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Properties of Elements
1. What is matter? a. Matter is anything made of atoms and molecules; it has mass and takes up space. It is the amount of stuff in an object. Even though matter can be found all over the Universe, you only find it in a few forms. As of 1995, scientists have identified five physical states of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and one state called the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). 2. What are the differences between chemical and physical properties (Properties and State are the same)? Give examples of each type. a. A chemical property change happens when the atoms in a molecule are moved around or when atoms are added or taken away. Chemical changes happen when bonds between atoms are created or destroyed. Changing physical states of matter is about changing densities, pressures, temperatures, and other physical properties. The basic chemical structure does not change when there is a physical change. You can cause physical changes with forces like motion, temperature, and pressure. i. A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It has the same molecular structure whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. Although its physical state may change, its chemical state remains the same. ii. If the formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If you could just add a second oxygen atom, you would have hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). iii. When you step on a can and crush it, you have forced a physical change. iv. When you melt an ice cube (H2O), you have also forced a physical phase change by adding energy. v. When iron (Fe) rusts, the actual molecules change their structure (the iron oxidized) this is a chemical change. vi. Melting a sugar cube is a physical change, because the substance is still sugar. vii. Burning a sugar cube is a chemical change. Fire activates a chemical reaction between sugar and reactions (O2). The oxygen in the air reacts with the sugar, and the chemical bonds are broken. 3. Describe the movement of atoms within a solid, a liquid, and a gas. a. Solids are usually hard, because their molecules have been packed together. In the same way that a solid holds its shape, the atoms inside of a solid are not allowed to move around too much. This is one of the physical characteristics of solids. The molecules in a solid are stuck in a specific structure or arrangement of atoms. The atoms still spin and the electrons fly around, but the entire atom will not change position.

b. Liquids are an in-between state of matter. They can be found between the solid and gas states. One characteristic of a liquid is that it will fill up the shape of a container. Another trait of a liquid is that it is difficult to compress. Liquids have their atoms close together making them hard to compress. Due to Intermolecular, forces the molecules of liquids stick to each other creating a cohesive (sticky) force to hold liquids molecules together.

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Vapor and gas mean the same thing.

c. Gases are random groups of atoms that are really spread out with their atoms and molecules full of energy and bouncing around constantly. Gases can fill a container of any size or shape. It does not even matter how big the container is. The molecules still spread out to fill the whole space equally. Gases hold huge amounts of energy, and their molecules are spread out as much as possible. With very little pressure, when compared to liquids and solids, those molecules can be compressed. 4. How do compounds differ from mixtures? Give an example of each. a. Mixtures are about physical properties, not chemical ones. That statement means the individual molecules enjoy being near each other, but their fundamental chemical structure does not change when they enter a mixture. There are an infinite number of mixtures. Anything you can combine is a mixture. You can always tell a mixture, because each of the substances can be separated from the group in different physical ways. There are a few more words you might hear when people talk about mixtures. Alloys are a mixture of two or more metals. Amalgams are a special type of alloy. Emulsions are created from two or more substances that are normally unmixable. i. Look at sugar in water (H2O) compared to sand in water: Sugar dissolves and is spread throughout the glass of water. The sand sinks to the bottom. The sugar-water could be considered a solution. The sand-water combination is a mixture. ii. Everything you eat. iii. The wood in your pencil is considered a mixture. There is the basic cellulose of the wood, but there are also thousands of other compounds in that pencil. iv. b. Compounds are groups of two or more elements that are bonded together. You have also seen us use the word molecule. Molecule is the general term used to describe atoms connected by chemical bonds. Every combination of atoms is a molecule. Compounds happen with atoms from different elements. So, all compounds are molecules, because they have bonds between the atoms, like in water (H2O). When we talk about compounds, bonds are built and broken down by chemical forces. Physical forces alone (unless you are inside of the Sun or something extreme) cannot break down compounds. Chemical forces are forces generated by other compounds or molecules that act on substances. Most compounds are made up of combinations of bonds. i. Sodium and chlorine (Cl) combine, they form a non-reactive substance called sodium chloride (salt, NaCl). ii. water (H2O) iii. sodium chloride (MgCl2) iv. methane (CH4) v. sodium hydroxide (Na-OH) 5. What has to happen for a substances state of matter to change? a. Elements and compounds can move from one phase to another when specific physical conditions are present. When the temperature of a system goes up, the matter in the system becomes more excited and active. Scientists say that it moves to a higher energy state. Generally, as the temperature rises, matter moves to a more active state. When the temperature of the water goes up, the molecules get more excited and bounce a lot more. If you give a liquid water molecule enough energy, it escapes the liquid phase and becomes a gas. Things only move from one phase to another by physical means. If energy is added (like increasing the temperature) or if energy is taken away (like freezing something), you have created a physical change. No matter what phase it was in, it will always have the same chemical properties.

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6. What phase change occurs at a substances freezing point? At its melting point?

a. At a substances freezing point, the substance changes state from a liquid to a solid. b. At a substances melting point, the substance changes state from a solid to a liquid. 7. How does the temperature at which a substance melts compare to the temperature at which it freezes? a. Phase changes happen when certain points are reached. Sometimes a liquid wants to become a solid. Scientists use something called a freezing point to measure the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid. There is a special temperature for every substance called the melting point. When a solid reaches the temperature of its melting point, it can become a liquid. The reverse of the melting process is called freezing. 8. Compare and contrast the effects of pressure on solids, liquids, and gases. i. When the pressure surrounding a substance goes up, the freezing point and other special points also go up. That means it is easier to keep things solid at higher pressures. Just remember that there are some exceptions. b. All matter can move from one state to another. It may require extreme temperatures or extreme pressures, but it can be done. Sometimes a substance does not want to change states. You have to use all of your tricks when that happens. To create a solid, you might have to decrease the temperature by a huge amount and then add pressure. c. What if you wanted to turn it into a solid but could not make it cold enough? You could increase the pressure to push those molecules together. The opposite works too. If you have a liquid at room temperature and you wanted a gas you could use a combination of high temperatures and low pressures to solve your problem. 9. If an unknown substance is made up of atoms in constant motion, has no definite shape or volume, and can spread out to fill a container, what is its state? How do you know? a. Its physical state is water. Water is the only state with the characteristic of being able to fill up the shape of a container that it is in due to having no definite shape of their own like a solid, also the atoms in a liquid have more energy than the atoms in a solid meaning that they are in constant motion.

Periodic Nature of Properties

10. How is the placement of an element determined? a. The elements are placed in specific locations because of the way they look and act. If you have ever looked at a grid, you know that there are rows (left to right) and columns (up and down). The periodic table has rows and columns, and they each mean something different. In the periodic table, elements have something in common if they are in the same row. Hydrogen (H) and helium (He) are special elements. Hydrogen can have the talents and electrons of two groups: one and seven. To scientists, hydrogen is sometimes missing an electron, and sometimes has an extra one. Helium is different from all of the other elements. It can only have two electrons in its outer shell. Even though it only has two, it is still grouped with elements that have eight (i.e., noble gases). 11. What is a period? How many periods are found in the periodic table?

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a. All of the elements in a period have the same number of atomic orbitals. Every element in the top row (the first period) has one orbital for its electrons. All of the elements in the second row (the second period) have two orbitals for their electrons. It goes down the periodic table like that. At this time, the maximum number of electron orbitals or electron shells for any element is seven, resulting in seven periods on the Periodic Table. 12. What is a group? How many groups does the periodic table contain? a. The periodic table also has a special name for its columns. When a column goes from top to bottom, it is called a group. The elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their outer orbital. Those outer electrons are also called valence electrons. They are the ones involved in chemical bonds with other elements. Every element in the first column (group one) has one electron in its outer shell. Every element in the second column (group two) has two electrons in the outer shell. As you keep counting the columns, you will know how many electrons are in the outer shell. There are some exceptions to the order when you look at the transition elements, but you get the general idea. Transition elements start to add electrons to the second-to-last shell. There are 18 groups on the standard periodic table. 13. How are the atomic structures of elements within the same period similar? a. All of the elements in a period have the same number of atomic orbitals, which are the paths that the electrons are always moving in. Electrons spin very quickly around the nucleus of an atom. As the electrons zip around, they can move in any direction, as long as they stay in their shell. Any direction you can imagine upwards, downwards, or sideward electrons can do it. Electrons are constantly spinning in those atomic shells and those shells, or orbitals, are specific distances from the nucleus. Every element in the top row (the first period) has one orbital for its electrons. All of the elements in the second row (the second period) have two orbitals for their electrons. It goes down the periodic table like that. At this time, the maximum number of electron orbitals or electron shells for any element is seven. 14. How are the atomic structures of elements within the same group similar? a. The elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their outer orbital. Those outer electrons are also called valence electrons. They are the ones involved in chemical bonds with other elements. Every element in the first column (group one) has one electron in its outer shell. Every element in the second column (group two) has two electrons in the outer shell. As you keep counting the columns, you will know how many electrons are in the outer shell. There are some exceptions to the order when you look at the transition elements, but you get the general idea. Transition elements start to add electrons to the second-to-last shell. There are 18 groups on the standard periodic table.