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+ =
t
t
i f i t
e R R R R
Where, R=change in resistance; , and H=change
in irradiation; W/m
2
, R
f
= dark resistance, ; R
i
= final
resistance after application of beam, ; R
t
= resistance at
any time.
30
Operational amplifier has very high voltage gain, very
high input impedance (typically a few mega ohms) very
low output impedance (less than 100 ), high
bandwidth and good rejection of common-mode signal.
Typical uses of operational amplifier are to provide
voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity),
oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits. The number 741 has become
very popular among electronic engineers, technicians
and hobbyists. Often called the `industry workhorse`
because of its unlimited applications, this operational
amplifier IC is currently being manufactured by nearly
all the IC manufacturers of the world. In India it can be
bought for just a much as five rupees. Op-amps have
both voltage and current limitations. Peak-to-peak
output voltage, for example, is usually limited to
slightly less than the two supply voltages. Output
current is also limited by internal restrictions such as
power dissipation and component rating. An op-amp
contains number of differential amplifier stage to vary
voltage gain. The authors have used OP-741 Dual Input
Operational Amplifier for this research. The basic
internal arrangement of the OP-741 is shown in Figure
5.
A differential amplifier is the input stage for the
operational amplifier. It has two inputs and provides
amplification of the difference voltage between the two
inputs. The voltage amplifier is usually a class A
amplifier that provides additional op-gain. Some
op-amps may have more than one voltage amplifier
stage. A push-pull class B amplifier is used for the
output stage. A typical connection, pin diagram and
schematic diagram of OP-741 are shown in Figures 6, 7
and 8 respectively.
Fig. 5 Basic internal arrangement of OP-741
Fig. 6 Typical connection of operational amplifier
Fig. 7 Pin diagram of op-741 amplifier
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of op-741 amplifier
In this research the authors used two types of switching
elements, namely, electrical and mechanical switch. In
electrical switch, bipolar junction transistor 2N2219A is
used. The 2N2219A is silicon planar epitaxial NPN
transistors in metal case. It is designed for high speed
switching application at collector current up to 500mA,
low leakage currents and low saturation voltage. It is
constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two p-n junctions. The p-n junction joining
the base region and emitter region is called the
base-emitter junction and the junction unification of
base region and the collector region is called the
base-collector junction (Figure 9). In order for the
transistor to operate properly as a switch, the two p-n
junctions must be correctly biased with external dc
voltage.
In mechanical switch, a relay is used for switching.
Relay is an electrically operated switch. Current
flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic
field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. There is no electrical connection inside the
relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and
mechanical. A typical relay and its symbol are shown in
Figure 10.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current,
typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as
100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
31
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current
and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC
current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer
IC is 200mA. So these devices can supply to relay coils
directly without amplification. Relays are usually SPDT
or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover
contacts are readily available. Most relays are designed
for PCB mounting. A protection diode across the relay
coil must be connected to prevent. The relay's switch
connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO
(COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the
moving part of the switch; NC = Normally Closed,
COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off; NO
= Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the
relay coil is on).
On the basis of the magnetic system and operation, the
different types of relays are: Mechanical Relay, Solid
State Relay, Neutral Relays, Biased Relays, Polarized
Relays, Magnetic Stick Relays or Perm polarized
Relays, Slow Release Relays and Relays for AC.
Choosing of suitable relay for specific purposes
depends on the physical size and pin arrangement, coil
voltage and resistance, switch rating (voltage and
current) and switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT
etc.). The authors used solid state relay for this research
for the reasons: i) take very little power to operate, ii)
switch on and off almost instantly, iii) do not have
mechanical contacts that get dirty or wear out, iv) silent,
v) capable of switching heavy loads etc.
In street light distribution system, short circuit may
occur in many ways such as storm, fall of lamppost etc.
In short circuit condition, a very high current flow
through the relay and the relay become heated. The
control circuit may affected by this high current. So for
safety of the control circuit, the short circuit protection
is needed. A fuse is used for protection against short
circuit. Circuit breaker, magnetic contactor, etc. can be
used for protection against such fault. When high
current flow through the fuse, the fuse wire get heated,
and this heat exceeded its melting point. The fuse wire
burn out and keep the control circuit in safe. Transistors
and ICs must be protected from the high voltage
produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram
(Figure 11) shows how a signal diode (eg.1N4148) is
connected 'backwards' across the relay coil to provide
this protection. Current flowing through a relay coil
creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when
the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the
magnetic field induces a high voltage across the relay
coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs.
The protection diode allows the induced voltage to
drive a current through the coil (and diode) so the
magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly.
This prevents the induced voltage becoming high
enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs. Street
lights are very important for human. So it should not
turn off at night. An alert system is designed using
BUZZER circuit to alarm when any fault occurs in the
system.
n
p
n
C (Collector)
Base Collector junction
Base Emitter junction
B (Base)
E (Emitter)
Fig. 9 2N2219A BJT construction
Fig. 10 (a) Typical 6V (dc) relay, (b) Circuit symbol for
relay
Fig. 11 Protection diodes for relays
The equipment needed and the detail circuits diagram
for the control system is shown in Table 2 and Figure 12
respectively. The final circuit board is shown in Figure
13.
32
Fig. 12 Circuit diagram for automation of street light
Fig. 13 Circuit board
The circuit depends on a light sensitive device called
LDR (light dependent resistor). The resistance of the
LDR depends on the amount of light falling on it. The
snake-like track on the face of the LDR is a cadmium
sulphide (CdS) film. Each side is a metal film which is
connected to terminal leads. The light sensor used is
photocell. In bright light the resistance of the photocell
can be as low as 200 ohm and at 50-lux (darkness) the
resistance increases to over 1M ohm. The 1M control
should provide a wide range for light intensities. The
op-amp senses the voltage difference between pins 2
and 3. Triggers pin 2 high which biases the base of Q1
via pin 6 and R5 and in turn activates the relay. The
control R3 is adjusted so that the relay is off, the output
of the op-amp will be around 2 Volts at light condition.
When it is dark, the resistance of the photocell increases
and the difference in input voltage is amplified by the
op-amp, the output will swing towards full supply
voltage (12.08V) and drive the transistor and relay. The
LDR is a regular, general purpose type. D1 serves as a
spark-arrestor when the relay contacts open. The circuit
operates from a 9-12 VDC power supply and the relay
contacts are rated at 220 Vac/2 A. A fuse is connected to
the phase of 220Vac line. When any short circuit occur
the fuse wire will cutoff and transformer primary
winding gets supply. Transformer secondary voltage is
6V. The 6V relay trip by this voltage and normally open
pin of relay and transformer positives are creates short
circuited. This voltage is enough for activated the alarm
circuit.
3. EXPERIMENTS
The designed control system is tested in the Chittagong
University of Engineering & Technology (CUET)
campus for couple of weeks. The experiment section of
the CUET street light distribution system consists of
130 lampposts, 20 light of 80W, 10 light of 250W and
200 lights of 40W each. The total connected load in the
observed section is 12.1 kW. The light distribution
diagram of CUET is shown in Figure 14. Some
observations of the manual and automated on/off timing
in the CUET distribution system are shown in Table 3
and Table 4 respectively.
For manual control of street light, at least one employee
is needed. The salary depends of the geographic
location and skill of the employee. For automated
system no employee is need for ON/OFF the system.
Ignoring the employee cost, in terms of energy saving
33
the automated system is more beneficial. This design is
so simple, easy to maintain, low cost, high Sensitive,
Fast acting, and Reliable. The energy consuming time
for manual and automated system are shown in Table 3
and Table 4 respectively. The item wise cost of the
control system is shown in the Table 2. From the tables
it is obvious that huge energy consuming times may be
reduced using the automated system. Additionally the
unit costs vary as much as few dollars only.
Fig. 14 Circuit diagram of lighting system of CUET
model
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
However the control system is light sensitive, in
authors observation the circuit is able to work reliably
and thereby could reduce the loss of energy by
maintaining the appropriate timing for ON/OFF the
system. Though the system is a good design output of
this research, it has few limitations like circuit is light
sensitive, should be adjusted at least twice in a year for
the light, should keep in a place so that the daylight
strikes on it etc.
Table 2 List of equipments needed for fabrication, their
model/value, quantity and cost in Tk.
Name Model / Value Quantity Purchase
Price Tk
LDR Light sensor 1 20
Transformer 220Vac/12Vac 1 60
Transformer 220Vac/6Vac 1 60
Operational
amplifier
LM-741 1 15
LED 6V 2 2
Variable
Resistance
50k 1 10
Variable
Resistance
10k 1 10
Resistance 1.4k 1 1
Resistance 100k 1 1
Resistance 1k 4 4
Capacitor 1000F 2 8
Transistor 2N2219A 1 60
Diode IN 4001 5 5
Relay 12V 1 25
Relay 6V 1 25
Buzzer 12 V 1 30
Light (lamp) 100W 1 24
CUET
model &
Other
200
Total cost (in Bangladeshi currency)= 560
Table 3 Manual ON/OFF timing the test section of the CUET street light distribution system
Date
Light-O
N
Sunset Access time before
darkness (minutes)
Light-O
FF
Sunrise Access time after
daylight (minutes)
07/07/2008 6:22 PM 6:47 PM 25 5:59 AM 5:14 AM 45
08/07/2008 6:20 PM 6:47 PM 27 5:44 AM 5:14 AM 30
12/07/2008 6:16 PM 6:46 PM 30 5:46 AM 5:16 AM 30
13/07/2008 6:30 PM 6:46 PM 16 6:11 AM 5:16 AM 55
14/07/2008 6:26 PM 6:46 PM 20 6:02 AM 5:17 AM 45
15/07/2008 6:15 PM 6:45 PM 30 5:32 AM 5:17 AM 15
16/07/2008 6:35 PM 6:45 PM 10 5:53 AM 5:18 AM 35
17/07/2008 6:40 PM 6:45 PM 05 6:13 AM 5:18 AM 55
18/07/2008 6:40 PM 6:45 PM 05 5:34 AM 5:19 AM 15
19/07/2008 6:19 PM 6:44 PM 25 5:54 AM 5:19 AM 35
21/07/2008 6:23 PM 6:43 PM 20 5:55 AM 5:20 AM 35
22/07/2008 6:33 PM 6:43 PM 10 5:55 AM 5:20 AM 35
23/07/2008 6:31 PM 6:43 PM 12 6:06 AM 5:21 AM 45
24/07/2008 6:17 PM 6:42 PM 25 5:47 AM 5:21 AM 26
Total access time 260 Minutes 501 Minutes
34
Table 4 Automatic ON/OFF timing using the control system of the test section
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper elaborates the design and construction of a
control circuit for automatically ON/OFF the street light
distribution system. The functionality of the system is
tested in the distribution system of Chittagong
University of Engineering & Technology (CUET) for its
campus for couple of weeks. On the basis of experiments
and observations authors would like to conclude that
i. The automated control system is working reliably
so far, though it has few limitations. The
limitations can be controlled by placing the
system in an appropriate location.
ii. The unit is fabricated using very cheap, simple
and available items. The construction is so simple
thus can be reproduced and maintained locally. It
requires only few dollars to fabricate.
iii. The unit can pin-point the place if there occurs
any damage (short circuit) or if any bulb/tube does
not work and thereby provide better service for
the mankind. It is possible to ameliorate the power
management system enormously.
iv. This circuit can be converted with power
electronic devices which makes easier for
implementation and the load carrying capacity
can be increased for implementation for higher
capacity distribution system.
REFERENCES
APD, 2007. Bangladesh: Statistical Appendix, Prepared
by Wafa Abdelati and Erik Lueth (APD), Approved by
the Asia and Pacific Department, International Monetary
Fund.
BBS, 2008. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. National
data bank statistics. www.bbs.gov.bd (accessed on
August 19, 2008).
BP, 2006. British Petroleum. BP Statistical review of
world energy 2006. BP Plc.
EIA, 2007. Energy Information Administration. Country
analysis briefs: Bangladesh,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Bangladesh/Backgro
und.html (accessed on August 2007).
GPPB, 2007. Government of the Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh, Bangladesh economic review 2007.
Hossain, A. K. and Badr, O. 2007. Prospects of
renewable energy utilisation for electricity generation in
Bangladesh. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 11(8), 1617-49.
Islam M. R., Rabiul, M. I. and Beg, M. R. A. 2008.
Renewable energy resources and technologies practice in
Bangladesh, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 12(2), 299-343.
PDB, 2008. Bangladesh Power Development Board.
www.bpdb.gov.bd (accessed on August 10, 2008).
Date
Light-ON
time
Sunset Access time before
darkness (minutes)
Light-O
FF
Sunrise Access time after
daylight (minutes)
25/07/2008 6:38 PM 6:42 PM 04 5:25 AM 5:22 AM 03
26/07/2008 6:39 PM 6:41 PM 03 5:26 AM 5:22 AM 04
27/07/2008 6:36 PM 6:41 PM 05 5:28 AM 5:23 AM 05
28/07/2008 6:38 PM 6:40 PM 02 5:27 AM 5:23 AM 04
29/07/2008 6:35 PM 6:40 PM 05 5:30 AM 5:24 AM 06
30/07/2008 6:36 PM 6:39 PM 03 5:28 AM 5:24 AM 04
31/07/2008 6:35 PM 6:39 PM 04 5:30 AM 5:24 AM 06
01/08/2008 6:36 PM 6:38 PM 02 5:28 AM 5:25 AM 03
02/08/2008 6:35 PM 6:38 PM 03 5:29 AM 5:25 AM 04
03/08/2008 6:30 PM 6:37 PM 07 5:30 AM 5:26 AM 04
04/08/2008 6:32 PM 6:36 PM 04 5:29 AM 5:26 AM 03
05/08/2008 6:31 PM 6:36 PM 05 5:30 AM 5:27 AM 03
06/08/2008 6:30 PM 6:35 PM 05 5:31 AM 5:27 AM 04
07/08/2008 6:31 PM 6:35 PM 04 5:30 AM 5:27 AM 03
Total access time 56 minutes 56 minutes