchershopssellmostofthemeatproducedinthecountrytotheconsumersasfreshhotmeat (unchilled). Thismeatisthencookedinthehouseholdsinmanydifferentwaysdependingontheirtasteand preferences. Theproductionofprocessedmeatproductsintheorganizedsectorgotafillipwiththeestablishmentof baconfactoriesintheFourthPlan. Thesebaconfactoriesstimulatedtheestablishmentofmanyprocessingunitsinthoseareas. Severaltraditionalmeatproductslikemeatkebab,chickenbiryani,tandoorichicken,meatcurry,etc.,are popularinthenonvegetarianpopulationforalongtime. Someotherfoodsproductsadoptedinmeatlikemeatsamosa,meattikka,meatkofta,meatballs,cutlets, meatpickles,etc.,havebeenabletocreateanimpactontheurbanconsumer. VariousregionspecificmeatproductslikeNihari(Delhi),Goasausage(Goa),Porkpickle(HimachalPradesh), YakiniandGustaba(Kashmir),Rapka(ArunachalPradesh),etc.,havegoodacceptabilityintheirtraditional consumers.Westerntypemeatproductslikecuredham,bacon,sausages,frankfurters,hotdogs,meat patties/burgers,luncheonmeatandloaves,liverpaste,etc.,havegooddemandincities.Eightbacon factories,fivemeatcorporationsandafairlygoodnumberofMFPOlicenseesinprivatesectorhavetakenup theproductionofawiderangeoftheseproducts.Theyarecateringtotherequirementsofdefense, restaurantsandhouseholdconsumers.Cannedmeatproductsarerelativelynewentrantsinthedomestic marketandareprimarilybeingmanufacturedfordefensesupplies. Thepricesofcannedmeatsarecomparativelyhighrenderingthembeyondthereachofcommon consumers,althoughtheirpresencecanbenoticedinthedepartmentalstoresinthemetropolitancities. Processedmeatproductsarepoisedforcontinuousgrowthinthecountry.Inbigcities,thereisanever increasingdemandforheatandserveandreadytoeatconvenienceorfastfoods.Thesearedelicious, nutritiousandifrequired,easytocarryhome. Thegrowthoffastfoodparloursandrestaurantsisattributedtotherapidurbanization,changinglifestyles andrapidincreaseinthenumberofworkingwomen. Itmaybepointedoutthatincreaseinconsumptionofvalueaddedprocessedmeatproductsareclosely linkedwithincreaseindisposableincomeandgrowthofurbanization. Thus,conveniencetypemeatproductsaregoingtohavespectaculargrowthinthecomingyears.Dueto nutritionalawarenessandliberalfoodhabitsofthenewergeneration,theadoptionofwesterntype productswithindigenousflavorprofilesisboundtotakeplaceatarapidrate.Wemuststrivetoexport processedmeatproductsratherthanliveanimalsandfreshmeat.Thereisaneedtostudytheconsumption patternofmeatproductsinimportingcountries,sothatwecantailorourproductsaccordingtotheir requirements. 17|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

18|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Ashiftfromprimaryproductstovalueaddedproductsbesidesfetchingmoreprofitswoulddecreasethe transportationcostandgeneratesmoreemployment.Itwillalsoencouragemoreefficientutilizationof meatbyproducts.

Problems encountered

Theoddsaremany,whicharethemajordeterrentformanycorporatestogetintothesector. Themainreasonisthereligiousovertonesinmeatprocessingandanimalslaughtering. Theotherreasonsareavailabilityofcattleorfoodanimals.Theorganizedcattlerearingareverylabour intensiveandtherearetoomanypitfallsanduncertainties. Pollutioncontrolisalsoamajorissue.Thefodderandanimalfeedarealsoveryscarce.Toorganizethisisa mammothtaskinIndiaandifonewantstodoitgovernmentpolicies,infrastructuralframeworkandpolitical willarealmostnonexistent. Besides,onlyproductive,nonmilkingbuffaloesareallowedtoslaughterandthusmeatyieldandqualityof thatmeatfromagedcattlearenotveryremunerativeinglobalmarketwheretendermeatfetchesabetter priceandisindemand. Sincethecattlegrazeinnaturalground,FootandMouthDiseaseisanissue.Forthisreason,particularlyin EuropeanandAmericanmarketsIndianmeatisnotaccepted. InIndiabuffalomeatistradedwhereasallovertheworldbeefisactuallyfromcow,whichisbannedhere. Thisalsohasrestrictedtoalimitedgeographicalarea. Asperregulatorypractices,intheslaughterhousesinIndiagoatandlambarecertifiedashealthyones whereasbuffaloiscertifiedasuselessbyVeterinarySurgeonsbeforeslaughtering.

Promotional agencies and assistance

TheCentralandStateGovernmentshaveseveralschemesforencouragingmeatandpoultryfarming, processingindustrythroughfinancialassistance/subsidyandmarketinghelp,etc.Italsoprovidesassistance fordevelopmentofhygienicretailoutlets. Since,theissueofestablishingandorganizingabattoirsandmeatprocessingplantsisacomplexoneand thereisnoeasysolution.Aholisticapproachisrequiredtomakethisindustrygrowandprosper.

PopulationofFoodanimalsWorldandIndia(2004) S.No. Kindofanimal Numberofheads Numberofheads 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sheep Goats Cattle Buffaloes Pigs Chickens 1,038,765,370 780,099,948 1,334,501,290 172,719,487 951,771,892 16,194,925,000 62,500,,000 120,000,000 185,500,000 97,700,000 14,300,000 425,000

NumberofanimalsslaughteredinWorldandIndia(2004) 18|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

19|U R V I S H M I S T R Y S.No. Kindofanimal Numberofheads Numberofheads 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sheep Goat Cattle Buffaloes Pigs Chicken 507,257,126 345,781,172 293,442,922 22,578,165 1,278,169,480 46,710,473,000 19,900,000 47,500,000 14,400,000 10,747,000 14,200,000 1,750,000,000

QuantumofMeatProductioninWorldandIndia(InMt)fortheYear2004 S.No. Species 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mutton Chevon Quantity(InMt) Quantity(InMt) 7,892,259 4,210,132 238,800 475,000 1,483,200 1,483,086 497,000 1,650,000

BeefandVeal 58,702,028 Buffalo Pork 3,171,168 100,392,230

Chickenmeat 67,718,544

Exportofanimalproducts (Quantity:InMetricTonesValue:InRs.Crores) ITEMS 200102 200203 200304 Value

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity BuffaloMeat Sheep/GoatMeat PoultryProducts DairyProducts AnimalCasings ProcessedMeat 243356 3915.1 19876 24774 464.28 267.13 1144.4 297897 33.07 4973.6 130.07 26450 182.45 21440 9.63 1.29 8296.2 669.48

1305.5 343817.08 1536.77 39.95 16820.53 110.39 156.47 415228.17 202.40 153.59 15882.67 155.19 140.27 732.84 4.8 986.13 12.43 7.63

TotalforAnimalProducts 292652

1500.9 359726

1800.5 793467.42 2024.81

Conversion of Muscle to Meat

Meatisthepostrigoraspectofmuscleandtheconversionof'Muscle'to'Meat'istheresultofseriesof biochemicalandbiophysicalchangesinitiatedinmuscleatthedeathoftheanimalduetostoppageofthe bloodcirculation. Thereisimmediatelossofoxygensupplytothemuscleduetoexsanguination(bleeding). 19|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

20|U R V I S H M I S T R Y AstheOxidationreductionpotentialisreduced,thereisinhibitionofaerobicpathwaythroughTCAcycleas wellascytochromesystem. Thestoreofcreatininephosphate(CP)usedforrephosphorylationofADPtoATP(creatinephosphate+ADP =ATP+creatine)getssoonexhausted. Energymetabolismisthenshiftedtoanaerobicpathwayresultinginthebreakdownofglycogentolactic acid. ThisprocesscontinuestillalltheglycogenstoredinthemuscleisexhaustedortheultimatepHisreached. ThisresynthesisofATPbyanaerobicpathwayisnotenoughtomaintaintherequiredATPlevelandasit depletes,thereisformationofactomyosinresultingintheonsetofrigormortis. Theimportantchangesthattakeplaceduringpostmortemperiodarefollows: LossofHomeostasis PostmortemglycolysisandpHdecline RigorMortis LossofProtectionfromInvadingMicroorganisms DegradationduetoProteolyticEnzymes LossofStructuralIntegrity Thustheconversionofmuscletomeatisaseriesoftheabovebiochemicalchangesultimatelyculminatingin theresolutionofrigormortis.

Loss of homeostasis

Homeostasismechanism,asystemforthephysiologicallybalancedinternalenvironmentwhichhelpsthe bodytocopeupwiththestressesofoxygendeficiency,extremevariationintemperature,energysupply, etc.,islost. Thehomeostasisiscontrolledbynervoussystem,whichceasestofunctionwithin46minutesafter bleeding. Intheabsenceofbloodsupply,thereislossofbodyheatandtemperaturestartsdeclining.

Postmortem glycolysis and pH decline

Intheabsenceofoxygen,anaerobicglycolysisleadstotheformationoflacticacidfromtheglycogen reserves:

TheaccumulationoflacticacidlowersdownthemusclepH,whichisanimportantpostmortemchange duringtheconversionofmuscletomeat. TherateandextentofpHdeclinearevariable,beinginfluencedbythespeciesoffoodanimal,various preslaughterfactors,environmentaltemperature,etc. Inmostspecies,agradualdeclinecontinuesfromapproximatelypH7inthelivingmuscleduringfirstfew hours(56hours)andthenthereisalittledropinthenext1520hours,givinganultimatepHintherangeof 5.55.7. TherateofpHdeclineisenhancedathighenvironmentaltemperature.AlowultimatepHisdesiredtohave acheckontheproliferatingmicroorganismsduringstorage. AsharpdeclineinpostmortempHevenbeforethedissipationofbodyheatthroughcarcasschillingmay causedenaturationofmuscleproteins.So,themusclesdepictpale,softandexudative(PSE)condition. Contrarytothis,muscleswhichmaintainaconsistentlyhighpHduringpostmortemconversiontomeatdue todepletionofglycogenpriortoslaughterdepictsadark,firmanddry(DFD)condition.Boththeconditions areundesirable.

20|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

21|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Rigor mortis

Itreferstostiffeningofmusclesafterdeathandisanotherimportantpostmortemchangeintheprocessof conversionofmuscletomeat.ItisnowverywellknownthataparticularlevelorconcentrationofATP complexedwithMg++isrequiredforbreakingtheactomyosinbondandbringingthemuscletoarelaxed stateandasitdrops,permanentactomyosincrossbridgesbegintoformandmusclegraduallybecomesless andlessextensibleunderanexternallyappliedforce. Duringtheperiodimmediatelyfollowingexsanguination,theactomyosinformationproceedsveryslowlyat firstandthemuscleisrelativelyextensibleandelastic.Thisperiodiscalledthedelayphaseofrigormortis. Thenactomyosinformationpicksupandthemusclebeginstolooseextensibility.Thisphaseiscalledthefast oronsetphaseofrigormortis.Whenallthecreatinephosphate(CP)isdepleted,ADPcannolongerbe phosphorylatedtoATP,musclebecomesquiteinextensibleandstiff. Thisstagemarksthecompletionofrigormortisisrapid.WhenpostmortempHdeclineisverysloworvery fast,theonsetandcompletionofrigormortisisrapid.Theonsetofrigormortisisenhancedatambient temperatureabove20C. Thephenomenonofrigormortisresemblesthatofmusclecontractioninalivinganimalmuscleexceptthat rigormortisisirreversibleundernormalconditions. Theresolutionofrigormortistakesplacemainlyduetoproteolyticactivityoflysosomalenzymesor microbialdegradationofmusclestructureinduecourseoftime. Prerigormeatisquitetenderbutitstoughnesskeepsonincreasinguntilrigormortisiscompleted. Itcontinuestobetoughforsomemoretime.However,withtheresolutionofrigorduetodenaturationor degradationoraging,meatbecomestender. Theonsetofrigormortisisalsoaccompaniedbyadecreaseinwaterholdingcapacity.Thisistrueevenwhen rigormortistakesplaceatahighpHduetodisappearanceofATPandconsequentformationofactomyosin.

Loss of protection from invading microorganisms

Duringpostmortemperiod,bodydefensemechanismstopsoperatingandmembranepropertiesarealtered. So,duringconversiontomeat,muscleisquitesusceptibletoinvadingmicroorganisms. ExceptforlowpH,mostoftheotherpostmortemchangesfavourbacterialgrowth. Hence,utmosthandlingprecautionsarenecessarytopreventcontaminationofmeat.

Conversion of muscle to meat

Meatisthepostrigoraspectofmuscleandtheconversionof'Muscle'to'Meat'istheresultofseriesof biochemicalbiophysicalchangesinitiatedinmuscleatthedeathoftheanimalduetostoppageoftheblood circulation. Themostimmediatechangecausedduetobleedingisthecessationoftheoxygensupplytothemuscle resultingininhibitionofthecytochromesystem&therefore,oxidativephosphorylation. ThesarcoplasmicATPasedepletestheATPlevelsthatincreasetheinorganicphosphate,whichinturn stimulatesthebreakdownofglycogentolacticacid. 21|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

22|U R V I S H M I S T R Y TheineffectualresynthesisofATPbyanaerobicglycolysiscannotmaintaintheATPlevelandasitdrops, actomyosinformsandtheinextensibilityofrigormortisensue. Thelossofextensibility,whichreflectsactomyosinformationproceedsslowlyatfirst(thedelayperiod)then withgreatrapidity(thefastphase),extensibilitythenremainsconstantatlowlevels. Thetimetotheonsetofthefastphaseofrigoratagiventemperaturedependsmostdirectlyonthelevelof ATP. SynthesisofATPfromcreatinephosphateandADPorbyglycolysiscannotmaintaintheATPlevelfortoo long. Higherglycogencontentofthemusclecanprolongthattimetosomeextentbutnotindefinitely. Theonsetofrigorisaccompaniedbyaloweringinwaterholdingcapacity(WHC). ThisisnotsolelyduetodropinpHandtheconsequentapproachofthemuscleproteinstotheirisoelectric pointorduetodenaturationofsarcoplasmicproteins. IthasbeenshownthatevenwhenrigormortisoccurredathighpH,therewasalossofwaterholdingdueto thedisappearanceofATPandtotheconsequentformationofactomyosin. TheloweredATPlevelsmakeitdifficulttomaintainthestructuralintegrityofproteins. TheloweringinpH,duetoaccumulationoflacticacidalsomakesliabletodenature. DenaturationisaccompaniedbylossofpowertobindwaterandthefallinpHcausesthemyofibrillar proteinsapproachtheirisoelectricpoint. Botheventscauseexudation. Denaturationofsarcoplasmicproteinsalsomakesthemliabletoattackbycathepsin. Thebreakdownofproteinstopeptideandaminoacidsandtheaccumulationofvariousmetabolitesfrom glycolyticandotherprocessesaffordarichmediumforbacteria. Resolutionofrigorisatermusedgliblytodenotethedecreaseintensiongeneratedinthemuscle,during actinomyosinformationandmusclecontraction. Theresolutionofrigorisnotonaccountbreakdownofactinomyosin,buttakesplaceduetodecreasing tension,whichisduetoproteolyticdegradationofspecificmyofibrillarproteinsthatleadtodissolutionofZ discs,lossofultrastructralintegrity. Muscle,posttheresolutionofrigorisreferredtoasmeat.

Ageing

Ageingistheholdingofcarcassesjustaboveitsfreezingpointsoastoobviatemicrobialspoilage,andthis processisaccompaniedbyanenhancementintendernessandflavorofmeat. Theenhancementinflavorismainlyattributedtoinosine(inosinemonophosphate),abreakdownproductof ATP(adenosinemonophosphate). Thebreakdownofproteinandfatduringageingresultinginformationofhydrogensulphide,ammonia, actaldehyde,acetone,anddiacetylandanincreaseinfreeaminoacidsalsoaddstothedevelopmentof characteristicmeatflavor. Theimprovementintendernessisonaccountofthesubtleproteolysisthattakeplaceinthecytoskeletal proteins. Calpainsarecausallyresponsiblefortheproteolysisassociatedwithageing,whichbringsaboutthe tendernessassociatedwithageing Ageingperiodindifferentspeciesoffoodanimals o Cattle:14days o SheepandGoats:7days o Pigs:5days o Chicken:2days Techniquescommonlyadoptedtodecreaseageingperiodsincludeelectricalstimulationofcarcasses(should bewithinhalfanhourofslaughter,tobeeffective);Calciumchlorideinfusionintocarcassesorinjectioninto meat

22|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

23|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Chemical composition and nutritive value of skeletal muscle

Chemical composition of muscle Sincemuscleistheprincipalcomponentofmeat,abriefdiscussionofitscompositionisnecessary. Liketheanimalbody,musclecontainswater,protein,fat,carbohydrateandinorganicconstituents. Musclecontainsapproximately75%water(range:6580%)byweight. Wateristheprincipalconstituentoftheextracellularfluidandnumerouschemicalconstituentsare dissolvedorsuspendedinit. Becauseofthisitservesasthemediumforthetransportofsubstancesbetweenthevascularbedand musclefibers. Proteinsconstitute1622%ofthemusclemassandaretheprincipalcomponentofthesolidmatter. Muscleproteinsaregenerallycategorizedassarcoplasmic,myofibrillarandstromalproteinsbasedprimarily upontheirsolubility. Thesarcoplasmicproteinsarereadilyextractableinwaterorlowionicstrengthbuffers(0.15orless). However,themorefibrousofthemyofibrillarproteinsrequireintermediatetohighionicstrengthbuffersfor theirextraction. Thestromalproteinsarecomparativelyinsoluble. Thesarcoplasmicproteinsincludemyoglobin,hemoglobinandtheenzymesassociatedwithglycolysis,the citricacidcycleandtheelectrontransportchain. AlthoughtheenzymesoftheTCAcycleandtheelectrontransportchainarecontainedwithinthe mitochondria,theyarereadilyextractable,alongwiththosefounddirectlyinsarcoplasm. Themyofibrillarproteinsconstitutetheproteinsassociatedwiththethickandthinfilaments. Theyincludeactin,myosin,tropomyosin,troponin,alphaandbetaactinin,CproteinandMproteins. Thesesaltsolubleproteinsarerequiredforemulsionstabilizationinthemanufactureofemulsiontype sausageproducts. Inadditiontoproteins,othernitrogenouscompoundsarepresentinmuscle. Theyarecategorizedasnonproteinnitrogen(NPN)andincludeahostofchemicalcompounds. Notableamongtheseareaminoacids,simplepeptides,creatine,creatinephosphate,creatinine,some vitamins,nucleosidesandnucleotidesincludingadenosinetriphosphate(ATP). Thelipidcontentofmuscleisextremelyvariable,rangingfromapproximately1.5to13%. Itconsistsprimarilyoftheneutrallipids(triglycerides)andphospholipids. Whilesomelipidisfoundintracellularlyinmusclefibers,thebulkofitispresentintheadiposetissuedepots associatedwiththelooseconnectivetissueseptabetweenthebundles;thelattertypeoffatdepositis calledMarblingorintramuscularfat. Thecarbohydratecontentofthemuscletissueisgenerallyquitesmall. Glycogen,themostabundantcarbohydrateinthemuscle,hasanabundancethatvariesfromapproximately 0.51.3%ofthemusclesweight. Thebulkoftheremainderofthecarbohydrateiscomprisedofthemucopolysacharidesassociatedwiththe connectivetissues,glucoseandothermonoordisaccharidesandtheintermediatesofglycolytic metabolism. Finally,musclecontainsnumerousinorganicconstituentsnotableamongwhicharecationsandanionsof physiologicalsignificance,calcium,magnesium,potassium,sodium,iron,phosphorous,sulphurandchlorine. Manyofotherinorganicconstituentsfoundintheanimalbodyarealsopresentinmuscle. Carcass composition Carcasscompositionisgenerallyofgreaterconcernforanimalandmeatscientistthanistheanimalstotal bodycomposition. Ofthecarcasscompositionalcomponents,theproportionsofmuscle,fatandboneareofgreatinterestwith regardtotheevaluationoflivestockproductionpractices. Whenthepercentageoffatincreases,boththepercentageofmuscleandboneplusthetendondecrease. Thesecompositionalcharacteristicsaffectcarcassvalueandareinfluencedbygeneticaswellas environmentalfactorsduringthegrowthanddevelopmentoftheanimal. 23|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

24|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Chemical composition of a typical animal muscle Sl. No. 1. 2. COMPONENT Water(range65to80) Protein(range16to22) MyofibrillarProteins Myosin Actin Tropomyosin Troponin Mprotein Cprotein aactinin bactinin SarcoplasmicProteins Solublesarcoplasmic&mitochondrialenzymes Myoglobin Hemoglobin Cytochromesandflavoproteins StromaorConnectiveTissueProteins Collagenandreticulin Elastin Otherinsolubleproteins Lipids(variablerange1.5to3.0) NeutralLipids(range0.5to1.5) Phospholipids Cerebrosides Cholesterol PERCENT(WETBASIS) 75.0 18.5 9.5 5.0 2.0 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 6.0 5.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 3.0 1.5 0.1 1.4 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5

3.

4.

1.5 NonproteinNitrogenousSubstances CreatineandCreatininephosphate 0.5 Nucleotides 0.3 o (Adenosinetriphosphate(ATP), o Adenosinediphosphate(ADP),etc.) 0.3 FreeAminoacids 0.1 o Peptides(Anserine,carnosine,etc.) Othernonproteinsubstances[Creatinine,urea,inosine monophosphate(IMP),nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide(NAD),nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide phosphate(NADP)] CarbohydratesandNonNitrogenousSubstances(range0.5to 1.5) Glycogen(variablerange0.5to1.3) Glucose Intermediatesandproductsofcellmetabolism(Hexose andtriosephosphates,lacticacid,citricacid,fumaric acid,succinicacid,acetoaceticacid,etc.) Inorganicconstituents 1.0 0.8 0.1 0.1

5.

6.

1.0 24|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

25|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Potassium Totalphosphorus(Phosphates&inorganicphosphorus) Sulphur(includingsulphate) Chlorine Sodium Others(Includingmagnesium,calcium,iron,cobalt, copper,zinc,nickel,manganese,etc.)

0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Nutritive value of meat

Meatisverynutritiousfood. Itisalmostfullydigestible. Itisappealingtotheeyesandpleasingtothesenseofolfaction. Thenutritivevalueofmeatisattributedtoitsabundanthighqualityproteins,essentialfattyacids,some importantmineralsandBcomplexgroupofvitamins.

Meat proteins Meatisaconcentratedsourceofproteins,whicharefarsuperiortotheplantproteinsduetoveryhigh biologicalvalue. Mostleanmeatcutscontain16.5to20%proteins. Theseproteinsarerichinessentialaminoacidssincethereisnoprovisioninthebodyforthesynthesisof theseaminoacidsandadeficientdietwillleadtoproteinmalnutrition. Infact,amongmeatproteins,myofibrillarandsarcoplasmicproteinsareofveryhighqualitybecausethey containenoughofessentialaminoacids. Connectivetissueproteinshavelowerlevelsoftryptophanandsulphurcontainingaminoacids. Collagenisessentiallypoorinlysinecontent. Meat fats Meatfatscontainampleamountofessentialfattyacids(EFA)andthenutritionaldemandofEFAhuman beingsiseasilymetbyintramuscularfatitself. Thecalorificvalueoffatinmeatisattributedtofattyacidsintriglycerides. Thenumberofcaloriesfromleanmeatisfrequentlylessthanthosederivedfromequalweightsofmany otherfoods. Infact,thecalorificvalueofparticularmeatdependsontheamountoffatinthemeatcuts. Themostimportantfattyacidinmeatfatisoleicacid(monounsaturatedFA)followedbypalmiticand stearicacids(saturatedFA). TheEFAinhumandietsarelinoleic,linolenic,andarachidonicacids. Porkandorganmeatsarerelativelygoodsourcesoflinoleicandlinolenicacids. Itmaybenotedthatexcessdietarylinoleicacidisconvertedtoarachidonicacidinhumanbodytomeetits demand. Thephospholipidsareessentialcomponentsofthecellwallaswellasmitochondriaandplayavitalrolein cellularmetabolism. Meatfatalwayscontainssomequantityofcholesterolandbloodcholesterollevelincreasesafteringestion ofcholesterolinfood. However,dietaryandserumcholesterolarenotdirectlyrelated. Organmeatshaveremarkablehighcholesterolcontentascomparedtoskeletalmeat. Minerals Ingeneral,meatisagoodsourceofallmineralsexceptcalcium. Themineralsareincloseassociationwithleantissuesinmeat. Ofthese,quantitativelypotassiumismostabundantfollowedbyphosphorus. Meatisagoodsourceofiron,whichisrequiredforthesynthesisofhaemoglobin,myoglobinandcertain enzymesandthusplaysavitalroleinmaintaininggoodhealth. 25|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

26|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Sincehumanbodyhasaverylimitedcapacitytostoreiron,mainlyinliver,ithastobeapartofregular dietaryintake. Meatprovidesthisimportantmineralinaformthatiseasilyabsorbedinthesystem. Vitamins LeanmeatisanexcellentsourceofBcomplexgroupofvitamins. Fatsolublevitaminfoundinmeatisassociatedwithbodyfat. VitaminCisalmostabsentinleanmeat,althoughcertainorganscontainitinminorquantities. AmongtheBcomplexgroupofvitaminsthiamine,riboflavinandniacinarepresentinhighconcentrations. ItmaybenotedthatporksurpassesseveralmeatswithregardtoBcomplexvitaminsareconcerned. Infact,leanporkhas510timesmorethiaminethanothermeats. Ithasbeennotedthatinmonogastricanimalslikepigs,intakeofvitaminsinfeedisdirectlyreflectedintheir tissues. Severalorganmeatshaveslightlylessproteinandfatthanskeletalmeats. However,thesearequiteoftenmoreeconomicalsourcesofproteinandvitaminsthanretailcutsofskeletal meats. Liverisarichsourceofiron,riboflavin,niacinandvitamin.

Fraudulent substitution of meat and its Recognition

Inthehandlingofmeatsandpreparationofmeatfoodproductsattemptsaresometimesmadetosubstitute meatoflesserqualityforthatofhigherqualitywiththeobjectofdeceivingpublicandgainmoreprofit. Thedifferentiationofthemuscleandfatofanimalsisofimportanceinconnectionwiththepossible substitutionofinferiorandattimesrepugnantmeatforthatofgoodquality. Thesubstitutionsthatmaybepracticedare,thatofhorsefleshforbeef,chevonformutton,muttonfor venison,beefformuttonandoccasionallythefleshofthecatforthatofhareorrabbit. Itisnotdifficulttodifferentiatethefleshandfatoftheseanimalsinthecarcassformorinjointsbymeansof anatomicalconfirmation. But,therecognitionofhorsefleshorothermeatsinmincedorinsausageformdependsontestsofchemical orbiologicalnature. Horsefleshpossesseshighcontentsofglycogenthanthatofotherfoodanimals. Glycogenusuallybeginstodisappearfromthemeatafterslaughter. So,theestimationofglycogenfrommeathastobeconductedimmediatelyafterslaughteranddressingof thefoodanimal. Theliverofanimals,particularlythepigandfleshoffetusescontainappreciablequantitiesofglycogen. Thusthereiseverychanceofmixinglivertoindicatehighlevelsofglycogen. Hence,theinterpretationoftheresultshouldbemadewithextremecaution. Thelevelofthemixingmayvaryfrom1to99%adulteration. Ifitis100%itissubstitution. Wecandifferentiateorrecognizethevarioustypesofmeatbeingsubstitutedasmentionedabove,bythree methods.Theyare o Physicalorphysiologicalmethods. o Chemicaltestsand o Biologicaltests Thesemethodsarefurtherclassifiedasfollows: o Physicalmethods Thisisbasedongeneralappearance,color,texture,odourandtendernessofdifferent speciesofmeat. Besidesthegeneralcharacteristicsofbodyfat,itscolor,marbling,firmnessoffatcanbe identified. Dentitionformula,vertebralformulaandarticulationpattern,ribnumberanddegreeof curvature,characteristicsoflongboneswillalsohelptoidentifythespeciesifthecarcassis intact. 26|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

27|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o ChemicalMethods Linoleicacidcontent Iodinevalue Refractiveindexoffat Meltingpointoffat Myoglobincontent o BiologicalMethods Electrophoreticmethod Immunologicalmethod Latesttechniques

Physical methods

Physicalmethodslikeanatomicaldifferencesofeachspeciesofthecarcassandappearanceofmuscleand fatcolor,odour,textureandtastehaveprovidedageneraldifferencebetweenspeciesinearlierdaysfor foodanalysis. So,thiscanbeattempted,providedthemeatsareintheformofjointsandincarcassform.

Carcassesofdifferentspeciesoffoodanimals Horse o Neckandthebonesoflimbsarelongerthantheox. o Sternumofhorseiscanoeshaped. o Nodiarthrodialjointbetweenthefirstandsecondsternalribs. o Thereare18pairsofribsandarenarrowerthanthoseofox. Bull o Theoutstandingcharacteristicinthebullcarcassisthemassivedevelopmentofthemusclesofthe neckandshoulderandalsointhehindquartersofthewellbredanimals. o Neckismuchthickerthanthatoftheox. o Ligamentumnuchaeisthickerandstrongerthaninox. o Anteriorpartoftheischiopubicsymphysisiswelldevelopedandformsadistincttubercle. o Inguinalcanalsarepatent. Ox o Showslessermusculardevelopmentthanthatofbullespeciallyintheneckandshoulderregion. o Thereisevencoveringoffatontheexterior. o Thescrotalfatisprominent,nodularandmoreorlesspointed.Pelvisisnarrowandusuallycontains arelativelylargequantityoffat. o Fatisusuallyplentifuloverthekidneysandalongthesublumbarregion. Cow o Thighislessroundedthanthatofox. o Thisisverynoticeableinthehindquarters(sunkenround). o Thepelvisisbroader.Anteriortubercularpelvisisbroader. o Udderispresent,ifremovedtriangularareaofattachmentisnoticeableoneachsideofmidlineof theabdominalwall. o Inheiferstheudderisonlyslightlydevelopedandconsistschieflyoffat. o Inoldcowstheudderissoft,spongy,roundandpendulous. Sheep o Thecarcassofsheep(whetherorewe)ischaracterizedbyanabundantandevendistributionof subcutaneousfat. o Thecarcassoframisdistinguishedbygreatmusculardevelopmentintheregionofneckand shoulders;theligamentumnuchaeislargeandstrong. o Theneckisthickandtheinguinalcanalsarepatent. Goat o Goatsarelongandlean. o Thereisverylittlesubcutaneousfat,kidneyfatabundanteveninpoorcarcasses. 27|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

28|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Subcutaneousconnectivetissueisstickyinnatureandduringskinningloosehairsfromtheskin becomeadherenttothesubcutaneoustissueandcannotberemovedcompletely. o Pelvisofgoatislongandnarrow. Hog o Carcassofpigcannoteasilybemistakenforthatofanyotheranimal. o Inmostcountriestheskinisleftonthecarcass. o Butevenwhentheskinisremovedthereshouldbenodifficultyinidentification. Differentiation of carcasses of food animals Differentiationofcarcassesofhorseandox Carcassofthehorseandoxmaybedifferentiatedbythefollowingdetails o Inthehorsetheunusuallengthofthesidesisnoticeable,togetherwiththegreatmuscular developmentofthehindquarters. o Thethoraciccavityislongerinthehorse;thisanimalpossesses18pairsofribs,whereastheoxhas 13pairs. o Theribsinthehorsearenarrowerbutmoremarkedlycurved. o Thesuperiorspinousprocessesofthefirstsixdorsalvertebraearemoremarkedlydevelopedinthe horseandarelessinclinedposterior. o Intheforequarter,theulnaofhorseextendsonlyhalfthelengthoftheradius;intheoxitis extendedandarticulateswiththecarpus. o Inthehindquarter,thefemuroftheoxpossessesnothirdtrochanter;thefibulaisonlyasmall pointedprojection,butinthehorseitextendstwothirdthelengthofthetibia. o Inthehorsethelastthreelumbartransverseprocessesarticulatewitheachother,thesixth articulatinginasimilarmannerwiththesacrum. o Theydonotarticulateintheox. o Thehorsecarcassshowsconsiderabledevelopmentofsoftyellowfatbeneaththeperitoneum, especiallyinthegeldingandmare,butinthestallionthefatisgenerallyofalightercolorandalmost white.Intheoxthekidneyfatisalwaysfirmer,whiterandmoreabundantthaninthehorse. o Horsefleshisadarkred,initiallybrownorreddishbrownonexposuretoatmospherethecolorturns bluish. o Marblingisabsentinhorsemeat;itisfirmbutstickyinnatureduetohighglycogencontent. o Horsemeathasapronouncedsweettaste,repulsiveodourandwelldefinedmusclefiber. o Beeflackthebluishtinge. Differentiationofcarcassesofsheepandgoat Features Backand withers Thorax Tail Radius Scapula Sacrum Flesh Sheep Roundandwellfleshed Barrelshaped Fairlybroad 1.25timeslengthofmetacarpus Goat Sharp,littlefleshed Flattenedlaterally Thin Twiceaslongasmetacarpus

Shortanbroad,superiorspine,bent Possessdistinctneck.Spinestraightandnarrow,lateralborder backandthickened thinandsharp Lateralbordersthickenedinthe formofrolls Paleredandfineintexture Sharp Darkredandcoursewithgoatyodour.Stickysubcutaneous tissue,whichmayhaveadherentgoathairs.

Sheep,GoatandDeer 28|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

29|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Amongthesecarcasses,indeer,thescapulasacromioniselongatedintoasharppoint,whichisdirected ventrally. Theacromionisabsentinthesheepandgoatorisconsiderablysmaller. Theradioulnaarch,whichformsanovalopeninginthesheepandgoat,isverylongindeer. Indeer,thesubcutaneouslayeroffatisnotaswelldevelopedasinsheep. Themeatispoorinfatandpossessestheodourofvenison,whichiseasilydistinguishablefromtheodourof sheep. HogandDog Thecolorofdogmeatisverydarkerthanporkandiseasilymadeoutincookedmeat. Themusclesofthedogaresearierandthefatisoilierthanhogfat. Theodourofthedogmeatisrepulsive. CatandRabbit Themeatofthecatispalerthanrabbitmeat. Thefatofthecatappearswhitishincontrasttorabbitfat,whichishoneyyellow. MeatandFatofSheepandDog Themeatandfatofsheepanddogareindistinguishablebythenakedeyeandthecarcassesoflargedogs aresometimessubstitutedformutton. Theribsandsternumofthesheeparebroadandflat,whilethoseofthedogsareroundinsection. Inthehindleg,thesheephasonlyonebone,thetibiaarticulatingwiththetarsaljoint,whilethedoghas bothtibiaandfibula. Thesheephastriangularscapulawithabroad,prolongingcartilageandtheradiusandulnaliesclose togetherfortheirwholelength,whilethescapulaofthedoghasasemicircularposteriorupperedgewith practicallynoprolongingcartilageandtheradiusandulnaarewidelyseparatedalongthegreaterpartof theirshafts. Thexiphoidcartilageinsheepisfirmandgrisly,whileinthedog,itissofterandflorousandshapedlikea dagger. CattleandBuffalo Generallyfreshbuffalomeatisdarker(morereddishbrown)andthefibersarecoarserandlooserin structurethanbeef. Theodourofthebuffalomeatandfatarealwaysstrikinglymuskyandifboiledinstrongacidified(H2SO4) water,itdevelopsadisagreeableodoursimilartothatofcattlemanure. Thecutaneousshouldermuscleofbuffaloisonly3to4fingerbroad,whilethatofcattleitisconsiderably broader. Thefatofbuffaloisstrikinglywhiteanddrierandlessstickythanincattle. Theconfirmationofthebonesofthebuffaloisgenerallythinnerandthebonesareverybrittle. Theischiopubicsymphysisofthebuffaloisstrikinglyplaned. Characteristics of meat Horsemeat Themeatofhorseisdarkredincolor,onexposuretoairacquiresabluishtingeorshieldonthesurfaceand laterbecomeverydark. Odourispeculiarsweetandtomostpeoplemoreorlessrepulsive.Horsefleshcontainslargequantitiesof glycogen(2%). Fatisyelloworbrownishyellowincolorandowingtoitshigholeincontentitissoftandgreasy. Beef Thecolorofbeefvariesfromlightredtodarkredaccordingtotheageandthepartofthecarcassfrom whichitwascollected. Themeatismoist,silkytothetouchandismarbledwithfat. Fatisfineusuallycreamywhiteoryellowishwhiteincolor. Inoldcattlethefattendstobemoreyellowandsomewhatlooseninconsistency. InJerseyandGuernseyfatispronouncedyellowcolor. 29|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

30|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Meatofheifercloselyresemblesthatofyoungox. Themeatofoldcowisnotmarbledandtendstobelean,dryandsomewhatcoarse. However,themeatandfatofolddairycowsareoftenrelativelymoist. Thevealispaleorgrayishredincolor. Notveryfirmunderpressureoffingers.Fibersaretough. Mutton Themeatofwetherorewevariesincolorfromlightredthroughbrownishredtodarkred. Accordingtotheageoftheanimalandtothepartofthecarcassthefibersarefine,denseandfirm. Marblingwithfatispracticallyabsent. Thefatiswhite,veryfirmandodourless. Goatmeat/Chevon Chevonisnotmarbledandbearsafairlycloseresemblancetothatofsheep. Themeatofuncastratedadultgoathasagoatyodour. Pig Themeatofpigvariesincoloraccordingtotheageandnutritiveconditionoftheanimalandalsoaccording tothebodyregionfromwhichitisderived. Itmaybepalered,reddishgray;rosered,darkredorincertainpartsmaybealmostcolourless. Itisfewerfirmstothetouchthanotherfoodanimals. Thefibersarefine,fatiswhite,softandgreasy. Characteristics of fat S.No Species 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Cow Bull;heifer Calf Buffalo Colour Yellow Yellowishwhite Consistency Fairlyfirm Firm

Whiteorgrayishwhite Softandgelatinous Strikinglywhite Fairlyfirm Typicallycrispyinsheep.Veryfirm. Fairlyfirm,greasyandnotcrispy Softandgreasy

Sheep;Goat Verywhite Pig Horse Generouslywhite Yellowishwhite

Chemical methods
Thechemicaltestsconsistofthedeterminationof o thecontentofglycogeninflesh o thepercentageoflinoleicacidinfat o themeltingpointoffat o theamountofiodineabsorbedbyunsaturatedfattyacidsinfatand o therefractiveindexoffat. TestforGlycogenContentofMeat Thehorsefleshisricherthanthefleshofotherfoodanimalsinglycogeninhorsemeatascomparedwith otherkindsofmeat,glycogenisfoundinlargequantitiesirrespectiveofage. o Horse0.5to1.0% o Beef0.0to0.5% o Porkandmuttonnil Disadvantages o Thefleshshouldbetestedforthecontentofglycogensoonaftertheslaughterasitdisappearsfrom thefleshquickly. 30|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

31|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Liverofallfoodanimalsespeciallypiglivercontainsmoreglycogenwhentheyareusedinsausage makingitgivesahighpercentage.Socaremustbetakenininterpretationofresults. Linoleicacidcontent Horsefatcontains12%linoleicacid.Linoleicacidcontentinotheranimals'fatisnotmorethan0.1%. Thusadulterationoflardorbeefandmuttonfatwithhorsefatcanbeidentifiedbyestimationofthelinoleic acidconcentration. Iodinevalue Estimationofiodinevalueisavaluabletestforthedetectionofhorsefat. Iodinevalueistheamountofiodineabsorbedbytheunsaturatedfattyacidpresentinthefat. Goodlardhasaniodinevalueof66. Theiodinevalueofthefatfromvariousfoodanimalsis: o Horse7186 o Ox(cattle)3846 o Sheep3546 o Pig5070 Refractiveindex Refractiveindexisanothervaluabletestforthedetectionoffatofdifferentanimalspecies. Fatisliquefiedbyheatandconvertedintooilforestimationofrefractiveindex. Allliquidsincludingoilspossessaspecificrefractiveindex. o Horse53.5 o Oxlessthan40 o Pignotabove51.9 MeltingPoint Themeltingpointoffatvarieswiththespeciesoffoodanimalsandthekindoffeedfedtotheanimal. Therangeofmeltingpointsoffatis Myoglobincontent Themyoglobincontentofdifferentspeciesis: o Beef0.30to1% o Pork0.06to0.40% o Poultry0.02to0.18% Otherchemicaltestsfordifferentiationofdifferentmeatspeciesare: Estimationofmusclenitrogenfraction Myoglobincontent Muscleenzymes Compositionoffat Carotenecontent Fattyacidcomposition

Electrophoretic methods

Thevariouselectrophoreticmethodsinclude o Agargelelectrophoresis o Starchgelelectrophoresis o Polyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis o Sodiumdodecylsulfatepolyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis o Isoelectricfocussing Agargelelectrophoresis o Electrophoreticseparationofproteinsonthebasisofmobilityofproteinsinasupportinggelof agaroseataconstantpHandelectricalfieldistermedasAgargelelectrophoresis. CounterImmunoElectrophoresis(CIE) o Theprincipleofthistechniqueisverysimilartoagargelimmunodiffusion. o Thediffusionofantigenandantibodyisfacilitatedbytheapplicationofalowvoltagecurrent. Further,theendosmosiscreatedbytheagargelchangesthechargeofgglobulinsandmovesthem towardscathode. 31|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

32|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Themeatproteinsmovingtowardsanodeprovideimmunoprecipitatewithhomologousgglobulin atthepointofequivalence. Polyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis(PAGE) o Polyacrylamidegelsarepreparedusingacrylamideandbiswhichprovidescrosslinkingbetweenthe polymerizedlongchainsofacrylamide. o Theseparationofproteinsonthebasisoftheirmobilityinapolyacrylamidegeliscomparatively bettersincetheresolutionofdifferentproteinsareoptimum.Polyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis alsorequiresaconstantpHandelectricalfieldtoprovidehighresolutionofprotein. Isoelectricfocussing(IEF) o Itisanelectrophoretictechniquewhichutilizesthechargeatthesurfaceoftheproteintodriveit throughagradientgel. o ThepHgradientissetupbypolyacrylamidecompounds,theampholytes. o Theproteinsappliedontothegelreachapointwherethesurfacechargesbecomesneutralattheir isoelectricpoint

Immunological methods

Immunologicalmethodsinclude o Tubeprecipitintest o Haemagglutinationtest(HAT) o Complementfixationtest(CFT) o Agargelimmunodiffusiontest(AGID) o Drydiscimmunodiffusiontest o Enzymelinkedimmunosorbentassay(ELISA)

AgarGelImmunoDiffusionTest(AGID) Basedonasimpledoublediffusionmethod(Ouchterlony,1948).Speciesspecificantiserum(antibody)and unidentifiedmeatextract(antigen)areallowedtodiffusetowardsoneanotherinanagargelslab.Ifthe antigenandantibodyarehomologousaprecipitinbandisformedalongthelinewherethetwomeet. EnzymeLinkedImmunoSorbentAssay(ELISA) Thetechniqueinvolvestheapplicationofspeciesspecificantibodiestotheproteins(antigen)coatedonthe plasticsurfaceofmicrotitreplate. Therecognitionofantigenresultsintheformationofantigenantibodycomplex,whicharedetectedby eitherenzymelinkedimmunoglobulinorproteinA(antibodydetector)producingvisiblecolourreactionwith addedsubstrate. ThecolourintensityismeasuredobjectivelyataspecificwavelengthinamicroELISAreaderasabsorbance value. Recenttechniquesinmeatspeciesidentificationinclude ProductionofmonoclonalantibodiesandapplicationofELISA. UseofDNAprobesandapplicationofDNAhybridizationtechnique. UseofPolymeraseChainReaction(PCR)inspeciesidentification.

Recent techniques in meat species identification

Recenttechniquesinmeatspeciesidentificationinclude o ProductionofmonoclonalantibodiesandapplicationofELISA. o UseofDNAprobesandapplicationofDNAhybridizationtechnique. o UseofPolymeraseChainReaction(PCR)inspeciesidentification

32|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

33|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Preservation of Meat
Principles of preservation
History of preservation of food Someoftheimportanteventsinthehistoryoffoodpreservationarelistedbelowchronologically 1782ASwedishChemistintroducedcanningofvinegar. 1810PreservationoffoodbycanningwaspatentedbyAppert. 1813TheuseofSulphurdioxideasameatpreservativeisbelievedtohaveoriginatedaroundthetime. 1820W.UnderwoodandT.KensettbeganthecommercialproductionofcannedfoodsintheUnited States. 1835ApatentwasgrantedtoNewtoninEnglandformanufacturingcondensedmilk. 1837Winslowwasthefirsttocancornonthecob. 1840Fishandfruitswerecanned. 1842ApatentwasissuedtoH.BenjamininEnglandforfreezingfoodsbyimmersioninsaltandice. 1843I.Winslowwasthefirsttoattemptsterilisationbysteam. 1854Pasteurbeganwideinvestigations. 1855GrimwadeofEnglandwasthefirsttoproducepowderedmilk. 1856ApatentforthemanufactureofunsweetenedcondensedmilkwasgrantedtoGailBordenintheU.S. 1865TheartificialfreezingoffishonacommercialscalebeganintheUnitedStates. 1874ThefirstsuccessfulcargooffrozenmeatwentfromAustraliatoEngland.ThefirstfromNewZealand toEnglandwassentin1882.Thefirstextensiveuseoficeintransportingmeatatseabegan. 1882Krukowitschwasthefirsttonotethedestructiveeffectsofozoneonspoilagebacteria. 1886AmericanscientistA.P.Spawncarriedoutamechanicalprocessofdryingfruitandvegetables. 1887Maltedmilkappearedfirst. 1888ThepasteurisationofmilkbeganinGermany. 1889TheartificialfreezingofeggsbeganintheU.S. 1890CommercialpasteurisationbeganaroundthistimeintheUnitedStates.Mechanicalrefrigerationfor fruitstoragebeganaroundthistimeinChicago. 1893H.I.CourtbeganacertifiedmilkmovementinNewJersey. 1895Russellcarriedoutthefirstbacteriologicalstudyincanningoffoods. 1908SodiumbenzoatewasgivenofficialsanctionaspreservativeincertainU.Sfoods. 1916R.Plank,P.EhranbaumandK.ReuterachievedthequickfreezingoffoodsinGermany. 1917CharanceBirdseyeofTheU.Sbeganworkonthefreezingoffoodsfortheretailtrade. 1923Heatprocesscalculationswereintroducedinthecanningindustry. 1928InFranceapatentwasissuedtotheuseofhighenergyradiationforprocessingoffoods. 1929Birdseyeplacedfrozenfoodsintheretailmarkets. 1943B.E.ProctoroftheU.Swasthefirsttoemploytheuseofionizingradiationtopreservehamburger meat. 1954NissinabacteriocinwaspermittedinEnglandforuseincertainprocessedfoodstocontrolclostridium defects. 1955Sorbicacidwasapprovedforuseasafoodpreservative. Chlortetracyclineanantibioticwasapprovedfortheuseinfreshpoultryfollowedthenextyear1956. 1956Oxytetracyclineanotherantibioticwasapprovedfortheuseinfreshpoultry. 1967ThefirstcommercialfacilitydesignedtoirradiatefoodswasplannedanddesignedintheUnited States. Factors influencing growth of microorganisms Thegrowthofmicroorganismsinfoodisaffectedbyafewinherentcharacteristicsofthefood,referredtoas intrinsicparameters,andalsobytheconditionsofenvironmentinwhichthefoodisstoredorheldreferred toasextrinsicparameters. Intrinsicparametersthataffectmicrobialgrowth 33|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

34|U R V I S H M I S T R Y pHofthefoodMostmicroorganismsgrowwellatapHofaround7(6.67.5),whileonlyfewofthemgrow atpHbelow4.Bacteriaaremoresensitivetophrequirementsincomparisontoyeastandmoulds,which managetogrowacrossapHrangeof011. MoisturecontentItiscommonknowledgethatdryingoffoodenhancesitsshelflife.Thewater requirementofmicroorganismsisgenerallydescribedthewateractivity(aw)ofthefood.Wateractivityis theratioofthevapourpressureofthefoodsubstancetothevapourpressureofpurewater.Mostspoilage andpathogenicbacteriainmeatrequireawateractivityinequaltomorethan0.9,andthemosttolerant bacteriaisStaphylococcusaureuswhichcontinuestogrowataawof0.86.Mostspoilageyeastsrequireaaw of0.88,whilespoilagemouldsmanagetogrowataawof0.80.Iffoodsaredriedtoafinalawof0.60or lesser,theproductbecomesshelfstable. Oxidationreductionpotential(Eh),whichistheeaseatwhichasubstrategainsorloseselectrons,where gaininganelectronisreferredtoasreduction,andlosinganelectronisknownasoxidation.Aerobesrequire oxidizedconditionsforgrowth(apositiveEhvalue),whileanaerobesrequirereducedconditionforgrowth (anegativeEhvalue).Microaerophiles,requireslightlyreducedconditionswhereasfacultativeanaerobes growinbothreducedandoxidizedconditions. NutrientcontentMicrobesrequirethefollowinginadequateamountsfortheirnormalgrowth: o Asourceofenergy o Asourceofnitrogen o Vitaminsandrelatedgrowthfactorsand o Minerals. Antimicrobialconstituentsinfoodaccordprotectionforfoodsagainstmicrobialgrowth.Examplesofsuch substancesincludeeugenolincloves,alliciningarlic,allylisothiocyanateinmustard,cinnamicaldehydeand eugenolincinnamonandlactoferrin,conglutininandLactoperoxidasesysteminmilk. BiologicalstructuresCertainbiologicalstructuressuchasrindoffruits,shellofnutsandfasciaincarcasses accordsprotectionagainstmicrobialinvasiontoacertaindegree. Extrinsicparametersthataffectmicrobialgrowth TemperatureofstorageMostmicroorganismsinfoodaremesophiles,whichgrowwellattemperatures between30400C,whilesomeofthemoptimallyneedatemperaturerangeof20300C,butgrowwellat 70Corbelowandareknownaspsychrotrophs.Somemicroorganismsoptimallyneedatemperaturerangeof 55650C,butgrowwellat450Coraboveandarereferredtoasthermophiles. GasesintheenvironmentItiscommonknowledgethatoxygenisrequiredforaerobesandanaerobesdo wellintheabsenceofoxygen. RelativehumidityRelativehumidityhasaroletoplayinbothsurfacespoilageaswellasdeepseated spoilage. Principles of food preservation Foodmaybepreservedbyadoptinganyofthefollowingmeasures: Preservationordelayofmicrobialdecomposition o Bykeepingoutmicroorganisms(asepsis) o Byremovalofmicroorganismse.g.byfiltration. o Byhinderingthegrowthandactivityofmicroorganismse.g.bylowtemperature,drying,anaerobic conditionsorchemicals. o Bykillingthemicroorganismse.g.byheatingorirradiation. Preservationordelayofselfdecompositionofthefood o Bydestructionorinactivationoffoodenzymese.g.byblanching. o Bypreventionordelayorpurelychemicalreactionse.g.preventionofoxidationbymeansofan antioxidant. Preventionofdamagebecauseofinsects,animals,mechanicalcauses,etc. o Themethodsusedtocontroltheactivitiesofthemicroorganismsusuallyareeffectiveagainst enzymaticactivityinthefoodorchemicalreactions. o Methodslikedryingoruseoflowtemperature,however,permitautodecompositiontocontinue unlessspecialprecautionsaretaken. 34|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

35|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Forexample,mostvegetablesareblanched(heated)toinactivatetheirenzymesbeforebeing frozen. Delayofmicrobialdecomposition Mostofthecommonlyemployedmethodsoffoodpreservationdependnotonthedestructionorremoval ofmicroorganisms,butratherondelayintheinitiationofgrowthandhindrancetogrowth,onceithas begun. Themainfactorsofimportanceforbacterialgrowthinoronmeatarethetemperature,relativehumidity, wateractivity,oxygenavailabilityandthepHofthemicrobialenvironment. Growthcurveofmicroorganisms

Generationtime Itisthetimethatelapsesbetweentheformationofadaughtercellanditsdivisionintotwonewcells. Thegenerationtimeshortenasconditionsbecomemorefavorableandlengthen,astheybecomeless favorable. Preservation of meat Preservationoffoodhasbeenpractisedsincetimeimmemorialandwasoriginallyadoptedbymankindto maintainacontinuoussupplyoffoodthroughoutayear. Mankindbegantopreservefoodintimesofplenty,totideoverscarcityoffood. Theprimarypurposeoffoodpreservationistopreventfoodspoilage.Theprimarycauseofspoilageisthe actionofmicroorganismssuchasbacteria,mouldsoryeasts,aidedbyenzymes. Microorganismscansurviveanddeveloponlyunderparticularmicroenvironments;theydieorfail tomultiplyunderunfavourableconditions. Thepreservationofredmeat,poultryandtheirproductsisaccomplishedbyensuringthattheirimmediate microenvironmentisunfavourableforthegrowthofspoilageorganisms(bacteria,yeasts,mouldsand parasites),andalsobycontrollingtheactionofautolyticenzymesandpreventingthechemicaloxidationof lipids,whichleadstorancidity. Preservationofmeatwasinitiatedbydryingmeateitherinthesunorbyfire. Mostoftheprocessedmeatsavailabletodayoriginatedfromtechniquesthatweredevelopedtoextendthe lengthoftimebetweentheslaughteroftheanimalandtheconsumptionofthemeatderivedfromthe animals. Classification of preservation of meat methods Themethodsofpreservationofmeatcanalsobeclassifiedasfollows PreservationbyMoistureControl o Drying o IntermediateMoistureFoods o FreezeDryingorLyophilisation o Salting o Curingandsmoking PreservationbyTemperatureControl 35|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

36|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o PreservationbyLowTemperature o Chilling o Freezing o PreservationbyHighTemperature o Canning o RetortProcessing PreservationbyDirectMicrobialInhibition o Irradiation o Antibiotics o Chemicals Points for consideration for choosing a methods of preservation Preservationoffoodmostofteninvolvesapplicationofmeasurestodelayorpreventcertainchangeswhich makemeatunusableasafoodorwhichdowngradesomequalityaspectofit. Theerareseveralprocessesbywhichsuchdeteriorationcanoccurareandtheyincludemicrobial,chemical andphysicalprocesses. Mostoftheedibletissuesofthehealthyanimalatthetimeofslaughterareeithersterileorcontainfew microorganisms,owingtotheseverallevelofdefenceinplaceagainstmicrobialinvasion Unfortunately,theseefficientdefencemechanismsarenullifiedatthetimeofanimalsdeath. Themomentarystateofshockconcomitantwithexsanguinationprobablyfacilitatesbacterialinvasionfrom theintestinaltract. Theslaughteringoperationcontaminatesthevascularsystemwithnumerousmicroorganismsthat maydisseminatethroughthebodybeforebleedinghasbeencompleted. Bleedinglargelydepletesthebodyofthecirculatingantibodiesandleucocytes.Therefore,asudden cessationofthebodysdefenceagainstmicrobialinvasionandasaconsequencegrowthofforeignmicro organismsaccompanythedeathofthemeatanimal. Thereappeartobenoresidualbacteriostaticorbactericidalpropertiesinthetissuesofthefreshly slaughteredanimal. FreshmeatishighlyperishablebecauseofalmostneutralpH(lowacidfood),highmoisturecontentand beingrichinallthenutrientsrequiredformicrobialgrowth. Curedandprocessedmeatsaregenerallymorestablethanfreshmeatswithrespecttomicrobial deteriorationbecauseofadditivessuchassaltormoisturereduction(asinthecasewithdrysausages)ora combinationoftheseagents. Thewidespreadavailabilityofrefrigerationhasdecreasedtheneedtorelyoncuringandprocessing,for example,saltlevelshavebeenreducedtomeetpalatabilityandconsumerhealthconsiderations. Duetothegreatermicrobialstabilityofsuchproducts,theotherdeteriorativeprocessescanbeofgreater significanceinthem. Forexample,thecolourdeteriorationthroughchemicalchangesundersomeconditionsmightposeaserious problem. Importantadvancesinpreservationhaveresultedthroughapplicationofappropriatepackagingmaterials andmethods. Itisessentialthatinevaluatingamethodofpreservationcriteriaotherthanthatofmerelypreventing spoilageofmeatmustbeconsidered. Attentionmustbegivento o Theeffectofthemethodonproductquality o Anyhealthhazardsinvolvedforeitherthefoodhandlerortheconsumer o Possiblemisuseofthemethod o Distributionandmarketingproblems o Engineeringandevaluationofeconomicsofthemethodscommercialapplication. Therecognizedmethodsbywhichmeatfoodsmaybepreservedare o Drying, o Saltingcuring, o ApplicationoflowtemperatureChilling/coldandFreezing 36|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

37|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o ApplicationofhightemperatureThermalProcessing o BytheusageofChemicals,Antibiotics,etc. o RadiationIonizingradiations.

Preservation by control of moisture

Drying Atpresentdryingplaysonlyaminorroleinpreservationofmeatonacommercialscale. However,afewtraditionaldriedmeatproductsstillenjoyanichemarketinwhichtheyareconsidered delicacies,andthefollowingproductsarestillbeingproducedcommercially. Jerkedbeef InSouthAmericathedriedmeatisknownasJerkedbeef,whichispreparedbycuttingbeefintostripsand driedrapidlyintheair. Pemmican InNorthAmericathedriedproductisknownasPemmican,whichismadefromvenison,fishorbeef. Inthismethodthemeatissmokedbeforedryingandthenpulverizedandequalamountoffatisadded. Biltong InSouthAfricathecommondriedmeatispopularlyknownasBiltong,whichispreparedmainlyfrombeef andalsofromfleshofgameanimals(antelope)andsometimesfromZebraandOstrich. Biltongisnotheatedduringprocessingorbeforeconsumption.Itiseatenrawandconsideredadelicacy. Thefinestbiltongwiththebestflavourismadefromthesirloinstripandthemosttenderisderivedfromthe fillet. Charque AnumberofFrigorificosinUruguayandBrazilthedriedmeatproductiscalledasCharque,whichis preparedbysaltingandsundryingoftheriblessforequartersofbeef. Charquekeepswellformonthsunderambientroomconditionsandisresistanttoinfestationbyinsectsand growthofmoulds. Uppukandam InIndiaespeciallyinTamilNaduthedriedmeatispopularlyknownasUppukandam,whichispreparedform saltedandsundriedmuttonand/orgoatmeat(chevon). Odka InSomaliaandotherEastAfricancountriesasundriedmeatproductknownasOdkaismadeofleanbeef. Bigmeatstripsarecutanddrysaltingisusuallyapplied. Odkaisstoredbycoveringwithoilandkeptinanairtightcontainer,whichhasashelflifeofmorethan12 months. Qwanta InEthiopiaandotherEastAfricancountriesdriedmeatmanufacturedfromleanbeefisknownasQwanta. Kilishi InNigeriaandsomeoftheWestAfricancountriesthedriedmeatobtainedfromslicedleanbeef,goatmeat orlambiscalledasKilishi. Pastirma InTurkey,EgyptandArmeniasaltedanddriedbeeffromnottooyounganimalsisknownasPastirma. Thishasabettermicrobiologicalstabilitythanbiltong. Freeze drying or lyophilization Thisistheprocessofremovingwaterfromfrozenfoods. Theremovalofwaterisaccomplishedbysublimation,i.ethewaterinthefrozenmeatevaporateswithout meltingofice. Frozenmeatissubjectedtocontrolledvacuumandtemperatureconditionstoaccomplishtheremovalof water,bysublimation. Thefoodproductmustbeincomminutedform(slicedordiced)andpackagingmustbecompletelymoisture proofsince,thedriedproductsarehygroscopic. Thisprocesscanpreservebeef,pork,chickenandshellfish. 37|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

38|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Wholesteaksandchopscanbefreezedried. Since,meathashighmoisturecontent,itisexpensivetopreservemeatbylyophilization. Theadvantagesoflyophilizationareshrinkageanddistortionofshapeareveryminimal,andretentionof flavourandnutritionisexcellent. Intermediate moisture meat products Sundryingofmeatwasoneoftheearliestpreservativetechniquesusedbyman. Suchmeathadmeagerdehydrationcapacityresultinginpoorjuicinessandtexture. Laterstudiesrevealedthatmeatproductswith2050%moisturehadmoderatejuicinessandtextureon rehydration. Suchproductswereresistanttobacteriologicalspoilageandcouldbeheldwithoutrefrigeration. TheseproductswerereferredasIntermediateMoistureMeats(IMM). Thebasicreasonforthestabilityoftheseproductslayinthereducedavailabilityofwatertothe microorganisms. Sincewateractivitygenerallyremainsintherangeof0.6to0.85. Thesesemimoistmeatsareofspecialsignificancetothedevelopingcountrieswhererefrigerationfacilities arenotalwaysavailable. Suchproductscanbeeasilycarriedindefenseexpeditionsandstresssituationslikefloods,famines,for airdrop,etc. Humectants Variousadditivesemployedforloweringthewateractivityoffoodsareknownashumectants. Someofthemostcommonlyusedhumectantsare: o Glycerol o Propyleneglycol o Sodiumchloride o Polyhydricalcohols(e.g.sorbitol) o Sugars(e.g.sucrose,dextrose,cornsyrupetc) Thehumectantsaregenerallylowmolecularweightcompounds,whichareeasilysolubleinwater. Thesearechemicallyinertanddonotmodifythenormalsensoryqualitiesoftheproduct. Besides,thesecompoundsareedibleinlargequantitieswithoutanyadverseeffect. Inadditiontohumectants,useofantimycoticagentslikepotassiumsorbate,sodiumbenzoate,propylene glycoletc.isamustinthesemimoistmeatsbecause0.6to0.85wateractivityrangesspecificallypermits thegrowthofmoulds. Basicprocessingtechniques Moistinfusionordesorption Itinvolvessoakingand/orcookingofmeatchunksorcubestoyieldafinalproducthavingdesiredwater activitylevel, E.g.sweetandsourpork,Hungariangoulashetc. Dryinfusionoradsorption Itinvolvesinitialdehydrationofmeatchunksorcubesfollowedbysoakinginaninfusionsolutioncontaining desiredosmoticagents. E.g.readytoeatcubesofroastpork,chickenalaking,etc. Componentblending Inthisprocessdryandwetingredientsorcomponentsareblended,cookedandextrudedorotherwise mixedtogiveafinalproductofdesiredwateractivity. Whateverprocessisadopted,thethumbrulesforthepreparationofIMMare: Reductionofwateractivitybyadditionofhumectants, Retardationofmicrobialgrowthbyadditionofantimicrobialespeciallyantimycoticagentsand Improvementofsensorypropertiessuchasflavourandtexturethroughphysicalandchemicaltreatments. CompositionofinfusionsolutiondevelopedbyBrockmann(1970)forthepreparationofsweetandsourpork (aw=0.85)isgivenbelowtogiveanideaaboutthebalancingofvariousadditives: Ingredients Percentage 38|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

39|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Glycerol Catsup Water Vinegar Sucrose Starchhydrolysate Salt Cornstarch 25.0 23.55 15.00 13.50 11.84 14.50 2.59 2.30

Monosodiumglutamate 1.15 Potassiumsorbate Mustardpowder Onionpowder Garlicpowder 0.30 0.24 0.02 0.01

Stabilityofintermediatemoisturemeats IMFproductsarefairlystableatambienttemperatureforseveralweeksorevenmonths. However,prolongedstoragemayresultinsomequalitydeteriorationduetothefollowingreasons: Limitedbreakdownofbothmyofibrillarandsarcoplasmicproteins. Collagenbeingmoresusceptibletodegenerationresultsinmorehydroxyprolineformation. Degradationofhaemoprotein(myoglobinandhaemoglobin)causinglossofcolour Developmentofrancidity Nonenzymaticbrowningresultinginlossofcolour,consumerappeal,nutritivevalueandpossiblyoffflavour Formationoflipidproteincrosslinkscausingdecreasedwaterbindingcapacityandnetproteinutilisationof meatproducts. Salting and pickling Salting,averyancientmethodofpreservationistheprocessofapplyingdrysaltonthesurfaceofmeatand rubbingittoextendtheshelflifeofmeat. Insaltedmeat,drysaltisappliedtothemeatwhichdissolvesinthemeatfluidnearthesurfaceandfurther withdrawsfluidfromthemeatformingahypertonicsolution. Itthenpassesslowlyinward,dissolvesthroughoutthemeatsubstance,untiltheconcentrationofsaltis approximatelythesamethroughoutthemeatsubstance Thussalthasnoharmfuleffectsonthebacteriabutactbyextractionofwaterfromthemeat,byexertinga strongosmoticpressure,causingadryingeffectandrenderingwaternonavailabletobacteria. Higherconcentrationofsaltgivesgreaterpreservativeaction.Theprincipleinvolvedinapplyingsaltis dehydrationandgermicidal. Mostofnonmarinebacteriacanbeinhibitedby20%orlesssodiumchloride,whilesomemouldsgenerally toleratehigherlevels. Organismsthatcangrowinthepresenceofandrequirehighconcentrationsofsaltbetermedashalophiles, while,thosethatcanwithstandbutnotgrowinhigherconcentrationaretermedashalodurics. Incuringhalophilesareallowedtogrowandhaloduricsarekeptatlowlevels. Thedifferenceinthegrowthrateofthesetwokindsofbacteriaistakenadvantageofinthecuringofmeats. 39|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

40|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Saltedmeatisdifferentfromcuredmeat(ExampleHam,Bacon,Cornedbeef,etc.,).Incuring,sugarand othersaltssuchassodiunnitrate/nitriteareaddedeitherasadrycureorasbrinesolution. Parasiticcysts,cysticerci,inmeatarefairlyrapidlydestroyed,whentheratioofthesalttomoistureinthe meatisnotmorethan1:4.Atthatconcentrationthecysticerciareviableafter16hoursbut50%are destroyedafter90hoursandallarerenderednonviableafter136hours. Thedestructionofparasiticcystsinbiltongmaythereforebeensuredbysubmittingthebiltongtoan adequatesaltconcentrationfollowedbyaholdingperiodofnotlessthan6days. Curing Curingmaybedefinedastheadditionofsalt(Sodiumchloride),sugarandnitrateornitritetothemeat, whichresultsinconversionofthemeatpigmentsintothecharacteristiccuredmeatpigmentsimpartingthe characteristiccuredmeatcolourandproductionofcharacteristicmeatflavour. Theprocessofmeatcuringiscurrentlyvaluedasameansofimpartingorganolepticqualitiestothecured products,thoughitoriginallywasintroducedasameansofpreservingmeat. Duetotheadventofefficientandwidespreadrefrigerationtheneedforpreservingmeatbycuringalonehas reduced. Apartfromchacteristiccolourandflavour,themeatpackingindustryisconcernedwiththefollowing attributesalso: Preservation, Tendernessand Yield. CuringIngredients o Sodiumchloride o Sodiumorpotassiumnitrate o Sodiumnitrite o Monosodiumglutamate o Sugar o Aceticacid o Vinegarand o Spices ActionofCuringIngredients Salt o Saltactsbydehydrationandalterationofosmoticpressuresothatitinhibitsbacterialgrowthand subsequentspoilage. o Itionizestoyieldthechlorine,whichisharmfultotheorganisms. o ItsensitizesthecellsagainstCO2. o Itinterfereswiththeproteolyticenzymeaction. o Theeffectivenessofsodiumchloridevariesdirectlywithitsconcentrationandstoragetemperature. o Anacceptablelevelofsaltsinhamshasbeenreportedtobeabout3%andabout2%forbacon. Sugar o Sugarsoftenstheproductsbycounteractingtheharshandhardeningeffectsofsalt. o Itinteractswithaminogroupsoftheproteinsanduponcooking,formsbrowningoftheproducts, whichenhancestheflavourofthecuredmeats. o Sugarsubstituteshavebeenusedinbaconcurestopreventexcessivebrowningduringcooking. o Itactsasapreservativebydehydration. NitratesandNitrites o Nitratesandnitritesbringaboutthedesiredpinkcolourdevelopmentnitrosylhemochromes. o Bothnitratesandnitritesareusedwherenitratesactasareservoirfornitrites. o Nitrateraisetheoxidationreductionpotentialandthereforearemorefavourabletoaerobicthan anaerobicorganisms. o Theyinhibitthegrowthoffoodpoisoningandspoilageorganisms.Ithasbeenclearlydemonstrated thatnitriteiseffectiveinpreventingthegrowthoftheClostridiumbotulinumorganism. o Theyretardthedevelopmentofrancidity. 40|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

41|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Nitrateornitritealoneorincombinationofbothshallnotbemorethan200ppminfinished productsasitistoxic. TheEuropeanDirective95/2/CE(1995)allows150ppmofnitrite(ifalone)or300ppmwhencombined (nitriteplusNitrate),andtheresidualvaluesshouldbelessthan50ppm(ifalone)or250ppm(ifcombined). Therearemorestringentlimitsforcuringagentsinbacontoreducetheformationofnitrosamines.Forthis reason,Nitrateisnolongerpermittedinanybacon(pumpedand/ormassaged,drycured,orimmersion cured). LevelsinfinishedproductsaccordingtoU.K.Regulations Nitriteassodiumnitrite(NO2asNa2NO2):Nottoexceed150PPMinnonheattreatedproducts,whileif sterilisedonly100PPMisallowed.Theonlyexceptionsareintraditionalproducts. Nitrosamine o Thereactionofnitrousacid(whichisformedbythebreakdownofnitrite)withsecondaryamides producesnitrosamine. o Thereactionofnitrousacidwithdimethylamineisshownbelow: o Itisdemonstratedthatnitrosaminearecarcinogeniccompounds. o Theyhavebeenisolatedfromcuredmeatsinafewinstances. o Workisnowunderwaytodeterminethefactorthatcontrolstheirformation,butthefinalansweris notavailable. Phosphates o Alkalinephosphatesareusedtoincreasethewaterbindingcapacityandtherebytheyieldofthe finishedproduct. o Decreasetheamountofshrinkageinsmokedproductswhencooked. o Toreducethedegreeofpurgeorcookpoutincannedproductsothattheconsumerreceivesa higherpercentageofusableproducts. o Approvedphosphatesare Sodiumtripolyphosphate Sodiumhexametaphosphate Sodiumacidpyrophosphate Disodiumphosphate Onlysodiumacidpyrophosphateispermittedinsausages. Legallimitsforaddedresidualphosphatesaresetat0.5%inthefinishedproducts. AscorbicAcid/Ascorbates o Ascorbatestakepartinthereductionofmetmyoglobintomyoglobin,therebyacceleratingtherate ofcuring. o Ascorbatesreactwithnitritestoincreasetheyieldofnitricoxidefromnitrousacid. o Excessascorbateactsasantioxidant,therebystabilisingbothcolourandflavour. o Theantioxidantpropertiesofascorbatenotonlypreventdevelopmentofranciditybutalsoprevent fadingofcolourofslicedmeatsuponexposuretolight. FederationRegulationspermits 0.75ozascorbicacidor0.875ozsodiumbicarbonateper100poundsofsausageemulsionand 75ozascorbicacidor87.5ozsodiumbicarbonateper100gallonspickleforcuringprimalcuts. Monosodiumglutamate(MSG) o Ithasbeenusedinanumberofproductstoenhancetheflavour. o Thereislittleadvantageofitsuseincuredmeatproducts.Itisaddedat0.1%level. Abstractofingredientsused,theirlevelofadditionandfunction Sl. Nameof No. Ingredient Levelin brine solution Function(Action)

41|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

42|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 1. 2. 3. Sodiumchloride Sodiumnitrate Sodiumnitrite 15to30% 0.15to 1.5% 500to 1000ppm

Preservative,improvestexture Asourceofnitrate Preservative,reducedbymeatenzymesto nitrousoxide,whichcombinedwithmyoglobin toformnitrosomyoglobin,thecuredred pigment Reducecookingloss,e.g.duringsmoking; improvetexture Improvesflavourbymaskingtheharshnessof thesalt Flavouringagent Reducingagent. Improvescolourformationandstabilityby effectingrapidreductionofNO3toNO2inthe meat.

4. 5. 6. 7.

Polyphosphates Sugar(Sucrose, maplesyrup) Liquidsmoke

2to4% 1to4% Ca.1%

Sodiumascorbate 0.2to1%

Chemistry of curing reaction Musclepigments Thereareanumberofmusclepigmentsinmeatincludingmyoglobin,haemoglobin,thecytochromes, catalases,theflavinsandothercolouredsubstances. Quantitativelythefirsttwolistedmyoglobinandhaemoglobinareabundant. Thelesserpigmentsalsoplayroleincolourdevelopmentandstabilization. Myoglobinandhaemoglobinarecomplexproteinsandundergosimilarreactioninmeat. However,theirrolesinlivingtissuesarequitedifferent. Haemolglobinistheredpigmentfoundinbloodandactsasthecarrierforoxygentothetissues. Myoglobinisthepredominantpigmentinmuscleandservesasthestoragemechanismforoxygenatthe TheChemistryofcuringreaction Colourdevelopsasaresultofinteractionofnitritewiththemusclepigments. Thenitrateandnitritereactionsinmeatcuringareasshownbelow Nitratereducingorganisms

Chemicalchangesofmyoglobinthatmayoccurduringthecuringreactionareasfollows

42|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

43|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Theultimatepigmentdesiredinmostheatprocessedcuredmeatsistheconversionofmusclepigment myoglobinintonitrosylhaemochrome(pink). UndesirableChanges Undersomeconditionsthenitrosylhaemochromepigmentinmeatmaybeoxidizedtogreen,yellowor colourlessporphyrinsubstances. Suchundesirablechangesofthecuredmeatpigmentmayresultfrombacterialactionorfromchemical oxidationbyperoxides,hypochloritesorotheragents. Lightcatalyzestheseoxidativechanges,asdemonstratedbythetendencyofcuredmeatsurfacestofade rapidlyunderstronglight. CuringTemperature Thecuringroomtemperatureismaintainedat3Cinmostcuringcommercialoperations. Baconfactoriesmaintaintheirpicklingcellarsbetween3.3and5.6C,foratthistemperaturethegrowthof microorganismsisveryslow,especiallyinthepresenceofsalt.

Curing methods Therearetwogeneralmethodsofcuringwithanumberofmodificationsofeachmethod. o Thefirstmethodofcuringisbyapplyingsalttothesurface,whichisreferredtoasDRYCURING. o Thesecondmethodisbyusingabrinesolution,inwhichtheproductisimmersedorthebrine solutionisinjectedintotheproductswithaneedle.ThisiscalledasPICKLING.Picklingisachieved eitherbyarterialbrining,stitchcuring,orbymultipleneedleinjection. InARTERYPUMPING,thebrineisinjectedintooneofthemainarteries.Hamistheonlyproductcuredinthis mannerandeventhisentailsthecarefulfabricationofhamsoastomaintainthefemoralarteryintact.This technique,beingessentiallyaslowprocessisnotverysuitableforhighspeedhighvolumeproduction requirementsofindustriesandhenceisseldomemployed. InSTITCHCURING,aninjectionwithasingleneedle,providedwithmanyopeningsisusedtodeliverthe brineintothemeat.Theoperatorinsertstheinjectioninmanyplacesinthemeattoensureuniform distribution,andhenceanexperiencedoperatorbecomesnecessary.Furtheranequilibrationtimeafter injectionisalsorequiredtofacilitateuniformdistributionofthebrine. InMULTIPLENEEDLEINJECTIONasyringewithmultipleneedlesisemployedtopumpthecureintomeat. Thesemachinescanbesoconfiguredtopumpcureintoboneinaswellasbonelessmeat.Itisveryeffective intermsofbothexcellentdistributionaswellashighspeedandhencehasbecomeverycommon. Precautions Thecureroomshouldbemaintainedat30to40F. Atatemperatureinexcessof50Fthebrinewillsourandtheproductwilldevelopoffflavourandsour aroundthebones. Typesofmeatcured Curingmaybeappliedtoallkindsofmeats. Itisbestappliedtothosemeatswithhighfatcontent. 43|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

44|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Curingthereforeyieldsexcellentresultswhenappliedtoporkorfinefibredbeefintermixedwithfatanditis forthisreasonbrisketandflankofbeefmakeexcellentpickledmeat. Ontheotherhandleanbeef,vealormuttonbecomedryandunpalatableasaresultofpicklingprocess. Fordurability,drysaltingisthebestandforpalatabilitypickledmeatisadvisable(good). Curing time Thetimeofcuringisalsoknownastherateofcuring,whichmaybestatedas,therateofdiffusionofthe curingbrine. Thecuringtimeforhamis3daysperkgandthatforbaconis7daysperinchthicknessofsubcutaneousfat. Thefollowingfactorsinfluencethetotalcuringtime/rateofcuring. Typeofcuringtechnique Thicknessandweightofham/bacon Strengthofcuringpickle(degreeofsalinometerreading) Temperatureofthecuringroomand Temperatureoftheham/baconwhencured. Smoking Purpose Improvedshelflife Developmentofdesirableorganolepticcharacteristicssuchasflavourandcolour. Protectionoffatfromoxidation. Creationofnewerproduct. Thesmokingprocessaidsinpreservationbyimpregnationofthemeatsonthesurfacewithchemical preservativesfromsmoke,bycombinedactionofheatandthesepreservativesduringsmoking,andbythe dryingeffect,especiallyonthesurface. Smokingandcooking,whicharegenerallycarriedouttogether,arealsoinvolvedinthedevelopmentofthe colour,e.g.curemeatcolour,whichisstabilizedbyheating. Thechiefbacteriostaticandbactericidalsubstanceinwoodsmokeisformaldehyde. Varyingamountsofheatsareappliedinthesmokeroomandthecombinationofheatandsmokeusually causesasignificantreductioninthesurfacebacterialpopulation. Inaddition,aphysicalbarrierisprovidedbysuperficialdehydration,coagulationofproteinandthe absorptionofresinoussubstances. Thebrowningormaillardreactionisresponsibleforthedevelopmentofcharacteristicbrowncolouronthe surfaceofsmokedproducts. Itinvolvesthereactionofthefreeaminogroupsfromproteinsorothernitrogenouscompoundsof meatwiththecarbonylofsmoke. Sincecarbonylsaremajorcomponentsofwoodsmoke,theyplayamajorroleinbrowningduringsmokingof meat. Smokingalsoisknowntohaveadefiniteinfluenceonthedevelopmentofranciditybyvirtueofits antioxidantactivity. Thisextendstheshelflifeofsmokedmeatproductsandhelpstoaccountfortheirdesirability.
o o o o

Components of smoke Themostimportantcomponentsofwoodsmokeare: Phenols About20differentphenolshavebeenisolatedandidentifiedfromwoodsmoke,e.g.Pcresol,guaiacol, methylguaiacol. Theyactasantioxidant,contributetothecharacteristicflavourofthesmokedproductsandhavea bacteriostaticeffectthatcontributestopreservation. AlcoholsandAldehydes Primary,secondaryalcoholsmainlymethanolorwoodalcoholmayexertaminorbacteriostaticeffect. Formaldehydeactsasabacteriostaticagent. 44|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

45|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Organicacids Formicacid,aceticacid,propionicacid,butyricandisobutyricacids,etc.,aresomeoftheimportantorganic acidscommonlyused. Theyalsoappeartohaveonlyaminorpreservativeaction. Inartificialsmokedpreparationstheyplayanimportantpartincoagulationofsurfaceproteinsofsmoked meatproductsofskinlessfrankfurters. Carbonyls Alargenumberofcarbonylcompoundscontributetosmokee.g.diacetyl,acetone,propanol,etc. Certaincarbonylcompoundscontributetosmokeflavourandaromaandbrowningoftheproduct. Hydrocarbons Anumberofpolycyclichydrocarbonshavebeenisolatedfromsmokedfoods,e.g.4benzapyreneand diphenanthracene. Theydonotappeartoimpartpreservativeororganolepticproperties. Production of smoke Tominimizetheproductionofcarcinogenicsubstances,combustiontemperatureof340Cappearstobe reasonable. Althoughcombustiontemperatureof400Cisdesirableformaximumproductionofphenols,thishigh temperaturealsofavourstheformationofbenzapyreneandotherpolycyclichydrocarbons. Assoonasthesmokeisgeneratednumerousreactionsandcondensationsoccur. Aldehydesandphenolscondensetoformresins,whichrepresentsabout50percentofthesmoke componentsandarebelievedtoprovidemostofthecolourinsmokedmeats. Formaldehydeappearstobethechiefbactericidalsubstance. Aftercompletionofsmokingthemeatproduct(Usuallybacon)ischilledandtheproductcanbelabeled readytoeatunderUSDAinspection. Itmustbemaintainedataninternaltemperatureofnotlessthan140Fforaperiodof30minutes. Depositionofsmokeonmeat Thesmokedensity,velocityandrelativehumidityofsmokeairandthesurfaceoftheproductbeingsmoked influencetheamountandrateofdepositionofsmoke. Methods of smoking Naturalaircirculation Inthismethodfirepitdesignedtouselogs,sawdustorcombinationofbothisutilized. Openingandclosingofdampershelptocontrolvolumeofair. Airconditionedsmokehouse Thishaslargelyreplacednaturalairtypesmokehouses. Thismethodpermitsmuchmorecontrolofsmoking,controltemperatureforcookingandresultantcontrol ofshrinkage. Theaircirculationiscontrolledbyfan. Thishouseusuallycontrolsmokevelocityandregulateshumidity. Continuoussmokehouse Thiscomprisesapartofthecontinuousprocesssystemandwasdevelopedspeciallyforfrankfurters production. Types of fuel used Mostcommercialsmokingoperationshavebeenusingsawdust,whichiseasiertoutilizeandgivesagreater volumeofsmoke. Hardwoodshavebeenreportedtobethebestforsmokinge.g.sawdustofhickory,maple,oak,cherryand pecan However,liquidsmokehasbeenproducedsatisfactorilyfrombothhardandsoftwoodwithexcellentresults. Liquidsmoke Severalliquidsmokepreparationsareavailableindevelopedcountries. Theliquidsmokeispreparedfromhardwood. 45|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

46|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thetarrydroplets/polycyclichydrocarbonsareremovedbyfiltration. Finalproductiscomposedofprimarilyofthevapourphasecontainingmainlyphenols,organicacids, alcoholsandcarbonylcompounds. Theydonotcontainpolycyclichydrocarbonsespeciallybenzapyreneacarcinogenicsubstance,whichis removedduringproductionofliquidsmoke. Liquidsmokehasseveraladvantages. Ithasalittleornopreservationeffectalthoughitcontributestotheflavour. Applicationofliquidsmoke Itisgenerallyspreadontheproductjustbeforecooking. Smokesolutionsaredilutedwithwaterorfrequentlywithvinegarorcitricacid. Compositionofliquidsmoke 2030partsofliquidsmoke 5partscitricacidorvinegar 6570partsofwater Citricacidorvinegarisusedtoenhancetheskinformationonskinlessfrankfurters. Acidiscommonlyaddedtoreducethecost. Liquidsmokemakesiteasiertokeeptheequipmentclean. Cookingaftersprayingwithliquidsmokepreparationisessentialtogivegoodsmokecolourformation. Effect of smoke on nutritive value FederalRegulationsspecifyafinalinternaltemperatureofatleast58Cforsmokedham. Manyprocessorsmaintainsingletemperaturescheduleof3882Cfromthebeginningtotheendofthe cookingschedule. Frankfurters,bolognaandloafitemsarecookedtoaninternaltemperatureofabout68Candfullycooked hamsat6668C. Actionofsmokeonnutritivevalue Thephenolsandpolyphenolstendtoreactwiththesulphydrylgroupsoftheproteins,whereasthecarbonyl groupfromthesmokereactswiththeaminogroups. Bothofthesereactionscandecreasethenutritivevalueoftheproteinsbycausingalossintheavailable aminoacids,especiallyoflysine. Smokingcanalsocausesomedestructionofthiamine. Theantioxidantpropertiesofwoodsmokeshouldhelptostabilizethefatsolublevitaminsandwouldalsobe expectedtopreventsurfaceoxidationofsmokedmeatproducts. Thus,smokinghassomeadvantages. Natureofsmoke Smokehasavapourandparticulatephase. Thevapourphasecontainsthemorevolatilecomponentsandislargelyresponsibleforthecharacteristic flavourandaromaofsmoke. Furthermore,removaloftheparticulatephasebyprecipitationalsogreatlyreducesthecomponentsoftars andpolycyclichydrocarbons,allofwhichareundesirableinsmoke.

Preservation of meat by low temperature

Itiscommonknowledgethatmeatwillnotkeepforalongtimeunlessproperlypreserved. Preservationbycoldmethodisthesimplestformofpreservation,andtheadventofrefrigerationonly acceleratedthegrowthofthemeatindustryandthemodernmeatindustryisbasedoneffecient refrigeration. Lowtemperaturepreservationisreferredtoasrefrigeration Refrigerationprocessmeansextractionofheatfromabodyandthuscoolingittoatemperaturebelowthe surroundingatmosphere Refrigerationmaybeclassifieddependingontheextentoftheextractionofheatfromtheproduct, aschilling(refrigerationabovetheproduc'tsfrrezingpoint)orfreezing(refrigerationbelowtheproduct's freezingpoint). 46|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

47|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Byefficientrefrigeration,meatcanbepreservedinaconditionapproachingitsnaturalstateforperiods adequateforcommercialrequirement. Themethodalterstheappearance,weightandflavourofthemeattoalittleextentandnosubstanceis addedorextractedfromit. Theuseoflowtemperaturepreservedfoodsisbaseduponthefactthat,theactivitiesoffoodborne microorganismcanbesloweddownandorstoppedatthetemperaturejustabovefreezingandgenerally stoppedatsubfreezingtemperature. Atatemperatureof8Cthemultiplicationofallmicroorganismsstopsandonlyresumeswhentemperature israisedlatertoasuitablelevel. Thefailureofbacteriatogrowatorbelowfreezingdependsmainlyontheremovaloftheavailablewateras ice;about70%isremovedat3.5Cand94%at10C. Anotherfactoristheinhibitionofthelifeprocessesofspoilageorganismsatlowtemperatures. Inthecaseoffleshfoodslowtemperatureinhibitstheactionofnaturalautolyticenzymes. Thereasonfortheseisthatallmetabolicreactionsofmicroorganismsareenzymecatalyzedandtherateof enzymecatalyzedreactionsisdependentontemperature.Withdecreaseintemperature,thereisan indecreaseinreactionrate. Thesurfacegrowthofmouldonmeatiscontrollednotonlybythetemperaturebutalsobytherelative humidityoftheatmosphere. Theorganismsthatgrowwellatlowtemperaturearereferredtoaspsychrophiles. MostpsychropylicbacteriabelongtothegenusPseudomonasandtoamuchlesserextenttothegenera Achromobacter,Flovobacterium,Alcaligenes,Micrococcusandothers. Amongthemouldsandyeasts,speciesandstrainsfromalargenumberofgeneraarecapableofgrowthat refrigeratortemperature. MouldsbelongingtothegeneraPenicillium,Mucor,Cladosporium,Torulopsis,Candida,Rbodotorulaand othersareknowntobemesophilic. Mouldsrequirehighrelativehumidityforthemtomultiply,andintheabsenceofsuitablerelativehumidity, theywillwitheraway. Forthepreventionofmouldthetemperatureandrelativehumiditymustthereforebekeptaslowas possible. Principle of a refrigerator Threebasiclawsofphysicsareinvolvedinworkingofrefrigerators 1. Acoldobjectisplacednexttoahotobject,thecoldobjectwillbecomewarmerandthehotobject willbecomecooler. 2. Theboilingpointofaliquidisdirectlyproportionaltothepressureitissubjectedto.(Waterboilsat 100Cat1atmosphericpressure,butitboilsat46Citselfat0.1atmosphericpressureand converselywatervapourat50Cand0.1atmosphericpressurecanbecondensedbackintoliquidby increasingthepressureto1atmosphericpressure) 3. Evaporationproducescooling,asthevapourabsorbsheatandheatisgivenofforlostbyaliquidas itcondenses. Allrefrigeratorsmakeuseofrefrigerantstobringabouttheiraction. Refrigerantsareliquidsorliquefiedgaseswithverylowboilingpoints.Forexample,ammonia,acommon refrigerantusedboilsat33.34C.Thesebasiccomponentsaretheevaporator,compressor,condenser,and meteringdevice. Theevaporatoriswhereliquidrefrigerantevaporates.Asstatedalready,theevaporationofthisrefrigerant requiresheat.Becausethetemperatureofthefoodishigherthantheevaporator,heatleavesthefoodand enterstheevaporator,increasingthetemperatureoftheliquidrefrigerant. Sincewhenaliquidreachesitsboilingpoint,thetemperaturestopsrisingandbeginstoboilwhenmoreheat isadded,refrigerantwithverylowboilingpointsbeginstoboilandevaporateintheevaporator. Theevaporatorstaysatthesametemperature(cold)untilalltherefrigerantboilsaway(evaporates). Thismeansthattheevaporatorwouldcontinuetoabsorbheatfromfoodinsidetherefrigerator.Theeffect isrefrigeration;warmairfrominsidethefoodoftherefrigeratorisabsorbedastherefrigerantevaporates. 47|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

48|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Eventuallyalltherefrigerantwillhaveevaporatedandwewontbeabletocoolfoodanymore,ifitis allowedtoprogresswithouttheheatintherefrigerantbeingabsorbed.Thisiswherethecompressorcomes intoplay. Thecompressorislikeapumpforrefrigerant.Itcreatesasuctionthatdrawstherefrigerantoutofthe evaporator,keepingthelowpressureintheevaporatorneededtoboilmorerefrigerant. Astherefrigerantiscompressed,twothingshappen.Itspressuregoesup,becauseitsbeingsqueezedintoa smallerspace,andasaconsequenceitstemperaturealsoincreases.Sowhilethecompressorsucksincold, lowpressurerefrigerantvapour,itpumpsouthot,highpressurerefrigerantvapour.Thishighpressure refrigerantvapourispumpedintoacondenser,whereit(logically)condenses. Theboilingpointoftherefrigerantvapourhasincreasedbecauseitisatahighpressure.Thecondenserlooks verysimilartotheevaporator,andwithgoodreason,theyperformthesamefunction. Botharedesignedtomoveheat;theevaporatormovesheatfromthefoodtotherefrigerantandthe condensermovesheatfromtherefrigeranttotheairblowingpastitscoils. Aftertherefrigerantturnsbackintoaliquid,werereadytosenditbacktotheevaporatoranduseitfor morecooling.Itisstillatahighpressure.Thisisthebigdifferencebetweentheevaporatorandcondenser, thedifferenceinpressure.Justconnectingthecondenserandevaporatortogetherwontworkbecausethe highpressureliquidwontboilintheevaporator.Thisiswherethemeteringdevicecomesintoplay. Therearevariouskindsofmeteringdevices.Thesimplestisjustanextremelythinpieceoftubing.Theidea istojustletatinytrickleofrefrigerantintotheevaporator;justenoughtoreplacewhatthecompressoris suckingoutwithoutraisingthepressure. Factors controlling efficiency of chilling Thetemperatureofstorageisprobablythemostimportantfactordeterminingtheefficiencyofchilling. Highertemperaturesarelesseffectiveinpreservationandshrinkageisalsohigh. Therateofchillingisanotherfactorthataffectstheefficiencyofchilling,withquickchillingbeingmarkedly superiorwithrespecttobothkeepingquality(retardationofsurfacebacterialgrowth)andsensoryqualities (superiorbloom)andshrinkageisalsolesseraswell. Theairvelocityisdirectlyproportionaltorateofchillingandhencethushighervelocitiesenhancebloom andimpartgreaterpreservativeeffect,butcauseincreasedshrinkage.Hence,initialchillingofwarm carcasses,sides,orquartersiscarriedat7Candthemeanairspeedof0.75m/s,whileintheterminalstages ofchillingtemperaturemustbemaintainedbetween1Cand2C,withmeanairspeedof0.5m/s. Meatpackedontraysorincartonsthetemperaturemustbebelow3Candmeanairspeedof0.75m/s. Higheraircirculationratesarenotassociatedwithshrinkage,especiallywhenthecarcassisfreshandstill wet,whereinhighercirculationratesresultinrapiddecreaseofthecarcasssurfacewatervapourpressure, thusreducingshrinkage. Aircirculationratesofupto70110volumesoftheroomperhouraremaintainedinquickchillingtorapidly lowerthetemperature. Sloweraircirculationratesarebeneficialoncethetemperatureofthecarcassissufficientlylowered. Relativehumidityofthechillingroomalsohasanimportantroletoplayintheefficiencyofchilling.High relativehumidityswillreduceshrinkagebutwillfavourmouldgrowth. Arelativehumidityof95%maybemaintainedtochillthecarcassandstorechilledcarcass,ifstorageistobe forlessthan72hours,ifextendedbeyond72hrs,ithastobereducedto90%. Uniformityofairflowthroughutthechillroomisyetanotherfactorthathasaroleindeterminingefficiency ofchilling,butthisitselfisdeterminedbytheevennessofhangingthecarcassinthechillerroom. Therecommendedrailspacinginachillerorfreezerroomshouldbe0.9mforbeef,0.7mforporkand0.5m forlambsandtheminimumspacebetweencarcassesontheserailsshouldbe0.3to0.4m.Futher,therails shouldbeplaced0.6m(0.9m,incaseofheaderandtrafficrails)clearoffrefrigeratingequipment,wallsand otherfixedpartsofthebuildingtoensurehygieneandprotectiontowalls. Thetopofthechillrailfromthefloorlevelshouldbeatleast3.3mfoorbeefsides,2.7mforheadlesspigs andcalves,2.2mforbeefquarters,and2mforsheepandgoat.

48|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

49|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Physical changes in chilled meat Meatundergoescertainsuperficialchangesasaresultofstorage,chiefofwhichareshrinkage,sweatingand lossofbloom. Shrinkage Shrinkageorlossofweightoccursasaresultofevaporationofwaterfrommeatsurface;carcasscutinto quartersdissipatewatervapourrapidlyandcontinuouslyandretailjointsevenmoreso. Ontheotherhandtheevaporationinhibitedbymembranessuchasthepleuraandperitoneumandinwell nourishedcarcass,bythesolidificationofthesuperficialfatanddryingoftheconnectivetissue. Afreshlykilledcarcassdissipatesbodyheatslowly,usually1.5to2.0%ofweightbyevaporationduringthe first24hoursofhanging. Furtherlossofweightduringstoragedependsonthehumidityofthestorageroom,thedriertheairthe greaterbeingtheevaporation. Avoidanceofallevaporativeweightlossesbyhighhumidityfacilitatestheformationofmoulds,soan accuratebalancebetweentemperatureandhumiditymustbemaintained:thedryimperviousfilmonthe carcasssurfaceisperhapsthebestprotectiveagainstthegrowthofspoilageorganisms. Sweating Denotescondensationofwatervapouronmeatbroughtfromacoldstoreintoordinaryroomtemperature. Thecondensationoccursbecauseofthecoldrefrigeratedcarcasslowersthetemperatureoftheairtobelow thedewpoint. InwintermonthsinBritainthedewpointisgenerallybelow4.5Candsweatingisunlikelytooccur,butin summerthedewpointsisalwaysover7Candmoisturewillbedepositedonthecarcass. Ifthequarterorsideiscutupimmediatelyafterremovalfromthechillingroomthesweatingwillbe extendedtotheindividualjoints. Lossofbloom Bloomisdefinedasthecolourandgeneralappearanceofthecarcasssurfacewhenviewedthroughthe semitransparentlayerofconnectivetissue,muscleandfat,whichformthecarcasssurface. Ifthesetissuesbecomemoist,thecollagenfibersintheconnectivetissueswellandbecomeopaqueandthe meatsurfaceassumeadull,lifelessappearance. Lossofsurfacebloominbeefcarcassesmayalsobecausedbydehydrationorundueoxidation,butitmaybe preventedbyavoidingtemperaturefluctuationthatpermitalternatedryinganddampeningofthecarcass surface. Itisalsoimportanttokeeptherelativehumilityofcoolingchamberhighandensurethatthereiscirculation ofair. Musculartissuealsotendstobecomebrownishonexposuretoairasmyoglobinchangestothebrown pigmentmetmyoglobin,buttheactualamountofexposedmuscleinasideofbeefissosmallthatisoflittle ornoconsequence. Refrigerationhaslittleeffectonthecarcassfatexceptinthecaseoffrozenmeat,whichhasundergonea prolongedperiodofstorage. Chemical changes in chilled meat Thereisaslightdegreeofbreakdownofmuscleproteinbyendogenousenzymesorbythoseofthe microorganisms,whichisduetothechemicalchangesthattakeplaceafterslaughter. Themeatodourbecomesprogressivelymoremarkedbutneverdisagreeable,theflavourmaybedescribed asstale,renderingthemeatunpalatablebutnotrepulsive. Thestoragelifeofmeatismoredependentonthechemicalchangesthattakeplaceinfatratherthanin muscle,forfatrancidityeveninslightdegreeisobjectionable. Theconditionofthefatthereforedeterminesthelengthofstorage. Whiletheleanmuscleofacarcassmaybestillimprovinginflavour;thechangesinfatmayrenderthemeat repugnantandunmarketable. Rancidityismostlikelyinthekidneyfatandinhotweather;theretailbutcherremovesthekidneysandfat ofhomekilledbeefsoonafterslaughter. InEECapprovedplantsthesearealwaysremovedpriortoweighing. 49|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

50|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Chilling of carcasses Thecarcassesofmeatanimalsnormallyarerefrigeratedimmediatelyafterslaughter,unlesstheyarehot boned. Rapidcoolingisnecessarytopreventspoilagearoundthelymphnodesdeepinthecarcass(referredtoas bonesouring). Beefcarcassesareskinnedandwrappedinshroudclothbeforechilling;vealmaybeskinnedeither immediatelyafterslaughterorafterchilling,orinsomecasesitmaybeshippedskinon. Porkcarcassesandpoultryordinarilyarenotskinned. Theregulationsconcerningthetemperaturesatwhichmeat,offalsandmeatproductsaretobeheldvaryin differentcountries. EECregulationsrecommendthefollowingstandards: Meatmustbechilledafterpostmorteminspectionandmustbeheldatatemperatureofnotmorethan+7 Cforcarcassesandcutsincaseofredmeats,+4Cforpoultryand+3Cforoffals. Cuttingplantsmusthavecoolingequipmenttokeepmeatatconstantinternaltemperatureofnotmore than+7C. Thetemperatureofthecuttingroomsshouldneverexceed+10Cduringcutting. Cuttingplantsmustbeprovidedwithathermometerandatelethermometer. SouthAfricanregulationsrecommendthefollowingstandards Initialchillingofwarmcarcasses,sides,orquartersshouldbecarriedat7Candthemeanairspeedof above0.75m/s,whileintheterminalstagesofchillingtemperaturemustbemaintainedbetween1Cand 2C. Meatpackedontraysorincartonsthetemperaturemustbebelow3Candmeanairspeedofabove 0.75m/s. Forstorageofchilledcarcasses,sidesorportionsthetemperaturemustbewithintherangeof1Cand5C andmeanairspeedofabove0.5m/sovertheproduct.Therelativehumiditymustbemaintained below95%or,iftheproductisstoredformorethan72hours,below90%. Sincewarmcarcasseswillraisethecoolertemperature,theseroomsmustnotbeoverloaded. Theamountofrefrigerationenergyrequireddependsontheweightofthecarcassestobechilled,their temperatureandtheirheatcapacity. Theheatcapacityorspecificheatofthemeatdependstoalargeextentontheratiooffat:lean0.51to0.57 inporkto0.70to0.77inveal. Therateofcoolingdependsonthesizeandheatcapacityofthecarcass,theamountoffatcovering,andthe temperatureinthecooler. Heavycarcassesmayrequireaslongas72hourstochill;lightbeefcarcasses,pork,lambandvealrequireup to2436hours. Effecientchillingandfurthermaintainingatemperaturerangeof1Cand+0.5Cduringstorage, transportanddisplay,inconjunctionwithstricthygieneandexcellentpackagingmayextendshelflifeto about12weeks,thoughincommercialpracticebeefcarcassesitselfmaybeheldwithoutdeteriorationfor about35daysonly. Refrigeration instrumentation Goodmonitoringofrefrigerationperformanceshouldalwaysbeinsistedupon. Thereareavarietyofportableinstrumentsavailableformeasuringtemperature,airvelocityandrelative humidity. Athermographisaclockworkdrivenchartrecorder,whichcanrecordfortemperaturesaperiodupto7 daysoverarangeof15to40C. Athermohydrographthatcanmeasuretemperature(rangeof15to40C)andRH(rangeof10100%HR 3%RH)isalsoavailable. Spearthermometersmaybeinsertedintocarcassesandcuts. Theseconsistofeitheranordinarymercurythermometerencasedinastainlesssteelsheathorabimetallic stripconnectedtoarecordingdial. Bothtypeshavepointedendsforeaseofinsertionbutareslowinoperationandeasilydamaged. 50|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

51|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Moreelaborateelectronicandthermistorprobethermometersgivemoreaccurateresultsandaremore durable. Instruments,whichcanrecordtemperatureoncharts,maybeobtainedandathermoanemometer(records temperatureandairvelocity)isavailable. VarioustypesofhygrometersandwetanddrybulbindicatorsaremanufacturedtomeasureRH,butare slowandliabletodamageandcontaminationofthehygrometricmaterial. AthermohygrographoraWetanddryindicatingpsychrometer(range090Cor1080C)givesmore accuratemeasurements. Differenttypesofvelometers(anemometers)areavailabletomeasureairvelocity. Themoreelaboratearecombinedwiththermometersandareusuallymoreaccurateandreliable. Cold shortening Coldshorteningisanundesirablechangeassociatedwithquickchilling Coldshorteningisnoticedwhenprerigormuscles,(i.e.whilethepHofmusclewasstillabove6.2and AdenosineTriPhosphate(ATP)wasstillpresent)weresubjectedtoatemperatureofbelow10C,inwhich themeatisverytoughofmeatoccurredduetoextremecontraction. ThusapHofabove6.2andpresenceofATPisaprerequisiteforcoldshorteningtooccur. ThephenomenonofcoldshorteningwasfirstencounteredinNewZealandwhenrapidcoolingschedulesfor lambfreezingwerefirstintroduced. Coldshorteningcanalsooccurwithbeefcarcassandeveninpartsofthecarcass,e.g.theloin,withfairly slowchilling. Coldshorteningisnotanimportantconcernintheporkorpoultryindustryaswhitemusclesarelessprone tocoldshortening. ColdshorteningoccursduetotheinabilityofthesarcoplasmicreticulumtosequesterCaatlow temperatures(0C5C)andadecreasedbindingabilityofmitochondriatobindCa. TheinabilityofsarcoplasmicreticulumandmitochondriatobindCaresultsinitsspillageintothe sarcoplasmandcoldshorteningensuesmuchinthesamefashionasCatriggeringmusclecontrac on. Thisisnotaseriousprobleminwhitemusclesastheypossessaratherbetterdevelopedsarcoplasmic reticulum,incomparisontoredmusclesandpossessfewermitochondriathanredmuscles. ThefactthatwhitemusclesalsopossessgreateramountsofATP,whichprovidesenergyforreaccumulation ofCabysarcoplasmicre culumandlesserextentmitochondria,alsoensurescoldshorteningdoesnot occurinwhitemuscles. Itcanbeavoidedbydelayingthestartofchilling,e.g.for1012hwhenthepHwillbebelow6.2andthe rigorwillhavetakenplacewiththecompletedisappearanceofATPfromthemuscleornotchillingbelow 10Cinlessthan10h. Coldshorteningcanalsobepreventedbytheuseofelectricalstimulation,whichadvancestheonsetofrigor, tenderstretchmethodofsuspendingcarcassesandbyageing. Electrical stimulation Electricalstimulationreferstothepassingofhighvoltageelectricitythroughthecarcassimmediatelyafter slaughter,thecurrentcausingthemusclestocontractandtherebyuseupglycogen,ATPandcreatine phosphate. Anumberofmusclecontractionsaremadetooccurinashorttime,therebyacceleratingtheonsetofrigor. TheprocessofrigormortisisadvancedandthepHisbroughtdowntolessthan6.0within23hoursof slaughter. Hencerigorpassesoffandthuscoldshorteningdoesnotoccurevenwhenthetemperatureofthecarcassis broughtdowntolessthan10Cwithin10hoursofslaughter. Highvoltageshavebeenfoundtobemoreeffectiveespeciallyifelectricalstimulationisdelayed.But electricalstimulationmustbecarriedoutwithinhalfanhourofslaughterforbestresults. Electricalstimulationisalsosaidtoimprovemusclecolourandbrightness. Mechanismofactionofelectricalstimulation 51|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

52|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Twotheorieshavebeenproposedasputativemechanismsfortheeffectivenessofelectricalstimulationto hastentheonsetofrigorandthuspreventcoldshortening. Thefirsttheorysuggeststhatelectricalstimulationresultsintheconversionoftheinactiveformofthe enzymephosphorylase(phosphorylasea)totheactivefromoftheenzymephosphorylase(phosphorylase b),whichstimulatesthebreakdownofglycogen(glycolysis),whichresultsinthedropinpH. Itwasfurthersuggestedthattheenzymeinvolvedintheconversionofphosphorylase,phosphorylasekinase isstimulatedbyanincreaseinmyofibrillarATPaseactivity,whichtakesplaceasaconsequenceofelectrical stimulation. Subsequentstudiesclearlydeterminedthattheincreaseintheactivefromoftheenzymephosphorylase (phosphorylaseb)wastransientandlastedforjust35minutes. TheothertheorysuggestedthattheincreaseinCacausedas mula onofglycolysis),whichresultsinthe dropinpH. Refrigerated meat transport Meatmaybetransportedbyroadinproperlyinsulatedandrefrigeratedvehiclesorininsulatedornon insulatednonrefrigeratedvehicles. Onlyrefrigeratedtransportcanbeconsideredadequate. Thelattervehiclesaretotallyineffective,especiallythenoninsulatedtype,particularlyforchilledmeat. Awelldesignedrefrigeratedroadvehicleshouldhavethefollowingqualities o Highstandardofinsulation o Internallining,whichisimpermeable,easilycleaned,withoutseamsanddurable o Airtightdoorseals o Watertightflooring o Rigidityofconstruction o Efficientrefrigerationunit,noiseless,economicalandlightweight o Provisionofindicatorsindrivingcab o Properlyspacedoverheadrails. Solidcarbondioxideissometimesused,eitherassolidblocksorcrushed,andprovidesatemperatureof0 10C. Thevancoolerisprovidedwithafan,whichblowsthecoolairovertheCO2andload. Athermostatswitchesoffthefanwhenthedesiredtemperatureisreachedandamicroswitchensuresthat theunitdoesnotoperatewhenthevehicledoorsareopen. Themaintenanceoftheinternaltemperatureisinfluencedbythedifferencebetweentheinsideandoutside temperatures,thenumberoftimesthedoorsareopenedandclosed,loadingtemperatureofthecargo, capacityratingoftherefrigeratingsystem,respirationrateoftheproduct,etc. Vehicles,whichareleftstandingwithdoorswideopeninhighsummertemperaturesattractnotonlyheat butalsoundesirablearthropods. Urethanefoamsprayedbetweeninnerandouterliningsformsanefficientinsulatingmedium. Thismaterialexpandstofillallthecrevicesandhaslowheatlossfactor,alowwaterabsorptionratinganda densityof124g/cm3. Liningmaterialsmustbesmooth,impermeable,durable,easilycleanedandabletowithstanddetergents andhotwater. Theymustalsobenontoxicandasfaraspossiblefreefromseams. Typicalliningmaterialsareglassfibrereinforcedpanels,specialnonmarkingaluminium(barealuminium canmarkfreshunwrappedhangingmeat),plasticcoveredplywoodandgalvanizedsheeting. Floorsshouldbeverydurable,watertightandeasilycleaned. Thereshouldbenocrevicesorsharpcornersthroughouttheinsideofthevehicle,whichwouldhinder cleaning. Whileconstructionoftransportvehiclesisnormallysuitableforhangingquartersofbeef,lambcarcasses, packagedmeat,etc.,thesamedoesnotholdforoffal,whichisnotincartons. Itisimportantthatfortheretaildeliveryofmeatandoffalthereshouldbegoodhandlingfacilitiesandoffals shouldnotbeplacedinanunwrappedstateondirtyfloor. 52|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

53|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Freezing Freezingofmeatinvolvesthereductionoftheinternaltemperatureofmeatbelowitsfreezingpointof,1.5 Candfurtherstoringitattemperaturesoflessthanitsfreezingpoint. Freezingofmeatonlyhasmadethetranscontinentaltradeinmeatarealityanditisprobablythemost importantcontributorforthepreeminentplacethatmeatoccupiesinworldtrade. However,thereexistwidedifferencesinopinionastotheproperfreezingtemperature. InGermanythetemperatureismaintainedat6C,whileinAustraliaitismaintainedat11C. InSouthAmericamuchlowertemperaturesaremaintainedandporkmaybestoredat18C. Duringseatransport,atemperatureof9Cto8Cismaintainedattheholds,whiletheairiskeptdryand incirculation. IntheUnitedKingdom,ithasbeencustomarytoholdmeatincoldstoresattemperaturesof20C. Butcurrently,itisgenerallyrecognisedthatlowertemperaturesaremoresatisfactorysincetheyreducethe deteriorationofcarcassmeat,andtemperaturesnohigherthan18Candeven30Carerecommended. Thereasonbehindthechangeintherecommendationisduetotherealisationthatthebeliefthatverylow temperaturescausedexcessivedehydrationisactuallywrong. TheEECregulationsstipulatethat: o Beefquarterswillshallbeacceptedforfreezingatatemperaturenotabove+7Candfrozenwithin 36hourstoaninternaltemperatureof7Corbelow. o Theacceptancetemperatureforpigsidesis+4C;theymustbefrozenat30Candheldinthe freezeruntilallthemeatisat15Corbelow. o Frozenstorageforbeefmustbeatatemperatureof17Candat20Cforpork. Themeatmustbewrappedinapolythenepackofatleast0.05mmthicknessandinstockinette. Suchlowtemperaturescanbeattainedbyspecialblastfreezerswithtemperaturesaround34C,air speedsofabout35m/sandholdingtimesofupto25hours. Theformofwrappinggreatlyaffectsthefreezingtime;ifitisloose,thepocketsofairorcartonsactas insulationandtherebyincreasefreezingtimes. Wrappinginmoistureproofpackagingcanoffsetwaterlosses. Ifthoroughlychilledmeatisfrozen,therateoffreezingprobablydoesnothaveanyeffectonthe microbiologicalqualityoftheproduct. However,ifwarmmeat(e.g.21Corhigher)isfrozenslowly,considerablemicrobialgrowthmaydevelop beforethetemperatureofthemeatisbroughtdowntothefreezingpoint. Therefore,afreezerunitshouldneverbeoverloadedwithwarmmeat,particularlyifthemeathasbeen groundorcomminutedwhichresultsindistributionofthemicrobialloadthroughouttheproduct. Thecommonlyheldbeliefthatfrozenmeatcanbeheldindefinitelyisnotright. Freezingofanytypeorbyanymethoddoesnotdestroybacteriacompletely. Thepracticalstoragelifeoffrozencarcassmeatisfurnishedinthetablebelow. Practicalstoragelifeofcarcassmeats Nameofcarcass 12C 18C 24C Beef Lamb Pork Edibleoffals 8 18 6 4 15 24 10 12 24 >24 15 18

53|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

54|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Methods of freezing Freezingundertakeninacabinetfreezerisessentiallyaslowprocessandisreferredtoasslowfreezing,orin blastfreezersinwhichcase,itisquickerandthemethodisoftenreferredtoasquickfreezing. QuickfreezingcanalsobeachievedbyFreezingbyLiquidImmersionandLiquidSpraysandalsobyCryogenic Freezing. Slowfreezinggenerallytakesabout72hourswhilequickfreezingiscompletedin30minutes. Thedelayinvolvedinslowfreezingusuallyresultsingreaterdriploss,duringthawingthanthatassociated withquickfreezing. Thereasonsforthisdifferenceissummarisedbelow: Slowfreezing o Thetemperatureoftheproductbeingfrozenremainsneartheinitialfreezingpointforanextended timeincaseofslowfreezing.Thisresultsintheformationofacontinuousfreezingboundaryand freezingproceedsslowlyfromtheexteriortotheinterior. o Extracellularwaterfreezesmorerapidlythanintracellularwaterduetoitslessersolute concentration. o Slowfreezingfavourstheformationofpureicecrystalsandconcentrationofsolutesinunfrozen condition. Moreover,intracellularsolutionsmaybedeficientinnucleationsites(suspendedmicroscopic particles)necessaryforsmallicecrystals.Theseconditionsfavourgradualmigrationofwateroutof musclefibres,resultingincollectionoflargeextracellularpoolsatsitesoficecrystalformation,and intracellularconcentrationofsolutes. o Consequently,thereisevenfurtherreductioninthefreezingpointofintracellularwater.This processofdepressingthefreezingpointbyincreasingconcentrationofsolutesiscalledeutectic formation. o Thetotalcontributionofthisprocesstofreezingdamageisnotfullyunderstood,butitapparently causeschemicalalterations,includinglossesinproteinsolubilityandelasticityofthawedmuscle tissue. o Longperiodsofcrystallisationexistinslowfreezing,producingnumerouslargeextracellularmasses oficecrystalsthatareeasilylostasdripduringthawing. o Slowfreezingalsomightresultinmechanicaldamagetomuscles,duetovolumechanges,associated withformationoflargeicecrystalsandconcomitantshrinkageofmusclefibresthathavelostwater toextracellularpools.Suchmuscletissuehasadistortedstructureinfrozenformthatcompletely obliteratesnormalstriations. Quickfreezing o Thetemperatureoftheproductbeingfrozenfallsbelowtheinitialfreezingpointrapidlyincaseof quickfreezing. o Numeroussmallicecrystalswithfilamentlikeappearanceareformedbothintraandextracellularly atapproximatelythesamespeed. o Smallicecrystalsformed,haveverylittleopportunitytogrowinsize.Hence,quickfreezingcauses spontaneousformationofnumeroussmallicecrystals,resultinginadiscontinuousfreezing boundaryandverylittletranslocationofwater. o Mostofthewaterinsidethemusclefibrefreezesintracellularly,sodriplossesduringthawingare considerablylowerthaninslowfrozenmeat. o Musclefibreshrinkageanddistortionareminimisedthaninslowfrozenmeat. o Volumechangesarelessandperiodsofcrystallisationareshorterthaninslowfrozenmeatand consequently,mechanicaldamageiscorrespondinglyless. o Filamentlikeicecrystalsentrapsolutesandthusminimisetheionconcentrationeffect. o Inaddition,smallerandnumerousicecrystalsformedinquickfreezingreflectmorelightfrommeat surfaces,resultinginlightercolourthaninslowfrozenmeat. Still Air, Plate, Blast, Liquid Immersion and Liquid Sprays and Cryogenic Freezing FreezingcanbeundertakenbythefollowingmethodsStillAirFreezing,PlateFreezing,BlastFreezing, FreezingbyLiquidImmersionandLiquidSpraysandCryogenicFreezing. 54|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

55|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Quickfreezingisachievedby,BlastFreezing,FreezingbyLiquidImmersionandLiquidSpraysandalsoby CryogenicFreezingwhilefreezinginaStillAirFreezerresultsinSlowFreezing. StillAirFreezer Themediumofheattransferisairinastillairfreezer.Inthismethodheattransferisentirelybasedon convection,asairisapoorconductorofheat.Hencefreezingisveryslow. Cabinetordeskfreezersorfreezersofhomerefrigeratorsaregoodexamplesofstillairfreezers. Thetemperaturerangeofcommercialstillairfreezersfallbetween10Cand30C. Theircapacitytofreezeunfrozenmeat,particularlywhenoverloadedisratherpoorandarebestsuitedto storefrozenmeatatfreezertemperatures. Platefreezers Themediumofheattransferismetalinaplatefreezer.Inthismethodheattransferisentirelybasedon conductionandhencefreezingratesareslightlyfasterthanstillairfreezers. Meatassuchorpackedintraysisdirectlyplacedincontactwithfreezerplatesorshelves. Thetemperaturerangeofcommercialstillplatefreezersfallbetween10Cand30C.Thismethodis commerciallyrestrictedtofreezingthinpiecesofmeatssuchassteaks,chops,filletsandmeatproductssuch aspatties. Blastfreezers ThisisthemostcommonlyusedcommerciaMethod Methodforfreezingmeatandiseitherundertakeninroomsortunnelsinwhichcoldairblastisprovided. Themediumofheattransferinablastfreezerisalsoair,butairisforcedtocirculaterapidlybymeansof fans,hencerateofheattransferandthusfreezingrateismarkedlyincreased. Thetemperaturerangeofcommercialblastfreezersfallbetween10Cand40C,whiletheairvelocities rangefrom0.5m/sectoabout18m/sec. Highairvelocitiesincreasethecostoffreezingandalsotheriskoffreezerburn. Hence,atemperatureof30C,andairvelocitiesofabout12.5m/secareprobablythemosteconomicaland practicalconditionsemployedintheindustry. Properstackingandspacingofmeatandmeatproductsonshelvedracksandpalletsareimportantcriteriain determiningefficiencyoffreezinginfreezerrooms. Conveyorspeeds,whicharesetbasedonthetimerequiredtofreezetheproductinquestion,isan importantcriterionindeterminingefficiencyoffreezinginblasttunnels.Sometimes,blastfreezersareused topartiallyfreezemeat,tocompletesurfacehardeningandfurtherfreezingisundertakeninastillair freezer. FreezingbyLiquidImmersionandLiquidSprays Thisisthemostcommonlyusedcommercialmethodforfreezingpoultry,thoughsomefishandmeat productsarefrozenbythismethod.Themediumofheattransferisthefreezingliquidused,inthismethod. Inthismethodheattransferisentirelybasedonconductionandhenceheattransferratesarerapidthan blastfreezers,andhencehighertemperaturescanbeused. Howeverthefreezingratesachievedinablastfreezerarecomparablewithfreezingbyliquidimmersionand liquidsprays. Meatpackedinplasticbags,stackedonshelvedracksorpalletsareeitherimmersedinfreezingliquidby forklifts,passedthroughthefreezingliquidbyconveyors. Productsmayotherwisebeconveyedthroughenclosedfreezingcabinetsinwhichfreezingliquidsare directlysprayedovertheproducts. Theproductsafterbeingremovedfromtheimmersingtankorfreezingcabinetsmustberinsedwithwater toremovethefreezingliquid.Theextentoffreezingisdeterminedbylengthofimmersingor spraying.SometimesfreezingbyliquidImmersionandliquidspraysiscarriedoutforpartialfreezing,to completesurfacehardeningandfurthercompletionoffreezingandstorageisundertakeninablastfreezer. Liquidsusedforfreezingeitherforimmersionorforspraymustpossesslowviscosity,freezingpoints,high heatconductivityandmustalsobenoncorrosive,relativelyinexpensiveandnontoxic. 55|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

56|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Sodiumchloridebrine(Corrosiveinnature),glycerolandglycolssuchaspropyleneglycolarecommonlyused forfreezing.Aproblemassociatedwiththismethodisthepossibleseepageoffreezingliquidontoproduct surfacethroughholesinprotectivepackage. Cryogenicfreezing Cryogenicfreezingisverylowtemperaturefreezingaccomplishedwithcondensedorliquefiedgasesby directimmersionoftheproducttobefrozenintheliquid,orsprayingtheliquidovertheproducttobe frozen,orbycirculatingthevapourofthecryogenicliquidovertheproducttobefrozen.Theagentsusually usedareeitherliquidnitrogenorcarbondioxide,andrarelyliquidnitrousoxideisalsoused. Directimmersionoflargepiecesofmeatisrarelyusedduetoextensiveshatteringorcrackingofproducts. So,generallyliquidnitrogenisusuallyevaporatedinafreezingchamberandthegreatcoolingcapacity,asit changestonitrogengasisusedtofreezemeatproducts. Liquidnitrogenorcarbondioxidereleasedassnow,combinedwithconveyorsystems,areusedto rapidlyfreezemeatproductsofsmallsizesuchaspatties,dicedmeat,fishandshellfish.Meatproducts frozenbythismethodhaveexcellentsensoryqualities. PhysicoChemical changes during Frozen storage of Meat Freezer/frozenstorageisahighlyeffectivemeansofpreservation. Itisaformoflowtemperaturedehydration. However,ithasbeenshownthatevenunderidealfrozenstoredconditionacertainamountofdeterioration inqualityofmeatsonotuncommon. Alterationofthestateofproteins Thephysicalstateofthemuscleplasma(globulinandalbumenproteins)isconsiderablyaltered. Whenmeatisfrozenbelow2Ctheformationoficecrystalssoraisestheconcentrationoftheseproteins thattheybecomeinsolubleanddonotregaintheirsolubilitywhenthemeatisthawed. Weepordrip Weepingdenotesthepresenceofawatery,bloodstainedfluid,whichescapesfromfrozenmeatwhen thawedandconsistsmainlyofwater,togetherwithsalts,extractives,proteins,peptides,aminoacids,lactic acids,purines,vitaminsofBcomplexanddamagedbloodcorpuscles. Thelatterareresponsibleforthepinkcolorationofthefluidandarereadilyrecognizableonmicroscopic examination. Weepingisanundesirablefeatureandmostinsurmountabledisadvantageoffreezerstoredmeat. Thisiscausedpartlybytheruptureofthemusclecellsandtissuesbylargecrystalsofice,andpartlybythe permanentirreversiblechangeinthemuscleplasm,whichpreventfrozenmusclesfromreabsorbingwater onthawing. Thesizeoftheicecrystalsinfrozenmeatbearsadirectrelationshiptothedamagedonetothecellsand thereforetotheamountofweepingordrip. Slowfreezingproducelargeicecrystals,whichmechanicallyrupturethethinsheathofthemusclefibres; rapidfreezingincurslesstimeinthezoneofmaximumiceformationandthesmallercrystalswillcauselittle ornodamage. Theamountofdripisgreaterinbeefthaninmutton,lamborpork,butthebettertheoriginalqualityofa beefcarcassthelessontheaveragewillbethedripfromthemeatafterthawing. Quartersoffrozenbeefdefrostedat10Cfor3daysandcutintolargewholesalejointsloseabout12%of theirweightduringthefollowingdaywhilesmallerjointsoftheretailtradelose1.5to2.5%. Therateofthawinginbothmeatandfishisoflessimportancethantherateoffreezing,foriflargecrystals oficehavealreadyformedthedamagedonetothemuscleisirremediable. Thedripisminimizedifthawingisveryslow. Onemethodemployedforbeefistosubjectthemeattoatemperatureof0Cwith70%RH,gradually increasingthetemperatureto10CandRHto90%;theforequarterrequires65hforcompletethawingand thehindquarter80h. ThefastertherateofbreakdownofATPinmusclethemorerapidistheonsetofrigormortisandthegreater thereleaseoffluidfromthemuscles. 56|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

57|U R V I S H M I S T R Y IftherateofbreakdownofATPcouldbeslowed,i.e.rigormortisisdelayed;lessfreefluidwouldbe availablefordripformationonsubsequentfreezingandthawing. Again,meatwhichhasahighpHpriorfreezinghasalowdripwhenthawed,andausefuldiminutionofdrip frombutcherscutscanbebroughtaboutwhenpHofmeatbeforefreezingis6.16.3. Rancidity Oxidativeprocessingeneralisslowed,butincaseofprolongedstorageofmeatinfreezer,oxidativechanges occur,withfatbreakingdownintofreefattyacidsandglycerine. Thestoragetemperatureandexposuretolightarecriticalfactorsgoverningthepaceoftheonsetof rancidity. Anenhancementintendernessofmeatandadepressioninjuicinessisthemainchangesonsensoryattributes causedbyfreezingofmeat Undesirable changes in freezer storage of meat Freezerburn Freezerburnisanextensionofsurfacedesiccationassociatedwithfreezing. Itoccursontheoutersurfaceofimportedfrozenoffals,likekidneyslivers. Freezerburnisattributedtolossofmoisturefromtheoutertissues;itmaybeseenwhereacarcassisstored closetoopeningofacoldairduct. Themeatoroffalshaveabrownwithereddiscolouration. Storagetemperatureinfluencesboththerateofdesiccationandthedevelopmentoffreezerburn.Thiscan bepreventedbyusingsuitablepackaging. Bonedarkening Bonedarkeningisacondition,whichdevelopswhenyoungpoultryisfrozenandthawed. Organolepticpropertiesofthemusclearenotaffected,butthebrowntoblackappearanceofthelongbones andthesurroundingmusclesresultsfromleachingofhaemoglobinoutofthebonemarrow. Subsequentoxidationoftheredhaemoglobintomethaemoglobinproducesthedarkcolour.Bonedarkening isaproblemonlyinyoungbirdsfortworeasons. o First,morehaemoglobinispresentinthebonemarrowofyoung,rapidlygrowingbirds. o Secondly,incompletecalcificationofthebonesallowsthehaemoglobintoescapefromthemarrow cavity. Recrystallization Recrystallizationisanimportantphysicalchangewhichmaytakeplaceduringfrozenstorage,resultingin translocationofwaterandconsolidationoftheunfrozensolublewatermoleculetendtomigratefromsmall tolargecrystals. Thismigrationispromotedbyfluctuatingstoragetemperatures. Manyworkershavefoundthatfluctuatingtemperaturesresultinmoisturelossandqualitydeterioration. Thawrigor Whenprerigormeatisfrozen,aseveretypeofrigormortisensuesduringthawing. Theshorteningsoproducedmaybe60to80%oftheoriginallengthoftheunrestrainedmuscle. Althoughshorteningislessinamuscleattachedtoskeleton,theconditionresultsintoughmeatandheavy driplosses. Thawing of frozen meat Thawingordefrostingoffrozenmeatisusuallydonebeforecooking. Thisisdoneinordertobringthemeattotheroomtemperature. Defrostingmaybeachievedinmanyways,viz., o Slowdefrostinginarefrigeratororincoldair o Atroomtemperatureinarackorwarmair o Incirculatingcoldwaterand o Quickdefrostinginwarmwaterorcookedwithoutpriorthawing. 57|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

58|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Defrostedmeatiscookedinthesamewayasfreshmeat. Meat,whenthawed,sometimesproducesawaterfluidcalledWeeporDrip. Thisfluidmainlyconsistsofwater,salts. Duetothepresenceoflargeicecrystalsinmuscle,proteinisalsotosomeextentunabletoreabsorbthe entirewaterwhenthemeatisthawed. Inthepresentcontextofpreservationofmeat,thedripfluidoffersagoodmediumforgrowthand multiplicationofbacteria,whichispresentinthefrozenmeat. Therefore,thawedmeatisliabletospoilquicklythanfreshmeat.Astheshelflifeofthethawedmeatislow, refreezingofsuchthawedmeatwillmateriallyyieldmeatofpoorstability. Palatabilitydifferencesamongthawingmethodsarenegligible. Themethodofthawingaffectstheamountofmoistureordriplossfromthemeat. Theextentofthislossfromagivenproductdependsalsouponthetemperatureatwhichthemeatwasheld duringfrozenstorage. Fluctuatingtemperaturestendtoincreasethedriplossonthawing. Asapracticalmatter,frozenmeatsthathavemoredriplossduringthawinglooselessmoistureduring cooking;theoveralldriplossfromthefrozentothecookedstateisalmostthesameforallthemethodsof thawing. Thetimerequiredforthawingfrozenmeatsdependsuponthetemperatureofthemeatanditsthermal capacity,thethawingmedium(airorwater)anditstemperatureandcirculation,thesizeoftheunitbeing thawed,etc. Insituationswherethethawingwilltakealongtime,careshouldbetakentoavoidsurfacetemperaturethat willpermitrapidmicrobialgrowth. Althoughthemicroorganismsdonotgrowfasteronthawedmeatthanonfreshmeat,theproductisvery perishableassoonasthesurfacetemperaturegoes0C(32F). Therefore,frozenmeatshouldnotbethawedtoolongbeforecooking. Inrefrozenthawedmeat,therewillbeincreaseddamagetothetissues,whichwillcauseanincreaseddrip loss,thusalossofmorewatersolublenutrients,andtherewillbesomedecreaseinpalatability. Meat,whichhasahighpHpriortofreezing,hasalowdripwhenthawed. Sl.No. Factors 1. 2. Chilling Freezing Muchbelow1.4C(29.4F)

Temperature 1.1C(30F) Durability Less(35days)

Beef1year Mutton9months Pork6months

3. 4. 5.

Bloom Colour Kind

Excellent Present

Lost Absent

Onlyhighgrademeatalonecanbeused Anykindofmeatcanbeused.

Effect of freezing on the pathogenic microorganisms and parasites Freezingdestroyssomebacteriabutinother,thetemperatureismerelyinhibitingtheirgrowthand multiplicationuntilconditionsfavorabletotheirgrowthappear. Freezing,isthereforeof,nogreatvaluesasamethodofreducingcarcassesaffectedwithpathogenic bacteriasafeforhumanconsumptionorbacteriacommonlyfoundonthebeefcarcassesdestroyedbyslow orshortfreezing. Anthraxbacillicanwithstandat130Cwhileorganismofsalmonellagroupcanwithstandat175Cfor3 days. Atuberclebacillusisfoundviableforover2yearsincarcassesfrozenat10C. Thefootandmouthviruscanreviewviablefor76days,ifthecarcassesofanimalsslaughteredduring incubationperiodofthediseaseandchilledorfrozenimmediatelyafterwards. 58|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

59|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Undersimilarconditionsswinefevervirusremaininfectiveinthebonemarrowforatleast73daysandthe virushasbeenshowntobeviableinfrozenporkfor1500days. Freezing,however,isavaluablemethodforthetreatmentofcertainparasiticinfestationandporkaffected withCysticercuscellulosaecanberenderedsafeifheldfor4daysat10.5to8C. CarcassofbeefaffectedwithCysticercusboviscanberenderedsafebyholdingfor3weeksatatemperature ofnotexceeding6.5Corbyholdingfor2weeksatatemperatureofnotexceeding10.5C. Trichinellacystsinporkaredestroyedbyholdingthecarcassesfor20daysat15Corbyquickfreezingfor 24hoursat18C. Precautions for efficient chilling of meat Thefollowingprecautionsmustbeadoptedtoensurechillingandfreezingisefficientanddeliversa consistentlyexcellentproduct: o Initialdesignofrefrigerationspaceshouldtakeintoconsiderationproducttenderness,weightloss, possibilityofspoilage,sizeofindividualunits,spacerequired,railheight,wallandfloorsurfaces. o Temperatureandrelativehumiditymustbemaintainedatrecommendedlevelsconstantly,and mustbemonitoredregularly. o Overloadingmustbeavoidedandcarcassesmustnottoucheachother. o Dooropeningandclosingmustbekepttoaminimumandaccessmustberestrictedtoauthorised personnelonly. o Adequateairflowaroundcarcassesisessential. o Carcassesofdifferentspeciesmustnotoccupythesamearea. o Drippansmustbeplacedundercarcassesandmeat. o Coldshorteningmustbeavoidedbydelayingchillingtolessthan10C,10hoursafterslaughter.

Preservation of meat by high temperature canning

Canning (Thermal processing or Thermal Preservation) Commercialcanningisamethodoffoodpreservationinwhich,carefullyselectedandpreparedfoods containedinapermanentlysealedcontainersaresubjectedtoheatforadefiniteperiodoftimeandthen cooled. Inmostcanningprocess,theeffectofheatingonspoilageorganismsistodestroythemandthepermanent sealingofthecontainerpreventingthereinfectionofthefoodbyfurtherorganisms. Canninghasbeeninvogueforabout200yearsnow,sincetheFrenchBiochemist,NicholasAppert,in1809 discoveredthemethodofhermetically(withoutanyhole)sealingglassjarsfilledwithvariousfoods,after heatingitinawaterbath,toovercometheproblemofpreservationofmeatinthearmedforces,. In1810,anEnglishman,PeterDurrand,conceivedandpatentedtheideaofusingtincansinsteadofglass containers. WilliamUnderwoodfolloweditin1817. BostonandThomasKensettebeganusingtinsascansin1819inNewYork. Further,manymoreadvanceshavebeenmadeincanning. Recentdevelopmentsincanninginclude AsepticCanning o Recentlyanewmethodofcanning,knownasasepticcanning,hasbeendeveloped,whichinvolves theuseofhightemperatureforshorterduration. o Thefoodissterilizedat120Cfor6secto6min,dependingonthefood,beforeitentersasterilized can,whichisthenclosedwithasterilizedlid. o Thismethodissaidtoimprovetheflavourandthevitamincontent. AluminiumCans o Morerecentlyaluminiumorcoatedaluminiumhasbeenusedinthefabricationofcans. o Whileithastheadvantageoflightnessandfreedomfromsulphidingandrust,itbucklesfairlyeasily. Effortsarebeingmadetoproduceanalloystrongenoughtowithstandthestressesofprocessing,packagingand transport. 59|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

60|U R V I S H M I S T R Y RetortProcessing FlexiblepouchesmadefromlaminatesofthermoplasticandaluminiumfoilarewidelyusedinJapanandare nowbeingadoptedinEuropeandtheUnitedStates. Theywillnot,however,withstandthehighinternalpressuredevelopedduringprocessingandmust thereforebesterilizedinmedia(waterorsteamandair)capableofprovidinganexternalpressuresufficient tobalancetheinternalone. Developmentsinmodesofsterilisation Forthethermalprocessingoftheopenorsanitarycan,flamesterilization,e.g.theTaraxflamesterilizer developedinAustralia,combinedwithrotationofthecan,isnowusedforcertainproducts.Thissystemhas theadvantageofbeingrelativelycheapandiscapableofprovidingveryefficientheattransferinthose productswithsomeliquid. Futureformsofthermalprocessingmayinvolvetheuseofmicrowaveenergy,hydrostaticsterilizersusing highefficiencysteamandfluidizedbedsystems. ThermalDestructionofMicroorganisms Theeffectofcanningisdestructionofspoilageorganismsandbothtemperatureemployedandlengthof heatingtimedeterminetheefficacyofthethermalprocessemployedinkillingspoilageorganisms. Whenbacteriainasuspensionareexposedtoheat,thenumberofremainingalivefollowsalogarithmic course(survivororthermaldeathratecurve)againstthelengthofheatingtimeataconstanttemperature. Someoftheimportantconceptsinthermaldestructionofmicroorganismsislistedbelow. Thedecimalreductiontime(Dvalue)isthetimetakenataconstanttemperaturetoreducethesurviving bacteriainasuspensionto10%oftheiroriginalnumber(or)inotherwordstodestroy90%0fthesurviving organisms. Totalsterilityisneverachievedandtheeffectofanythermalprocessingismeasuredagainsttheactivityof thesporesofCl.botulinum,themostheatresistantpathogenicformknown. Inmoderncanningoperationtheremustbesufficientheatprocessequalto12timestheD(decimal reductiontime)ofCl.botulinumspores. Byafactorof1012i.e.aheatprocessequalto12timestheD(decimalreductiontime)ofCl.botulinum spores. FoodswithapHoflessthan4.5,inwhichCl.botulinumsporesdonotgerminate,maybesubjectedtomilder heattreatments. ZvaluereferstothedegreesFahrenheitrequiredforthethermaldestructioncurvetotraverseonelogcycle. Thismaybeusedtodetermineequivalentthermalprocessesatdifferenttemperatures. If,forexample,3.5minutesat140Fisconsideredanadequateprocessandz=8,either0.35minutesat 148For35minutesor35minutesat132Fwouldbeconsideredasanequivalentprocess. Fvaluereferstotheequivalenttime,inminutes,at250Fofallheatconsideredwithrespecttoitscapacity todestroysporesorvegetativecellsofaparticularorganism. Cans types of cans Asafoodcontainers,themetalcanpossessescertainvirtuespossessedbynoothertypeofcontainersfor heatprocessedfoods,viz., o Ithasahighconductivity,whichisofimportanceduringprocessing. o Itcannotbeeasilybroken. o Beingopaque,anypossibledeleteriouseffectsoflightonthefoodstuffsareavoided. Although,thetermcanisappliedtomoderncontainers,thisissomewhatofamisnomer,astheyare constructedofmildsteelwithathincoatingofpuretin. Theactualamountoftinbeingonlyabout1.5%ofcansweight.Itisimportantthatthetinusedshouldnot containmorethan1%oflead. 60|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

61|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Coatingofsteelplateisnecessarytopreventcorrosionforsteelisanunstablecompoundandinsome foodstuffs,suchasfishorfruit.Thetinplateisprotectedbyafishorfruitlacquers. Unsightlystainingofsurfaceofcertainfoodstuffsknownassulphidingmayalsooccurandisavoidedbyuse ofaphenolicmeatlacquerorasulphurresistantlacquer. Analternativemethodofavoidingsulphidingisnowbeingextensivelyemployedformeatpackandconsist ofchemicaltreatmentoftheinsideofthecantoformaninvisibleprotectingfilmasolutionusedbeinga strongalkalibathcontainingphosphateandchromates. Thedesignofcansandthetechniquesofcanmanufacturearebeingconstantlyresearchedonand developmentsareconstantinthisindustry. Twoofthemostimportantadvancesachievedbytheseresearchactivitiesisthegreatreductionofmetalin thecansandthereplacementofsoldering,whichinvolveduseofleadbyelectricalwelding. TypesofCan Threetypesofcansaremainlyinvoguecurrentlyandtheyarethethreepiecefoodcan,twopiecedrawn andwallironedcananddrawnandredrawncan. ThreePieceFoodCan Tinplatedsteel,coatedwithlacquer,soastopreventcontactbetweenthetinplateandthefoodtobe canned,anddriedinovensfor1520minuteesiscutintostripsofspecificlengthsandwidthsasperthe sizeofthecansdesired. Suchindividualstripsarethenrolledintocylindersandthetwoedgesofthecylinderdrawnwithanoverlap, whichiselectricallywelded. Atthisstagethecylindersarefurthergivenacoatingoflacquerontheseamsanddriedinovens Alipisnextformedoneachendoftheofthecylinder. Seperateends(lidsandbases)aremadeinadifferentareaandtherimsoftheseendsarecurledand asealingcompundisinjectedintothecurl. Thebaseisnextjoinedtothecylinderbody,thesealingcompoundforminganairtightseal. Thecans,withtheseperatelidsarereadyforuse. TwoPieceDrawnandWallIronedCan Thesecansconsistsoftwopiecesoftinplate,thebodyandbasebeingformedfromonepieceofmetaland thelidfromanother. Thebodyandbaseareshapedfromathickpieceoftinplatewhichisdrawnup,ironedandridgedfor strengthandthengivenacoatoflacquer. DrawnandRedrawnCan Drawnandredrawncansaremanufacturedfromtwopiecesoftinplate,thebodybeingmadefromadisc shapedpiecelacqueredonbothsidesanddrawnuptoformashallowcupandthendrawnandredrawnto formadeepcup. Outline of canning operation Preparationoftherawmaterial(meat) Thehandlingofmeatpriortoheattreatmentisveryimportant. Meatshouldbehandledhygienicallyandunderstricttemperaturecontrolsothatcontaminationisavoided andthemultiplicationofmicrobesisprevented. Thelongtermstorageofmeatintendedforcanningshouldbepreservedunderatemperatureof12Cto 18C. Avarietyofprocesseslikegrinding,trimming,cutting,washing,canning,mincing,dicing,additionof emulsifiers,bindersandothersupplementsshouldbecarriedeffectivelyandrapidly. Meatshouldbethawedinspecialthawingroomsorinchillers. Themeatanditsoffalintendedforpetfoodmanufacturearenotthawedbutmincedanddicedinfrozen state. Mostcannedmeatproductsaresaltedbecauseitdoesreducestheheatresistanceofbacterialsporesand therebyreducesthecookingtimealso. Precooking/Blanching 61|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

62|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Productslikemeatisprecookedwhereas,vegetablesandfruitsarescaldedorblanchedinhotwaterata temperatureof87Cto95Corexposedtosteam. Blanchingisdoneto o Removetherespiratorygases,whichwouldreducevacuuminthecan. o Inhibittheenzymaticaction,whichcanreducequalityandnutritivevalueofmeat. o Causeshrinkageoftheproduct. o Tocleantheproduct. Fillingofcans Fillingofcansisthecriticalpartofthecanningoperation,whichcanbedonemechanicallyorbyhand,which shouldbedonecarefully. Therearetwotypesofcanfilling. o Handfilling o Mechanicalfilling(Machines) Handfillingisgenerallyemployeddependingonthesizeorconfigurationoftheproduct. Products,whicharesusceptiblefordamageduringmechanicalfilling,aresubjectedforhandfilling. Mechanicalfillingcanbedonebyawidevarietyofsemiorfullyautomaticmechanicalfillers. Inmechanicalfillingmostlycomminutedproductsandproductswhichhavefineparticlesizearefilledin. Thestepsincanningoperationsareasfollowing Exhausting Theexhaustionisdonebyremovalofairfromthecanbeforeitissealed. Exhaustionisnecessarybecause o Cansealedwithoutpreviousexhaustingmayshowsuchexpansionofthecontentsduringpossessing astoforcetheseamsandproduceaLeaker o Itproducesaconcavityoftheendsofthetins.Sothat,anyinternalpressuremaybereadilydetected andthecanrejected. o Itlowerstheamountofoxygeninthecanandpreventsdiscolorationofthesurfaceofthefoodand corrosionofthecan. o Infruitspacks,itreducesthechemicalactionbetweenthefoodproductsandthecontainerthus, largelyeliminateHydrogenSwell. o Althoughtheproductionofavacuum,probablyhasverylittleeffectonmicroorganism.Experience hasshowedthat,tincontainingavacuumkeepbetterthanthosefromwhichtheairhasnotbeen exhausted. Exhaustionofacanmaybecarriedoutinthreeways,suchas o Heatexhausting Thecontentsofthecanarefilledcold,whichisthenpassedthroughsteamproduceina exhaustchamberandheatedimmediatelybeforesealing. Theendsofthecanarelooselyattachedtopermitoftheescapeoftheair,sealingbeing completedwhenthecanleavetheexhauster. Theeffectistoreleaseairorgastrappedintheproduct. o VacuumizingorMechanicalExhaust Thecoldmaterialisfilledintothecan,andthenclosedinavacuumclosingmachine,the canbeingsubjectedtoahighvacuumduringtheseamingoperation. o SteamInjection Thismethodinvolvesinjectingablastofsteamintotheheadspaceaslidofthecanisbeing positioned. Sealingorseamingofthecontainer(closure) Thesealingofcanafterevacuationisachievedbycurlingtheedgeofthelidoverthecan. Thesealingmaterialoftenasyntheticrubbercompoundmustretainitsresilienceoveratemperaturerange frombelowroomtemperaturetoabove130C. Sealingisdonebyadoubleseamerandthesealingoperationtakesaboutonesecond. Therearetwoseamingoperations. Firstisseamoperationandtheotheristhehermeticsealoperation. ThermalProcessing/Sterilization 62|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

63|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Afterexhaustingandclosingthecansmustbeheatedforanaccuratelypredeterminedtimeand temperatureinanatmosphereofsaturatedsteaminheatedwateroroccasionallyinanairsteammixture. Foodtobecannedisthreatenedononehandbyspoilageduetobacteriaandontheotherbydamageof overheating. Thecanner,therefore,chooseamiddlecourse,theminimumheatemployedinprocessingbeingcontrolled bythenatureoffoodinthecamandtypesandnumberofbacterialikelytobepresent. Duringprocessing,heatpenetratestothecenterofthecanbyconductionandbyconvectioncurrents. Inthesolidmeatpackthediffusionofheatisbroughtaboutbyconductionandtheprocessistherefore slow. Solidlooselypackedinaliquidwill,therefore,heatmorerapidlyduetoconvectioncurrentthanthose, whicharetightlypacked. pHortheacidityofthefoodcontentsalsohasanimportantbearingonthetemperaturerequiredfor processing. Acidfoods,whichincludethecommonfruits,areeasilyprocessed. Thetemperaturemustbesufficienttokillyeast,mouldsandcertainbacteriacapableofgrowingintheacid medium. Innonacidfoods,suchasmeat,thedestructionofthebacterialsporesisslowandthesefoodsrequire temperatureof115Cwithsufficienttime(45minutes). Aseriousproblemassociatedwithconductionheatingistime.Whensmallvolumeofproductatthecan centerissterilized,theperipheralportionsareseverelyovercooked. Toavoidthisagitationduringcookingandthepresenceofheadspacenotonlyminimizestheuneven treatmentbuteffectivelythetemperatureandtimerequiredforsafeprocessing. Rotationalendoverendoraxialmovementoftheretorts(cookers)achievestheagitation. Canninginsmallerretortsiscalledbatchmethod. Thesealedcansusuallynotmorethanafewthousandperbatcharemanuallyloadedintotheretortontrays orinmetalbaskets. Thecookingtakesplaceundersteampressure. Cooling Promptcoolingafterprocessingisimportantanditcheckstheactionofheatonthefoodandpreventsany changeintextureandcolour. Inaddition,amarkedinternalpressureexistsinthecanwhenitisremovedfromsteampressureretortand rapidreductionofthisinternalpressureisensuedbypromptcoolingofthecans. Coolingisdoneeitherbyplacingthecanundershowers(Spray)ofcoldwaterorbyimmersingtheninacold watertank. Coolingcanalsobedonebypressurecoolingintheretortwhentheprocessingiscompleted. Thecansshouldbecooledtoanaveragetemperatureof37C. Atalltimescoolingwatershouldbepotableandbacteriologicallyclean. Canwashing Canwhichhasbeenjustcooledaredirtyandgreasyontheoutsideandarethereforepassedthrougha detergentbathtofacilitatesubsequenthandling,lacqueringandlabeling. Thisbathisusuallycomposedofsoaporsulphonatedfattyalcohol. Outsidelacquering,labellingandstorage Commerciallacquerorenamelisacolouredvarnishcontainingvegetableresinsorsyntheticresins. Tinsafterremovalfromthedetergentbatharewashedandlacquermaybeappliedtotheoutsideofthetin topreventexternalcorrosion,particularlywhenthecansareestimatedformoisture. Spoilage of canned foods distortion of cans Cannedgoodsareclassifiedasspoiledwhenthefoodhasundergoneadeleteriouschangeorwhenthe conditionofthecontainerrenderssuchchangepossible. Spoilagemaybeduetovarietyofcauses,andspoiledcansmayusuallyshowobviousofabnormalitiessuch asdistortion,blowing,concaveendsorslightlyconstrictedsides;ortheymaypresentaperfectlynormal externalappearance. Thevariousditortionscommonlyencounteredare: 63|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

64|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Swellorblower Acanwithitendsbulgedbypositiveinternalpressureduetogasgeneratedbymicrobialorchemicalactivity istermedasswellorblower. Flipper Aflipperisacanofnormalappearanceinwhichoneendflipsoutwhenthecanisstruckagainstasolid objectbuttheendsnapsbacktothenormalwhenveryslightpressureisapplied. Springer Aspringeristhetermusedtodescribeacaninwhichoneendisbulgedbutcanbeforcedbackintonormal position,whereupontheoppositeendbulges. Leaker Aleakerisacancontainingaperforationfromanycausewherebyatmosphericairmayenterthecanorits contentsescape. Maybedetectedbydisappearanceofvacuumfromthesidesandendsofthecansandthebubblesthat appearfromthecanwhenheldunderwaterandsqueezed. Anothertestforleakageistoheatthecanuntilthetemperatureis38Cintheinteriorandallowingittocool slowly.Whenifaleakispresent,therewillbenoconcavityofthesidesorends. Thecommonestleakingisattheseams,andmaysometimesbedetectedbytheappearanceofliquidor stainonthecansurface. Mouldformationonthesurfaceofcannedmeatisalsoindicativeofleakagethroughtheseamsbutcannot bedetecteduntilthecanisopened. Thedetectionofleakersbystrikingthesuspecttinwithamallethaslittlevalueinindustrialpractice. Overfilledcan Anoverfilledcanisoneinwhichtheendsareconvexduetooverfilling. Thoughanoverfilledcan,cannotproperlyberegardedasaspoiledcan,itmustbedifferentiatedfroma blower,anditemitsadullsoundwhenstruck,whereasablowntinemitsaresonantsound. Slackcaps Thetermslackcapisusedinthetradetodenoteacan,whichhasamovementofoneoftheendssimilarto acanintheearlystagesofblowing,andthegreatmajorityofcanclassedasslackcapsareblownandshould betreatedassuch. Blowerandslackcapsshouldbecondemned. Bacteria in canned foods Itwasatonetimethoughtthat,thekeepingqualityofcannedfoodsdependuponthecompleteexhaustion ofair. Later,itwassuggestedthat,heatingdestroyallmicroorganisms,whilethesealingofthecanpreventedentry ofothersandthedecompositionwhenitoccurredwasduetofaultysterilizationortoentryofbacteriato thefaultinthecans. Neitheroftheseviewsexpressesthewholetruthbecause,livingbacteriacanafterfoundinthesoundand wholesomefood. Bacteriologicalmethodsshowthatmanycannedmeatormeatproductscontainlivingorganismsevenafter modernprocessingmethods. Themerepresenceoflivingorganismsisoflittleornosignificanceinassessingthesoundnessofcanned goods. Theorganismresponsibleforspoilageincannedfoodsmaybesporeformingorganismsandtherefore, resistanttocommercialprocessing,ortheymaybeanonsporingorganism,whichgainsaccesstothecans byleakagesafterprocessing. Presenceofyeasts,mouldsornonsporingbacteriaincannedmeatfoodsisevidenceoftheleakageafter aftercsealingleanandcanmakethefoodunsound. Cannedgoodswhich,onopeningshowsuchevidenceshouldbecondemned. 64|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

65|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Factors affecting microbial spoilage Spoilageofcannedgoodsmayof Microbial Chemicaland Duetodeleteriousinfluencessuchasrustanddamage. Microbialspoilage Typeofmicroorganisms o Bacteriaofdecomposingoffermentingtypearethemostimportant,whilethestoreforming bacteriaarethemostresistant. o Thesearethreemaintypesofsporeformingorganism,whichcanresistnormalprocessingandmay causespoilageincannedfoods,viz., Gasproducinganaerobicorganismsgrowingatanoptimumtemperatureof55C. Gasproducinganaerobicandaerobicorganismswithanoptimumtemperaturegrowthof 37C. o Bothoftheabovetypesareassociatedwiththeformofspoilagerecognizedbyblowingorswell. Nongasproducingaerobicorfacultativeanaerobicsporeformingorganismswithan optimumgrowthtemperatureofabout55C,whichproduceflatsours. Thefactorsdeterminingmicrobial,unsoundnessincannedgoodsare Thenumberofmicroorganismspresent o Processingisnotasubstituteforcleanlinessanditisrecognizedbycannersthat,asmallnumberof bacteriaarelikelytobedestroyedmoreeasilybyprocessingthan,arealargenumbers. Efficiencyofprocessing o Insufficientprocessingmustberegardedasacauseofunsoundnessofcannedfoods,thoughnotthe allimportantfactorasgenerallyassumed. Accessoftheairtothecan o Thebacteriafoundinthecannedmeatarenearlyalwayssecondaryinvadersgainingaccesstothe foodthroughaleakingtin. o Microbialspoilagemaythusresultsfromunderprocessingorleakagethroughthetin. Flat souring Theflatsouringincannedgoodsismanifestedbythepresenceofasourodouroffoodstuffs,butwithout thecanbecomingblown. Cannedfoodssusceptibletothisdeleteriouschangearethosecontainingsugarorstarches,andmeat productssuchassausagesorpastecontainingcereals. o Trueflatsoursarecommonlycausedbythegrowthofthermophilicorganisms(B.coagulans, B.stearothermophilus,B.circulans),whichattackcarbohydrateswithproductionofacidbutnotgas. o Theexceptionalheatresistanceofsuchorganismsmakesthemtosurvivethenormalprocessing giventothecannedfoods. o Sournessincannedfoodsmayalsoariseduetoleakingcansoritmayhavedevelopedinthefood beforeprocessing. o Thelatterformsofspoilageisthemostliabletooccurincoldfilledpackinwarmweather,andits incidenceisgreatlyincreasedbyallowingtheproducttobestoredinopenforevenshortperiod priortoprocessing. o Incornedbeef,thepresenceofsouringwithoutgasproductionmaybeduetounderprocessingor leakingseams,butthedevelopmentofpreprocessingstorageisalsolikelytobethecause. Flatsoursofcannedfoodsduetothermophilicsporeformingorganismscannotbedetecteduntilthecanis openedanditscontentexamined,butisunlikelytooccurintemperateclimatesbutitsoccurrenceis commonintropicalandsubtropicalcountriesorwhencansimportedtotemperateclimatefromhot climates.

65|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

66|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Chemical spoilage hydrogen swell Themostimpotantproblemsencounteredinthecanningindustryowingtospoilageonaccountofchemical changesareHydrogenSwelling,PurpleStainingandRustorDamage. HydrogenSwell Hydrogenswellhappensindependentofmicrobialspoilage,andisassociatedwiththeformationofhydrigen gasinthecanfollowinginternalcorrosion. Imperfectionorscratchesontheinnercoatingmayexposesmallareasofsteelandwhenthecontentsare acid,anelectriccouplemayresult,thereactionproducinghydrogengas. Electrolyticactionisacceleratedbythepresenceofatmosphericoxygenandbythecolouringmatter anthocyanineoftheredfruits. Lacqueringofcanalsoincreasestherateatwhichhydrogenswellsareformed. Forcracksinnerliningofthelacquerservestoconcentrateelectrolyticactionontheareasofironexposed bythecracks. Canaffectedwithhydrogenswellmayshowvaryingdegreesofbulgingfromflippingtoblowingandifthetin beingpunctured,thereisemissionofhydrogengas,whichisodorlessandburnsontheapplicationofa flame Thisconditionischieflyassociatedwithfoodcontainingorganicacidsparticularlyfruitssuchasplums, cherries,raspberries,etc. TherangeofaciditymostfavorabletotheproductionofhydrogenswellsliesbetweenpH3.5and4.5. Thisconditionisunknownincannedmeatfoods,butitissometimesseeninsardines. Judgement o Thoughthecontentofthecaninhydrogenswellmaybequiteharmless,theroutinemethods employedintheexaminationofcannedgoodsrenderitimpossibletodistinguishbetweenthetins whichareblownduetohydrogenswellandthosewhichareblownasaresultofdeleteriouschanges duetobacteriaoryeasts. o So,allblowntins,leakers,springersandflatsourstogetherwithtinswhosecontentsshowevidence ofmouldmustberegardedasunfitforfood,hence,shouldbecondemned. Sulphiding Purplestainingontheinnersurfaceofthecansinwhichsulphurcontainingfoodsarepackedmayoccur withallfishandmeatproducts,especially,liver,kidneysandtongue. Itisduetothebreakingdownofsulphurcontainingproteinsatahighprocessingtemperaturewitharesult that,hydrogensulphideisliberatedandathinlayeroftinsulphideisformedontheinsideofthecan. Thisdiscoloration,whichdoesnotinvolvesfoodstuffsitselfandvariesfromalightpinktoadarkpurplebuta blackeningofbothinsideofthecanandthesurfaceofthefoodstuffsmayaccompanyit. Theselatterchangesareduetoattackofhydrogensulphideonthesteelbasewithaformationofiron sulphide. Itisofmoreseriousimpartthanthedepositionoftinsulphideasitmayleadtopittingofthesteeland disfigurementofthesurfaceofthemeatpack. PreventionorTreatmentoftheCan Thebasisofwhichis,copalgum,dissolvedinasuitablesolventtowhichanaddedsubstancecapableof unitingwithvolatilesulphurgasesreleasedwhilethefoodisbeingprocessed. Judgement Purplestainingoftheinsideofthecanisofnosignificance,whileblackeningofsurfaceofthefoodstuffsmay beremovedbytrimming. Rust or damage Rust Canshowingexternalrustrequirecarefulconsiderationanditisconditionsparticularlyliabletooccur beneathcanlabels,whentheadhesivecontainshygroscopicsubstances. Judgement 66|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

67|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Caninwhichtheexternalsurfacerustedwithoutnoticeablepittingofironmaybereleasedfor immediatesaleandconsumption. o Butiftherustisremovedwithaknifeandinspectionwithahandlensrevealstheironplatetobe definitelypitted,thereisdangerousofearlyperforationandthecanshouldbecondemned. o Minuteperforationsoftheplatetospoilageofthecancontent. Pinholingmayoriginatefromtheoutsidebutalsofromtheinsideofthecanwherethetinplatingis imperfectorhasbeenfracturedduringseaming,andinthiscaselacquersliningaggravatesthetrouble,as thecrackswhichoccurinthelacqueraidsinconcentratingthechemicalactiononasmallarea. Acan,whichisaleakerorpinholed,mayoccasionallysealitselfbyblockingofholeswiththecontained foodstuffs,andmaythenproceedtoblowup. Suchselfsealingcanmayblowearlyinitslife,generallywithinthefirstfewmonths. Unfilledcans Whereunfilledcansarestoredandallowedtorustinternallybeforebeingfilled,thecanedgesmaybecome rusted,withtheresultthatduringprocessingachemicalactionmaytakeplacebetweentherustandmeat juicesandgiverisetoanunsightlygreyprecipitateofironphosphateinthemeatjelly. Damage Considerablesignificanceshouldbeattachedtocansdamagedbyroughhandling,theimportantfactorin theirjudgementbeing,theextentandlocationofthedamage. Markeddeformationoftheseamofthecanisattendedbyconsiderableriskofleakage. Judgement o Canshowingseamdamageshouldbecondemned. o Slightindentationsonthecanbodyarepermissible,butseveredentsonthebodymaycauseseam distentionwithdangerofleakageandsuchcanshouldberejected. o Anycanhavingadentatoneendshouldalsoberejectedforitispossibletoreduceaspringerto normal,atanyratetemporarily,byhittingituponthecornerofabox. o Nailholesincanscauseduringclosingofpackagingcasesmayalsobeencountered,andsuchcans shouldberejectedevenifthecontainedfoodstuffsappearperfectlynormal. o Itisawiseactiontorejectanycanwhichisintheleastsuspiciousorwhichshowslackofconcavity oftheend. The public health aspects of canned foods Improvementsincanningindustryduringrecentyears,togetherwithgreaterappreciationofitshygienic requirements,havedonemuchtoremovetheprejudiceinthemindsoflaypublicagainstcannedfoods basedontheoppositionthatcannedfoodsmightcauseFoodpoisoning. Foodpoisoningisusuallytheresultofimproperhandlingoffoodduringpreparationorstorage,and,with theexceptionofbotulism,foodpoisoningoutbreaksarealwayscausedbybacteriawhichwouldbe destroyedduringprocessing. BotulismiscausedbythebotulinaltoxinproducedbyClostridiumbotulinum(orCl.botulinum)anobligate anaerobewhichisubiquitous,beingfoundintheair,soil,waters,intestinaltractsoffishandmammals,and gillsandvisceraofcrabsandothershellfish. Clostridiumbotulinumgrowswellinlowacidfoodssuchascannedvegetables,processedmeats,sausages, smokedfish,andotherseafoodproducts. TherearesevenknowntypesofClostridiumbotulinumbacteria.Thesedifferinsuchcharacteristicsas proteolyticactivity,tolerancetosaltandreducedwateractivity,minimumgrowthtemperatureand resistancetodestructionbyheat. ThenonproteolytictypeB,EandFstrainscangrowatrefrigeratedtemperatures,butproducesporesofvery lowheatresistance.Thesetypescauseproblemsprimarilyinpasteurizedorunheatedfoods.Becausethey arenonproteolytic,nooffodororevidenceofspoilagemaybeproducedwithtoxindevelopment TypeCstrainscausebotulisminbirds,turtles,cattle,sheepandhorses. TypeDisassociatedwithforagepoisoningofcattleandsheepinAustraliaandSouthAfrica. NooutbreaksoftypeGhavebeenreported;however,typeGhasbeenisolatedincasesofsuddenand unexpecteddeathinhumans. 67|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

68|U R V I S H M I S T R Y InactiveClostridiumbotulinumsporesarefoundinsoilandwaterthroughouttheworld.Itiscomparatively harmlessinthesporeform. Alowerprocessingtemperatureishoweverpermissibleinthecaseofafewspecialpackssuchascured meats,inwhichthecuringsaltshaveaninhibitoryeffectonthegrowthoforganismsandtheproductionof itstoxins. InBritain,thereisnorecordthatcannedfoodshavebeenincriminatedinoutbreaksofbotulism. Staphylococciandmorerarelystreptococciarenowrecognizedasacauseoffoodpoisoningandthe majorityoffoodsinwhichpathogenicstaphylococcihavebeenconcernedwerepreparedorunheatedfoods suchascheese,salad,milkoricecream. Theseorganismsareubiquitousinnaturebeingfoundinair,water,milkandsausagebutthemainsourceis thehumanoranimalbodywheretheyarenormallypresentontheskin,intheintestinesandinthe respiratorytract. Staphylococci,however,arerelativelysusceptibletoheatandeventhemoreresistantstaphylococcal enterotoxin,whichmaywithstandatemperatureof100Cfor30minutes,wouldbedestroyedduring commercialprocessing. Cansmayoccasionallybecomeinfectediftheseorganismsgainentrancethroughaleakingcanandin absenceofaccompanyinggasformingbacteria,thecanwillnotblow.Whileitscontents,though,they appearnormalmaycontainlargeamountoftheorganismsanditstoxins. Mostcasesoffoodpoisoningnowassociatedwithcannedfoodsaretheresultofcontaminationoffood stuffsafterthecanisopened,butanumberofcasesoftyphoidfeverassociatedwithcannedfoodshave occurredinBritaininrecentyears. TheoutbreakinAberdeenin1964inwhichtherewereover400confirmedcasesattributedtotheentry duringthewholeprocessingperiodofcontaminatedcoolingwaterintoa6lbsoftinofcornedbeefofSouth Americanorigin. Viewingthequestionasawhole,itmaybestateddefinitelythatcannedfoodsareconsiderablylesslikelyto beasourceoffoodpoisoningthanareordinaryfreshfoods. Thepossibilityofcannedfoodsbeingrendereddangerousbysecondarycontaminatedwithpathogenic bacteriaalsoraisesthequestionofthewisdomorotherwiseofleavingfoodinacanafterithasbeen opened. So,fromthepublichealthpoint,thereisnoreason,whyanopencanproperlystored,shouldnotbeusedas afoodcontainer,theonlyrequirementbeingthatitshouldbekeptcoveredtopreventcontaminationand thatcananditscontentshouldbekeptcool.ButitisthesporulatedCl.botulinumthatisabletoresisthigh temperaturesandsurviveawiderangeofunfavorablelivingconditions,suchasextremecold,510hoursin boilingwater,andthepresenceofchemicals.Cl.botulinumrevertstoitsvegetativeformonceconditions becomefavorableandreproducesjustlikeotherbacteria.Fortunately,botulinaltoxinisnotheatresistant likethesporeform.Itcanbeinactivatedbyboilingtemperaturesof212F(100C)foratleast10minutes. Thesalmonellagroupsoforganismaredestroyedwithcertainitybythetemperatureattainedincommercial processing.Theminimumstandardofprocessingnowuniversallyrecognizedbyreputablecannersensures thedestructionofCI.botulinumsporesinlowacidandmediumacidfoods. Microbial examination of canned meat Incaseofsuspectedoutbreaksoffoodpoisoningofcannedfoodsthenormallaboratoryproceduresfor isolationoftheresponsibleorganism(Salmonella,Staphylococcus,Clostridium,etc)aretobeadoptedand caretobetakeninsampling,transport,etc.,ofthesuspectedfood. Whereitisdesiredtocontrolthesafetyandstabilityoflargeconsignmentsofhermeticallysealedcontainers ofmeatproducts,attentionisdirectedtothestandardsofmethodsusedatthepointofproduction,viz., hygienelevels,temperatureforheattreatment,watersupply,etc.,informationonmicrobiologicalteststo detectbotulism. Examinationofthequalityofcontainersisimportanttoensurethattherearenodamaged,rusty,blown, etc.,cans. Ifthemeatproductsinhermeticallysealedcontainersisunsatisfactoryandhenceareasonforsuspicionon theconsignmentsamplingandinspectionproceduresshouldbeadoptedalongthelinesrecommendedby theCodexAlimentariusCommission(1983). 68|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

69|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thenumberofsamplestobetakenisassessedaccordingtotheexpectedhazardandthelaboratoryfacilities availableinthecaseofshelfstablecannedproducts. Fornonshelfstableproductsfivecontainersareexaminedvisuallyandtheircontentsexamined microbiologically. Bothaerobicandanaerobictechniquesareundertaken,decisionsastorejectionorapprovalbeingbasedon bacterialplatecounts(SamplingandInspectionProceduresforMicrobiologicalExaminationofMeat ProductsinHermeticallySealedContainers,CodexAlimentariusCommissionofFAO/WHO1983).

Preservation of meat by direct microbial inhibition

Preservation by use of antibiotics Theantibioticswhenusedintherequiredconcentrationimpartnoflavourorodourtothemeatanddonot discolourtheproduct,whilemostofthemareconsideredrelativelyharmlesstohumans. BroadspectrumantibioticssuchasChlortetracycline,OxytetracyclineandChloramphenicolarecommonly used. Infusionofbeefcarcasseswithtetracyclineantibioticsseemstohaveimprovedtheirkeepingqualityand retardedinternalspoilage. Antibioticscanalsobeinjectedintothelivinganimaljustpriortoslaughter. Administrationmayeitherintravenouslyorintraperitoneallyoftheanimal. But,theintraperitonealiscommerciallyimpossible(impracticable)becauseofthetimefactor,whichcannot beeasilyofferedincommercialslaughterpractice. Itis,however,aprocedure,whichcouldbeadoptedincountrieslackingrefrigerationandthusmaking possibleforthemeattobedistributedtoamuchwideareathanatpresent. Theseantibioticsarealsousedinthepreservationoffoodssuchaspoultryandfishalso. Theantibioticsareaddedtowaterinaproportionof5to40ppmandpoultrydippedintotreatedwaterfor chilling. Alternatively,theantibioticsareaddedtoiceinamountsof2to5ppm. Chickenissoakedinthisiceandwater.Suchmethodshavebeenseentoincreasetheshelflifeofthefoods considerably. Animportantobjectiontoinclusionofantibioticsinmeatisthat,itwillcreateantibioticresistantstrainsof pathogenicbacteria. Yet,anotherobjectionisthat,theantibioticsareineffectiveagainstyeastandmoulds. Thereisalsothedangerthat,producer,maybetemptedtosupplementgoodidealpracticeunderantibiotic cover. ChloramphenicolandStreptomycinaresomewhattoxic. Penicillinproduceshypersensitivity. Streptomycin,polymixinandsubtalinhavelimitedantibacterialspectra. Antibioticsshouldnotbeusedtoreplacegoodhygiene,butwhenemployedsuchthatalltheabovedangers areavoided,andinconjunctionwithmildrefrigerationorpasteurisingdosesofirradiationtheyafforda meansofpreservationwithoutmateriallyalteringtheproduct. However,preservationoffoodsusingantibioticshasbeenbannedinmanycountriesduetopublichealth concern. Sl.No. Nameofantibiotic 1. 2. Chlortetracycline Oxytetracycline Active against Gram+ve andve do EffectivepH range 4to7 do Stability

2WeeksatpHat4C. RapiddeteriorationoverpH7 OnemonthatpH3.9at5C. RapiddeteriorationabovepH7.0 unlessrefrigerated. 69|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

70|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 3. Penicillin Gram+ve only. Gramveo nly Gramve only 5to7

2daysatpH6.0at10C. RapiddeteriorationbelowpH5.0 orabove7.0. 2to3monthsatpH4to7atbelow 7C. 2monthsatpH6.0.

4. 5.

Streptomycinand dihydrostreptomycin Polymixin

7to9 4to8

Radiation preservation of meat Foodandmeatmaybepreservedbytheapplicationofradiation,eitherionisingornonionising,andsuch foodisreferredtoasirradiatedfood. Ionisingradiationisdefinedasradiationhavingenergysufficienttocauselossofelectronsfromatomsto produceions. Nonionisingradiationisdefinedasradiationnothavingsufficientenergytocauselossofelectronsfrom atomstoproduceions. Ionisingradiations Ionisingradiationsincludehighspeedelectronsproducedfromavarietyofelectrongeneratorssuchas cathoderaytubes,Xraysgeneratedbyelectronswhentheystrikeheavymetal,andelectronsandgamma particlesemittedfromradioisotopessuchascobalt60,cesium137. Ionisingradiationiscapableofkillingmicroorganismonmeatwithoutsignificantlyraisingthetemperature, hencereferredtoascoldsterilisation. Theamountofradiationenergyabsorbedbymeatisexpressedinrads(or)graywhichisequalto100rads. Amegaradisamillionradsor10,000Grayor10kGy. Adosageofabout4.5megaradsor45kGyisconsideredtobecapableofsterilisingproductstoastate wheretheycanbestoredwithoutrefrigeratedstorage. RadiationpreservationmaybeclassifiedasRadappertisation,RadurizationandRadicidationinthe decreasingorderofdosage. Radappertisation,whichbringsaboutsterilityinmeat,involvestheapplicationofradiationintherange0f20 30kGy. Henceitisalsoreferredtoasradiationsterilisation. Itisofternassociatedwithdevelopmentofunpleasantodours,flavorsandoffcolours. TheodourthatemanateshasbeenlikenedtoWetDogHairodour. Beefisparticularlyliabletosuchchangeswhileporkandpoultrylessso. Radurizationisotherwisereferredtoasradiationpasteurisation,andthisusesdoseslessthanthatrequired forsterilisation,typicallyintherange110kGy,asthisdosageissufficienttokillmanysoilageorganismsand thuscanextendshelflifeofmeatunderrefrigerationsignificantly. Radicidationisaprocessinwhichdoseslessthan1kGyareemployedtoincreaseshelflife,preventsprouting invegetablesandforrenderingporkfreeofTrichinellaspiralis. Nonionizingradiation Microwaveandinfraredrayshavewavelengthgreaterthanvisiblelightsarecapableofgenerationofheatin theirradiatedobjectandthusimpartpreservativeeffect,ifany. Ultravioletrayswhenabsorbedbymicroorganismsislethaltothemandthusgermicidal. o Itisusedmainlyinagingofmeat. o Limitationofusingultravioletraysare Poorpenetration,socanbeusedonlyforsterilisingsurfacesofcarcassesandmeat products. Catalyzesmanyoxidativechangesintheirradiatedproducts.So,causerancidity, discolorationandothertypeofoxidativedeteriorationand 70|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

71|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Infraredrayshavebeenusedtodryfruitsandvegetablesandforheatblanchinginthe samewayashighfrequencyradiation. Chemical preservation Whenhygienicprincipleswerelittlepractical,andlessunderstood,chemicalpreservativeswerenot infrequentlyusedinfoodtooffsetwhatisnowrecognizedasmicrobiologicallydangerousaction. Nevertheless,thisremedyhasdrawbacksbecausechemicalpreservativemaybenonspecificprotoplasmic poisonandasundesirablefortheconsumerasforthemicroorganismagainstwhichtheyaredirected; moreovertheireffectmaybecumulativeratherthanimmediate. Preservativemeansanysubstance,whichiscapableofinhibiting,retardingorarrestingtheprocessof fermentation,acidificationorotherdeteriorationoffoodorofmaskinganyoftheevidenceputrefactionbut doesnotincludecommonsalt,lecithins,sugarsortocopherols;nicotinicacidoritsamide,vinegaroracetic acid,lacticacid,ascorbicacid,citricacid,malicacid,phosphoricacid,pyrophosphoricacidortartaricacidor thecalcium,sodiumorpotassiumsaltsofthem,glycerol,alcohol,orportablespirits,isopropylalcohol, propyleneglycol,monoacetin,diacetin,ortriacetin,herbs,spicesortheirextracts,oressentialoilswhen usedforthepurposesofflavouring. Therearemanychemicals,whichpreventmicrobialgrowthinfoodsandactaspreservatives.Severalorganic acidshavebeenGenerallyRecognizedAsSafe(GRAS)foruseaschemicalpreservatives. Morerecently,however,theadditionofnicotinamideandascorbicacidtomeat,ascolourpreservative,was prohibited. Formaldehyde,assuch,isalsoprohibited,sinceitisdemonstrablytoxin,butispermittedupto5ppm. Freshmeat,whenintheintactcarcass,isnotusuallyseverelycontaminated. Ontheother,inpreparingproductscontainingcomminutedormincedmeats,thereiseverypossibilityfor massivebacterialcontaminationfromthehandsofoperativesorfromequipment. Hence,chemicalpreservativeswereparticularlyemployedinrelationtomeat. Veryfewchemicalsarenowpermittedaspreservativesandtheseonlyinminutequantities. Apartfromnitrate,nitrite,sorbic,acidandtetracyclines,theU.K.preservativesinfoodregulationsact,1962 listsonlyseven,namelysulphurdioxide,propionicacid,benzoicacid,methylphydroxybenzoate,ethylp hydroxybenzoate,diphenyl,Ophenylphenolandcoppercarbonate,oftheseseven,onlysulphurdioxideis permittedinmeatpreservationupto450ppmbeinginsausageandsausagemeat. Itseffectisantimicrobial,andatthatpermittedlevelithasnobeneficialeffectonmeatcolour,sothat deceptionofthepubliconthisbasisnotpossible. Boricacidwasalsoemployeduntilrelativelyrecentlybothinsausagemeatandincuring;butitsuseinthe U.K.wasdiscontinuedintheaforementionedActof1928. SpicesandessentialoilsareexcludedfromtheU.K.preservativesinfoodregulationsact,whenusedfor flavoringpurposeasperregulations. Variousessentialoilshavepreservationpropertiesandhavebeenusedtoextendthestoragelifeofmeat products. Theseincludeeugenolinclovesandalkylisothiocyanateinmustardseedand0.3percentofsageor rosemarywasinhibitoryand0.5percentbactericidal. Carbondioxideandozonehavebeenusedtodiscouragethegrowthofsurfacemicroorganismsonbeef carcassesduringprolongedstorageatchilltemperatures. Since,ozoneleavestoxicresiduesinthemeat,itsuseinthestorecanbedangerousforpersonnelandit acceleratestheoxidationoffatandismoreeffectiveagainstairbornemicroorganismsthanagainstthoseon themeat. Citricacid,propionicacid,benzoicacidandtheirsaltsareeffectivemouldinhibitors. Aceticacidandlacticacidpreventbacterialgrowth. Sorbateandbenzoatearecapableofarrestingthegrowthofyeastinfoods. 71|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

72|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Modern processing technologies of meat and meat products

Processing of meat
Meatisfurtherprocessedforthefollowingreasons: Modifyorupgradethelessnoble(lessvaluable)cutsofmeat,togetherwithanyedibletrimmingsoffatand connectivetissueremovedfromthenoble(valuable)cuts;andtomaketheflavourandtexturemore acceptabletoconsumersthantheywouldbeiftreatedonlybythesimplecookingandservingmethods whichareappropriateforthenoble(valuable)cuts.(Valueaddition) Toprovidegreaterchoicetotheconsumersandmakethemconsumemoreofthesameproduct. Toprovidereadytocookproductsorproductsthatrequireminimalprocessing(conveniencefoods)tothe consumer. ToaccordpreservationtomeatexceptionallyasincuredanddriedmeatproductsItisaratherironicaland debatablereason,becausethisisnottheuniversalcaseanditfact,processinggenerallymakesmeatmore vulnerabletospoilage,duetoincreaseinsurfacearea,greaterhandlingandpotentialfortemperature abuse. TypesofMeatProducts Meatproductsmaybeclassifiedbasedonthetreatmentappliedtomeatas o ComminutedMeatProducts(Comminution) o CuredMeatProducts(Curing) o FermentedMeatProducts(Fermentation) o DriedMeatProducts(Drying) o SmokedMeatProducts(Smoking) o EnrobedMeatProducts.(Enrobingoftheproductwithbatter) o Barbecued/GrilledorTandoorProducts(Typeofcooking) Ameatproductmusthaveatleast50%ofleanmeatinit.

Principles of processing meat

Fourprimaryfactorstobeattendedtoinprocessingofmeat Moisture.Thenaturalmoisturecontentoftheleanmeat,andanyliquidsaddedintherecipe,shouldbe retainedtoaconsistentoptimumextentduringthemanufacturingprocessbearinginmindtheinterestsof bothyieldandproductquality,throughthestagesofdistribution,storageandeventualcookingbythe consumer. Fat.Thenaturalfatcontentofthemeatandanyextrafatwhichtheproductisdesignedtoincorporate shouldsimilarlyberetainedtoamaximumoroptimumextentthroughout. ConnectiveTissue.Wheretheproductcontainsanyofthetougherconnectivetissues,thereshouldbe presentedinsomemoreacceptableformCohesion. Theproductshouldretainitsphysicalintegrity.

Modern processing technologies in comminution of meat

Comminutionofmeat(lessnoblecuts),trimmingsfromnoblecutsofmeat,offalsandfatresultinthefollowing usefuleffects: Uniformityinsizeandshape,renderingthemmoreattractive. Breakingupofconnectivetissuemakingitlessobtrusive Mincingfatandmeattogether,soastomakelargetomoderatetolargeproportionsoffatlessobtrusive Comminutedleanmeatbindsthewholemixturetogetherespeciallyinthepresenceofsalt. Thetextureandeatingqualityoftheproductsarethereforesuperiortotherawmaterialsusedandare hencemoredesirabletoconsumers. Comminutedmeatproductsmaybefurtherclassifiedascoarselygroundorfinelygroundmeatproducts (emulsionbasedmeatproducts). ThedifferenttechnologiesutilisedincomminutionofmeatincludeMincing,MillingChopping,andFlaking. Mincing 72|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

73|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Mincingorgrinding,thefirststepindevelopmentofcomminutedmeatproductsusually,isundertakenina mincer,whichconsistofscrewconveyorhousedinachamber,andarotatinginnerplateofknivesatone endoftheconveyor. Considerablepressureisputonthemeatinthescrewfeedchamber. Tearingoccursbetweenthescrewflightsandthechamber. Finalcomminutionoccurswhenportionsofthemeatextrudedthroughtherotatinginnerpateofknivesare eitherpassedonthroughholesinthefixedouterplateorshearedoffastheholespassoutofregister. Thus,thereisgreattearing,pressureandgreatshearingandthemeatisnotcutcleanlyorfinely. Connectivetissueisfairlywelldividedinasharpmincer,butmaybetroublesomeinabluntone. Mincedmeatcanbeusedfordevelopmentofcoarsegroundmeatproducts,ormaybefurtherchoppedina bowlchoppertoproduceemulsionbasedmeatproducts. Milling Amillerisusedformillingofmeatandamillerisverysimilartomeatmincer,exceptthat: Thereisnofeedscrew;theplatesaremountedhorizontallyandfedbytheweightofmaterialabove. Arotatingknifewhichmovesatmuchhigherspeed; Somecuttingortearingactioninthespacebetweentheplatesaswellasattheedgesoftheholesinthem. Thereisfinercomminutionthaninamincerandtheoperationismuchfaster. Thefinenessofcomminutionandintimatemixing,whenusedwithfattymaterials,thesemachinesmaybe referredtoasemulsifiers. Theseareextremelysuitabletomanufacturepatties. Chopping Choppingisundertakeninchopper,whichareoftwotypesRotaryBowlChopperandStationaryChopper Arotarybowlchopperconsistsofthreeormorecurvedknivesrotatingathighspeedinverticalplaneclose tothesurfaceofacurvedbowlwhichitselfrotatesslowlyinahorizontalplane. Inadditiontothevigorouscuttingactionoftheknives,themassagingeffectofthesideoftheknivesonthe massofchoppedmeatmaybeimportant. Satisfactorychoppingtemperaturesrangefrom1Cto+22C. Coldertemperaturesleadtodamagetoknives;whilewarmertemperaturesleadtooverchoppingoffatty tissueandreleaseoffreefat. Advanceddesignspossessthepropertyofchoppingundervacuum. Choppingisfinallyundertakentoproducetheemulsiontomanufactureemulsionbasedmeatproducts. Flaking Flakingisundertakeneitherinanimpellerflakerorablockflaker,andflakingiscarriedoutcutsliversof meatofconstantthicknessandparallelsides. Animpellerflakerconsistsofanimpellerwhichpropelsthemotionofthemeatfedintothemachine,tothe sharpedgesofknivesarrangedinastaticring. Thethicknessofthesliverscanbeadjustedbyadjustingtheringofknives. Connectivetissueisalsocutclean. Ablockflakerisusedtocutsliversofmeatfromfrozenblocks. Theflakesproducedarecoarsethanthatofanimpellerflaker. Aguillotinecutsflakesfromtheendofafrozenblock.

Modern processing technologies in curing of meat

Thevarioustechnologiesinvolvedinhasteningthecuringofmeatbybrinecureapplicationismassaging, tumblingandmixing. Massaging Massaginginvolvesfrictionalenergyresultingfrommeatpiecesrubbingtogether. Meatmassagersarevatsthatcontainamechanismfortheslowstirringofmeatpieces. Thestirringarmsorpaddlesaremadetosetatvariousconfigurations. 73|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

74|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thisprocessisagentlerformofmechanicalenergyoutputandisverysuitablefortheproductionofwhole muscledcuredproducts. Tumbling Tumblingisamoreseveretypeofphysicaltreatment Tumblinginvolvestheuseofimpactenergyresultingfrommeatpiecesfallingandstrikingbafflesorpaddles containedinarotatingdrum. Tumblingaidstheextractionofproteinsasinmassaging,andthusenhancestendernessandjuiciness. Mixing Mixingimpartsarathervigorousmechanicalenergytotheproduct.\ Mixerspossesssometypeofpaddlesorribbonsthatrotatearoundametalshaft. Shortmixingtimesareusuallytheruleastheytendtotearupwholemuscleproducts. Itismostsuitabletomanufacturesausagetypeproducts

Formulation and development of meat and seafood products

Sausages

Sausagemaybedefinedasafoodconsistingofamixtureofmincedorchoppedmeatandcerealforbinding purposes,seasonedandspicedwithsage,pepperandothersubstances,andstuffedintocasings. Theoriginofthispopularformofmeatfoodisdifficulttotracebutcertainlyitisovertwothousandyears. SausagecantraceitsancestrytotheLatinwordsalsus,whichmeanssaltedorliterally,meatpreservedby salting. Thoughsausagesoriginatedinthewesternworld,theseproductsacquireduniversalpopularitydueto varietyandconveniencetotheconsumers. Sausagesareeconomicalsince;thesearegenerallypreparedfromcheapercutsofmeatandbyproductsof meatindustry.

Classification CLASSIFICATION Freshsausages CHARACTERISTICS

EXAMPLES

Freshmeats(chieflypork);uncured, comminuted,seasonedandusually stuffedintocasings;mustbecookedfully beforeserving Curedmeats;fermentedairdried,maybe smokedbeforedrying;servedcold. Curedoruncuredmeats;comminuted, seasoned,stuffedintocasings,cooked andsometimessmoked;usuallyserved cold. Curedmeats;comminuted,seasoned, stuffedintocasings,smokedandfully cooked;donotrequirefurthercooking, butsomeareheatedforserving. Freshmeats;curedoruncured,stuffed, smoked,butnotcooked;mustbefully cookedbeforeserving. Speciallypreparedmeatproducts;cured

Freshporksausage, Bratwurst

Dryandsemidry sausages Cookedsausages

Genoasalami,Pepperoni, Lebanonbologna. Liversausage,Summer sausage,Braunschweiger, Livercheese. Frankfurters,Bologna,Cotto salami.

Cooked,smoked sausages

Uncooked, smokedsausages Cookedmeat

Smoked,countrystyle porksausage,Mettwurst, Kielbasa. Loaves,Headcheese, 74|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

75|U R V I S H M I S T R Y specialties oruncuredmeats,cookedbutrarely smoked,oftenmadeinloaves,but generallysoldinsliced,packagedform; usuallyservedcold. Scrapple

Containers Casingsservethepurposeofprovidingacontainerorthesausagematerialduringthesubsequentcooking andsmokingprocedures. Casingscanbeclassifiedasoneofthegeneraltypes. o Natural, o Artificial,and o Reconstitutedcollagen. Sausage ingredients Rawmaterials Excellentsausagescanbemadefromvariousfreshtrimmingsandcutsthatmightordinarilybe underutilised. Materialssuchascheek,jowl,headmeat,porkfatandtrimmings,whichareseldomusedfreshly,make palatablesausagesandareasgoodforthispurposeasareanyothercutsofmeat. Othercutsfromlowqualitycarcassesmayalsobeused. Onlycleanfreshorcuredmeatsfreefrombones,tendons,andjointsshouldbeused. Theskinshouldberemovedfromthepork. Meatbyproductssuchasheart,liver,kidney,tongueandtripeobtainedfrombeef,calves,sheepandhogs areusedinmanysausages. Water Wateristhemostimportantnonmeatingredientanditshouldbepermittedupto3%forfreshsausages, luncheonmeatsandmeatloaves. Thefinalcookedsausageproductshouldnotexceedfourtimestheproteincontentplus10%. Protein Duringpreparationofsausagebattersoremulsion,meatproteinsservetwofunctions: o Toencapsulateoremulsifyfat,and o Tobindwater. Ifeitheroftheseisnotaccomplishedproperly,thesausagewillbeunstableandsubjecttobreakdownduring cooking. Thefractionofmusclethatcontainssaltsolublemyofibrillar(contractile)proteinsismoreimportantthan thesarcoplasmicfraction,whichcontainswatersolubleproteins. Approximately55%oftotalmuscleproteinismyofibrillar,composedlargelyofmyosinandactin. Duringtheonsetofrigor,myosinandactinarecomplexedtoformactomyosin. Thedissociatedproteinsaremoreextractableandhaveagreaterabilitytoswellandbindwater. Aftertheonsetofrigortheswellingandextractabilityareinfluencedmainlybytemperatureandultimate pH. Thepresenceofexcessivecollageninmostsausageisundesirableanditisusuallydesirableforfinished sausagestohavenomorethan25%ofthetotalproteinascollagen. Fat Fatcontributesgreatlytopalatabilityofsausages,butitisalsothesourceofmanyprocessingproblems. Tendernessandjuicinessofcookedsausagesareaffectedbytheirfatcontent. Fatisaddedtoemulsionsorbattersprimarilythroughinclusionofbeefandporktrimmingsinformulations. Sincetheporkfatsaresofterandmeltatlowertemperatures,theyareeasiertocomminutethanbeeffats. Duringcomminution,beeffatsrequirehighertemperaturesthanporkfats. Cookedsausagessuchasfrankfurters,bolognaandsimilarcomminutedsausageproductsarelimitedbyU.S. governmentregulationtoamaximumof30%fat. 75|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

76|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Nonmeatingredients Salt Saltisthemostcriticalingredientinsausagemanufacturing. Withoutsaltsausagescannotbemade. Salthas3primaryfunctionspreservation,flavourenhancementandproteinextractiontocreatethe producttobind. Mostsausageshave23%ofaddedsalt. Sugar Avarietyofsugarsarecommonlyusedrangingfromsucrose(caneorbeetsugarC12H22O11)todextrose(corn sugarC6H12O6),cornsyrup,cornsyrupsolids,sorbitolarealsousedinlatergroup. Sugarsareusedmostlyasflavouringagentstocounteractthesaltflavourintensityandtoprovidefoodfor microbialfermentationinfermentedsausages. Mostsugars,exceptsorbitolincreasethebrowningofmeatduringcooking. Dextroseisusuallyaddedatthe0.5to1percentlevel(ofthemeatweight)forfermentedsausages. Spicesandflavourings Spicesaredriedaromaticvegetablesubstances. Thetermmaybeappliedtoalldriedplantproducts,whichincludeherbs,aromaticseedsanddehydrated vegetables. Spicesareliabletocertainvariationsinflavour,strengthandquality. Allspice,ginger,nutmegandpepperareproductsoftropicalplants. Theymayrepresenttheroot,bark,bud,flowerorfruit. Spicesareusedeitherwholeorinoneofthefollowingprocessedforms:(1)ground,(2)essentialoils,or(3) oleoresins. Thelattertwomustbeclassifiedasflavourings. Mostspicesareusedinprocessedform. Wholepeppercornsusedincertaindrysausagesareanexampleofawholespice. Flavouringsarespiceextractives:essentialoilsoroleoresins. Extractiveshavetheadvantagesofeliminationofcolourspecks,freedomfrombacteria,reducedshipping costsandlessstoragearea. Herbsareleavesofplantsgrowninbothtemperateandtropicalzonesandarerelativelylowintotaloil contentwhiletruespicesarerelativelyhigh. o Marjoram,sageandthymeareexamplesofherbs. Aromaticseedsarederivedfromplantscultivatedinbothtemperateandtropicalareas. o Anise,coriander,dillandmustardareexamplesofaromaticseeds. Vegetablesareusedinthedehydratedform.Examplesaregarlicandonions. Seasoningsandflavouringsareincludedinsausageemulsionsorbatterstoaddflavourtotheproduct. o Examplesofseasoningsandflavouringsare o Monosodiumglutamateandnucleotidesenhanceflavour. Hydrolyzedplantproteinscontributeacharacteristicmeatyflavour. Blackpepper,cloves,ginger,mace,rosemary,sageandthymepossessantioxidantproperties. Otherflavouradditivesincludesmokeflavouringwhichisusuallyaddedasanoilorwatersolutionofnatural smokeandvinegarusedinproductslikesulzeorsomepickledsausages.Bothofthesehavedefinite bacteriostaticproperties. Extendersandbinders Thesearecalledasnonmeatmaterialsandalsoarelessfrequentlyreferredtoasfillers,emulsifiersor stabilizers. Theyareaddedtobasicmeatformulationsforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons: o Toimproveemulsionstability o Toimprovecookingyields o Toimproveslicingcharacteristics o Toimproveflavour,and o Toreduceformulationcosts. Theuselevelisgenerallyrestrictedto3.5%withexceptionofsoyproteinisolate,whichcarriesa2%limit. 76|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

77|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Manyextendershaveaneffectoncolour,flavourandtexture. Milkproductsarewellacceptedduetotheirpositiveflavourcontribution. Nonfatdriedmilk,driedwheys,modifiedwheysandpartiallydelactosedwheysarealsoavailable. Cerealextendersaremainlystarch,bindwaterandimpartablandflavour. Soyproteinsincludegritsorflour(50%protein),concentrate(79%protein)andisolate(90%protein). Theymaybeavailableinatexturedaswellasapowderorgroundform. Soyisolateisagoodbinder,functioningmuchlikemeatproteininanemulsionorbatter. Amongotherextendersaremustardflouranddeheatedgroundmustard,whichmaybeusedatlevelsupto 1%. Yeastproteinsrepresentanothergroupofextendersasdomilkproteinhydrolysates. Manyofthesecanbeclassifiedasflavourings. Gelatin,whilenotspecificallyanextender,isusedasabinderforsomeloaftypeproducts. GelatinvariesingelstrengthandclarityaccordingtoBloomnumber. Fillerssuchasstarch,cerealsandwheatflourandcornmealareusedoccasionallytolowerthecostandthe shrinkageandtobindtotheproduct. NitriteandNitrate Sodiumnitrite(NaNO2)orpotassiumnitrite(KNO2)isaddeddirectlytosausagebatter. Nitritehasfourfunctionsincuredmeatandsausageproducts o Todevelopthecharacteristicpinkcolour o Toprovidebacteriostaticproperties o Toimprovetheflavour o Toserveasapowerfulantioxidant Thebacteriostaticpropertiesofnitriteareextremelyimportantinthethermallyprocessed,vacuum packagedproducts. WithoutnitritetheorganismCl.botulinumwilljeopardizethesafetyoftheseproducts,thebacteriathat causesbotulism. NitritepreventstheoutgrowthofCl.botulinumsporesandsubsequentlytheproductionoftoxins. About400ppmofnitriteinthefinishedproductisconsiderednecessaryfortheformationofthecured colour. AscorbatesandErythrobates AscorbatesandErythrobatesarestrongreducingagentsthatacceleratetheconversionofmetmyoglobinto myoglobinandnitricoxide. Thevitaminascorbicacid(C6H8O6)derivativesarealsoknownascureaccelerators,sincetheyhastenthe curingreaction. Theuselevelis7/8ozper100lbofmeat(approximately550ppm). Antioxidants Antioxidantsareaddedtothefreshanddrysausagestoretardthedevelopmentofoxidativerancidity. Oxidativeranciditydevelopsintheunsaturated(double)carboncarbonbondsinfattyacidspresentin meats. Salt,light,heatingandfreezingandtracesofcertainmetalsalsoincreaseoxidativerancidity. Grindingandchoppingofmeatforsausageproductionexposesmoreofthemembranefattyacidsto oxidation. ThemostcommonantioxidantcompoundsusedareBHA(Butylatedhydroxyanisole),BHT(Butylated hydroxytoluene)andpropylgallate.Theyareaddedat0.01to0.02%offatcontent. Phosphates Phosphatesareaddedtoimprovethewaterbindingcapacityofmeatandsolubilizeproteinsandactas antioxidantsandhelpprotectandstabilizetheflavourandcolouroffinishedproduct. Throughtheuseofphosphates,processorscanattainalongerproductshelflifeandimprovesmokehouse yield. Phosphatesareapprovedatalevelnottoexceed0.5%inthefinishedproduct. ThefollowingphosphatesareapprovedDisodiumphosphate,Sodiummetaphosphate,Monosodium phosphate,Sodiumpolyphosphate,Sodiumtriphosphste,Sodiumpyrophosphate,Dipotassiumphosphate andPotassiumpyrophosphate. 77|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

78|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Antimicrobialagents Ingeneralthesearenotpermittedinsausageproducts. Buttheyareallowedasasurfaceapplicationondrysausagetoretardmoldgrowth. A3.5%solutionofpropylparabenora2.5%solutionofpotassiumsorbatemaybeusedforthispurpose. Usuallytheseareappliedasadrip. Monosodiumglutamate(MSG) Monosodiumglutamateisthesodiumsaltofglutamicacid,whichisoneofthecommon,naturallyoccurring, nonessentialaminoacidsfoundinprotein. MSGbringsoutfoodtasteswithoutcontributinganynoticeableodourortaste. Sodiumlactate Sodiumlactateisthesodiumsaltoflacticacid. Itnaturallyoccursinanimalsandhumans. Sodiumlactateimprovesproductstabilityandimprovesshelflifebecauseofitsbacteriostaticeffect. Itisacolourlesssyrupyliquid. Formulation and development of sausage Sausagesarecuredgroundmeatproducts(coarseoffineground)andencasedinacasing,traditionallymade fromthesubmucosallayerofsheepintestines,butcurrentlyinsyntheticcollagencasings. Theformulaforasausage RatioofLeanmeattoOffalMeat7:3 Theotheringredientsaretobeaddedintermsof%wtofmeat(i.e2%means2%oftheweightofmeat added) Fat10% Salt2.5% SodiumorPotassiumnitrite200ppm Pyrophosphates0.3% Spicemix2% Condiments4%(3%onionsand1%garlic) Binderorextender10% Addedwater,preferablyascrushedice.10% DevelopmentofSausage Incaseofcoarsegroundproductsmincingalonewilldo,butforemulsionbasedproducts,choppinghasto beundertaken. Thestepsondevelopmentofanemulsionbasedproductisdiscussedinthissection.Thesamewillnotbe repeatedinthesectiononpattiesandmeatballs,bothofwhicharecoarsegroundproductsandhencecan beformedintotheirrespectiveshapesaftergrinding,priortocooking. Steps in processing Processingofsausagesisacontinuoussequenceofeventsinwhicheachstepisanintegralpartofthe whole. Thusitisnotpropertoconsideranyonestepseparatelyortoassignmoreimportancetoonestepthanto another. Mincing Itisadvisabletocutthemeatinsmallpieces,priortomincingit. Fatisalsomincedinthis Meatgrinderwith1/8plateand5/8plateareusedforgrindingthemeat. Mixing Thisstepmayaremaynotbefollowed,butthisincreasesuniformity. Thecylindersoffatandleanobtainedbygrindingaretumbledinamixertogiveauniformdistributionoffat andleanparticles. Mixingalsoaidsinextractingandcoatingthefatandleanparticleswithsaltsolubleproteins. Chopping 78|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

79|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Achopperiscomposedofarevolvingmetalbowlthatcontainsthemeatwhiletheknifebladesrotatingon anaxlecutthroughtherevolvingmeatmass. Themeatisfirstaddedfollowedbythesalt,curingsalts,phosphateandthenthefatspicemixcondiments andfinallybinderorfillerisaddedandchoppedtogethertoproduceafinegroundemulsion. Theemulsionformedisnotatrueemulsionandisonlyapseudoemulsionasfatandwaterarenotindirect contactatall. Choppingresultsinextractionofmuscleprotein,especiallymyosinwhichservesasthedispersionmatrixin whichbothfatandwaterofmeataredispersedoneithersideofthematrix. Thenexttwostepsi.estuffinginacasingandkinkingandtyingareuniquetosausagesalone. Stuffing Thesausageemulsionisalsoknownasmix. Sausagedoughorbatteristransferredtostuffersforextrudingintocasings. Atthispointthesizeandshapeoftheproductisdetermined. Naturalcasings(hogstomachs,beefbladders,orsheepintestines)orartificialcasings(cellulose)maybe usedtopackagethemeats. Whilemakingsausageoneshouldbecarefulnottostuffthecasingstootightly. Spaceisallowedforswellingduringcookingotherwise,thecasingsmayburst. Therearethreetypesofstuffingpumps. o Pistontyperecommendedforcoarsegroundsausagesandthosehavingfatchunks. o Screwtypeand o Rotarytypeusedforsmallsausages. Linkingandtying Aftertheemulsionisstuffedintocasings,theencasedmassistiedwiththreadorfastenedwithmetalclips. Incaseofsmallsausagessuchasfrankfurters,stuffedcasingsarehoistedordrawntogethertoproducelinks eitherbyhandorbymechanicaldevices. Inlinkingsausage,thecasingsarepressedtogetheratappropriateintervalsandtwistedaroundonce. Thedirectionofthetwistisalternated,toallowthesausagetoremainlinked. Oneshouldbecarefulnottobreakartificialcasingswhilelinking,tyingandknottingthelinkswithstring. Smokingandcooking Thesausagesareplacedonsmoketreesortrolleyswith12to18stickspertree. Thetreesaretransferredtothesmokehouseusuallyhavinganinternaltemperatureof15to20C. Duringcookingthetemperaturerisesto68to72C. Theairvelocity(4000ft/min)inthesmokehouseinfluencestherateatwhichthesausagesarecooked. Humidityof3545%isrequiredtotransfersmokethroughcellulosecasingsintotheproduct. Chilling Aftersmokingandcooking,theproductisshoweredwithcoldwaterandthenchilledbyrefrigeration. Onlargevolumecontinuousoperations,chillingisfrequentlydonewitha6%brinesolutionbydippingor spraying. Thebrinepermitslowerchilltemperaturesandrapidcoolingoftheproduct. Peelingandpackaging Afterproperlychillingtheproducttoaninternaltemperatureof1.5to4.5C,thecellulosecasingson frankfurtersareremoved. Thisisknownaspeeling. Peelingcanbedonebyhand/machines. Peeledfrankfurterscanbepackedwithgeneralinformationforsaletotheconsumers. Cleanlinesscannotbeoverstressedinthemakingofsausage. Sanitationofingredientsaswellasutensilsisessentialforbestresults. Sausagemaybesuccessfullystoredinthefreezer. Theseproductstendtoloseflavourduringfreezerstorage. Thereforetheyshouldbeusedwithoutlongstorage.

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80|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Steps in production of emulsion Leanmeathighestinmyofibrillarproteinsisusedfortheformationofemulsionbymincinginabowl chopper. Saltisaddedtoabout4to4.5%oftheleanmeatandchoppingisinitiatedbykeepingthetemperatures below3C(37F). Commerciallycoldwaterorchoppediceisoftenaddedduringprocessingtokeepthemeatfromheating whilebeingchopped. Choppingcontinuestoafinaltemperatureof13C(55F)to18C(64F). Ifthechoppingisdoneinhightemperature,theemulsionmaybreakcausingfatseparationduringthe subsequentcookingstep. Inoverchopping,fatparticlesarecoatedandtheproteininterfacebrokenbyfurthercomminution. Oncetheemulsionisformed,thebatterisatcriticalstage. Excessivephysicalhandling,longholdingtimes,etc.,canreducestability. Theproductshouldbestuffedintoappropriatecasingandmovedtoheatprocessingassoonaspossible. Frankfurters Thesearethemostpopularofallcookedandsmokedsausages,representing25%ofallsausagessold. Themeatformulationforfrankfurtersusuallyis4060%beefand4060%pork. Deviationsfromtheselimitsarenotuncommonwhereallmeatbyproductsareusedextensivelyorwhere allbeefproductsaremanufactured. Bullmeat,bonelesschucksplates,heartsandtrimmingsarethemostcommonlyusedbeefingredients. Porktrimmingscontainingvariousamountsoftrimmablefat,andbackfatandheartscomposethemajor portingredients. Fillermeatssuchastongues,snouts,lipsandotherbyproductsmaybeused,butitisgenerallyagreedthat theyshouldnotexceed20%ofthemeatformulation. Salami Thesearefreshemulsiontypeofporksausages. Thebatterisstuffedinbroadercasings,usuallydriedcattleoesophagusandhangedfor2daysat4C. ItissmokedandcookedsimultaneouslyinIndia. Thuringer Thisisacoarseground,fermented,semidrytypesausagealsoknownasThuringerSummerSausages. ThepHofthesausagemixcomesdowntoabout5.0duetobacterialfermentation. Dextroseservesasasubstrateforfermentation. Sausagemixpreparedat0Cisstuffedintocasingsandheldingreenorripeningroommaintainedat25C and8590%relativehumidityuntilfermentationiscomplete(23days). Thesearesmokedandcookedat6065C. Themoisturecontentoffinishedproductisnearly50%. Drysausages Thesearecoarseground,fermentedsausages,e.g.Pepperoni. Sausagemixisstuffedinto4044mmanimalcasingsandheldfor911daysat4C. Itistransferredtogreenroomfor2daystobemaintainedat20Cand70%relativehumidityandthen smokedfor3daysat35Cand80%relativehumidity. Theproductisnotcookedbutheldfor21daysinthedryingroomat35Cand70%relativehumidityduring whichitwillhaveshrinkage. Thefinalproductwillhaveonly3035%moisturecontent. Bologna Itisanemulsiontypesausagepreparedfromthemeatofoldanimals. Hotdog Itisafairlyspicysausageinbroadercasings,usuallyweasandinIndia. Mortadella Itisadrysausagepreparedincattlebladderorartificialbroadercasings.

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81|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

Formulation and Development of Meat Balls/Patties

Meatpattyisoneofthemostpopularproductsamongthegroundmeatitemsandisgenerallyusedasfilling forburgerrollorsandwich.Somepeopleprefertoconsumeitseparatelywithtomatosauceorchutney. MeatballsisatraditionalIndianproductmadefromgroundmeat MeatpattieshaveaverygooddemandinbigtownsandcitiesinIndia. Meatballsarecoarsegroundproducts,containlessthan30%fatandaremadeintoballsmanually Pattiesarecoarsegroundproducts,containlessthan30%fatandaremouldedmanuallyormechanically. Anoptimumformulationispresentedbelow o RatioofLeanmeattoOffalMeat7:3 o Theotheringredientsaretobeaddedintermsof%wtofmeat(i.e2%means2%oftheweightof meatadded) o Fat10% o Salt2.5% o SodiumorPotassiumnitrite200ppm o Pyrophosphates0.3% o Spicemix2% o Condiments4%(3%onionsand1%garlic) o Binderorextender10% o Addedwater,preferablyascrushedice.10% Leanmeatismincedtwicethrough6mmplateandfatthrough4mmplateofameatgrinder. Thesearemixedthoroughlywithallotheringredientsmanually Thebattermaybemadeintoballsmanuallytopreparemeatballs Thebatterweighing80100gismouldedinto7080mmdiameterand1520mmthickpatties. MeatBallsorrawpattiesmaybefrozenforfutureuseorbroiledinapreheatedovenat190oCfor20 minutes. Theinternaltemperaturemustreach72oC.Thesearedeepfatfriedinmanycommercialestablishments. Themeatballs/pattiesarecooledandconsumerpacked.

Formulation and development of meat pickles

Picklesareapreservedproductusuallybasedonvinegaroroilpreservation. Formulation 1. 1kgMeatpieces 2. 150gGingerpaste 3. 150gGarlicpaste 4. 80gGreenchilli 5. 25gCumin 6. 25gMustard 7. 10gAsafoetida 8. 5gFenugreekseed 9. 100gRedchillipowder 10. 15gTurmericpowder 11. 70gSalt 12. 300mlVinegar 13. 400mlSesameoil 14. 10gSpicemix 15. 10gCurryleaves 16. 10gCitricacid 17. 5gSodiumBenzoate Method Dicethemeatintomediumsizedpieces(aboutIcubes)andaddtoit25gofredchillipowder,20gofsalt andtheentireturmericpowderandmarinadeforanhour.

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82|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Heatoilinapanandfrymeatpiecestillgoldenbrown. Drainthemeatandkeepaside. Putinthesameoilallthegreencondiments(items24)andcookwell. Addthecumin,mustard,asafoetidaandfenugreekandstiritwell. Addthevinegarandcontinuetostircookit. Thenaddtheremainingsalt,chillipowderandthespicemixoneaftertheotherandsimmerit. Finallyaddcitricacidandsodiumbenzoateandcontinuetocook. Addthemeatpiecesagainandsimmerfor10minutes. Removethepanfromthefire. Letitcool. Putthepickleinthesterilisedjar. Topitwithvinegarandmixitlightly. Coverthelidandstoreinacoolplace. Consumemeatpickleafteradayofpreparing.

Formulation and development of meat soup

Soupisafoodthatismadebycombiningingredientssuchasmeatandvegetableswithstock,(Stockismade bysimmeringvariousingredientssuchasleftovermeatorbones)wateroranotherliquid. Hotsoupsareadditionallycharacterizedbyboilingsolidingredientsinliquidsinapotuntiltheflavorsare extracted,formingabroth. Formulation 1. 1kgBones 2. 800GOnions 3. 200gTomatoes 4. 200gFinelygroundpepper 5. 100gGinger 6. 100gGarlic 7. 100gCorianderleaves 8. 60gRedchillipowder 9. 40gCuminseeds 10. 15gTurmericPowder 11. Salttotaste. Method Sauteonions,tomatoes,ginger,garlicandcuminseedsinafryingpan. Transferthistoatallvesselandaddthebonesinthis. Addfourlitresofwater,salt,pepperandchillipowdersandallowittocookforanhour. Garnishwithcorianderleavesbeforeserving.

Formulation and development of meat kebab

Kababincludesgrilled,roasted,andsteweddishesoflargeorsmallcutsofmeat,orevengroundmeat;itmaybe servedonplates,insandwiches,orinbowls. Ingredients 450g(1lb)Finelymincedmeat 1Egglightlybeaten 5gCorianderseeds,ground 2.5g)Chillipowder 2.5gCumin 2.5gGarammasala 2Clovesgarlic,crushed Salttotaste 1Onion,gratedorliquidized Breadcrumbs(optional) 82|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

83|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 30mlOil Asaccompaniment o 1Lemon,sliced,pipsremoved o 1Onion,slicedintorings o 1tomato,skinnedandsliced Method Mixthelightlybeateneggandbeefinabowl. Addthespices,saltandgratedoniontothebeefandusebreadcrumbstostiffenandbindthemixtureif necessary. Oilyourfingersandtheskewers. Wrapthemeataroundtheskewersincigarshapes. Brushthemeatwithoilandcookunderamoderategrilluntilevenlybrowned. Servegarnishedwithlemon,onionandtomatoslices.

Surimi

Surimi,anintermediateproductobtainedfromfishmincewhich,becauseofitscharacteristicabilitytoform gels,canbeusedtodevelopavarietyofproductsconformingtoconsumerfancies. Surimiisthemyofibrillarproteinconcentrateproducedbyrepeatedwashingoffishminceinorderto removewatersolublenitrogenousmatterandflavourcompounds. Washingenhancesthegelformingcapacityofthestructuralproteins. Surimiisusedasarawmaterialforthepreparationofseafoodanalogues,butinJapan,wherethe technologyoriginated,surimiismainlyusedtopreparethetraditionalkamabokoproducts.

Formulation and development of surimi Rawmaterial Fishhavingwhitemeatandlowfatcontentisgenerallyused. AlaskaPollock(Theragrachalcogramma)hasbeenthetraditionalmaterial. DeclineintheAlaskaPollockfisheryhasresultedintheproducercountriesincreasinglyusingotherspecies likePacificWhiting,Hoki,Croaker,LizardFish,Barracuda,RibbonFish,ThreadfinBreametc. Evenfattyfishhasrecentlybeenemployedafterremovingthefatwithalkaliwashing. Processingofsurimi Thebasicstepsofproductionofsurimiareasfollows: Headingandgutting o Thehead,visceraandmostofthebackboneofthefishareremoved. o Thekidney,intestines,partsofstomachandliver,ifallowedtoremain,mayseverelydamagethe qualityofproteinduringprocessing. o Filletingbeforemincingreducesyield,butitincreasesthequalityofsurimiproduced. o Ithasbecomeacommonpracticenowtoinstallafilletingmachineatthebeginningofthesurimi line. Mincing o Meatisseparatedfromtheskinandbonesofthedressedfishbyamechanicaldeboner. o Thisisdonebyextrudingthemusclethroughsmallperforations(35mmdia)inarotatingstainless steeldrum. Washing o Thedebonedminceismixedwithfreshwaterinaseriesofleachingtanks. o Itisimportanttomaintainthewater/minceratioatsuchalevelthatproperwashingisperformed withoutleadingtooverhydration. Refining o Therefinerisahighspeedrotatingspiralsurroundedbyascreenhavingperforationsof1.2mmto3 mm. o Thewashedmeatisforcedthroughtheperforations,leavingbehindanyimpurities. Dehydrating 83|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

84|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Thewatercontentofthewashedandrefinedminceisfurtherreducedinascrewpress. o Thescrewpressisaperforateddrumofabout10feetlong,insidewhichrotatesaspiralscrew. o Asthescrewrotates,itpushesthemeatdownthelengthofthedrum. o Thedewateredmaterialcomesoutthroughachuteattheendofthedrum. Mixingwithcryoprotectants o Thedewateredminceismixedwithcryoprotectantslikesugar,sorbitolandpolyphosphateswhich preventproteindenaturationduringfrozenstorage. Freezing o Thepreparedsurimiisimmediatelyfrozenat40Cinacontactplatefreezerandstoredat20C. Processingyieldsatdifferentstages StageofOperation Yield Rawmaterial 100

Heading&gutting 60 Mincing Washing Refining Dewatering 45 42 30 20

Uses of surimi TraditionalsurimiproductsofJapan ThemajortraditionalproductsofJapanare Chikuwatubeshapedfishpaste Kamabokoboiledfishpaste Satsumaagefriedfishpasteproduct Hampenfloatingtypeboiledfishpaste. Diversifiedtraditionalproductslikekanikama(artificialcrableg),cheesesandwichedhampen,easytoeat kamaboko,Satsumaagewithhampentaste,squidsurimikamabokoarealsobeingmarketedinJapan. Otheruses Surimiisusedinmeatproductsasmeatbinders. Surimiisusedasaproteinsupplementorbinderinvariousfoodproductssuchaspasta,sausages,bakery products,restructuredproductshealthfoodsandpetfoods.

Smoked fish

Smokedfishisfishsubjectedtosmoking Qualityoftherawfishhassignificantinfluenceonthequalityofthesmokedproduct. Pelagicfishes(Fishesfoundonthesurfaceofwater)areconsideredbestforsmokingwhentheirfatcontent isthehighest. However,dependingontheendproductdesired,fishofdifferentfatcontentsarepreferred. Generallyfishforsmokingshouldbekeptchilled. Incertaincases,nonfattyfishesarealsoused. Fishmaybesmokedwholeoraftersplitting,guttingetc., Itisconsidereddesirabletokeepthefishicedfortwodaysbeforesmoking.

Formulation and development of smoked fish Theprocessingofsmokedfishinvolvesthefollowingprocesses: Salting Fishissaltedeitherbymixingwithsolidsaltorbyimmersinginstrongbrine. 84|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

85|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Sizeofthefish,fatcontent,whetherthefishiswhole,gutted,splitorcut,presenceorabsenceofskinand otherrequirementsintheendproductetc.arethefactorsconsideredindeterminingthedurationandtype ofsalting. Dependingupontheconcentrationofbrinetheremaybeanuptakeorlossofwaterinthefish. Mostcommonconcentrationofbrineemployedis7080percent. Fishsaltedin100percentsaturatedbrineisnotpreferredasitislikelytomaketheproductunattractive becauseofthepowdery,unattractive,crystalsofsaltthatmaybeleftonthesurface. Inweakerbrineslongerperiodsofimmersionareneededandtherewillbeanuptakeofwater,whichwill havetobeevaporatedduringdrying. Saltingisadjustedthatthefishtakesup23percentsaltwhichistheoptimumrequirementinmanysmoked fish. However,whenthefishisdrysaltedtheuptakeofsaltwillbeveryhigh. Suchfisharesoakedforseveralhoursinwaterbeforesmokingtobringdownthesaltcontenttothedesired level. Hanging Aftersaltingthefleshofthefishwillbemoist. Surfaceproteinswilldissolveinthebrineyieldingastickysolution. Forefficientsmokingfishmustbedryenoughwithnofreewateronthesurface. Freewatercancausecondensationofthedistillationproducts,particularlytar,whichleavedarkbrown colourintheproduct. Duringhangingthestickysolutionsdriesonthesurfaceandmakestheskinglossy. Howeverexcessivedryingwillpreventthefishfromacquiringapropersmokyflavour. Dryingcanbedoneinopenairorahotairdrierorevendirectlyinthesmokechamberbyburningwood withoutproducingsmoke. Splitandsaltedfishshouldremaininstretchedoutpositionforuniformexposureofallpartstosmoke. Hangingisdoneinseveralstylesdependingonthefishhandledandtheendproductdesired. Fishlikesardinemeantforcanningaftersmokingarethreadedthroughtheeyes. Largesplitwholefishlikesalmonaresuspendedbythetailandkeptflatopenbymeansofsticksorskewers threadedthroughtheflesh. Fishcanbehungorevenspreadonwiremeshtrays,however,carehastobetakentoensurethatthemesh doesnotleaveexcessivemarkontheskinorflesh. Smokingprocessandtypes Twotypesofsmokingarepopular,coldsmokingandhotsmoking. Theessentialdifferencebetweenthetwoprocessesistheamountofheatthefishreceivesduringthe process. Coldsmokingisamildprocesswheretemperatureisnotraisedenoughforthefishtoundergoevenapartial cooking. Inhotsmokingthetemperatureofthesmokeishighandthefishfleshiscookedeventotheextentofpartial sterilization. However,thispartialsterilizationdoesnotresultinanyincreasedshelflifeasthefishmaygetreinfected withmicroorganismsduringsubsequenthandlingandpackaging. Coldsmoking Coldsmokingisstillcarriedoutinmoreorlesstheconventionalstyle,mostlyusingtraditionalchimneykilns. Fishiskepthungorspreadinmeshtraysinanupwarddraftofsmokeproducedinthefloorbytheburning fire. Intheinitialstagesthefishismoistandthesmokeishighlyhumid. Undertheseconditionsuseofhightemperaturewillinvariablyresultincookingofthefishflesh. Toavoidthis,thetemperatureinsidethechambershouldnotberaisedtothemaximumemployedinthe process. Inthesecondstage,whenthesurfaceofthefishisconsiderablydry,thetemperatureinsidethechamber couldberaisedtoalevelthatthefishspeciesconcernedwilltolerate. However,itisdesirabletocompletetheprocessatthesametemperaturethroughout. 85|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

86|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Thehighestoutputofgoodqualityproductsisachievedwhenthetemperature,relativehumidityandthe quantityofventilatedsmokearemaintainedinthecorrectproportion. Duringsmokingthefishdriesasalsoabsorbsthearomaticsubstancesfromthesmoke. Therelativehumidityinsidethechamberalsoisadecisivefactorindeterminingthequalityandoutputof theproducts. RHabove7080percentwillconsiderablyslowdownthedryingandsmokingprocess. TocontroltheRHofthesmoke,theflamedampersmaybekeptopenthusprovidingagooddraught wheneverthepercentRHgoesbeyondtherequiredlevel. Coldsmokingisgenerallycarriedoutattemperaturenotexceeding40oC. Durationofsmokingextendstoseveralhours,say3672hr. Hotsmoking Severaldesignsofkilnstunnelsareavailableforhotsmokingfish. Thefuelisburnteitherdirectlyinsidethekilnonmovabletrolleysorinexternalhearthslocatednearthe tunnel. Thefishischargedintothetunnelincages. Thechamberwillbehavingametalframestructureandbrickwallsandcanholdanumberoffishcages. Incontrasttocoldsmokingwherecookingofthefleshisneithertheaimnorisattainedinanycase,inhot smokingfishisdriedandcookedinthekilnbeforeitissmoked. Dryingisdoneinanintensedraughtofhotairat75to80oCproducedbyburningfire. Theskinofthefishbecomesdrywhilefleshbecomescookedaswell. Atthisstagethefishisconsideredreadyforsmoking. Smokeisproducedbycoveringtheburninglogswithsawdustandthetemperatureinthechamberis maintainedatorabove100oC. Ascheduleofoperationinhotsmokingcanbeconsideredasdryingat75to80oCforanhourfollowedby smokingat95to100oCforanotheronehour. Therequirementswillvarywiththesizeandspeciesoffish. Othermethods Inadditiontocoldsmokingandhotsmoking,thereareothermethods.Theyare o Darksmoking o Moistsmoking o Electrostaticsmoking o Liquidsmoke o GasPhasesmoke o Closedsmoking o Indirectsmoking Useofartificialcolouring Itisoftendifficulttoachieveuniformityintheproduct,particularlycolour,insmokedfish. Evenifnearuniformityincolourcanbeachieved,batchtobatchvariationoccurs. Onewayofovercomingthisinherentdeficiencyofsmokingprocessistoartificiallycolourthefishwith permitteddyestuffsinthebrineusedforsalting. Vegetabledyes,coaltardyesetcaresoused,theselectionbeingdependentnthetypeoftheproduct Postprocesshandling Onremovingfromthekilnthesmokedfishiswarmandisgenerallyallowedtocoolbeforegradingand packing. Coldsmokedfishmayloseupto5percentofitsweightbyfurtherevaporation. Ifthesmokedfishispackedwhilewarm,moisturewillcondenseanddepositinsidethecontainers. Thiswillcreateasituationconducivetoprematuremouldgrowth. Smokedfishcanalsobefrozenandcoldstorewhichwillminimizethechancesofspoilagebefore consumption

Tandoori chicken

Tandoorichickenisadrytypecookingpreparationwithoutoilandwithminimumspices,cookedin conservedheatusingaconventionaltypemudtandooripot. 86|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

87|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Youngcockerels(whiteleghorn)oftheagegroupof8to12weeksand56weeksoldbroilersareidealfor thispreparation. Formulation 1. 5litresCurd 2. 150gChillipowder 3. 500gGarlicpaste 4. 350gGingerpaste 5. 20gTurmericpowder 6. Limejuicefrom10lemons 7. 250gSalt Cooking Skinlessdressedchickenisused. Legandbreastmusclesareincisedwithasharpknifetofacilitatebetterpenetrationofspicemixduring marination. Aminimumof2hoursmarinationtimeisrequired. Thenexcessspicemixcanbedrainedoffandlongironrodsareinsertedintothemarinatedchickenalong thelongaxistofacilitatebettercookingandforeasyhandlinginthehottandooripot. Initiallycookfor10minutesandthenapplybutterandcookfor10moreminutes.Nowtheproductisready forserving.

Packaging of meat and meat products

Packaging
Packagingisthetechniqueofusingthemostappropriatecontainersandcomponentstoprotect,carry, identifyandmerchandiseanyproduct. Itconstitutesavitallinkbetweentheprocessorandconsumerforthesafedeliveryoftheproductthrough thevariousstagesofprocessing,storage,transport,distributionandmarketing. Theprimaryfunctionofameatpackageistopresenttheproducttotheconsumerinthemostattractive mannerpossibleandatthesametimeprotecttheproductfromphysicaldamage,microbialdeterioration andchemicalchanges. Functionalrequirementsofpackaging Packaging,inthemeatindustryservesthefollowingfunctions, Containment Protection Preservation Apportionmentthefunctionofreducingindustrialoutput(i.e.,DressedCarcass)toanappropriatesizefor furtherprocessingorconsumeruse Unitizationthefunctioninwhichprimarypackagesareconsolidatedfoeshipment.Primarypackagesare unitizedintosecondarypackages,forexampleplacementinsideacardboardcarton.Thesecondarypackages inturnareunitizedintoatertiarypackage;forexampleastretchwrappedpalletthatmay,inturnforma quaternarypackageashippingcontainerortruckload.Unitizationallowsoptimizationofmaterials handlingbyminimizingthenumberofdiscretepackagesthatneedtobehandled.Ondeliverytheprocessis reversedfromdistributortoconsumersothelatterispresentedwithaprimarypackage(fortunately)and notatruckload. ConvenienceMicrowaveablepacksandmeatbasedwholemeals. CommunicationApackagemustprotectwhatitsellsandsellwhatitprotects.

Packaging requirements of meat

Packagingfilmsutilisedinpackagingofmeatmustpossessthefollowingcharacteristics: flexibility mechanicalstrength 87|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

88|U R V I S H M I S T R Y lightweight odourless hygienic(cleanandtoxicologicallyharmless) easyrecycling resistancetohotandcoldtemperatures resistancetooilandfats goodbarrierpropertiesagainstgases sealingcapability lowcost Barrieragainstgases Goodbarrierpropertiesagainstoxygenandevaporationarethecriticaltoensurethemaintenanceofcolour ofmeat,preventdevelopmentofoxidativerancidity;andshrinkagelossesanddrying,respectivelyespecially incaseofprocessedmeats. However,oxygenpermeabilityisacceptableandratheranecessityinthecasefreshreadytosellmeat portionsinselfserviceoutletswheretheoxygenpermeabilityisrequiredtomaintainbloom. Barrieragainstlight Prolongedexposureofmeatandmeatproductstonaturalandartificiallighthastensundesirablecolour changes,oxidationandrancidityaslightprovidestheenergyfortheseprocesses. But,transparentpackagingfilmsaidthepresentationoftheproductinanattractivemannerasthepackaged productisvisible. Buttheydonotprovideprotectionagainstlightimpact. Suchfilmsarelaminatedwithaluminiumtocountertheadverseeffectsoflight,whilemaintainingthe attractivenessoftheproduct. Sealingcapability Somepackagingmaterialsarerequiredtohavegoodthermoplasticproperties. Theyareheatsealable,whichmeansthattwoofthesefilms,putcloselyincontacttoeachotherunderslight pressureandwithsimultaneoushightemperatureapplication,willmeltorsealtogetheralongtheheated area,resultinginhermeticallyclosedplasticpouchesorbags. Modern packaging material and packaging forms PackagingmaterialsandformsmaybeclassifiedasRigidpackagingmaterialsandforms,Semirigid Packagingmaterialsandforms,FlexiblePackagingmaterialsandFlexiblePackagingformsasdetailedbelow. Rigidpackagingmaterialsandpackageforms o Glasscontainers o Metalcans o Compositecontainers o Aerosolcontainers o Rigidplasticpackages Semirigidpackagingmaterialsandpackageforms o Aluminiumcontainers o Setuppaperboardboxes o Foldingpaperboardcartons Flexiblepackagingmaterials o Paperthebasicpapersusedconsistsofbonds,tissue,litho,krafts,glassines,parchmentandgrease proof. o Filmscellophane,celluloseacetate,polyethylene(HDPE&LDPE),Polypropylene,polyamide, polyester,polyvinylchloride,polyvinylidenechloride,polyvinylacetateandpolyvinylalcohols o Newfilmsamylasefilms(edible),IonomerslikesurlynA,Ethylenevinylacetatecopolymers, polypropylenecopolymers,coextrudedstructuredfilms,aluminiumfoilsandsteelfoil. Flexiblepackageforms o Wrappers o Preformedbagsorenvelopes o Pouches 88|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

89|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Collapsibletubes

Types of packaging

Practicallyallfilmsusedformeatpackagingderivefromsyntheticplasticmaterials. Evencellulose,formerlywidelyusedintheformoftransparentfilmsisnolongerputintomuchusetopack meat. Themostcommonsyntheticmaterialsusedformeatpackagingare: Polyethylene(PE) Polypropylene(PP) (oxygen+,watervapour) (oxygen+,watervapour)

Polyvinylchloride(PVC)(soft) (oxygen+,watervapour) Polyester(PET) Polyamide(PA) +:relativelypermeable :relativelyimpermeable BothPolyvinylidenechloride(PVDC)andEthylenevinylalcohol(EVOH) Foilsmadefromtheabovesyntheticmaterialsareselectedbasedontheirdifferentpropertiesrelatedto oxygenandwatervapour. Packagingfilmsmaybeconvenientlyclassifiedinto o Singlelayerfilmsor o Multilayerfilms Singlelayerfilms Singlelayerfilmsarecommonlyusedinthewrappingofmeatpieces,processedmeatproducts,boneinor bonelessmeatcutsorevenentirecarcasses. Thesefilmsareusuallyselfadhesive,i.e.theyclingtogetherclingfilmintheoverlappingareas. Hencetheyoffergoodprotectionfromexternalcontaminationandtosomeextentfromevaporation,butdo notprotectfromoxygeningress,astheyarenothermeticallyclosedorsealedpackages. Foilswithgoodselfadhesivepropertiesarepolyethylene,polyamide,polyvinylidenechlorideand polypropylene. Singlelayerfilmsareusedforfreezerstorage. Singlelayerfilmsarestretchedtightlyaroundthemeatsurfacepriortofreezingtorfrozenstorageofmeat blocks,meatcutsorsmallerportionsofmeatormeatproducts. Sincethefilmisintightcontactwiththeproductssurfaceitpreventsevaporativelosses,commonly encounteredfreezerstorageofunpackedproducts. Thetightcontactbetweentheproductssurfaceandthefilmalsopreventsiceformationandfreezerburnis liabletodevelopatnoncontactspots Suitablecoldresistantfilmsforfreezerstoragearepolyamideandpolyethylene. Yetanotherspecificutilityforsinglelayerfilmsisthewrappingofchilledmeatportionsforselfservice outlets(supermarkets,etc.). Theproducttobepackedisplacedinahygieniccelluloseorplastictrayandtightlywrappedwithsingle layerplasticfilm.Theendsofthefoilareoverwrappedatthebottomsideofthetray,wheretheyfirmlycling together. Filmstobeusedshouldhavelowwatervapourpermeabilitytoavoidthedryingoutofthemeatduring storage,butmustpossesshighoxygenpermeabilitysoastoensurethemeatretainsitsbloomowingtothe formationofoxymyoglobin. Suitablesinglelayerfilmsforfreshmeatpackagingarepolyethyleneorsoftpolyvinylidenechloride. Multilayerfilms Theplasticfilmsusedinmeatpackagingarepermeableeithertomoistureoroxygen. Ideallyforpackagingofmeatacombinationofoxygenandmoistureimpermeabilityisrequired. 89|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

(oxygen,watervapour) (oxygen,watervapour+)

90|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Hencemultilayerfilmshavebeendevelopedinwhichthefilmontheouterlayerhasgoodmechanical strengthandisimpermeabletooxygenandtheinnermostlayerisimpermeabletowatervapourandmust possessgoodsealantpropertiestoo. Themultiplelayersmayjusthavetwolayersormorelayerstoo. Averyefficientcombinationispolyamideandpolyethylene. Theouterlayer,polyamideisrelativelyoxygenproofbutpermeabletosomeextenttowatervapour. Polyethylenehasexactlytheoppositeproperties,itiswatervapourproofbutpermeabletooxygen. Thecombinationofbothrenderssuchamultilayerfilmimpermeabletobothoxygenandwatervapour evaporation. Moreover,thepolyethyleneusedastheinsidelayerhasgoodthermoplasticpropertiesandisthereforewell suitedforheatsealing. Sealantlayersconsistmostlyofpolyethyleneorionomer.Outsidelayersmaybepolyamide,polyesteror polypropylene(PP). BarrierlayersforoxygenaremadeofPolyvinylidenchlorideormaterialswithsimilarproperties.

Packaging of meat and meat products

Packagingmaterialsusedforfreshmeat Traysmadeofpolystyrene Transparentfilmscellophane,LDPE(mostcommonlyusedforfreshmeat),PVC ShrinkfilmsPVC,cellophane,rubberhydrochloride,polypropylene,irradiatedPEandPVDCareusedin shrinkwrappingofmeat. Advancedandemergingsystemsofpackagingofmeatandmeatproducts Vacuumpackaging Itistheplacingof'primalorsubprimalcutsofmeatintoplasticbagsorpouchesandextractingairfrom thembymeansofanozzletypevacuumizingmachineoravacuumizingchamber. Thebagsarethensealedtoeffectclosurewitheithermetalclipsorheatimpulsesealingofthesidesofthe bags. ThemostcommonlyusedfilmforfreshmeatvacuumpackagesisPVDC. Modifiedatmospherepackaging Itisatechnologywhereinfoodsarepackagedinhighbarrierpackagesinwhichairhasbeenreplacedwith anartificial(modified)atmosphere. Commonlyusedgasesareoxygen,carbondioxideandnitrogen. Forredmeats,highoxygenMAPsystemsutilizeatmospherescontainingapproximately20%to30%carbon dioxide,60%to80%oxygen,andupto20%nitrogen.Theelevatedoxygenconcentrationenhancesthe brightredmeatcolorandtheelevatedcarbondioxideconcentrationinhibitsthegrowthofaerobicspoilage microorganisms.Highoxygenconcentrationsindisplaypacksenhancemeatcolorbyincreasingthethickness oftheoxymyoglobinsurfacelayer.Atthesametimethemetmyoglobinlayerliesdeeperinthemeat. Thetimetakenforthatlayertoreachthesurfaceisincreased,sodisplaylifeisextended.Unlike overwrappedtrays,highoxygendisplaypacksuseafilmwithhighgasbarrierproperties,topreventthe gasesequilibratingwiththeambientatmosphere.Themodifiedatmospheredisplaypacksconsistofdeep highbarriertraysthataregasflushedbeforeanupperhighbarrierfilmorlidissealedinplace.However,the packatmospheretendstochangeduringdisplaybecausetheoxygenislosttorespirationandcarbondioxide ishighlysolubleinmeat. Theabsorptionofcarbondioxidecanleadtopackcollapse.Thepackatmosphereremainsreasonablystable andthepackshapeismaintainedwhentheratioofpackvolumetomeatvolumeexceedsapproximately3to 1.Theuseofhighoxygenwithhighcarbondioxideeffectivelydoublesthecolorstabilityandtimetospoilage overthatachievedusingambientatmosphereoverwrappedpacks HighoxygenMAP,whichprovidesachilledproductlifeofonly5to10days,isnotsuitableforprolonged storageofmeat.Itssuitabilityfordisplaypackagingisdeterminedasmuchbycommercialmerchandising strategiesasbythepreservativecapabilityofthepackaging. Theexcessivespaceoccupiedbydeeptraypacks,comparedtonetweightofmeatsold,tendstorestrict MAPpackagingtohighvalueproductscateringtotheupperendofthemarket.Asdiscussedpreviously,the 90|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

91|U R V I S H M I S T R Y rateofdiscolorationisinverselyrelatedtotemperature,sotheimportanceofdisplaycabinettemperature managementcannotbeoveremphasised. MotherbagconceptinMAP Thesearethesimplesttwophasepackagingsystems,consistingofretailreadypacksinsideanouter preservativepack.Theretailreadypacksmaybeoverwrappedtraysorliddedpacks.Inbothcases,retail filmsmustbehighlygaspermeable,first,toallowthemeatcontactwiththecarbondioxidepreservative atmosphereandlater,onremovalfromthemotherpack,toallowatmosphericoxygentobloomthemeat. Whileasimpleouterbagcouldbeusedtocontainthecarbondioxideatmosphere,theinnerpackswouldbe freetomovewithinthepack.Suchmovementcoulddamagebothinnerandouterpacks.Consequently, mostproprietarymotherpacksystemsemployasemirigidoutercontainertoprotectandrestraintheinner packs.

Physicochemical quality and characteristics of meat

ThemostimportantphysicochemicalqualitiesofmeatincludepH,WaterHoldingCapacity(WHC),colour, tenderness,tyrosinevalue(TV)andthiobarbituricacidnumber(TBA). BothpHandWHCplayamajorroleindeterminingthequalityoffreshmeat. pHandWHChaveamajorimpactontheyield,sensoryqualities,ofprocessedmeatproductsalso. BothpHandWaterholdingcapacityareinfluencedbytheanimal(speciesofanimal,genetics),themanner inwhichtheanimalishandledperislaughter(immediatelypriortoandduringslaughter)andpost mortemhandlingofmeat. BothpHandWHCvaryfromindividualanimaltoanimalandimportantlymuscletomuscle.

Water holding capacity

Waterholdingcapacityistheabilityofmuscletoholdontoorretainitsownwateroraddedwaterunder applicationofpressure. Thepressureappliedmaybecutting,grinding,chopping,heatingetc,. WHCdeterminesweightofmeatinfreshmeattrade,aslowerWHCwouldmeangreaterlossesinwater;the juicinessoffreshmeataswellasprocessedmeats,asgreaterWHCmeansthatgreaterquantitiesofmeat juicesareretained;yieldofprocessedmeatproductsasWHCisdirectlyrelatedtocookinglossesand emulsionstabilityinemulsionbasedmeatproducts. WHCiscloselyrelatedtopHofmeat,boththerateandextentoffallinpostmortempH. WaterholdingcapacityisatitslowestwhenultimatepH(thepHataboutthetimeofcompletionofrigor, andthereisnofurtherdropinpH)isreached. Waterexistsinthreestatesinthemuscle o FreeWater o ImmobilizedWaterand o BoundWater Freewaterisabout10%ofthetotalwaterpresentinmuscleandthisisheldbycapillaryforcesante mortem,whichislostastheanimaldiesandhencethisfractionofwaterisinevitablylost,hencedoesnot contributetoWHC. Boundwaterconstitutesabout2%ofthetotalwaterpresentinmuscleandiscalledsobecauseitis chemicallybondedtotheproteinsofmuscle,commonlybyhydrogenbonds. About50%ofboundwatercannotberemovedfromthemuscleanditcantberemovedeitherintheform ofsteambyheatingorcanbefrozen,andhencethisfractiondoesnotaccountforthevariationsinWHC fromonesampleandtheother Immobilizedwaterconstitutesabout80%oftotalwaterinmuscleanditsstatepracticallydeterminesWHC. Immobilizedwater,asthenameindicatesisimmobilizedbythemyofibrillarproteinsintheintermyofibrillar spaces. ThemostimportantfactorsdeterminingWHCaretheioniceffectandstericeffects. Ioniceffectsrefertothestateofionizationoftheproteinsofmuscle,whichdirectlyinfluencesthehydrogen bondformation,asasmallpolarityisrequiredfortwomoleculestoengageinhydrogenbondformation. 91|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

92|U R V I S H M I S T R Y ThisisoneofthereasonsforWHCtobeatitslowestwhenultimatepH(pHu)isreached,asthepHuofmeat isintherangeof5.25.6,andtheisoelectricpointofmyosin,themostimportantplayerinhydrogenbond formationis5.5;hencemyosinbeingneutralincharge,cannotformhydrogenbondsandasaconsequence thereisdepressionofWHC. Stericeffectsrefertospatialormoreappropriatelyvolumechangesinthemuscle.Ifthestericeffectare suchthatthevolumeavailableforwatertobeheldintheintermyofibrillarspacesduetoclosepackingof themyofibrillardecrases,asisthecaseatpHu,WHCdiminishes(Rigorisatitspeakasalsoareactinomyosin formationcontractionwhichobliteratesintermyofibrillarspaces). WHCisaffectedbygenetics(HalothaegeneofpigspronetoPorcineStressSyndrome,andRendenment NapoleGenearebothassociatedwithPaleSoftExudative(PSE)condition);handlingofanimalsperi slaughter,asstressofanykindresultsinPSEinpigsandDarkFirmDry(DFD)meatincattle;andpost mortemhandlingofmeat(Quickfreezing,andlowtemperatureduringchillingresultsingreaterWHC,and cuttingintothinandmanycutsresultinginanincreaseinsurfacearearesultsindecreaseinWHC PaleSoftExudativeporkischaracterizedbyverylowWHCaDarkFirmDrybeefischaracterizedbyhigh WHC.

pH

pHreferstothenegativelogarithmofhydrogenionconcentration. ThepHoffreshmeat,morepreciselymuscleat45minutespostslaughterisintherangeof6.87.2,which reducestoabout5.25.6,atabout24hourspostslaughterincaseofcattle,whileittakesinabout48hours inpigs ThisdeclineinpHisonaccountoftheconversionoftheglycogenstoredinthemuscletolacticacid. Incaseofpigs,stressintheformofroughantemortemorperislaughterhandling,highenvironmental temperature,fightingetc.,resultsinthecomingdownofpHtopHuvalueswithinanhourofslaughter,when thecarcassisstillwarm(35C). ThiscombinationofhightemperatureandlowpHresultsinchangesinpropertiesofthemuscleproteins (proteindenaturation)resultinginthembeinglesscapableofretainingwaterintheintermyofibrillar spaces,andhencebecomessoftandexudative.Theloosenetworkofmuscleproteinsallowsmorelightto beabsorbedhencepaleincolour. Incaseofcattle,stressintheformofroughantemortemorperislaughterhandling,resultinginphysical exhaustionresultsinthedepletionofglycogenandthephdoesnotcomedownandremainsatabove6even 48hoursafterslaughter. ThishighpHresultsinthemuscleproteinlatticeremainingundisturbedandhenceappearsdarkincolour andfirmintextureanddryontheexternalsurfaces.

Microbial quality of meat and meat products

Microbesinmeatareacauseofconcernontwocounts: o Potentialdeclineinkeepingqualityduetospoilageorganisms o Potentialhazardstotheconsumerduetofoodpoisoningorganismsandtransmissionofzoonotic diseases. Theensuingdiscussionwillbeconcernedwithspoilageorganisms,themiscellaneousconditionscausedby themandhighlightorganismsinvolvedfoodspoilage.

Microbes involved in decomposition of meat

Decompositionisthebreakingupoforganicmatter,chieflyproteinbutalsofatsandcarbohydrates,bythe actionofbacteria,mouldsandyeasts,whichsplitthemeatupintoanumberofchemicalsubstances,many ofwhicharegaseousandfoulsmelling. Allformsoffoodsintheirstateremaininafreshandediblestateforonlyacomparativelyshorttime. Foodsrapidlyacquirebacteria,mouldsoryeasts,whicharethemaincausesofspoilageordecomposition. Beforeterminaldecompositionchangesoccur,however,otherfactorssuchasenzymeaction(foodand bacterial)andoxidationtakeplaceinsomefoods. 92|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

93|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Enzymesorferments,whicharepresentinalllivingcells,catalyzethecomplicatedchemicalreactionstaking placeinthecells. Enzymesessentiallybringabouttheprocessofautolysis,selfdestructionorselfdegradationandatarate, whichvariesmarkedlyinthedifferenttissues. Ingeneralitishighestinthosetissuesinwhichproteinissynthesizedinlargeamountsandwhichhavehigh watercontents,e.g.gastrointestinalmucosa,testes,pancreasandadrenals. Tissuessuchastheliver,kidneysandendocrineglandshaveslowerautolyticratesandthetissueswith lowestmetabolicratessuchasskin,muscles,bone,heartandbloodvesselshavethelowestautolyticrates ofalltissues. Thevariousformsoffoodpreservationaredesignedtopreventdecompositionbylimitingtheactivityof enzymes,theprocessofoxidationandbacterialspoilage. Allformsoffoodaresubjecttonaturaldeterioration,theirshelflifebeingdependentontheirstructure,pH, composition,watercontent,presenceorabsenceofbacteriaand/ordamageandconditionsofstorage. Foodswithhighwatercontent(e.g.meatandoffal)areliabletospoilrapidlyunlessstepsaretakento counterdeterioration. Inadditiontomicrobialspoilage,physicaldamage,whichoccursduringhandling,transportationand processing,canberegardedasaformofspoilageascaninsects,rodentsandotherpests. Foodsdamagedinthiswayaremoresusceptibletochangebymicrobialaction. Freshmeatsareinitiallycontaminatedfrommanydifferentsourcessoil,dust,faecesandwater, equipment,handsandclothingofpersonnelsubsequentlyaddingtothispollution. Meatcanharbourorganisms,mostlyoftheGrampositivemesophilictype. Dependingonthetypesofbacteriapresent,meatbornediseaseorspoilageorbothmayresult,especiallyif substandardhandlingmethodsareadopted. Themaintypesofbacteriainvolvedinthespoilageofmeatbelongtothefollowinggenera: o Grampositiveorganisms Micrococcus, Staphylococcus(Staph.albus&Staph.aureus) Streptococcus(Str.feacalis,Str.faecium,Str.durans) Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Bacillus(B.subtilis,B.thermophilus&B.coagulans), Clostridium(Cl.sporogenes,Cl.histolyticum,Cl.perfringens&Cl.butyricum), Corynebacteriumand Microbacterium. o Gramnegativeorganisms Pseudomonas Flavobacterium Acinobacter Achromobacter Alcaligenes Halobacterium Moraxella Escherichiaand Klebsiella

Microbial Counts Computed for Assessing Quality of Meat and Meat Products

Meatbeingahighlyperishablecommodityrequiresstrictqualitycontrolrightfromslaughteroperationstill ultimateconsumption. Thebasicobjectivesofqualitycontrolare: o Protectionofpublichealth o Extensionofproductshelflife o Provisionofconsumersatisfaction o Complianceofregulatorylegislation 93|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

94|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Competitiveedgeinthetrade Thegeneralprinciplesofmeatproductqualitycontrolinvolve: o Rawmaterialcontrol o Controlofprocessingoperations o Finishedproductinspectionandcontrol Itisverydifficulttoexaminemeatandmeatproductsforeverypathogenic,toxigenicandspoilage microorganisms. However,aproductcannotbeimprovedunlesssomeobjectiveassessmentofitsqualityisavailable. Butthemethodsadoptedshouldbesimplewithquickresults. Hence,thefollowingindicatororganismsarereliedupontodeterminethesanitaryandsafetystatusof theseitems. Totalviablecount(TVC) Theseareestimatesofmesophilesandpsychrophilsandserveasusefulindicatorsofhandlinghistoryand stateoffreshnessorspoilageofmeat. TVCisalsoreferredtoasAerobicPlateCount(APC)andStandardPlateCount(SPC) Thesecountsprovidemeaningfulguidancetostreamlinetheprocessingoperations. However,ifthesecountsareless,mostprobablenumber(MPN)isenumerated. Coliforms TheseconsistofE.coliandAerobactoraerogenes. Theirpresenceindicatesfaecalcontaminationduetounhygienichandlingduringorafterprocessingofmeat products. Coliformscanbedistinguishedbecauseoftheirpropertytoproducegasfromlactoseat44C. However,outoftwoorganismsinthiscategory,E.coliisabetterindicatoroffaecalcontamination. Enterococci Thesearemembersoffaecalstreptococci(groupD),whichconsistof: o S.faecalis(anditsvarieties) o S.faecium(vardurans) o S.bovis o S.equines Theseorganismsindicatepoorhygienicqualityoffrozenmeatsandinadequateheattreatmentofcanned meats. Otherindicators Besidesaboveindicators,specificorganismslikeStaph.aureus,Salmonella,yeastandmouldcountsarealso important. HeattreatedmeatsshouldalsobescreenedforthepresenceorabsenceofB.cereusandClostridia. Cannedmeatproductsaregenerallysubjectedtosterilitytest. Forthispurpose,cansareincubatedat30Cand55Cfor15days. Swollenordisfiguredcansshowtheproductspoilage.

Miscellaneous Undesirable Changes Caused by Microbes in Meat

Spoilageduetobacteria Bonetaint Bonetaintisthatspoilagethattakesplaceinthedeepmusculatureofcarcassesthatareheavy,well endowedwithfatandalsocooledveryslowly,andputrefactivebacteria,ofanaerobicsporeformingtypeis responsibleforthiscondition Themostcommonlyaffectedjointishipjointandputrefactionisevidentbothinthefemurandits surroundingmusculature. Stressatslaughterpredisposesthoseanimalstothiscondition. TaintinhamsarealsoencounteredandClostridiumputrifaciensandCl.putrificumarethemostcommon bacteriaincriminated Rapidcoolingcanpreventtheseconditions. Phosphorescence 94|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

95|U R V I S H M I S T R Y PhosphorescenceisaconditioncausedbyPseudomonasphosphorescens,inwhichmeatcontaminatedin thecoldstores,whichbecameoriginallycontaminatedbyseafishesstoredtherein(organismisfoundinthe seawater)showsluminousareasscatteredoverthesurfaceofcarcassesanditappearsasthoughstarswere studdedonthem. Miscellaneouscolourchangesonmeatsurfacescausedbybacteria SerratiamarccescensRedcoloursimilartobeetrootjuice PseudomonascyanagenusBluecolour PseudomonascutirubraRedmouldoncharque. Spoilageduetoyeastandmoulds BlackSpot AconditioncausedbyCladosporiumherbaruminwhichblackspotsappearoncarcasssurfacesstoredabove 8C. RhizopusandPullariamayalsobeinvoloved. Thisisnotameresurfacephenomenonandmayextendintothemuscleevennecessitatingcondemnationof entirequarters Whitespot AconditioncausedbySporotrichumandChrysosporiuminwhichwhitewoollyspotsappearoncarcass surfacesstoredabove8Candplentifullyat2.5Candprofuseifabove0C. Thisisanentirelysuperficialcondition. Whiskers WhiskersisaconditioncausedbyThamnidiumandMucorandtheirhyphaeprojectabout2.5cmbeyond thesurfaceofmeat.Theyceasetogrowattemperaturesbelow7.5C,butretainviabilityandproliferate,if exposedabovefreezingpoint.Hencewhiskersisanindicationoftemperatureabuse. BluishgreenmouldssuchasPenicilliumsppalsocausesurfacediscolourationinmeatwhichisalso superficial.

Basics of sensory evaluation of meat products

Eating quality of meat
Fewfoodscanmatchtheextraordinarygustatorysatisfactionderivedbytheconsumer,consumingmeat,a factwellexemplifiedbythecontinuedexistenceofmeatasthecentralitemofthedietinmostaffluent socieitesdespitetheadventofseveralnutritionallycomparablemeatanalogues. Meatpalatabilityincludesfactorssuchascolour,flavour,juiciness,tendernessandtexture Species,breed,animal,age,sex,dietandpostmortemhandlingtechniquesinfluencethesefactors. Thefactorsofsensorycharacteristicsmaybeclassifiedasfollows: Eatingqualitycharacteristics Tenderness Tendernessistheprimaryessentialandthemostimportantsensoryattributeofmeat. Tendernessisperceivedasthreecomponentsbytheconsumer: o Easeofinitialpenetration o Thenumberofbitesforcompletedisintegrationofmeat o Amountofresidueleftbehindaftercompletechewing. Tendernessisinfluencedbytheanimal(age,sex,breed,speciesoftheanimal),stateofrigorofthemeat, handlingoftheanimalperislaughter,mannerinwhichmeatishandled(coldshortening,thawrigor),ageing etc.,. Juiciness Juicinessisperceivedastwocomponents: o Theinitialpurge o Sustainedjuicinessduetomarbling

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96|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Juicinessisalsoinfluencedstateofrigorofthemeat,handlingoftheanimalperislaughter,mannerinwhich meatishandled(coldshortening,thawrigor),ageingetc.,. Juicinessisareflectionofwaterholdingcaacity(WHC)ofmeat. Flavour Flavourisacomplexsensation. Itinvolvesodour,taste,texture,temperatureandpH. Ofthesetheodouristhemostimportant. Itissensedjointlybytheoralandolfactorysenses. Theodourandtasteofcookedmeatarisefromwaterorfatsolubleprecursorsandbytheliberationof volatilesubstancesthatexistinthemeat. Meatsamplesshouldbesmelledfirstfollowedbytastingforarationalandsoundflavourperceptionof severalvolatilecomponentspresentinmeat. Thesecomponentsaresignificantlymarkedwhenmeatiscooked. Flavourhasbeenshowntohaveaprofoundeffectontheoverallacceptabilityofmeatproducts. Thedurationandtemperatureofcookinginfluencesthenatureandintensityofodourandtasteinmeat. Thisisagraduallossofflavourduringstorage;thismayoccureveninfrozenconditions. Flavouroffreshrawmeatisweak,saltyandserumlike. Freshmeatfatalsohasalmostindistincttasteandodour. Itisduringcookingthatflavourgetpronouncedandbecomemeaty. Freshcookedbeefismetallicandastringent. Vealflavourissweetandflat. Porkflavourisregardedsweetandbland. Sexodourismorepronouncedinmale. Porkfromboarhasdefinedpiggyodourorboartaint. Duringlongtermstorage,mostmeatdeveloprancidodourduetofatoxidation. Itmaybemuttony,tallowyforbeefandstale,cheesyorfishyforpork. Incasethemeatisspoiledduringstorage,itemanatesputridodourduetoproteindecomposition. Whencookedmeatisstoredforalongtime,myoglobincatalysedfatoxidationtakesplaceyieldingadistinct warmedoverflavour. Canningimpartscannedmeatflavourtomeatproductsduetoseverheattreatment. Colour Thepigmentofmuscle,myoglobin,isresponsibleforthecolourofmeat. Theappearanceofmeatsurfacetotheconsumerdepends,however,notonthequantityofmyoglobin presentbutonitschemicalstate. Factorsresponsibleforthevariationsinthequantityofmyoglobininthemusclesaretheactivityofthe muscleduringlife. Thedifferencesmayalsobeduetospecies,breed,sex,agetypeofmuscleandtraining. Infreshmeat,beforecooking,themostimportantchemicalformisoxymyoglobin. Itoccursinthesurfaceandisbrightredincolour. Thecolourofmyoglobinispurplishred. Consumerrelatestheappearanceandcolourofmeattosafetyandhealthiness. Consumerrelatesthecolourofcookedmeattodoneness. Thefinalcolourofcookedmeatisdependenttothepigmentchangesbroughtaboutbytemperature,time andmethodofcooking. Whenmeatiscookedthereisgradualchangeofcolourfromdarkredorpinktoalightershadeandfinallyat highertemperaturestogreyorbrowncolour. Pressurecookedorboiledmeatwilldiscernagreycolourwhereasroasted;broiledorcannedmeatturns brown. Thebrowncolourofthoroughlycookedmeatisduetodenaturationofhemepigmentsandpolymerization ofsomeproteinsandfats. Thecolouroffreshpork,muttonandbuffalofatiswhiteandundergoesverylittlechangeduringcooking. Texture Textureisoneofthemostimportanteatingqualityattributesintheacceptanceofmeat. 96|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

97|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Theoverallimpressionoftextureisperceivedbythesensesoftouch,sightandhearing. Textureisadirectconsequenceofthegraininfreshmeat.

Sensory Evaluation Principles and Major Considerations

Sensoryevaluationisdefinedasascientificdisciplineusedtomeasure,analyzeandinterpretreactionsto thosecharacteristicsoffoodastheyareperceivedbythesensesofsight,smell,taste,touchandhearing. Itistheconsciousefforttoidentifyandjudgedifferentsensationsandcomponentsinanobject,beitapiece offood,abeverage,oraperfume. Sensoryevaluationencompassesallofthesenses. Ittakesintoaccountseveraldifferentdisciplinesbutemphasizesthebehavioralbasisofperception. Itinvolvesthemeasurementandevaluationofsensorypropertiesoffoodandothermaterials. Humanjudgesareusedtomeasuretheflavororsensorycharacteristicsoffood. Inshort,sensoryevaluationisavery"Gestalt"approachtoproductassessment.

MajorConsiderationsinSensoryEvaluation Themajorfactorsthatinfluencetheeffecitivenesofsensoryevaluationare 1. Sample 2. Panelists 3. Environment 4. Presentation ConsiderationsPertainingtoSamplesinSensoryEvaluation 1. TemperatureofSamples 2. ServingUtensils 3. SampleSize 4. SampleCoding 5. OrderofPresentation 6. NumberofSamples 7. TimeofTesting 8. Rinsing ConsiderationsPertainingtoPanelistsinSensoryEvaluation Selectionofpanelistisbasedonthefollowingcriteria: 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Ethnicity 4. IllnessIndividualswithanyailmentthatwilladverselyaffecttheskillsofsensoryevaluationarenot selected. 5. Abilitytosensefood 6. SmokersIndividualswhoaresmokersarenotselected. 7. Availability 8. Willingnesstoserve Panelistsareselectedaftertheydemonstratetheirskillsin 1. Tests 2. Thresholds 3. Discrimination 4. Abilitytotastethefourbasictastes Screeningtestsareconductedtodeterminepanelistssensoryacuityandabilitytolistenandfollow directions.Screeningofpotentialpanelistsshouldbeconductedinfourphases: 1. Conductscalingteststodetermineifpanelistscanfollowdirectionandmakejudgments; 2. Evaluatesensoryacuityortheindividualsabilitytodiscriminateusingsnifftestsandtriangletests; 3. Conductteststodetermineanindividualsabilitytorankorratesensorydifferences;and 4. Conductapersonalinterviewtoascertainapanelistscontinuedinterest. 97|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

98|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Duringthescreeningprocessoneofthreedecisionsshouldbemadeatthecompletionofeachofthefour phaseslistedabove: 1. accepttheindividualforthenextphaseoftesting; 2. rejecttheindividual;or 3. continuetesting. Anindividualshouldbeacceptedforallfourphasesbeforeacceptanceforsensorytraining. ConsiderationspertainingtoEnironmentinSensoryEvaluation Thefollowingenvironmentalfactorshaveabearingonsensoryevaluation: o Temperature o Lights o Comfort o Private ConsiderationspertainingtoPresentationinSensoryEvaluation Random Numberingorlabeling Inpresentationofsamplesthefollowingcriteriaaretobemet Utensils:StainlessSteel Plates:WhiteorPaper Glasses:Clear Carrier:PieCrust Accompaniment:Ketchup

Different methods and uses of sensory evaluation

Thethreemajortypesoftestutilisedinundertakingsensoryevaluationare o DiscriminationTests o DescriptiveTests o AffectiveTests DiscriminationTests DiscriminationTestsareusedtodeterminewhetheradifferenceexistsbetweensamples.Thepanelistdoes notallowhispersonnellikesanddislikestoinfluencehisresponse.Laboratorydifferencepanelsareusedto determineifthereisadifferenceamongsamples. Examplesofthesetestsinclude o PairedComparison o Triangletests o Duotrio o RankingTests DescriptiveTests Descriptivetestsareusedtodeterminethenatureandintensityofthedifferences.Itrequirestrained panels.Examplesofthesetestsinclude o RatingorScoring o TextureandFlavourProfileAnalysis o QuantitativeDescriptiveAnalysis AffectiveTests Preferencetestsareaffectivetestsbasedonameasureofpreferencefromwhichrelativepreferencecanbe determinedExamplesofthesetestsinclude HedonictestThisistheonemostcommonlyutilisedinassessingmeat. UsesofSensoryEvaluation Inthefoodindustry,sensoryevaluationisusedfor: Grading Foodscanbegradedandstandardized;thisisoftendonecompletelybyasensoryjudgment. 98|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

99|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Wearefamiliarwiththisinthewineindustry;anexpertwilldesignatewines.Inthecoffeeindustrywe utilizeexpertcuppers. QualityAssurance Weneedtounderstandvariationsinnaturalproductsbutdonottoleratetheminprocessedfoods. Iftheflavorofacandyischanged,wemayrejectit. SensoryevaluationisacriticaltoolforQualityAssurancepersonnel. Itcanbeusedtotestforoffflavors,changesduetoreformulation,theeffectsofchangesinprocessing,the effectsofstorageundervariousconditions(shelflifestudies),theeffectsofpackaging,etc,. Incoffee,weneedtounderstandthescopeofnaturalvariationinourproduct. Itisusedtodiscernnaturalvarianceinnewcropvs.pastcropcoffeeortowanttodistinguishnewcrop acidityfrompossibletaint. Ifyouaregoingtolookatchangesinyourbusinessinanypartoftheprocess,fromgrowingtopackaging, youllwanttousesensoryevaluationtonotedifferencesinthefinalproduct. CorrelateSensory&Chemical/PhysicalProperties Whatspecificcharacteristicsinanitemgiveititstasteandsmellandaretherewayswecanmanipulate these?(E.g.whatarethechemicalchangesthattakeplacewhenawinematures?Whichonesaffectthe flavor?Cantheybeaccelerated?) Marketing Sensoryinformationcanbevitalinmakingmarketingdecisions. Dataisneededaboutproductpreferences,productoptimization,consumeracceptance,etc. Thereisadifferencebetweenwhatyoudotoassessproductqualityandprocessandwhatyoudotolookat consumerspreferences. Youneverwanttousetrainedexpertstopredictconsumerbehaviorbecausebyvirtueoftheirtrainingthey arenolongerreflectiveofthegeneralpopulation.

Chemical composition and nutritive value of egg

Eggisanutritious,unadulteratednaturalfoodwithhighdigestibilitycoefficient. Itisarichsourceofanimalproteinwithwellbalancedaminoacidprofileimpartsitaveryhighbiological value(oneofthehighestamongvariousfoods) Thebiologicalvalueofeggproteinis96whencomparedto85ofmilkand80ofmeat Itisusedasastandardproteintomeasurethequalityandnutritivevalueofanyhumanfood. Anaverageeggwillsupplyaround7gofwholesomeproteinofhighbiologicalvalueand6gofeasily digestiblefatrichinmonoandpolyunsaturatedfattyacids,cholesterolandvitaminE. Nearlytwothirdsofeggiswaterandtheremainingisdrymatter. Drymatterconsistsoforganicandinorganicmatter. Inorganicmatter:Inorganicmatterconsistsofmineralslikecalcium,phosphorus,sodium,potassium, chlorine,magnesium,sulphurandmineralslikemanganese,zinc,iron,copper,cobalt,iodineandselenium. Organicmatterconsistsofcarbohydrate,protein,fat,vitamins,pigmentsandenzymes.

Carbohydrates and lipids of eggs

Carbohydrate Eggisapoorsourceofcarbohydrateandastandardsizedegg(58g)containsonly0.5gofcarbohydrate,of which0.3gisseeninalbumenand0.2ginyolk. Lipids Theseareexclusivelypresentinyolkonly. Astandardsizedeggcontains6goflipidsandthesearepresentinanemulsifiedformwhichfacilitateseasy digestionandabsorption. Ofthetotallipids62%istruefatortriglycerides. Oleicacidisthemajorfattyacidanditconstitutesaround50%ofthetotalfattyacids. Palmiticacidforms27%,linoleicacid11%,stearic6%andtheremaining6%ismadeupofotherfattyacids. 99|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

100|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Phospholipidsconstitutearound33%ofthetotalyolklipids. Thedifferentphospholipidspresentinyolkarephosphatidylcholine,phosphatidylethanolamine,lyso phosphatidylcholine,lysophosphatidylethanolamine,sphingomyelin,plasmalogen,inositolphospholipids etc. Sterolsform5%oftotallipidsandthechiefsterolischolesterol. Aneggcontains200300mgofcholesterol. Cerebrosides(ovokerasineandovophrenosin)arepresentintracesinegg.

Proteins, vitamins and pigments of eggs

Proteins Eggisarichsourceofproteinandtheproteinisofhighquality. Proteinsarepresentbothinalbumenandyolk. Thepredominantproteinofalbumenisovalbumenwhichconstitutes54%ofthetotalalbumenprotein. Theotherproteinspresentinalbumenareconalbumin,ovomucoid,ovomucin,lysozyme,G2globulin,G3 globulin,flavoprotein,avidin,ovomacroglobulin,ovoglycoproteinetc. Themajorproteininyolkisovovitellinewhichconstitutes75%ofthetotalyolkproteinandtheremaining 25%isconstitutedbyovolivetin. Ovovitellineisrichinphosphorusandonethirdofphosphoruscontentofyolkispresentinthisfraction. Ovolivetinisrichinsulphurandcontainsnearlyonethirdofthetotalsulphurofyolkandaverysmall proportionofphosphorus. Proteinsofvitellineandshellmembranesareovokeratinandovomucin. Shellproteinsaremainlycollageninnature. Theproteinsofeggcontainallessentialaminoacidsincorrectproportions. Vitamins Eggcontainsbothwaterandfatsolublevitamins. Enzymes Eggalbumencontainstheenzymelysozyme,whichisantimicrobialinnatureandtheyolkcontainssmall amountsofcatalase,peptidase,tributyrase,amylase,phosphatidaseetc. Pigments Shellpigmentsofeggincludeovoporphyrin,whichisresponsibleforthebrownishtintofsomeeggs. Ovocyangivesbluishtinttoeggs(inAraucanabreedofchicken). Somepoultryeggshellmembranehasapinkishpigmentporophyrin. Albumenpigmentisovoflavinwhichhasacreamytinge. Yolkpigmentsareoftwotypeswatersolublepigmentorlyochromesthatresembleovoflavinofalbumen andfatsolublepigmentsorlipochromeswhichincludecarotenoidsandxanthophylls. CarotenoidsincludeandcaroteneswhichhavevitaminAactivity. Xanthophyllsincludecryptoxanthene,zeaxantheneandluteinwhichhavepigmentingpropertyalone.

Nutritive value of eggs

Thequalityofeggproteinisofgoodexcellentandhasaveryhighbiologicalvalueof96. Itisconsideredasareferenceprotein. Ithasallaminoacidsincorrectproportions. Yolkcontains16.5percentandalbumencontains10.5percentprotein. Fromastandardsizedegg,wewillget6.5gproteinfromalbumenand3.0gfromyolk. Thefatofeggiswellemulsified,easilydigestedandabsorbed. Eggsaregoodsourcesofvitaminsandminerals. VitaminA2001000IU/egg VitaminB1presentinyolkalone5070g/egg VitaminB2200g/egg(inyolkandalbumen) Niacin40g/egg Pantothenicacid600g/egg

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Preservation and packaging of eggs

Packaging of shell eggs
Naturehasgiventheegganaturalpackagetheshell. Despiteitsrelativestrength,theeggisanextremelyfragileproductandevenwiththebesthandling methods,seriouslossescanresultfromshelldamage. Economicalmarketinggenerallyrequiresthateggsbeprotectedbytheadoptionofspecializedpackaging andhandlingprocedures. Functionsofpackaging Packagingisanimportantcomponentindeliveringqualityeggstobuyers. Itembracesboththeartandscienceofpreparingproductsforstorage,transportandeventuallysale. Packagingprotectstheeggsfrom: o microorganisms,suchasbacteria; o naturalpredators; o lossofmoisture; o tainting; o temperaturesthatcausedeterioration;and o possiblecrushingwhilebeinghandled,storedortransported. Properhandlingandstorage,helpcontrolmoistureloss,butappropriatepackagingmayalsohelppreventit. Eggsalsoneedtobreathe,hencethepackagingmaterialusedmustallowfortheentranceofoxygen. Thematerialusedmustbecleanandodourlesssoastopreventpossiblecontaminationandtainting. Authenticeggpackagingmaterialscanbereused,butcarefulattentionmustbepaidtopossibledamage, odoursandcleanliness. Thepackagingmustbemadetowithstandhandling,storageandtransportmethodsofthemostdiversekind andtoprotecttheeggsagainsttemperaturesthatcausedeteriorationandhumidity. Finally,consumersliketoseewhattheyarebuying,especiallyifitconcernsfreshproduce. Aneggpackageshouldbedesignedsothatthecustomersnotonlyrecognizetheproductassuch,butcan alsoseetheeggstheyarebuying. Manyfactorsmustbetakenintoconsiderationforpackagingeggs.Itisimportanttoobtaininformation regardingthenecessaryrequirementsforaparticularmarket,suchas: o qualitymaintenance; o storagefacilities; o oftransport; o tobetravelled; o climaticconditions; o timeinvolved;and o Costs.

Types of packaging of eggs

Therearemanydifferenttypesofeggpackages,whichvarybothindesignandpackagingmaterialused. Grainbyproducts Packingeggswithcleanandodourlessricehusks,wheatchafforchoppedstrawinafirmwalledbasketor crategreatlydecreasestheriskofshelldamage.Itisalsobepossibletopackeggsinasimplebasket. Thebaskethasnocushioningmaterialsuchasstrawandthereforedamagetotheeggsmayoccurmore easily.Thiskindofpackagingmaybefitforshortdistancetransport. FillerTrays Averycommonformofpackagingisthefillertray.Thefillersarethenplacedinboxesorcases. Fillertraysaremadeofwoodpulpmouldedtoaccommodatetheeggs.Theyareconstructedsothatthey canbestackedoneontopoftheotherandcanalsobeplacedinboxesreadyfortransport. Fillertraysalsoofferaconvenientmethodforcountingtheeggsineachbox,withouthavingtocountevery singleegg. Thecasesusedmaybemadeofsawnwood;however,theyaremorecommonlymadeofcardboard.

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102|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Whenusingcardboardcases,specialcaremustbetakeninstackingsothatexcessiveweightisnotplacedon acaseatthebottomofastack. Fillerscanalsobemadeofplasticasseenin. Theadvantagesofusingplasticeggfillersarethattheycanbereusedandarewashable. Thefillerscanbecoveredwithplasticcoveringsandbeusedaspackagesforfinalsaletothebuyer. Moreimportantly,however,plastictransparentfillersallowfortheinspectionofeggswithouthandlingor touchingtheeggs. RetailPackages Eggscanalsobepackedinpackagesthataresmallerandspecificforretailsale. Eachpackagecanholdfromtwototwelveeggs. Thesecasescanbemadeofpaperboardormouldedwoodpulp,orcanbemadeofplastic. Itisalsopossibletopackeggsinsmallpaperboardcasesandcoverthemwithplasticfilm. Eggcaseshavealsobeendevelopedfrompolystyrene. Theadvantagesofusingpolystyrenearesuperiorcushioningandprotectionagainstodoursandmoisture. Thepackageisalsoresistanttofungusandmouldgrowth. Theuseofsmallcasesisrestrictedbyavailabilityandcostconsiderations. However,smallcasesaregoodforretailersandcustomers. Theyareeasyfortheretailerstohandleandcustomersareabletoinspecttheeggs. Labelling Labelsareasourceofimportantinformationforthewholesaler,retailerandconsumerandnotjustpiecesof paperstuckontocartonsorboxes. Theimportantfactsonthelabelcontaininformationforbuyersconcerningtheeggs,theirsizeandweight andquality/gradedescriptionAA,AorB. Labelsmayalsoindicatetheproducer,whentheeggswerelaid,howtostorethemandtheirexpiration date. Persuadingthebuyertopurchasetheproductwithouttasting,smellingortouchingisanotherfunctionof labelling.

Preservation of eggs
Inordertopreserveeggsonlygoodqualityeggsshouldbeproduced.Thereforeanymethodofpreservation startsfromthepointofproductionitself. Thefollowingpracticesarerecommendedasroutinefortheproductionofqualityeggsonthefarm. o Collectionofeggsatleast3timesdaily. o Usingacleanreceptaclewithventilatedsidesandbottom,preferablyfillerflats. o Carefulhandlingofeggsduringcollectionandwhilekeepinginfillerflatsetc., o Coolingtheeggsquicklyto50oForlessat7585%relativehumidity. o Marketingtheeggsatleasttwiceweekly. Preservation Theshellofaneggnormallycarriesawiderangeofmicroorganismsonitssurfacewhicharemostly responsibleforspoilageofeggs. Manymethodshavebeenusedinthepasttocounteractthisandextendtheshelflifeofeggs.Theseinclude: Drypacking Eggsarekeptinanearthenpotwithcleandrypackingmaterialandthepotisburiedinwetsand. Immersioninliquids Thisisfairlyanoldmethodanditprimarilypreventstheevaporationofmoisturefromtheegg. Dependingontheliquiduseditmayalsoinhibitbacterialdecompositionbychemicalsactionorbyphysical meanssuchasocclusionofairpassages/pores. Limewatertreatment o Limewaterispreparedbymixingabout0.5kgofquicklime(calciumoxide)inabout1litreofboiling water. o Themixtureislefttosettleovernightandthecleansupernatantliquidispouredoutintoajar. o Sodiumchlorideof112gramsperlitremayalsobeaddedtoincreasethespecificgravityofwater andwillminimisethechanceofbreakageofeggs. 102|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

103|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Inthissolution,2.5litersofcoldwaterisaddedandfilteredthroughmuslincloth. o Keeptheeggstobepreservedinaglassjarorearthenpotandpourthelimesolutionovertheeggs tillalltheeggsarecompletelyimmersed. o Eggshavetobekeptinthissolutionfor24hourstogetmaximumbeneficialeffect. o After24hourstheyaretakenout,driedandarrangedinfillerflats. o Eggscanbekeptfor23monthsinagoodedibleconditionatnormalambienttemperature. o Theonlydisadvantagehowever,isthetasteoflimecanbedetectedintheeggs. Waterglassmethod o A10%solutionofsodiumsilicateispreparedinhotwaterandallowedtocool. o Thecooledsolutionispouredintoajarcontainingtheeggstilltheyareimmersedcompletely. o Thejariscoveredandkeptinacoolplacewherethetemperatureshouldnotexceedabove70oF. o Eggspreservedbythismethodareusuallypuncturedbeforeboilingtoavoidthebreakageofshell whileboilinganditalsohelpsforeasypeelingofshell. ShellSealingtreatments WhentheshellissealedthroughthistreatmentthewatervapourandCO2donotescapeand microorganismsareunabletopenetratetheshell. Coatingwithoil o TherateofCO2escapeisconsiderablyreduced. o Thisisafairlysuccessfulmethodofrenderingtheegglesspermeable. o Itcanbedonebysimplydippingtheegginabowloftasteless,odorless,colourlessedibleoil,having aspecificgravityofabout0.855to0.870at15oC;viscosityshouldnotbemorethan70to90and havingahighboilingpointsothatatlowertemperatureitremainsintheliquidform. o Theeggsareimmersedonlyforamomentandarethenremovedandtheexcessoilisallowedto drain. o Ifoiltreatmentistobeeffectiveitshouldbedonepreferablyatthepointofproductiontheday aftertheeggislaid. o Oilingisnotasubstituteforrefrigeration. o Theseeggsmustbeheldatalowtemperature. o Cottonseed,linseedandgroundnutoilaregoodsealingagentsbutmineraloilsarepreferablesince theyarelesssubjecttooxidativechangesduringstorage.oilimmersedeggsandtheseeggsarenot likelytoabsorbforeignodours. o Theoiltreatmentcanalsobedonebysprayingusingahandorelectricsprayer. o Eggscanbesealedundervacuum. o Oilmaybesuccessfullyusedinvacuumimpregnationmethod. o Theeggisfirstimmersedinoilandthensubjectedtoreducedatmosphericpressure,whennormal pressureisrestoredthetendencyoftheairtoentertheporesoftheshellcausesthesolutionalsoto bedrawnin. o Theoildoesnotpenetratethroughtheeggmembranes. o Thecommercialeggtreatmentwithoilsare 1. Heavyparaffinoil(CentralFoodTechnologyResearchInstitute 2. Myvacet940(developedatCFTRIMysore) 3. Myvacet5 4. Myvacet7 5. Petroleumjelly 6. Liquidparaffin 7. Paraffinwax 8. Coconutoil 9. Dalda 10. Carboxylmethylcellulose 11. Technicalwhiteoil. Thermostabilization o Thismethodisgoodforfertileeggssinceitkillstheembryosandthereforeisalsoknownas 'defertilization'method. 103|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

104|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Itessentiallyconsistsofimmersingshelleggsinhotwaterat130oFfor30minuteswhichtendto coagulatethealbuminandthentheeggiscooledundertapwater. o Treatedeggsremainediblefor3to4weeksevenduringsummermonths. o Thoughthismethodhasmanyadvantagessuchasstabilizingofthealbuminandsterilizationofthe eggshell,theeggloosesthepropertyoffoamingtoaremarkableextent. o Moreover,embryonicdevelopmentinfertileeggsiscompletelyarrested. Overwrapping o Foroverwrappingofeggspolyethylene,cellophane,polyvinylideneandothertransparent,thinbut sufficientlystrong,filmsareused. o Thesefilmsshouldbeimpervioustogasesandmoisture. o Overwrappingofeggsindifferentatmospherelikecarbondioxide,vacuumetc.havebeentried. Coldstorage Thisisthebestandmostefficientmethodforcommercialstorage. Eggsforcoldstoragemustbeclean,unbroken,andfreefromfungusandotherinfections. Atemperatureof0oCor3032oFandrelativehumidityof8590%isrecommendedforcoldstorageofeggsto preservethemfor5to8months. Forshortperiodofpreservationof2to3months,eggscanbestoredat1012oCor5055oFwitharelative humidityof6070%. Intacteggsareheldatthelowestpossibletemperaturethatwillavoidfreezingandburstingoftheshells. Ithasbeenobservedthatintacteggsdonotfreezeattemperaturebetween1.5oCand2oCandtherelative humiditymustnotgobeyond90%. Driedandfrozeneggs Thisisanothermethodofpreservingeggcontentsoredibleeggs. Eggproductsofcommercialutilityarepreparedbydryingorfreezingeggs. Albuminflakes,yolkandeggwhitepowdercanbeproducedbydryingprocess. Frozenyolkorfrozeneggwhitecanbeproducedbyfreezing. Foreggwhitepowderproductionthebestknownmethodisspraydryingandforalbuminflakes,panor cabinetdryingmethodismostlyadopted.

Laws governing National and international trade in meat and meat products

Regulationofthequalityofmeatplacedintradeisessentialtoensureuniformityinquality;andpricingof meatandmeatproductsbasedontheirquality, Microbialstandardsarenecessarytoensuresafemeatismadeavailabletoconsumers.Thevarioustermsin voguetoaddressthisconcernofthemeatindustryaremicrobialstandard,specificationandguideline. Amicrobialstandardisamicrobiologicalcriterionthatispartofalaw,orregulation,mandatoryand enforceablebytheregulatoryagencyinvolved. Amicrobialspecificationisamicrobiologicalcriterionthatisappliedasaconditionofacceptanceforafood oringredientbyafoodmanufacturer.Microbiologicalspecificationsaregenerallycontractualagreements betweenamanufacturerandpurchasertocheckwhetherthefoodsareofrequiredquality. Microbiologicalguidelines,whicharenonmandatorycriteriausuallyintendedasaguidetogood manufacturingpractice. ThemajorlawinvolvedingoverningmeattradeinIndiaisMeatFoodProductsOrder,1973andthemost recentdevelopmentgoverningFoodSafetyinIndiaistheFoodSafetyandStandardsAct,2006overand abovestandardssetoutwithrespecttoMeatbyBureauofIndianStandards. ThemajorstandardsgoverninginternationalfoodtradeisISO22000standardandmicrobialstandardsare setbyInternationalCommitteeonMicrobialSpecificationonFoods(ICMSF),andEuropeanEconomic Community. Theensuingdiscussionpresentsadetaileddescriptionoftheabovestandards.

Meat food products order (MFPO)

Meatisoneoftheoldestfooditemsofhumanbeing. 104|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

105|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Initially,itwasbeingtakenrawbutlateritbegantobeprocessedtosatisfythepalateandtoprovide preservativeaction. Butmeatisahighlyperishablecommodityandsanitaryconditionsandutmosthygienicmeasuresare necessarytosafeguardthequalityofprocessedmeatfoodproducts. Withtheadventofcentralisedmeatprocessingunits,theresponsibilitytomaintainthequalityofmeatfood productsbecameacentralconcern. In1973,GovernmentofIndiapromulgatedanOrdertoenforcestrictqualitycontrolontheproductio0nand processingofmeatfoodproductsunderEssentialCommoditiesAct1955. TheresponsibilitytoenforcethisorderwasentrustedtoDirectorateofMarketingandInspection,Ministry ofAgricultureandRuralReconstruction. TheAgriculturalMarketingAdvisortotheGovernmentofIndiawasmadetheexofficioChairmanofmeat FoodProductsAdvisoryCommitteewith10memberswhoaidandadviseministryinanymatterpertaining tothisOrder. TheOrderaimsatmaintenanceofsanitaryconditionsintheslaughterhouses,ensuringproperantemortem examination,postmorteminspectionofcarcasses,inprocessinspectionandfinalproductchecking. Nopersoncouldcarryonbusinessasamanufacturerexceptunderandinaccordancewiththetermsand conditionsoflicencegrantedtohimunderthisOrder. EveryapplicationforgrantoflicenceshallbemadeaspertheproformasetoutintheFirstScheduleofthis Order. Allmeatprocessingunits,whichproducemeatfoodproductsfor,salewithinthecountrycomeunderits preview. Restaurantsandhotelsthatpreparemeatfoodproductsforconsumptionwithintheirpremisesare exempted. Anyfooditemwhichismadefromfleshoranyotherediblepartofthecarcassthroughtheprocessofcuring, smoking,cooking,dryingoranyotherprocessingtechniqueisreferredasmeatfoodproduct. TheOrderdoesnotapplyonraw(chilledorfrozen)meat. Itmaybenotedthatnodealer,agent,brokerorvendorcansellorexposeforsaleordespatchordeliverany meatfoodproductsunlessthesameartemanufacturedbyaMFPOlicencee. PowersofMFPOOfficers TheVeterinarianinspectingofficersoftheDirectorateareissuednecessaryauthoritycardstoseek complianceofMFPO. Theseofficersareauthorized: o Toenterandinspectthepremisesofmeatfoodproductsmanufacturerswithaviewtosatisfy themselvesthattherequirementsofthisOrderarebeingcompliedwith. o Toseizeordetainongivingproperreceiptofrawmaterials,documents,accountbooksorevidence connectedwiththemanufactureofmeatfoodproductsinrespectofwhichtheyhavereasonsto believethatcontraventionoftheOrderhastakenplace. o Todisposeofallmeatfoodproductsandrawmaterialssoseizedordetainedastheydeemfit. Categories MFPO,1973initiallycategorisesthemeatfoodmanufacturersintothefollowingthreebroadheadsonthe basisofsourceofrawmeat: o CategoryA:Includesthosemanufacturersorlicenceesofmeatfoodproductswhopossesstheir ownslaughterhouse. o CategoryB:Includesthosemanufacturersofmeatfoodproductswhopurchasemeatfrom approvedslaughterhouse. o CategoryC:Includesthosemanufacturersofmeatfoodproducts,whopurchaserawmeatfromany othersource. Thelicencefeeforeachcategorydiffersandiscollectedeveryyearatthetimeofrenewaloflicence. Schedules MeatFoodProductsOrder,1973containsfourschedules: TheFirstSchedule o DealswithapplicationforlicenceorrenewaloflicenceunderMFPO. 105|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

106|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o Theinformationrelatedtoapplicant,addressoffactory,sourceofrawmaterial,descriptionofmeat foodproductswhichtheapplicantsproposestomanufacture,installedcapacity,aplanoffactory andalistofequipmentshastobeprovided. o Applicationforrenewaloflicenceshouldinvariablycontainthestatementspertainingtothequality andvalueofmeatfoodproductsmanufacturedinthepreviousyear. TheSecondSchedule o Dealswiththeminimumsanitaryrequirementstobecompliedwithbyalicencee. o Itcontainsdetailedinstructionsregardingfactorypremises,construction,doors,windowsand ceiling,plumbinganddrainagesystem,equipmentandmanufacturingarea,coldstoragefacilities, precautionsagainstflies,ratsandmice,watersupply,personnelhygieneandvaccinationoffactory workers,provisionofproperapronsandheadgears,etc. TheThirdSchedule o Dealswithhygienicrequirementstobecompliedwithbyalicenceewhoalsoslaughtersanimalsin hisfactory. o Itcontainsdetailedinstructionsregardingseparationbetweencleananddirtysectionswithinthe slaughterhouse,provisionoflairage,slaughterhallandrefrigerationfacilities,antemortem examination,humaneslaughter,postmorteminspectionanddisposalofcondemnedcarcassesor organs,etc. TheFourthSchedule o Dealswiththerequirementstobecompliedwithasregardstopackaging,markingandlabelingthe containersofmeatfoodproducts. o Itcontainsdetailedinstructionwithrespecttoproperpackingandsealingofflexiblecontainers,use ofinternallacquersandhermeticsealingintinplatecans,useofinternallacquersandhermetic sealingintinplatecans,useofbottlesandjars. o AsperMFPOstandards,cannedmeatfoodproductsshouldnotcontainpoisonouselementsviz. lead,copper,arsenic,tin,zincinexcessof2.5,20,2,250and50ppmrespectivelybyweight. IntheprocessMFPOofficersconductinspectionofmeatfoodproductfactoriesandpremisesregularly. TheyconductfrequentsurprisevisitstolicensedunitssoastoenforcetheimplementationofMFPO regulations. SamplesofmeatfoodproductsarecollectedandsenttoregionalandcentralAgmarklaboratoriesfor specifiedtesting. Atpresenttherearemorethan220licensedmeatfoodproductsunitsunderMFPO,1973throughoutIndia. Theseunitsmanufactureasmanyas185differenttypesofmeatfoodproducts. Thus,MFPOisplayingamajorroleinsafeguardingtheinterestofmeatfoodproductsconsumers.

BIS standards for the meat industry

Qualitycontroldepartmentsfrequentlyutilisethereliablemethodsandtechniquesforestablishingthe standards. Astandardcanbereferredascarefullydrawnspecificationwithrespecttoafoodproduct. Thespecificationsgivecomprehensiveinstructionstoensurecorrectandreliableprocesscontrol. Thecomplianceofspecificationsincreasestheconfidenceoftopexecutivesintheproductionandmarketing ofperishablefooditems. Bureauofindianstandards(BIS) Establishedin1947asIndianStandardInstitution(ISI)asajointventureofGovernmentofIndiaandIndustry tookuptheresponsibilityofpreparingandpromotingthegeneraladoptionofstandardsinthecountry. TheerstwhileISIconstitutedtheMeatandMeatproductsSectionalCommittee,AFDC18underthe AgriculturalandFoodProductsDivisionCouncilin1958toprepareIndianStandardsformeatindustry. Thiscommitteerepresentsthescientists,technologists,manufacturers,governmentagenciesand consumers. Thestandardsarepreparedkeepinginmindtheneedsofindustryprotectingtheinterestsofbothproducers andconsumersandarereviewedperiodically. Alistofrelevantstandardsisgivenbelow: 106|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

107|U R V I S H M I S T R Y VariousBISstandardsinrespectofmeatandmeatproductspublished Sl ISNo. No. 1 2 3 4 IS1723:1973 IS1743:1973 IS1981:1978 IS1982:1971 Title Reaffirmed Date 112000 112000 112000 112000 Amendment.

Pork(firstrevision) Muttonandgoatmeatcannedinbrine(firstrevision) Animalcasings(firstrevision) Codeofpracticeforantemortemandpostmortem inspectionofmeatanimals(firstrevsion) Smokedbacon(firstrevision) Ham Muttonandgoatmeat(chevon)fresh,chilledandfrozen (firstrevision) Beefandbuffalomeatfresh,chilledandfrozen(first revision) Muttonandgoatmeat,curriedandcanned(firstrevision) Porksausages,canned(firstrevision) Porksausages,fresh(firstrevision) MeatandmeatproductsMethodofSampling

1 3 2 1

5 6 7

IS2475:1979 IS2476:1963 IS2536:1995

112000 112000 112000

2 1 1

IS2537:1995

112000

9 10 11 12

IS3044:1973 IS3060:1979 IS3061:2001 IS3100(Part 1):1996 /ISO3100 1:1991 IS4352:1967 IS4393:1979 IS4674:1975 IS4723:1978 IS4950:1968 IS4951:1975 IS5558:1970 IS5960(Part

112000 112000 112000 012001

2 2 1

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Porkluncheonmeat,canned Basicrequirementsforanabattoir(firstrevision) Dressedchicken(firstrevision) Eggpowder(firstrevision) Baconrashers,canned Ham,canned(firstrevision) Chichenessence Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part1

112000 032005 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 012001

1 1 2 1 1

107|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

108|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 1):1996 /ISO937:1978 21 IS5960(Part 2):2000 /ISO936:1998 IS5960(Part 3):1970 Determinationofnitrogencontent(firstrevision)

Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part2 Determinationoftotalash(firstrevision)

22

Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part3 Determinationoftotalfatcontent

032005

23

IS5960(Part MeatandmeatproductsMethodoftest:Part4 4):1997 Determinationoffreefatcontent(firstrevision) /ISO1444:1996

092003

24

IS5960(Part Meatandmeatproductsmethodoftest:Part5 5):2001 Determinationofmoisturecontent[referencemethod(first /ISO1442:1997 revision)] IS5960(Part 6/Sec1):1997 /ISO1841 1:1996 IS5960(Part 6/Sec2):1997 /ISO1841 2:1996 IS5960(Part 7):1996 MeatandmeatproductsMethodoftestPart6 DeterminationofchloridecontentSection1Volhard method(firstrevision) 092003

25

26

MeatandmeatproductsMethodofTestPart6 092003 DeterminationofChloridecontentSection2Potentiometric method(firstrevision)

27

Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part7 Determinationofnitritecontent(firstrevision)

012001

28

IS5960(Part Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part8 8):1996 Determinationofnitratecontent(firstrevision) /ISO3091:1975 IS5960(Part Methodoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part9 9):1988 Determinationoftotalphosphorscontent /ISO2294:1974 IS5960(Part MeatandmeatproductsMethodsoftest:Part10 10):2001 MeasurementsofpH(Referencemethod)(firstrevision) /ISO2917:1999 IS5960(Part Methodoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part11 11):1988 Determinationofgluconedeltalactonecontent /ISO4133:1979 IS5960(Part 12):2001 MeatandmeatproductsMethodsoftest:Part12 DeterminationofL(+)glutamicacidcontent(Reference

012001

29

112000

30

112000

31

112000

32

108|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

109|U R V I S H M I S T R Y /ISO4134:1999 method)(firstrevision) 33 IS5960(Part Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part13 13):1988 Determinationofpolyphosphates /ISO5553:1980 IS5960(Part Methodsoftestformeatandmeatproducts:Part14 14):1988 Determinationofstarchcontent /ISO5554:1978 112000

34

112000

35

IS5960(Part MeatandmeatproductsMethodsoftest:Part15 15):2000 DeterminationofL()hydroxyprolinecontent(firstrevision) /ISO3496:1994 IS5960(Part 16):2004 /ISO 13730:1996 IS5960(Part 17):2004 /ISO 13965:1998 IS6557:1972 IS6558:1972 IS6559:1972 MeatandmeatproductsMethodoftest:Part16 Determinationoftotalphosphoruscontent Spectrophotometricmethod

36

37

MeatandmeatproductsMethodoftest:Part17 DeterminationofstarchandglucosecontentEnzymatic method

38 39 40

Albumenflakes,nonediblequality Codeofpracticeforcoldstorageofshelleggs Codeofpracticeforantemortemandpostmortem inspectionforpoultry Sliderailsforuseinabattoirs Hoggambrels Pighooks Codeforhandling,processing,qualityevaluationand storageofpoultry Basicrequirementsforastallforsaleofmeatofsmalland largeanimals(firstrevision) Inedibleoffaltrolleys SlaughterhouseequipmentElectricalstunningtongsfor pigs(firstrevision) Terminologyofmeatproductsandmeatanimals:Part1 Poultry

112000 112000 112000

1 1

41 42 43 44

IS6628:1972 IS6782:1972 IS6950:1973 IS7049:1973

032005 032005 032005 112000

45

IS7053:1996

012001

46 47

IS7891:1975 IS7909:1993

032005 032005

48

IS8539(Part 1):1977

112000

109|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

110|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 49 IS8895:1978 Guidelinesforhandling,storageandtransportofslaughter housebyproducts Dayoldchicks(Layer/broilers)Basicrequirements(first revision) Methodforevaluationofqualityoffreshchickeneggs Edibleeggalbumenpowder Chicken,cannedinbrine Sheepdressinghook Gambrelforsheepandgoats Luncheonbeef,canned Cornedbeef,canned Meatextract,foodgrade Soupstockmedium(beef) Sheepspreader Sheepbleedingshackle Meatinspectiontable Offalhandlingtableforsmallanimals Chickencurry,canned Cannedham,minced Cannedeggcurry Pickledquaileggs Muttonbiryani,canned Chickensausages DeterminationofThiobarbituricacidvalueinmeat MeatandmeatproductsEnumerationofPseudomonas Sp. 112000

50

IS9800:1993

032005

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

IS9810:1981 IS10382:1982 IS10697:1983 IS11533:1985 IS11631:1985 IS11746:1986 IS11747:1986 IS11748:1986 IS11771:1986 IS12189:1987 IS12190:1987 IS12486:1988 IS12487:1988 IS12541:1988 IS12542:1988 IS12543:1988 IS12561:1988 IS13165:1991 IS13400:1992 IS13401:1992 IS14843:2000 /ISO 13720:1995 IS14844:2000 /ISO 13721:1995

112000 112000 112000 032005 032005 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 112000 092003 092003

1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

72

MeatandmeatproductsEnumerationoflacticacid bacteriaColonycounttechniqueat30oC

110|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

111|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 73 IS14920:2001 /ISO 13681:1995 MeatandmeatproductsEnumerationofyeastsand mouldsColonycounttechnique

74

IS15463:2004 MeatandmeatproductsEnumerationofEscherichiacoli /ISO6391:1997 Colonycounttechniqueat44Cusingmembranes IS15478(Part 2):2004 /ISO3100 2:1988

75

MeatandmeatproductsSamplingandpreparationoftest samples:Part2Preparationoftestsamplesformicro examination

TheseBISspecificationsarevoluntarybutanadherencetotheseguidelinesdefinitelyimprovesthequalityof processedproducts. However,MeatFoodProductsOrder,whichexclusivelydealswithqualitycontrolofprocessedmeat products,ismandatory. Microbiologicalstandardshelptoimproveplantsanitation,ensuresafetyoftheproductsandpreventlosses duetomicrobialspoilage. Establishmentofmicrobiologicalspecificationsisaveryexpensiveandcumbersometask. Lotofdatabaseisrequiredinpracticalconditionsatdifferentlocations,withaverygooddegreeof reproducibility. MicrobiologicalspecificationsformeatprocessingplantsassuggestedbyMarksandSpencer,UK,are presentedinthefollowingtable.

Microbial Standards for meat by ICMSF and EEC

S.No Product 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Test n c m APC 5 3 105 APC 5 3 106 APC 5 3 106

M 106 107 107

Carcasemeat,beforechilling Carcasemeat.chilled Edibleoffal,chilled Carcasemeat,frozen

APC 5 3 5x105 107

Bonelessmeat,frozen(beef,pork,mutton) APC 5 3 5x105 107 Comminutedmeat,frozen Edibleoffal,frozen Rawchicken,freshorfrozen APC 5 3 106 107

APC 5 3 5x105 107 APC 5 3 5x107 107

n=numberofsamplestobetakenfromthelot, c=numberofsamplespermittedtofail, m=microbialcountbelowwhichthesampleisconsideredtobesatisfactory M=microbialcountabovewhichthesampleisconsideredunsatisfactory. ProvisionsofDirective88/657/EEC(withreferencetofreshmeat) S.No Organism 1. n c m M

Aerobicmesophile(totalviablecount)bacteria 5 2 5x105 5x106

111|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

112|U R V I S H M I S T R Y 2. 3. 4. 5.

E.Coli Cl.Perfringens(sulphitereducinganaerobes) Staphylococci Salmonella

5 2 5x102 5x103 5 1 102 104

5 1 5x102 5x103 5 0 Absencein25g

n=numberofsamplestobetakenfromthelot, c=numberofsamplespermittedtofail, m=microbialcountbelowwhichthesampleisconsideredtobesatisfactory M=microbialcountabovewhichthesampleisconsideredunsatisfactory.

ISO 9000 standards

TheISO22000internationalstandardspecifiestherequirementsforafoodsafetymanagementsystemthat involvesthefollowingelements: o interactivecommunication o systemmanagement o prerequisiteprograms o HACCPprinciples Criticalreviewsoftheaboveelementshavebeenconductedbymanyscientists Communicationalongthefoodchainisessentialtoensurethatallrelevantfoodsafetyhazardsareidentified andadequatelycontrolledateachstepwithinthefoodchain. Thisimpliescommunicationbetweenorganizationsbothupstreamanddownstreaminthefoodchain. Communicationwithcustomersandsuppliesaboutidentifiedhazardsandcontrolmeasureswillassistin clarifyingcustomerandsupplierrequirements. Recognitionoftheorganization'sroleandpositionwithinthefoodchainisessentialtoensureeffective interactivecommunicationthroughoutthechaininordertodeliversafefoodproductstothefinal consumer. Themosteffectivefoodsafetysystemsareestablished,operatedandupdatedwithintheframeworkofa structuredmanagementsystemandincorporatedintotheoverallmanagementactivitiesofthe organization. Thisprovidesmaximumbenefitfortheorganizationandinterestedparties.ISO22000hasbeenalignedwith ISO9001inordertoenhancethecompatibilityofthetwostandards. ISO22000canbeappliedindependentlyofothermanagementsystemstandardsorintegratedwithexisting managementsystemrequirements. ISO22000integratestheprinciplesoftheHazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint(HACCP)systemand applicationstepsdevelopedbytheCodexAlimentariusCommission. Bymeansofauditablerequirements,itcombinestheHACCPplanwithprerequisiteprogrammes. Hazardanalysisisthekeytoaneffectivefoodsafetymanagementsystem,sinceconductingahazardanalysis assistsinorganizingtheknowledgerequiredtoestablishaneffectivecombinationofcontrolmeasures.ISO 22000requiresthatallhazardsthatmaybereasonablyexpectedtooccurinthefoodchain,including hazardsthatmaybeassociatedwiththetypeofprocessandfacilitiesused,areidentifiedandassessed. Thusitprovidesthemeanstodetermineanddocumentwhycertainidentifiedhazardsneedtobecontrolled byaparticularorganizationandwhyothersneednot. Duringhazardanalysis,theorganizationdeterminesthestrategytobeusedtoensurehazardcontrolby combiningtheprerequisiteprogrammesandtheHACCPplan. ISOisdevelopingadditionalstandardsthatarerelatedtoISO22000. ThesestandardswillbeknownastheISO22000familyofstandards Atthepresenttime,thefollowingstandardswillmakeuptheISO22000familyofstandards: o ISO22000FoodsafetymanagementsystemsRequirementsforanyorganizationinthefoodchain. o ISO22001GuidelinesontheapplicationofISO9001:2000forthefoodanddrinkindustry(replaces: ISO15161:2001). 112|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

113|U R V I S H M I S T R Y o ISO/TS22002PrerequisiteprogrammesonfoodsafetyPart1:Foodmanufacturing o ISOTS22003Foodsafetymanagementsystemsforbodiesprovidingauditandcertificationoffood safetymanagementsystems. o ISOTS22004FoodsafetymanagementsystemsGuidanceontheapplicationofISO22000:2005. o ISO22005TraceabilityinthefeedandfoodchainGeneralprinciplesandbasicrequirementsfor systemdesignandimplementation. o ISO22000isalsousedintheFoodSafetySystemsCertification(FSSC)SchemeFS22000.FS22000isa GlobalFoodSafetyInitiative(GFSI)approvedscheme

Organic meat

Thephilosophyoforganicmeatproductionistoraisetheanimalinamannerthatbefitstheuseoftheterm organicaswellashandlingthemeatinsuchmanner. Thedistinctionbetweenmeatproducedbyconventionalfarmingandorganicfarmingishighlightedbelow Conventional Applychemicalfertilizersto promoteplantgrowth. Sprayinsecticidestoreduce pestsanddisease. Usechemicalherbicidesto manageweeds. Giveanimalsantibiotics,growth hormonesandmedicationsto preventdiseaseandspur growth. Organic Applynaturalfertilizers,suchasmanureor compost,tofeedsoilandplants. Usebeneficialinsectsandbirds,matingdisruption ortrapstoreducepestsanddisease. Rotatecrops,till,handweedormulchtomanage weeds. Giveanimalsorganicfeedandallowthemaccessto theoutdoors.Usepreventivemeasuressuchas rotationalgrazing,abalanceddietandclean housingtohelpminimizedisease.

Raising livestock the organic way

Organicproductionoflivestockistoprovideconditionsthatmeetthehealthneedsandnaturalbehaviorof theanimal. Thus,organiclivestockaregivenaccesstotheoutdoors,freshair,water,sunshine,grassandpasture,and arefed100percentorganicfeed. Anyshelterprovidedmustbedesignedtoallowtheanimalcomfortandtheopportunitytoexercise. Organicpracticesprohibitfeedinganimalpartsofanykindtoruminantsthat,bynature,eatavegetarian diet. Thus,noanimalbyproductsofanysortareincorporatedinorganicfeedatanytime. IntheUnitedStates,regulationsspecifythatorganicstandardsrequireoversightofproductionandhandling systems. Forinstance,productionandhandlingoperationsmustundergoonsiteinspectionsandhavefarmor operatingplansinplaceinordertobecertifiedorganic. Thestandardsalsospecifyfeedrequirements,includingwhatisandisnotallowed. Forinstance,inorganicproduction,livestockcannotbefedplasticpelletsforroughage,orformulas containingureaormanure. Theycannotbegivenantibioticsorgrowthhormones. Alloftheseareallowablepracticesinconventionalagriculture. Forananimaltoberaisedfororganicbeef,itsmothermusthavebeenfedorganicfeedforatleastthelast thirdofgestation. 113|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

114|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Handling of meat the organic way Inprocessingoperationsthathandlebothorganicandnonorganicmeatproducts,processorsmust segregatetheirhandlingoforganicandnonorganicmeat. Therealsoarespecifiedcleaningagentsthatareallowedandprohibitedinsuchoperations. Traceability Organiccertification,byaU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureapprovedagent,isrequiredforthefarmandthe processingandhandlingfacilitiespriortodeliverytoretailoutlets. Becausefarmersandhandlersmustkeepextensiverecordsaspartoftheirfarmandhandlingplansinorder tobecertifiedorganic,theorganicproductionsystemofferstraceabilityoftheanimalfrombirthto marketingoftheresultingmeat. Thus,whenonepurchasesorganicmeat,thereisaguaranteeoftraceability. Marketingoforganicmeat Undernationalorganicstandards,whenmarketedasorganic,meatbyitselfis100percentorganic. Ifaconsumerbuysorganichamburger,itmeansthatallofthemeathasbeenproducedorganically.

Food products of genetically modified animal and marine origine

Aprominentareaofcontemporaryanimalbiotechnologyresearchisthedevelopmentoftransgenicanimals throughgeneticengineering(GE)technology. TransgenicanimalsareproducedbyintroducinganisolatedDNAfragmentintoanembryosothatthe resultinganimalwillexpressadesiredtrait. TransgenicanimalsmaybegeneratedbytheintroductionofforeignDNAobtainedthroughanimalsofthe samespecies,animalsofdifferentspecies,microbes,humans,cells,andinvitronucleicacidsynthesis. Potentialapplicationsforsuchgeneticengineeringinthefoodindustryincludeimprovedfeeduseandfaster growth;moreresistancetodisease;meatthatisleanerorthathasmoreofsomeotherdesirablequality; andpossiblyevenanimalwastethatismoreenvironmentallybenign,synthesisofmilkwithpharmaceutical agents. Thetablebelowprovidesexamplesofanimalbiotechnologyinvolvinggeneticmodificationapplicabletothe foodindustry. Purpose FasterGrowthor leanermeat Alteredmilk composition(higher protein) Anticlottingdrug productioninmilk FasterGrowth AnimalModel TransgenicSource Cattle,Swine, Growthhormones/factors:Human,Bovine, Rabbits,Sheep Porcine,Rat,Chicken Cattle Extracopiesofcaseingenes;disruptionof lactoglobulingene

Goat

Humanantithrombingene

Atlantic Salmon

Growthhormoneregulatinggenefrom PacificChinookSalmonandapromoterfrom anoceanpout

TheanticlottingagentingoatmilkisthefirstsuchapplicationtobeapprovedbytheFDAinMarch2009. Theaquaadvantagesalmonisageneticallyengineeredsalmon,whosegrowthratehasbeenenhancedand ismeantforaquaculture.ItisunderconsiderationoftheFDAforapprovalandislikelytobeapproved.

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ATryn

ATrynisthebrandnameoftheanticoagulantantithrombinmanufacturedbytheMassachusettsbasedU.S. companyGTCBiotherapeutics. Itismadefromthemilkofgoatsthathavebeengeneticallymodifiedtoproducehumanantithrombin,a plasmaproteinwithanticoagulantproperties. Microinjectionwasusedtoinserthumanantithrombingenesintothecellnucleusoftheirembryos. ATrynisthefirstmedicineproducedusinggeneticallyengineeredanimals.GTCstatesthatonegenetically modifiedgoatcanproducethesameamountofantithrombininayearas90,000blooddonations. GTCchosegoatsfortheprocessbecausetheyreproducemorerapidlythancattleandproducemoreprotein thanrabbitsormice. OnFebruary6,2009,ATrynwasapprovedbytheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)fortreatmentof patientswithhereditaryantithrombindeficiency,whoareundergoingsurgicalorchildbirthprocedures. AlongwiththeapprovalfromtheFDA'spharmaceuticalregulatoryboard,theCenterforVeterinary MedicineoftheFDAalsoapprovedthegeneticmakeupofthegoatsthatareusedtomanufactureATryn. GTChasthesolerightstosellATrynintheUnitedStates,andthedrugwillbeavailableintheU.S.marketin 2009. Earlierin2006,theEuropeanMedicinesAgency(EMEA)initiallyrejectedand,afteranappealfromGTC, approvedthedrugforuseintheEuropeanUnioncountries. Thecompanyplanstoacquireadditionalapprovalfortreatmentofthosewithnonhereditaryantithrombin deficiency. TheHumaneSocietyoftheUnitedStateshassaidoftheprocessusedtomanufactureATryn,"Itisa mechanisticuseofanimalsthatseemstoperpetuatethenotionoftheirbeingmerelytoolsforhumanuse ratherthansentientcreatures." However,thegeneticchangehasnoknownilleffectsonthehostanimal.

Aquaadvantage salmon
AquaadvantageSalmon Aquaadvantageatlanticsalmonisageneticallymodifiedsalmon,whichisanAtlanticSalmon,modifiedby addingagrowthhormoneregulatinggenefromaPacificChinookSalmonandapromoterfromanocean pouttotheAtlantic's40,000genes. Thesegenesenableittoeatyearround,insteadofonlyduringspringandsummer.Thepurposeofthe modificationsistoincreasethespeedatwhichthefishgrows,withoutaffectingitsultimatesizeorother qualities. Thefishgrowstomarketsizein16to18monthsratherthanthreeyears. Concerns Concernsraisedaboutthereleaseofgeneticallymodifiedanimalsincludepotentialnegativehumanhealth andenvironmentaleffects. Thereareconcernsthatthegeneticallymodifiedsalmoncouldhaveanadverseeffectonwildsalmon populationsshouldtheyescapefromthefarms. Aquaculturethatusesnaturallyoccurringsalmon,mostlyAtlanticsalmon,cultivatesthefishinnetpens. InNorthAmerica,thisoccursmostlyincoastalwatersalongWashingtonState,BritishColumbiaandMaine. Oceanculturedfishcanescapeandcompetewithnative(nonAtlantic)stocks.Bysomeestimates,400,000 to1millionAtlanticsalmonhaveescapedfromthe75orsooperationsinBritishColumbia. APurdueUniversitycomputermodelshowedthat60transgenicmedakainterbreedinginapopulationof 60,000wildfishwouldleavethewildfishextinctin40generations. Thefish'sdeveloperhasallayedthesefearsbypubliclyannouncingtheadoptionofthefollowingmeasures: o Cultivatingonly(99%+)sterilefemalesatinlandfarms. o Anyescapeeswillnotbeabletoreproduce,eithernativelyorbyinterbreedingwithwildstocks, becausetheyarealltriploid,withthreesetsofchromosomes. o Theyaretoprovidefarmerswitheggsratherthanfish. 115|U R V I S H M I S T R Y

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Glossary
Aband:Striatedmusclesconsistofalternatinglightanddarkbandsandthuspresentingthestriatedappearance Since,thedarkbandisdoublyrefractive,whenviewedwithpolarizedlight,asitcontainsbothactinandmyosin filaments,itisdescribedasbeinganisotropic,andthusdesignatedtheAband.TheAbandisbisectedbyMline. Endomysium:Endomysiumisafineconnectivetissueframeworkoriginatingfromtheperimysiumandcoverseach individualmusclesfibres. Epimysium:Epimysiumistheoutermostconnectivesheathcoveringeachandeverymuscle. Fenestratedcollar:Thesarcoplasmicreticulumconsistsofseveraldistinctelements.Thintubulesorientedinthe directionofthemyofibrillaraxis,constitutethelongitudinaltubulesofthesarcoplasmicreticulum.IntheHzone regionofthesarcomerethelongitudinaltubulesconvergeformingaperforatedsheetthatiscalledafenestrated (windowlikeopening)collar.Thelongitudinaltubulesextendinbothdirectionsfromthefenestratedcollartothe terminalcisternae. Hzone:HzoneisanareainthecentralregionoftheAband,whichhasslightlylessdensitythantheremainderof theAband.TheHzoneislessdensethantherestoftheAbandbecauseitisthecentreregionbetweentheendsof theopposingactinfilaments,containingonlymyosinheads.TheHzoneiscompletelyobliteratedwhenthemuscle contractsfully,astheactinfilamentsarepulledtowardsitselfbythemyosinhead. IBand:Striatedmusclesconsistofalternatinglightanddarkbandsandthuspresentingthestriatedappearance. Since,thelightbandissinglyrefractivewhenviewedwithpolarizedlight,owingtothefactitexclusivelycontains actinfilamentsonly,itisdescribedasbeingisotropicandiscalledtheIband.TheIbandisbisectedbyZline. Meat:Meatisthepostrigoraspectofmuscle. Motorendplate:Motorendplateisthecomplexstructure,amoundonthesurfaceofthemusclefibre,formedat themyoneuraljunction,whereinthemotornervefibreendingsterminateoninvaginationsofthesarcolemma. Musclefibre:Musclecellsarereferredtoasmusclefibre,whicharehighlyspecializedcellsandarethestructural unitsofmuscle.Musclefibresarelongunbranchedthreadlikemultinucleatecellswhichtaperslightlyatbothends. Myofibrils:Myofibrilsareuniqueorganellesofthemuscle.Theyarelongthincylindricalrodsvaryingindiameter from1to2m,whoselongaxisisparalleltothelengthofthemuscleandtheyextendtheentirelengththemuscle fibre.Onmicroscopicexaminationthemyofibrilsappearasalternatinglightanddarkbands.Themyofibrilsare composedoffilamentswhicharereferredtoasmyofilaments,whicharechemicallyproteins. Myofilaments:Myofibrilsarecomposedoffilamentsreferredtoasmyofilaments,andtheseareoftwotypesthin andthickmyofilamentswhicharealmostcompletelycomposedoftheproteinsactinandmyosinrespectively. Myoneuraljunction:Myoneuraljunctionistheinvaginationsofthesarcolemmainwhichthethemotornervefibre endingsterminate.

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117|U R V I S H M I S T R Y Perimysium:Perimysiumistheseptaofconnectivetissueemanatingfromtheepimysiumandtheseaggregate musclefibresintomusclefibrebundlesandcoversthem. PseudoHzone:PseudoHzoneistheregionofrelativelylowdensitythatappearswithintheHzoneoneithersideof theMline.Thiszonecontainsthemyosintailonly.ThepseudoHzoneisnotobliteratedbyanyamountof contraction. Sarcolemma:Sarcolemmaisthecellmembraneofthemusclefibre.Sarcolemmaissimilartoplasmalemmaofany otheranimalcellinrespectofstructure,compositionandfunctionandisendowedwithgreatelasticitytoendure thegreatdistortionitundergoesduringmuscularcontractionandrelaxation. Sarcomere:ThefunctionalunitofmusclecontractionthatextendsbetweenZlineandhenceincludetwohalfIbands andoneAband. Sarcoplasm:Sarcoplasmisthecytoplasmofthemuscle,inwhichasisthecaseofanyothercell,organellesand colloidalsubstancesaresuspended. Sarcoplasmicreticulum:Sarcoplasmicreticulumistheendoplasmicreticulumofthemuscle,whichisverywell developedandserversasthereservoirforcalciuminthemuscle. Terminalcisterne:Terminalcisternaearetransverselyoriented,tubularelementsofthesarcoplasmicreticulum. TransversetubulesorTsystem:TransversetubulesorTsystemareinvaginationsofthesarcolemma,thatforma networkoftubuleswhichrunalongtheentirelengthandaroundattheentirecircumferenceofthefibre.

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