Well Completion

Once the design well depth is reached, the formation must be tested and evaluated to determine whether the well will be completed for production, or plugged and abandoned. To complete the well production, casing is installed and cemented and the drilling rig is dismantled and moved to the next site. A service rig is brought in to perforate the production casing and run production tubing. If no further pre-production servicing is needed, the christmas tree is installed and production begins. Well completion activities include:
Fig. 1. Completed well

Conducting Drill Stem Test Setting Production Casing Installing Production Tubing Starting Production Flow Beam Pumping Units

After production starts, the well may need further servicing. If it's decided that the well will not be completed, then it will be plugged and abandoned.

Fig 2. Well completion service rig

Conducting Drill Stem Test To determine the potential of a producing formation, the operator may order a drill stem test (DST). The DST crew makes up the test tool on the bottom of the drill stem, then lowers it to the bottom of the hole. Weight is applied to the tool to expand a hard rubber sealer called a packer. Opening the tool ports allows the formation pressure to be tested. This process enables workers to determine whether the well can be produced. Potential Hazards:

Being pinched or struck by the drill stem test tools during floor operations. Swabbing the hole on the way out with the test tool could cause a kick to occur, which could result in a blowout leading to injuries and deaths. Being exposed to unexpected release of H2S or other gases or liquids. A packer seat failure or fluid loss to an upper formation could cause a kick that might result in a blowout causing injuries and deaths. Other hazards are similar to those encountered during trippingout/in.

Possible Solutions:

Wear appropriate PPE. Instruct workers in handling and using the special tools required during drill stem testing. Keep a method for filling the hole in place at all times. Before any test starts, the rig management must ensure that the blow-out prevention system includes a kill system that is capable of pumping fluid into the well below the annular preventer and at least on-set of pipe rams.

Fig. 3. Drill stem test assembly

Run a pump-out-sub or downhole circulating device in the test string to to enable the system to be reversed. Ensure all workers on the location understand the dangers before starting any drill stem test. They should be fully informed of and trained in appropriate safety procedures, including the use of safety equipment and breathing apparatus. If in an H2S area, post a sign indicating the test in full view for the general public to see. Post reliable people to stop them from coming to the location. Define a minimum of two muster points with all vehicles parked in an appointed area.

Setting Production Casing

Production
Topics Completing the Well Drive Mechanisms Enhanced Recovery Techniques Offshore Operations

Fig. 4. Installing production casing

How are Crude Oil and Natural Gas Produced?

Production is the operation that brings hydrocarbons to the surface and prepares them for processing. Production begins after the well is drilled. The mixture of oil, gas and water from the well is separated on the surface. The water is disposed of and the oil and gas are treated, measured, and tested. Production operations include bringing the oil and gas to the surface, maintaining production, and purifying, measuring, and testing.

Completing the Well

After a well has been drilled, it must be completed before oil and gas production can begin. The first step in this process is installing casing pipe in the well. Oil and gas wells usually require four concentric strings of pipe: conductor pipe, surface casing, intermediate casing, and production casing. The production casing or oil string is the final casing for most wells. The production casing completely seals off the producing formation from water aquifers. The production casing runs to the bottom of the hole or stops just above the production zone. Usually, the casing runs to the bottom of the hole. In this situation the casing and cement seal off the reservoir and prevent fluids from leaving. In this case the casing must be perforated to allow liquids to flow into the well. This is a perforated completion. Most wells are completed by using a perforated completion. Perforating is the process of piercing the casing wall and the cement behind it to provide openings through which formation fluids may enter the wellbore.

Tubing and Packers

After cementing the production casing, the completion crew runs a final string of pipe called the tubing. The well fluids flow from the reservoir to the surface through the tubing. Tubing is smaller in diameter than casing-the outside diameter ranges from about 1 to 4-1/2 inches. A packer is a ring made of metal and rubber that fits around the tubing. It provides a secure seal between everything above and below where it is set. It keeps well fluids and pressure away from the casing above it. Since the packer seals off the space between the tubing and the casing, it forces the formation fluids into and up the tubing.

Subsurface Safety Valve

A subsurface safety valve is installed in the tubing string near the surface. The valve remains open as long as fluid flow is normal. When the valve senses something amiss with the surface equipment of the well, it closes, preventing the flow of fluids.

Multiple Completions
The operator uses a multiple completion when one wellbore passes through two or more zones with oil and gas in them. Usually, a separate tubing string width packers is run in for each producing zone. Directional drilling technology allows the industry to access deposits that would otherwise be inaccessible.