SteelBridges

FourthYear
BuildingandConstructionDepartment
UniversityofTechnology
Baghdad
Dr.WaelShawky

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Bridges
A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, railroad track, river, body of water, or any
other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of
bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where
thebridgeistobeconstructed.
HistoryofBridges:
The first bridges were made by nature as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The
first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and
eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement.
Epic literature of India provides mythological accounts of bridges constructed from India
to Lanka by the army of Rama. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction
of dams and bridges. A Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by J ames Princep. The
bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief
architect of emperor Chandragupta I. The bridge also fell under the care of the Yavana
Tushaspa, and the Satrap Rudra Daman. The use of stronger bridges using plaited
bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A number of
bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal
administration in India.
The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. The Romans built
arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy
earlier designs. Some stand today. An example is the Alcntara Bridge, built over the
river Tagus, in Spain. The Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of
strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water,
lime, sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era,
as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.
Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at the time of the
Warring States, the oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built
from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as
it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental
arch bridges date back to at least the Alcontar Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD),
while the enormous Roman era Trajan's Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel
segmental arches in wooden construction.
Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in
the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 1500s.
During the 18th century there were many innovations in the design of timber bridges by
Hans Ulrich, J ohannes Grubenmann, and others. The first book on bridge engineering
was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. A major breakthrough in bridge technology came
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with the erection of the The Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale, England in 1779. It used cast
iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn.
With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were
developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large
loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges
were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
Types of bridges
There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges,
suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges.
Beam bridges
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The earliest beam
bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In modern
times, beam bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes
straight down on the piers at either end of the bridge.

Cantilever bridges
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers horizontal beams that are supported on
only one end. Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms extending from opposite
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Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were
made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables
hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams
are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the
world is the 12,826 feet (3,909 m) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in J apan. See simple suspension
bridge, stressed ribbon bridge, underspanned suspension bridge, suspended-deck
suspension bridge, and self-anchored suspension bridge.
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Cable-stayed bridges
Like suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges are held up by cables. However, in a cable-
stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately
shorter. The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher. The
longest cable-stayed bridge is the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China.
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Truss bridges
Truss bridges are composed of connected elements. They have a solid deck and a lattice
of pin-jointed girders for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood, and later of
wood with iron tensile rods, but modern truss bridges are made completely of metals such
as wrought iron and steel or sometimes of reinforced concrete. The Quebec Bridge,
mentioned above as a cantilever bridge, is also the world's longest truss bridge.
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CompressionMembers
Compressionmembersarememberssubjectedtoaxialcompressive
stressessuchascolumns,postsandstruts.

Onlyveryshortcolumnscanbeloadedtotheiryieldstress(F

)but
usuallysituationisthatbucklingoccurspriortodevelopingthefullmaterial
strengthofthemember.
Column
P
Column
P
P
Strut
P
2

P
2

Post
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EulerElasticLoad

= Px
Sincc
J
2
x
Jy
2
= -
H

EI

Then
d
2x
d
2
+
P
LI
x = uwhichrepresents
secondorderdifferentialequation.

Ict
P
EI
=
2

Thenthesolutionoftheequationis:
x = A sin y +Bcos y
Byusingtheboundaryconditions:
o -ot y = u tbcn x = u lcoJ to B = u
b -ot y = I tbcn x = u lcoJ to Asin I = u
y

x
y

P
P
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tbcn =
nn
I

onJ
P
EI
=
n
2
n
2
I
2

P = n
2
n
2
EI
I
2

Forfundamentalbucklingmode(singlecurvaturedeflection),n=1,theEuler
criticalloadforthepinendedcolumnis:
P
c
= P
c
=
n
2
LI
L
2

Sincc r = _
I
A
g
tbcn I = A
g
r
2

Andthecriticalcompressivestressis:
F
c
=
P
c
A
g
=
n
2
E
[
I
r

P
P
P
P
P
P
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
P
cr
=
a
2
FI
L
2

P
cr
=
4a
2
FI
L
2

P
cr
=
9a
2
FI
L
2

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EffectiveLength(kL)andeffectivelengthfactor(k):
Columns
NonSwayCase SwayCase

Kiscalculatedfromthechartsonpages35or5137AISC1989
k = 1 k = 2 k = 2
k = 1 k = . 5 k = . 7
ur hraced ramex . 5 k 1
Lateralbracingisprovidedbya
diagonalbracingoradequate
attachmenttoshearwallsadjacent
structurehavinglateralstability
ur unhraced ramex 1 k
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6
A
6
B
k

6
A
6
B
k

1
. 5

1
Nunxawy Caxe
xawy Caxe
A
B
6 = 1
6 = 1
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Allowablestress(Fa)
Onthegrosssectionofaxiallyloadedcompressionmember:
C
c
= _
2n
2
E
F

a
when
kI
r
< C
c

tbcn F
u
=
_1 -
[
kI
r

2
2C
c
2
_F

S
S
+
S [
kI
r

8C
c
-
[
kI
r

3
8C
c
3

b
when
kI
r
> C
c

F
u
=
12n
2
E
2S[
kI
r

2

WhereE=29000ksi
ThevaluesofFaaregivenintablesonthefollowingpagesinAISCmanual:
ForFy=36ksionpage316
AndforFy=50ksionpage317
LocalBuckling:
Topreventlocalbucklingofthesectionelementsofcompressionmembers,
thewidththicknessratiosoftheelementsare:
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b
]

b
b
t
]

t
t
h

2t

=
95

F
y

h
t
=
95

F
y

h
t
=
238

F
y

h
t
w
=
253

F
y

t
w

b
b
t
h
t
=
7

F
y

b
h
t
=
7

F
y

t
D
t
=
33

F
y

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BuiltUpMembers:

+
+ + + +
S
S 24"
S
r
x|ng|e
=
3
4
_
kL
r
duuh|e
]

t
+
+ + + +
S
S
127

F
y
12"
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DesignMethod:
Chooseanyvalueof
kL

between0and200
FindF
u
thenA
g
=
P
P
c

Findr
x
onJ r

Chooseavailablesectionfromthemanualandwritedownthepropertiesof
thesection.
Compute
u
=
P
A

Fromthelargerof[
kL

x
onJ [
kL

andbyusingtheallowableaxialstress
tables,findF
u

u
F
u
< 1 cboosc smollcr scction
i

u
F
u
> 1 cboosc lorgcr scction

u
F
u
bctwccn 1 onJ u.9S ; tbc scction is cJcquotc onJ ccomomicol
Lastcheckthelocalbucklingofthesection.
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EX:SelectthelightestWsectionofA36steelforamemberof30longand
carryinganaxialcompressionloadasshowninfigure.Thememberisa
partofabracedstructure.

Solution:
Sincethememberisinabracedstructure:
k
x
= k

= 1.u
I

= 1S
i
onJ I
x
= Su
i

Assumc
kI
r
= 1uu
Frompage316:
F
u
= 12.98 ksi
P = 16uk
P = 16uk
A A
x
x
y
y
1S'
1S'
P = 16uk
P = 16uk
SectionAA
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A
g
=
16u
12.98
= 12.S in
2

_
kI
r
]
x
= 1uu tbcn r
x
=
2ux12x1
1uu
= S.6"
_
kI
r
]

= 1uu tbcn r
x
=
1Sx12x1
1uu
= 1.8"
TryW10x45
A = 1S.S in
2
r
x
= 4.S2" r

= 2.u1"

u
=
P
A
=
16u
1S.S
= 12.uS ksi
_
kI
r
]
x
=
1xSux12
4.S2
= 8S.S
_
kI
r
]

=
1x1Sx12
2.u1
= 89.SS
WiththelargervalueofkL/r(89.55)andfromtableonpage316:
F
u
= 14.2S2 ksi

u
F
u
= 12.
uS
142S4
= u.84 < 1
Thesectioncanbeusedbutitisnotrepresentthemosteconomicalsection
forthisproblem.
TrysmallersectionW10x39
A = 11.S in
2
r
x
= 4.27"
b
]
2t
]
= 7.S J = 9.92" t
]
= u.SS "
r

= 1.98 tw=u.S1S
_
kI
r
]
x
=
Sux12x1
4.27
= 84.S
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_
kI
r
]

=
1Sx12x1
1.98
= 9u.9
F
u
= 14.1 ksi

u
=
P
A
=
16u
11.S
= 1S.9ksi

u
F
u
=
1S.9
14.1
= u.98 < 1 0K
Checkthelocalbuckling:
b
]
2t
]
= 7.S <
9S

= 1S.8S
b
t
w
<
2SS

J - 2t
]
t
w
=
9.92 -(2 - u.SS)
u.S1S
= 28.126 <
2SS
6
= 42.16 0K
USEW10x39
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