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DEN 4101 Mechanics of Fluid 1

Part 2: Hydrostatics

Dr. Jens-Dominik Mller u School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary, University of London
j.mueller@qmul.ac.uk Room: Eng 122 c Jens-Dominik Mller, 2011-12, updated 1 Oct 2012 u

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Learning objectives

Notes

Directionality of pressure and pressure forces Variation of pressure with height in incompressible and

compressible uids
Pressure measurement with manometers

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Forces on uid particles

Notes

Forces acting on uid particles: body forces:

act on the body of the uid: gravity inertial forces

surface forces: act on the surface of a uid particle: pressure (normal to surface) shear (due to uid motion)

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Pressure variation in a uid: Pascals triangle

Notes

Force balance in the y -direction: py zx p sx sin = 0 z py zx p x sin = 0 sin py = p

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Pressure at a point in a uid

Notes

Force balance in z-direction: pz y x p sx cos W = 0 y xy z pz y x p x cos g =0 cos 2 g z pz p =0 2

As we go to a point, lim x, y , z 0, then pz = p . The pressure at a point is equal in all directions
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Assumption for Pascals triangle

Assumptions:
No shear forces, no inertial forces (i.e. no acceleration).

Notes

True for:
All stationary uids, steady ow in ideal (inviscid) uids.

Almost true for:

unsteady ow in ideal uids (inertia term is often small)

But: in practice this can be assumed in viscous uids for most practical purposes.

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Pressure variation with height

If a uid element is at rest then the sum of forces in any direction is zero:

Notes

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Pressure variation with height

Force balance in the z-direction: p0 xy pz xy g xy z = 0 Divide by xy z and rearrange: pz p0 p = g = z z In the limit as z 0 we get: lim p dp = = g z dz (1)

Notes

z0

This is the hydrostatic or barometric equation

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Pressure changes in other directions

Equation (1) gives rate of change of pressure in the z or vertical direction. In another direction a:

Notes

The z-direction and the a-direction are related as dz = da The pressure varies along a (using the chain rule) as dp dz dz dp = = g = g cos da dz da da

z a

= cos .

Note that if = 900 then cos = 0 and so dp = 0. Hence da pressure is constant on a surface perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Solutions to the hydrostatic equation

Solutions to Eq. 1 are found by integrating it from a known point at height z0 with p0 :
p1 z1

Notes

dp =
p0 z0

g dz

We need to know the relationship between and z in order to

solve this.
g is practically constant on the Earths surface. may vary with pressure p, and hence with elevation z.

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Hydrostatic equ. for an incompressible uid

Notes

In an incompressible uid does not vary with p and is hence

independent of z
Eq. 1 then becomes:
p1 z1

dp = g
p0 z0

dz (2)

p1 p0 = g (z1 z0 )
p varies linearly with depth z.

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Absolute pressure

Notes

To determine the pressure at point 1 below the surface of a static uid, use Eq. 2: pa p1 = g (za z1 ) p1 = pa + g (za z1 ) = pa + gh
pa is the atmospheric pressure pa = 101.3 kPa p1 is the absolute pressure at point 1, i.e. the pressure above

vacuum.
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Gauge pressure
Engineers often nd it convenient to work in terms of gauge

Notes

pressure which is pressure above atmospheric. Pressure gauges are often set to read zero at atmospheric pressure. The gauge pressure at point 1 is p1 = p1 pa = gh. Engineers also often nd it useful to express pressure in terms of equivalent pressure head: the height of the static uid p p column which produces the same pressure: h = g = The pressure head depends on the choice of reference uid. E.g. pa = 101.3 kPa: 101.3 103 kPa = 10.3 m of water, 1000 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 3 kPa 101.3 10 hm = = 0.76 m of mercury, 13600 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 101.3 103 kPa ha = = 8395 m of air. 1.23 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 hw =
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An example: forces on a submerged gate

A vertical square gate with sides of 6m is hinged at the top. The top of the gate is 5m below the water surface.

Notes

Calculate the force T exerted on gate.

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Notes

The pressure p1 at the top of the gate is: gh1 = 1000 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 5 m = 49050 N/m2 = 49.05 kN/m2 Pressure p2 at the bottom of the gate is gh2 = 1000 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 11 m = 107.91 kN/m2

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An example II
The total force on the gate due is F = pA, since the pressure is not constant we have to work out the integral F = A pdA. The gate is square, so we can simplify the integration (this would not work with other shapes): no variation normal to the drawing plane. The pressure diagram can be split into two parts as below an equivalent force can be calculated for each.

Notes

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For the rectangular component: F2 = 49.05 kPa 6 m 6 m = 1765.8 kN

Notes

For the triangular component: 1 F1 = 58.86 kPa 6 m 6 m = 1059.58 kN 2 The total pressure force is FT = F1 + F2 = 1765.8 kN + 1059.5 kN = 2825.3 kN

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Forces on curved surfacs

Consider a force acting on a a small area of width s and unit length l1 (perpendicular to the image).

Notes

The force acting on the surface element is F = p A = p s l1

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The force acting on the surface element is Notes F = p A = p s l1

The horizontal component of the force is Fh = F sin = ps sin l1 = pyl1 The horizontal force component acting on a curved element is equal to the pressure times the projection of the element on the vertical plane Similarly, the vertical component of the force is Fh = F cos = ps cos l1 = pxl1 the projection on the horizontal plane. However, the vertical pressure change needs to be taken into account.
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Archimedes principle

Notes

The body of water (left) is i equilibrium: pressure forces

balance gravitational forces.

If we remove the body of water, the pressure forces remain

unchanged.
If the gravitational force of the replacing body is larger than

the body of water at same shape, then the body will sink.
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Forces on immersed surfaces, bodies

Consider the force balance on the volume ABC with unit length l1 normal to the plane:

Notes

FH , FV are the horizontal, vertical components of the total

force F on the surface AB,

W is the weight of the uid in ABC .
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Horizontal force balance

Notes

Horizontal force balance: FH = FBC The magnitude of the force on a curved surface is equal to the

force on its vertical projection.

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Vertical force balance

Notes

Vertical force balance: FV = FAC + W The vertical force is equivalent to the force on the vertical

projection plus the weight of the uid between surface and that projection. The force on the vertical projection is equivalent to the weight of uid above the projection, the vertical force on a curved surface is equal to the weight of the uid above it.
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Bouyancy

Notes

Boyancy: the sum of pressure forces is equal to the weight of

the displaced uid.

If this is larger than the weight of the object, there is a net

upward force.
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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Pressure variation in the atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of air, which is a gas and is

Notes

compressible. Its density will vary with height.

The universal gas law relates density and pressure p as

p = RT . R is the specic gas constant, for dry air: R= 287.04 J/kg K. T is the absolute temperature in K : 0 C= 273.2 K.
We can substitute from the gas law into the barometric

equation, Eq. 1: dp pg = g = dz RT dp g = dz p RT
We need to know how temperature changes with altitude.
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(3)

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The standard atmosphere

The atmosphere is thicker at the equator than at the poles, we base calculations on the standard atmosphere which is at 40 latitude.

Notes

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Integrating the compressible hydrostatic equation

In the Troposphere, from sealevel to 11 km altitude, we can assume that the temperature falls linearly with height, T = T0 (z z0 ). The lapse rate is = 15 C (56.5 C) = 0.065 K/m. 11000 m (4)

Notes

Substituting (4) into (3) dp g gdz = dz = p RT R (T0 (z z0 )) Integrating w.r.t dp and dz, ln p = g ln (T0 (z z0 )) + C R (5)
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Determining the integration constant

At a specic height, e.g. ground level: z = z0 , p = p0 and T = T0 , ln p0 = g ln T0 R g C = ln p0 ln T0 R

Notes

Substituting C into (5): g g ln (T0 (z z0 )) + ln p0 ln T0 R R g ln p ln p0 = {ln (T0 (z z0 )) ln T0 } R p g (T0 (z z0 )) ln = ln p0 R T0 g p (z z0 ) R = 1 p0 T0 ln p =

(6)
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Example: at the summit of Mt. Everest

Mount Everest is 8848 m above sea level. What is the air pressure and density at the top? Assume the Std. Atmoshpere, altitude is within the troposphere, hence linear temperature decay from sea level: z0 = 0 m p0 = 101.3 kPa T0 = 15 C = (15 + 273.2) K = 288.2 K = .0065 K/m R = 287.04 J/kg/K for air The value of the exponent in (6) is g 9.81 m/s = = 5.259 R 0.0065 K/m 287.04 J/kg/K g m m kg K m m kg K m m kg K,s2 == 2 = 2 = 2 = [1] R s K J s K Nm s K kg m m
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Using these values in (6) g (zEverest z0 ) R 1 T0 .0065 K/m (8848 m0 m) 288.2 K

5.259

Notes

pEverest = p0

= 101.3 kPa 1

= 31.4 103 N/m2 = 31.4 kPa

The pressure at the summit of Mt. Everest is 31.4 kPa/101.3 kPa = 30.1% of the pressure at sea level.

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The temperature (acc. to Std. Atm) at the summit of Everest is T0 zEverest = 288.2 K 0.0065 K/m 8848 m = 230.7 K Using the ideal gas law to obtain density at sea-level and at the summit, 0 = Everest 101.3 kPa kg p = = 1.22 3 RT0 287.04 J/kg/K 288.2 K m p 31.4 kPa kg = = = 0.474 3 RTEverest 287.04 J/kg/K 230.7 K m

Notes

The density at the summit of Mt. Everest is 0.474 kg kg /1.22 3 = 38.7% m3 m

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of the density at sea level.

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Atmospheric variation in the lower stratosphere

In the lower stratosphere, 11 km z 20 km, T is constant. so integrating (3) yields: dp g gz = dz, i.e. ln p = +C (7) p RT RT If at height zs (e.g. the interface stratosphere-troposphere) the pressure is ps as worked out using (6), gzs gzs ln ps = + C , i.e. C = ln ps + RT RT Substituting for C in (7): gz gzs ln p = + ln ps + RT RT p gzs ln = (zs z) pg RT p g = exp (zs z) (8) ps RT Eq. 8 is the pressure variation for an isothermal gas.
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Notes

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Summary of hydrostatics
Pressure does not have a direction, A pressure force acquires direction by projecting pressure

Notes

normal to an area.
Pressure changes with altitude due to the weight of the uid

column above
Dierentiate between absolute pressure relative to vacuum

and gauge pressure relative to the atmosphere.

In incompressible ow pressure increases linearly with depth

p = gh.
In compressible ow we need to know the temperature

variation to integrate the hydrostatic equation.

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Reading assignments

Notes

Munson 2.1: Pressure at a Point Munson 2.2: Basic Equation for Pressure Field Munson 2.3: Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Munson 2.4: Standard Atmosphere Munson 2.8: Hydrostatic force on a plane surface Munson 2.9: Pressure prism Munson 2.10: Hydrostatic force on a curved surface Munson 2.11.1: Boyancy, Archimedes principle

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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Vertical pressure variation I

Pressure varies vertically due to the weight of the uid column above. For absolute pressure, we include the weight of the atmospheric column of air. Pressure does not vary horizontally: pressure at the same altitude is identical in communicating vessels.

Notes

All particles at the same altitude in an ocean of uid have the same pressure

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Notes

A uid particle is only aware of the collisions with neighbouring particles. Away from the wall it has no knowledge of the wall. So we can consider uid in a container/vessel/manometer to be cut out of an ocean of uid.
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A simple pressure measurement device: Piezometer

The piezometer is the simplest form of manometer, but has only limited versatility.

Notes

The pressure at the open surface

is atmospheric pressure.
In the vertical manometer arm the

pressure increases linearly as gh.

The pressure does not change

horizontally between points (1) and A.

p1 = pA = pATM + gh1 p1 = pA = gh1

absolute pressure gauge pressure

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Inclined piezometer
What changes if we inline the manometer column?

Notes

Only the vertical altitude dierence adds pressure: p = gh = gs sin With smaller the same gauge pressure p results in the same vertical displacement h, but a larger displacement s along the manometer tube, which can be read o with more accuracy.
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U-tube manometer
If the uid in the pipe is a gas, or if p is too high (long manometer column), then use a U-tube manometer.

Notes

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Fluid 2 is chosen to be heavier than uid 1 and not to mix

with it. The legs of the manometer are communicating, hence pressure at A A is identical: p + 1 gy = pa + 2 gh p = pa + 2 gh 1 gy p = 2 gh 1 gy uid 2.
If p is small, then choose uid 2 such that 2 is only slightly

Notes

absolute pressure gauge pressure

If p is large, then use mercury with relative density of 13.6 as

larger than 1 .
If uid 1 is a gas with 1 << 2 , then we can neglect 1

p = 2 gh

gauge pressure

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Example: blood pressure measurement

The sphygmomanometer used in your doctors surgery is basically a U-tube manometer:

Notes

pB + air gy = pa + M gh pB = pB pa = M gh air gy pB = M gh gauge pressure since air < M <

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Blood pressure measurement

Notes

Typical blood pressure: 120/80 i.e. the systolic (high) pressure is 120 mm Hg. Mercury has a specic weight of 13.9, converted to SI units:

p = M gh = 13.9 1000

kg m 9.81 2 0.120 m = 16.4 kPa m3 s

Blood pressure is measured with the arm angled at the height

of the heart.
When standing, blood pressure will be higher in the feet and

lower in the head.

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Inverted U-tube manometer

Use it to measure a pressure dierence between two pipes or two dierent sections of the same pipe carrying a heavy uid,

Notes

Assuming the same uid in the pipe sections with > Air then > p1 p2 = gh

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If the uid in the pipe is a gas, then use a U-tube manometer: Notes

Equating pressures at A A p1 + 1 g (y + h) = p2 + 1 gy + 2 gh p1 p2 = 2 gh 1 gh If 1 < 2 , < p1 p2 = 2 gh

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(9)

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Dierential gauge
A U-tube manometer can be made very sensitive by using a uid in the U-tube with a very similar density to the the uid to be measured. Using (9), p1 p2 = 2 gh 1 gh, p1 p2 h= g (2 1 )

Notes

i.e.

Hence for a particular p = p1 p2 , the level dierence h can be increased, and hence the sensitivity of the manometer, by choosing 2 1 to be very small, i.e 2 1 .

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Example: inverted U-tube

Notes

The manometer connects pipes A and D. The gauge pressure at A is 30 kPa What are the pressures at B, C and D?

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Pressure at B pB = pA W ghA = 30 kPa 1000 = 15.29 kPa Pressure at C pC = pB 0 ghB + 0 ghC = 12.29 kPa 0.8 1000 = 18.43 kPa Pressure at D pD = pC + W ghD = 18.43 kPa + 1000 = 40.0 kPa
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Notes kg m 9.81 2 1.5 m m3 s

kg m 9.81 2 (.8 m + 1.2 m) m3 s

kg m 9.81 2 2.2 m m3 s

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To avoid having to read a dierence between levels in two manometer arms, use a manometer with one arm that has a very large cross-sectional area:

Notes

The volume drop on the left equals the volume gain on the right: z1 D 2 /4 = z2 d 2 /4, z1 = z2 (d/D)2

The pressure dierence p1 p2 is then p1 p2 = g (z2 + z1 ) = g (z2 + z2 (d/D)2 ) = gz2 (1 + d/D)2 ) With d << D this simplies to p1 p2 = gz2 .
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Learning objectives The direction of pressure Variation of Pressure with height Incompressible solution of the hydrostatic equation Forces on curved surfacs, immersed bodies Pressure variation in the atmosphere Pressure measurements using manometers Summary

Notes

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Summary

Notes

Pressure varies with height due to the weight of the uid

column above. For an incompressible uid: p = gh.

Manometers are communicating vessels, pressures are

identical at the same level in the same uid.

Starting from a known state, e.g. atmospheric, work through

the uid columns for each uid to the next interface.

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Reading assignments for pressure manometers

Notes

Munson 2.5: Measurement of pressure Munson 2.6: Manometry Munson 2.7: Pressure measuring devices

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Notes