Iata 2011

IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels
Effective December 2011

Edition 6th
Report on Alternative Fuels_2011_v5.indd 1 29/11/2011 10:02:21 AM
International Air Transport Association
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Edition 6th
Montreal Geneva
Edition 6th
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international air transport association 1
Alternative Fuels Foreword 2011
Dear readers,
in 2011, the aviation industry has experienced exceptional growth of alternative aviation fuels. this emerging
field has gone from dream to reality faster than anyone could have expected, fuelled by a spirit of mutual support
and cooperation between airlines, aircraft and engine manufacturers, fuel producers, and standards setting
bodies. this coordinated approach is truly unique to aviation and the progress we have seen is a testament to
its effectiveness.
this year alone, we have witnessed the first transatlantic biojet flights, the first commercial passenger biojet
flights and the first regular use of biojet by commercial airlines. the number of announced alternative fuel
activities has increased from 11 in 2009 to over 300 in 2011.
Despite this amazing progress, iata recognizes that this growth cannot be unconstrained by environmental
and social considerations, which is why iata continues to participate in the development of strict biofuel
sustainability criteria through the lausanne-based roundtable for sustainable Biofuels as well as support the
research of algae-derived fuels. although two types of biojet fuel have already been approved for use (Fischer-
tropsch and hydroprocessed biojet fuels), iata is encouraging the approval of at least two more new fuels in
the coming years that will increase the options available to airlines. this report includes descriptions of these
sustainability requirements and gives a preview of these new fuels.
if our industry is to achieve its ambitious targets for carbon neutral growth by 2020, including emissions
reductions with annual fuel efficiency improvements of 1.5%, and a 50% emissions reduction between 2005
and 2050, then sustainable biojet fuel must play a major role. Given the progress we have witnessed over the
past few years, we are very much on track with alternative fuels to achieve this target.
i would like to sincerely thank industry specialists from airlines, manufacturers, and governmental bodies for their
contributions to this report.
Best regards,
Gnther Matschnigg,
senior Vice president, safety, operations and infrastructure
2 IATA 2011 REPORT ON ALTERNATIVE FUELS
This is the sixth edition of the IATA Report on Alter-
native Fuels, which builds on previous editions by
focusing on future fuels as well as the most up to date
state of sustainability certifications, economic consid-
erations, and government and stakeholder programs.
The year 2011 has been marked by the certification
of HEFA (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids, i.e.
oil and fat-derived) biojet fuels and a surge of biojet-
operated commercial passenger flights immediately
following this event. Eight airlines in Europe and Latin
America have been performing such flights so far,
some of them having started regular services on biojet
between specific city pairs. Despite this success,
deployment of industrial biojet production capacities
and large-scale commercialization are still challenges.
The first chapter of this report gives an overview of
the current state of biojet fuels and the recent activi-
ties announced around the world. The reasons for the
chosen format of this report are given as well. This
overview contains an introduction and brief back-
ground of the topics covered in the rest of the report.
The second chapter summarizes the certification
process for new fuels. The two approved types,
Fischer-Tropsch and HEFA, are described, as well
as two biojet fuels currently being analyzed for future
approval: alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) and synthetic kero-
sene containing aromatics (SKA). The US Air Force
program checking biofuel compatibility with fuel infra-
structure is also described; no compatibility problems
are reported.
The sustainability of biojet fuel is addressed in
Chapter 3. Various regulatory standards exist in different
countries which have to be met in order to qualify for
public incentives. In addition, voluntary standards for
biofuels have been developed; amongst them, the
standard of the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels
(RSB), a Lausanne-based global multi-stakeholder
certification body, is the most comprehensive. Recent
developments in the RSB certification program are
described in this chapter, as well as ongoing field trials
applying the RSB criteria in Mozambique and Brazil.
If the production of biojet fuel is to attain sufficiently
large volumes to meet the industrys expectations for
emissions reduction, there will need to be government
programs in place to incentivize the construction of
biofuel production plants. Chapter 4 addresses some
of the policy levers that would result in increased
biojet fuel production. An announced investment of
US$ 510 million by the US Department of Energy has
been directed towards the development of a domestic
biojet fuel industry, and is designed to help overcome
the risk of investing in biojet production. The European
Commission has announced the European Biofuels
Flight Path Initiative, which aims to achieve 2 million
tons of biojet fuel in the European Market by 2020.
Second generation biofuels derived from feedstock
indigenous to developing countries provide a poten-
tially viable commercial opportunity in the medium to
long term but require further research and develop-
ment. Two pull mechanisms for incentivizing biojet
production are considered, a blend mandate and
forward contracts.
Several groups made up of multiple aviation industry
stakeholders have been formed to advance alternative
aviation fuels. The progress of these groups, including
AIREG in Germany, CAAFI in the US, and SWAFEA
in the EU, are described in Chapter 5. In addition,
the US military services (including the Army, Navy
and Air Force) have been certifying various platforms
for several types of biojet fuels and their progress is
also reported in Chapter 5. Finally, a new multi-stake-
holder consortium in Brazil, which is a nation with a
strong background in biofuels, has been formed to
investigate local biojet production.
Finally, chapter 6, Notable Developments in Alterna-
tive Aviation Fuels, summarizes some of the exciting
commercial advancements that have taken place in the
past year. Mexicos national airport services company,
ASA, has embarked on a biojet program that involves
growing local feedstock, converting it to biojet,
and consuming it on flights out of Mexico. Also, the
Lufthansa group of airlines has begun operating eight
daily biojet flights between Hamburg and Frankfurt on
a dedicated A321, under the project name PureSky.
In Australia, the Qantas group has entered into agree-
ments with Solena and Sapphire Energy to develop
their technology for the Australian biojet market, and in
Europe, Air France flew what it believes is the greenest
flight ever by utilizing a combination of biojet fuel, and
technological and operational optimization. TAROM,
the Romanian airline, has embarked on an ambitious
biojet fuel project that includes analyses of Camelina
as the primary feedstock and the effects on the entire
supply chain from the crop to finished fuel, and Sky
NRG and BioJet Corporation report on their efforts to
deploy biojet fuel.
Summary
Quick Facts
the number of announced alternative jet fuel
activities around the world surged from less than
sixty in 2010 to over three hundred in 2011;
the first transatlantic biojet flights took place
in 2011, as did the first commercial passenger
biojet flights;
HeFa biojet fuel (hydroprocessed esters and fatty
acids
1
derived from oils and fats) was added
to the astM specification for jet fuels in 2011.
HeFa joins Ft (Fischer-tropsch) fuel as the only
acceptable substitutes for conventional petro-
leum-derived jet fuel;
two further alternative jet fuels have task forces
considering them for astM certification: synthetic
kerosene containing aromatics (sKa) and meta-
bolically-derived synthetic kerosene (sKM);
trials are being carried out analyzing biomass
crops and applying newly-published strict sustain-
ability criteria developed by the roundtable on
sustainable Biofuels (rsB), with the first certifi-
cations expected in late 2011 or early 2012;
Multiple government programs are already in
place to promote the use of biojet fuel and provide
funding mechanisms; these include the environ-
mental policy act in the us, the european Biofuels
Flight path initiative, and the Brazilian Biokerosene
platform.
recommendations
support the approval of new biojet fuels from
different feedstocks and conversion processes
diversity of supply is critical to finding cost-effective
solutions;
ensure a strong focus on biomass sustainability
through a comprehensive range of environmental,
societal and economic criteria;
Work towards globally harmonized sustain-
ability criteria for the production of biomass and
the processing of biojet fuels a patchwork of
incompatible criteria is a barrier to large scale
biojet use;
Develop synergies between all parts of the supply
chain and also between the aviation and automo-
tive industries;
Governments should provide incentives for airlines
to use biofuels from an early stage and de-risk
public and private investments in aviation biofuels.
incentives should establish a level playing field
between aviation and road biofuels.
1. in previous reports HeFa was referred to as hydroprocessed renewable jet fuel (HrJ). this change was made to align with
astM convention.
4 IATA 2011 report on alternatiVe Fuels
Alternative Fuels Foreword 2011 ................................................................................. 1
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Quick Facts .......................................................................................................................................... 3
recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 3
1. Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.1 a note on sustainability ............................................................................................. 9
1.2 Global research into Biojet Fuel ....................................................................................... 10
1.3 on the Format of iatas report on alternative Fuels ................................................... 10
2. Certification ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1 chapter summary ................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 introduction ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 astM D7566 a standard for alternative aviation turbine Fuel ............................. 11
2.3.1 the Basic concept of D7566 ............................................................................... 11
2.3.2 current status of D7566 ....................................................................................... 11
2.3.3 Future additions ....................................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 a General caveat ..................................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 conclusion ................................................................................................................. 14
2.4 overview of synthetic Kerosene with aromatics (sKa) .............................................. 14
2.4.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 14
2.4.2 production of sKa ................................................................................................... 14
2.5 alcohol-to-Jet (atJ) overview ............................................................................................ 15
2.5.1 comparison to currently available processes .................................................. 16
2.5.2 atJ certification and approval process .............................................................. 16
2.6 compatibility of new Fuels with Fuel infrastructure us air Force experience ... 17
3. Sustainability .......................................................................................................................... 19
3.1 chapter summary ................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 introduction ............................................................................................................................. 19
3.3 Governmental regulations and sustainability standards............................................ 19
3.4 rsB certification .................................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Field research testing of the rsB social Guidelines and relevant
Definitions in the context of the novabra Jatropha project in colatina,
espirito santo, Brazil ............................................................................................................ 21
3.6 sustainability assessment and GHG Balance of Jatropha in Mozambique ........... 22
Table of Contents
INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION 5
4. Economic Policy for Biojet Production ......................................................... 23
4.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 23
4.3 Push Mechanisms ................................................................................................................. 23
4.3.1 Research and Development Funding .................................................................. 23
4.3.2 US Research & Development Programs ............................................................. 23
4.3.3 European Research & Development Programs ................................................. 24
4.3.4 Enhancing Production of Indigenous Second Generation Biofuels
in Developing Countries ......................................................................................... 25
4.4 Pull Mechanisms.................................................................................................................... 26
4.4.1 Blend Mandate .......................................................................................................... 26
4.4.2 Forward Contracts and Off-Take Agreements .................................................. 26
5. Stakeholder Initiatives .................................................................................................. 29
5.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 29
5.2 AIREG The New German Centre of Competence on Aviation Biofuels .............. 29
5.3 US Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) Energy Biofuels Initiatives ............................... 30
5.4 The United States Farm to Fly Initiative......................................................................... 32
5.5 The Brazilian Biojet Fuel Platform ...................................................................................... 33
5.5.1 The Sustainable Multi-Feedstock Unit ................................................................ 34
5.5.2 The Logistic Unit ....................................................................................................... 35
5.5.3 The Biorefinery Unit ................................................................................................. 35
5.6 SWAFEA: A European Study on the Feasibility And Impact
of the Introduction of Alternative Fuel in Aviation .......................................................... 35
5.6.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 35
5.6.2 Summary of SWAFEA Report ............................................................................... 36
5.7 CAAFI ...................................................................................................................................... 36
5.7.1 CAAFI Goals ............................................................................................................. 36
5.7.2 Function and Focus ................................................................................................. 37
5.7.3 Flying into the Future The Flight Continues .................................................... 38
6. Notable Developments ................................................................................................. 39
6.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 39
6.2 Recent Activities on Sustainable Aviation Biofuels in Mexico .................................... 39
6.2.1 Next Steps at ASA ................................................................................................... 42
6.3 Lufthansas New Brand PureSky Sky Friendly Energy
........................................ 42
6.3.1 PureSky Working Group ...................................................................................... 42
6.3.2 Burn FAIR Inflight Evaluation of Engine Behavior and Corresponding
Research Work ......................................................................................................... 42
6.3.3 QuanaBiol Quality and sustainability requirements for Biofuels ........ 43
6.3.4 sustainable Biokerosene Feedstock supply for aviation
leuphana university ................................................................................................. 43
6.3.5 aireg e.V. aviation initiative for renewable energy in Germany ................ 43
6.4 platform for sustainable aviation Fuels university of lneburg/Germany .......... 44
6.5 Qantas sustainable aviation Fuels ................................................................................... 44
6.5.1 Qantas Biojet projects ............................................................................................ 45
6.5.2 australian Biojet initiatives ...................................................................................... 45
6.6 air Frances Green Flight .................................................................................................... 46
6.7 taroM and the First european camelina Value chain ............................................... 47
6.7.1 the romanian camelina Value chain ................................................................. 47
6.7.2 camelina Feedstock ................................................................................................ 47
6.7.3 project structure ...................................................................................................... 47
6.7.4 next steps: Development and Deployment ....................................................... 48
6.7.5 What Makes this project special? ....................................................................... 48
6.7.6 the projects Focus ................................................................................................. 49
6.7.7 are there any limits? ............................................................................................. 49
6.8 skynrG the Fuel Future ................................................................................................ 49
6.8.1 skynrGs Mission .................................................................................................. 49
6.8.2 skynrG accomplishments ................................................................................... 50
6.8.3 skynrG Bioports .................................................................................................. 51
6.9 BioJet corporation ................................................................................................................ 51
6.9.1 2011 Highlights ........................................................................................................ 51
6.9.2 capital & Finance ..................................................................................................... 51
6.9.3 Feedstock ................................................................................................................... 52
6.9.4 native american projects ....................................................................................... 52
6.9.5 refining/conversion ................................................................................................ 52
6.9.6 sales/offtake ............................................................................................................. 53
6.9.7 sustainability .............................................................................................................. 53
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 54
Definitions ......................................................................................................................................... 54
Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................... 56
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 57
report on
alternative
Fuels
1
1. overview
1.1 introduction
the year 2011 has been a milestone year in biojet fuel.
it marks the year in which bio-derived HeFa (hydro-
processed esters and fatty acids) was approved by
astM, and new astM task forces are making prog-
ress towards approving sKa (synthetic kerosene
containing aromatics) and sKM (metabolically-derived
synthetic kerosene). this paves the way for four
different types of biojet fuel approved for blending with
conventional jet fuel in the coming years.
2011 also witnessed the first biojet commercial trans-
atlantic flight, regular commercial use, and a burst of
activities so numerous that in just two years it has
become impractical to describe each one individually
(see graph below).
Figure 1 Global alternative fuel aviation activities
1
as tracked by
the international civil aviation organization (icao).
impressive progress has been made but it is crucial
not to recreate the mistakes of first generation ethanol
and biodiesel. While these fuels have certain merits
and are often found to be superior to petroleum in
lifecycle carbon emissions, they have also competed
with food and other industries for valuable farm land,
possibly contributing either directly or indirectly to
deforestation and land use change.
1.1.1 a note on sustainability
it is essential to consider the sustainability of biofuel
crops. the creeping increases in petroleum prices,
ambitious biomass energy targets, and the ever-
increasing land required for food and oleo-chemical
production have created strong demand for biomass
and the land required to grow it. the sustainability of
biofuels is imperative, which needs to be reached by
appropriate standards and policy measures.
in May 2011, the international energy agency published
a technology roadmap on biofuels for transport
2
, and
found no fewer than 67 sustainability schemes oper-
ating or under development around the world. as of
July 2011, the european commission (ec) only recog-
nizes the following seven
3
schemes as compatible with
their renewable energy Directive (reD):
1. iscc (international sustainability and carbon
certification)
2. Bonsucro eu
3. rtrs eu reD (round table on responsible
soy eu reD)
4. rsB eu reD (roundtable on sustainable
Biofuels eu reD)
5. 2Bsvs (Biomass Biofuels voluntary scheme)
6. rBsa (abengoa reD Bioenergy sustainability
assurance)
7. Greenergy (Greenergy Brazilian Bioethanol
verification programme)
notably, in the usa, there is also the renewable Fuels
standard (rFs2) that requires producers to meet
certain sustainability criteria to qualify for incentives.
a description of the eu reD and rFs2 sustainability
criteria can be found in the 2010 iata report on alter-
native Fuels.
1. alternative fuel aviation activities are those relating to fuel certification, policy and process setting, standardization, and tests
or demonstrations
2. http://www.iea.org/papers/2011/biofuels_roadmap.pdf
3. source: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/biofuels/sustainability_schemes_en.htm
1
iata has been an active participant in sustainability
discussions and has worked with the roundtable on
sustainable Biofuels towards developing sustain-
ability criteria for certification purposes. the rsB is
the most comprehensive existing biofuel standard,
which goes beyond reD and rFs2 and also extends
the requirements into the social domain. rsB relies on
the individual auditing of each applicants process and
procedures to verify environmental benefit.
the goal of achieving widespread biojet use around
the world would be made significantly simpler if there
were globally harmonized sustainability standards that
would be recognized in the eu, the us, and elsewhere
around the world. aviation operations are inherently
international, so it is essential that biojet purchased
in one region and meeting local sustainability criteria
would be recognized as sustainable at that aircrafts
destination. achieving harmonization or at least mutual
recognition between the different standards is there-
fore an important need for a successful deployment of
biojet fuel worldwide.
1.2 Global research
into Biojet Fuel
the questions of technical certification, sustainable
biomass production and economic measures have
been considered at length by other organizations.
For example, sWaFea
1
is a european consortium
consisting of airlines, governments and nGos, and
tasked with answering the most pressing questions in
aviation biofuels. this group has published its conclu-
sions and recommendations on lifecycle analyses,
economics, policy options and more. caaFi
2
is a
comprehensive american multi-stakeholder initia-
tive that has played an important role in providing
the necessary data and expertise to astM
3
subcom-
mittee J that approves new jet fuels. the us military
represents yet another group that funds research and
purchase of biojet fuels. the progress witnessed and
milestones achieved over the past few years have
been due in large part to the work of groups such as
these; therefore one full chapter of the present report
is dedicated to descriptions of these initiatives. Further
information regarding sWaFea, caaFi, and the other
groups can also be found online in the 2009 and 2010
iata reports on alternative Fuels.
1.3 on the Format of
iatas report on
alternative Fuels
iata depends on a broad range of experts who
contribute information for this report. these volunteers
are asked to supply by mid-fall each year descriptions
and explanations of new certifications, technologies,
program progress and more. By november, the editors
have combined the contributors (listed in the acknowl-
edgements section) submittals into its present format.
the goal of this report is not to lay out procedures
or best practices, but simply to inform the reader on
progress that has taken place over the past year. it
is not intended to be read from cover to cover, but
rather based on the chapter that is most interesting
to the reader.
in order to address questions of procedures and best
practices required for an airline to use biojet, iata
and its strategic partners have been developing the
iata Guidance Material on Biojet Fuel Management
(BioGuide for short). the BioGuide addresses the
following four topics:
certification and handling;
sustainability;
emissions regulation compliance;
purchase contracts and insurance.
the BioGuide also contains in its annex a procedure
for tracking biojet fuel purchases. if properly followed,
the procedure could allow for the aggregate of such
purchases to be applied towards emissions allow-
ances, for example under the eu emissions trading
scheme (ets). therefore, the BioGuide can be
considered more of technical, commercial and regula-
tory guidance material, whereas the iata report on
alternative Fuels is for informational purposes only.
the BioGuide is scheduled to be published by iata
in 2012.
1. sustainable Way for alternative Fuels and energy in aviation
2. commercial alternative aviation Fuels initiative
3. Formerly the american society for testing and Materials
2
2.1 chapter summary
astM international formerly the american society
for testing and Materials has recently approved
a second synthetic jet fuel (in addition to its original
acceptance of jet fuel derived through the Fischer-
tropsch process), derived from fats and oils, and called
HeFa (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids). astM
has created task forces to investigate two further fuels:
synthetic kerosene containing aromatics (sKa), and
alcohol to jet fuel (atJ). in addition, compatibility tests
were run by the us military to check if fuel infrastruc-
ture is affected by the chemical properties of synthetic
fuels; no incompatibilities were reported.
2.2 introduction
the certification of new fuels is an essential step
towards integrating biojet fuel in aviation. astM inter-
national has approved a new standard for these fuels
that corresponds closely to existing standards for
conventional jet fuel. this new standard, astM D7566,
and a variety of compatible fuels are described below.
2.3 astM D7566
a standard for alternative
aviation turbine Fuel
the development of astM D7566, the standard
specification for aviation turbine Fuel containing
synthesized Hydrocarbons, was the result of
a concerted effort of government and industry volun-
teers. this group was dedicated to providing a way
forward for the aviation industry while preserving
the quality and capability of the fuel upon which the
industry has relied.
2.3.1 the Basic concept of D7566
the fact that refined aviation turbine fuel is rarely an
issue for commercial aviation is a testament to the five
plus decades of specification activity that has resulted
in excellent control. the basic concept for approving
alternative fuels was defining that this experience
described bounds for what is fit for purpose in avia-
tion turbine engines. thus it was reasoned that if the
alternative fuel could be made to perform in the same
manner it too would be fit for purpose.
turbine fuel is used for more than power. its heat
transfer and hydraulic actuation properties are also
important attributes. it also has to be compatible with
the materials from which the aircraft are made and
with the environments in which the aircraft is operated.
over two decades of effort, starting with the sasol
effort to supply synthetic aviation turbine fuel in south
africa, have gone into defining the key properties of
aviation turbine fuel. the basic outline of these prop-
erties is found in the latest release of astM D4054,
the standard practice for Qualification and approval
of new aviation turbine Fuels and Fuel additives. this
is not a routine process but an interactive journey with
the aviation community in general and the airframe and
power plant manufacturers in particular. the more that
is known about hydrocarbons, for instance, the less
exotic the testing but each new hydrocarbon class has
resulted in new evaluation recommendations.
2.3.2 current status of D7566
astM D7566-11a has just been modified to include
the first alternative path aimed exclusively at biologically
derived jet fuel components from the hydroprocessing
of fats and oils, HeFa synthetic paraffinic kerosene
(spK). this relatively quick addition to D7566 was
aided significantly by how closely the HeFa spK
resembled the kerosene generated in the Fischer
tropsch process, Ft spK. While the inclusion of
2. certification
2
a primarily renewable path was the industry goal from
the outset of the standardization process, the obvious
starting point was with reasonably established (nearly
a decade of experience in south africa) Ft spK.
it was not simply a matter of codifying existing practice
however. the sasol Ft spK was approved as a sole-
site source in the uK (MoD) Defense standard 91-91.
an astM specification has to be generic in nature
and offer a path to use for any appropriate source.
the significant issue was that the sasol Ft process
is unique in comparison to newer Ft processes. the
sasol process produces highly isomerized paraffinic
kerosene whereas the newer processes produce
paraffin wax. that wax is then put through additional
processing to generate kerosene suitable for avia-
tion use. in the study that led to the original D7566
the industry proved that both of these approaches
produced kerosene suitable for aviation purposes.
the first step in turning fats and oils into aviation fuel
blend stock is removing the oxygen and breaking the
molecule into its component pieces. that step produces
paraffin wax, essentially the same as that generated by
the modern Ft processes. this bio wax is then put
through the same type of additional processing as
the Ft wax and, as a result, produces a HeFa spK
product practically indistinguishable from the Ft spK.
this essential similarity allowed the industry to move
forward with the approval more quickly. Where Ft spK
required approximately two decades to be recognized
as a generic product, the start to finish effort for HeFa
spK was about 5 years. the principle is fairly simple;
the more the industry knows about the hydrocarbons
in general, the less that needs to be known about
specific processes. a primary question of the study
was on the effect of feedstock. Fats and oils, new
and waste, have a wide variety of chemical properties
so a wide variety of feedstocks were evaluated. the
conclusion of this study was that if the product met
the established requirements it was fit for purpose,
regardless of feedstock origin.
therefore, there are now two paths for generating
alternative aviation fuel in D7566. annex a1 allows the
production of Ft spK, primarily from coal and natural
gas but the use of biomass as a feedstock is allowed
(thus providing a renewable path). annex a2 allows
the production of HeFa spK, from fats and oils. Both
of these spKs may be blended up to fifty percent with
refined aviation turbine fuel. the resulting product is fit
for purpose and may be used without condition, other
than the standard requirements for using any refined
fuel. the only interest in source would be for environ-
mental accounting and that would only be available at
the point of origin as the agreed practice is that the
fuel produced by D7566 will enter commerce under
either astM D1655 or uK(MoD) Defstan 91-91.
2.3.3 Future additions
the current version of D7566 is a milestone in the
production of alternative fuels but the work is not
finished. even while the Ft and HeFa spKs were
being standardized, new approaches to producing
alternative aviation materials were being developed.
the variety is impressive but the approaches can be
narrowed to two primary topics: synthetic kerosene
with aromatics (sKa) and metabolically derived kero-
sene (sKM).
While the general belief is that less aromatics are better
(for engine life and emissions), there is a minimum
requirement. this is based primarily on two needs:
density and elastomer compatibility. aircraft operation
planning depends on fuel meeting a minimum density
requirement. the analysis of historic fuel properties that
led to setting the initial blend requirements suggested
that 8.0% was an appropriate value to meet density
requirements. experience in synthetic fuel evaluations
has shown that this is an appropriate level. this level is
not specified for refined fuels because natural variation
in the paraffin content can result in a denser product
requiring less aromatic content.
in the extensive analysis of material compatibility for the
proposed hydrocarbon blend materials one item has
stood out as critical proper sealing characteristics
of nitrile elastomers. these materials are very common
in the commercial fleet, particularly for sealing fuel
tanks. the minimum aromatic content for maintaining
seal swell has not been defined but the same histor-
ical experience that pointed to 8% being a practical
minimum to maintain density supports the conclusion
that it is sufficient for the elastomers too.
practical experience has shown that meeting the
minimum density requirement has been a limiting factor
in how much spK can be used. sasol, the leader in
synthetic aviation turbine fuel experience, found this
limitation to be a significant issue and led an effort for
another single site source approval to allow synthetic
kerosene with aromatics (sKa) to be approved for use
in uK(MoD) Defstan 91-91. this is not a south africa
exclusive issue, so the astM emerging turbine Fuel
group is working toward a generic approval for sKa.
current refined fuel characteristics already limit the
blending potential for spK. on the horizon are potential
limits on fuel sulfur content and, if the experience with
the removal of sulfur from diesel fuel is a predictor, that
2
could further reduce the aromatic content of refined
fuel and, thus, the ability to blend in synthetic compo-
nents. in the long term, producing sKa is the path to
delivering a fully synthetic aviation turbine fuel.
there are some very interesting developments in the
area of synthetic kerosene from metabolic processes
(sKM). While fats and oils come from organisms, in
this case the reference is to organisms specifically
developed to generate hydrocarbon fuel. this varies
from producing a building block, such as an alcohol,
used to assemble kerosene class molecules to the
actual generation of kerosene type molecules in the
organism. evaluating the fit for purpose nature of the
sKMs introduces new questions. While most of the
hydrocarbon issues may be settled science, sKMs
offer new challenges. one of the unique character-
istics of these materials is they tend to have a very
specific chemical identity. Where the Ft and HeFa
spKs have a large number of molecule types over
broad distillation range, a sKM material may be as
narrow as a single molecule with a fixed boiling point.
While it is true that turbine engines can run on mono
molecular fuel, the broad industry experience is with
fuel having a wide molecular distribution and boiling
point range. the essential question will likely be how
much variation from a nominal distillation pattern will
a turbine engine tolerate and perform as designed. as
usual with aviation turbine fuel, the initial allowance will
likely be conservative.
the sKMs that will come directly from internal synthesis
in organisms will pose new challenges in the evalu-
ation of trace contamination. For the existing spKs
and the typical sKa, the synthesis process is very
aggressive and eliminates most source contamination
issues. From the experience with diesel fuel, where
a metabolite (sterol glucoside) became a significant
low temperature flow issue, the turbine fuel community
is aware of the fact that the carryover of oils soluble
metabolites is an issue with which it has to deal.
as new processes are developed the specification
issues become more complex. the Ft and HeFa
spK covered a significant variety of processes and
starting materials that would work effectively. Most of
the proposed sKas are aromatic inclusive versions of
the existing processes but some of the sKMs include
aromatic molecules. the sKMs have a variety of
unique chemical products. every new synthetic source
can build on the common experience but unique attri-
butes will have to be addressed. Dealing with these
complex issues may result in a bulky document but the
aviation Fuel subcommittee will always choose clarity
over brevity. Without clarity there is too much room
for interpretation.
2.3.4 a General caveat
organizations that intend to become involved with the
acquisition, production and use of alternative aviation
fuels need to seek out fuel property expertise as part of
the process. the existing fuel industry has done a very
good job of providing a quality product which makes
the aviation industrys prime concerns location and
cost. as a result the aviation industry expertise tends
to be focused on fuel as a commodity and not on its
properties. experience with other transportation fuels
has shown that new providers sometimes fail to meet
the actual needs of the industry they sought to supply.
Misunderstandings are not allowed in aviation.
some of the most egregious errors in the past, partic-
ularly for biodiesel, were caused by very small marginal
operators. the capital costs for processes allowed by
D7566, now and in the foreseeable future, are just
too great for amateur approaches. there is, however,
a potential to misunderstand the requirements. the
most likely points of misunderstanding are:
1. ignoring the Quality control effort required
at the start of the biodiesel effort some
participants were surprised they had to prove
their product met a specification and some
were shocked to learn that every batch had to
be tested. it is easy to anticipate similar confu-
sion will be an issue for parties that are not
rooted in aviation fuel technology. every batch
of blend stock has to be tested. every batch of
blended fuel has to be tested. if the blending
is done outside of a refinery every batch of
refined fuel that will be used in the blend will
need to be tested to determine how much
can be blended. (the blending process is not
just add 50%, it is add up to 50% if all of the
table 1 requirements plus a minimum aromatic
content are met.)
2. Making assumptions about the required
properties Historically there has always been
a tendency to divide the specification proper-
ties into important and routine categories.
that division may be useful on a local basis for
evaluating process operations, as long as the
requirements are met, but ignoring the routine
would be inappropriate. nothing goes into
a fuel specification that is not important. some
tests may be more critical than others but every
test has a purpose.
3. Mistaking the specification tests for the Fit
for purpose requirements aviation turbine
fuel has many required properties that are
not tested with every batch. the purpose
of a specification table is not to define every
2
aspect of a fuel but to control those properties
which are not a natural product of the process
involved. the key task for dealing with non-
refined feedstocks has been defining those
properties which, when applied as a specifica-
tion, will assure the resulting product is fit for
purpose. this understanding only applies for
the process for which the specifications are
developed. comparing test results to specifi-
cations for approved processes is a good way
to evaluate potential processes but it is not
proof of equivalence.
astM D7566 provides all the required informa-
tion for producing fuels with the currently approved
synthesized hydrocarbon processes. Besides being
a formulary, the subcommittee included all of the
supplementary text from astM D1655, the standard
specification for aviation turbine Fuel, to provide
a better understanding of the industry requirements for
the fuel being generated. the presence of documen-
tation does not assure compliance, however, so an
independent review by a technical expert could be an
important due diligence effort for any proposed project
(particularly for organizations without established avia-
tion fuel credentials).
2.3.5 conclusion
Working together with the common goal of ensuring
the output was fit for purpose, the government and
industry volunteers that comprise the astM aviation
Fuel subcommittee have delivered a specification that
both solves the need for alternative, and potentially
renewable, aviation turbine fuel and assures uncom-
promised operations. there are two viable generic
approaches now, Ft spK and HeFa spK, and more
are in process. the only limitations to the future are
volunteer effort and flight safety.
2.4 overview of synthetic
Kerosene with aromatics
(sKa)
2.4.1 Background
on 21 september 2010, sasol became the first
company in the world to fly four commercial airplanes
with passengers on 100% synthetic jet fuel which
conformed to the definition of sKa (synthetic Kero-
sene with aromatics). all four planes had pratt &
Whitney turbine engines, and all the engines ran on
the 100% fully synthetic jet fuel during the chartered
flights from Johannesburg to cape town. in what was
acknowledged as a world-first, the Hawker 4000
corporate jet, Beechcraft King air 350i and p750 jets,
as well as a Boeing 737-200 chartered plane with
90 passengers aboard, conducted the 1500 km flight
from Johannesburg to cape town on the new jet fuel.
there the aircraft took part in the african aerospace &
Defence exhibition (aaD2010), which was held at the
Ysterplaat air Force Base.
this was the culmination of a sustained research and
testing effort over the last two decades during which
sasol followed a comprehensive process for the inter-
national qualification of firstly semi-synthetic jet fuel
and later fully synthetic jet fuel engaging all inter-
national stakeholders throughout the process. During
the course of this prolonged effort, the protocol for the
approval of any future, new and alternative jet fuel was
also developed, as no precedent existed for this.
2.4.2 production of sKa
unlike most existing Ft refineries which would use
a low-temperature Ft process with a cobalt catalyst,
the sasol synfuels refinery in secunda utilizes a high-
temperature process with an iron-based catalyst. as
a result, the hydrocarbon product stream is unique
in that it contains single-ring aromatics in the jet fuel
boiling range, in addition to the normal-, cyclic- and
iso-paraffins produced by the other (lower-temper-
ature Ft, as typically used for Gtl) processes. the
presence of the aromatics makes it possible to blend
synthetic kerosene that is more representative of
conventional petroleum-derived jet fuel than the totally
paraffinic kerosene produced by the more common,
low-temperature (ltFt) process. although the fuel
manufactured for the demonstration flights was
considered to be a Fully synthetic Jet Fuel (FsJF) as
described and approved in DeF stan 91-91 (issue 6),
it may also be seen as an example of what may be
possible under the more generic sKa definition, which
is currently being developed by an astM task force.
it is envisaged that the astMs sKa task force would
initially, perhaps by December 2011, recommend
the inclusion of sKa as a blending component at up
to 50% (v/v), as the third annex to astM D7566,
following Ft spK in annex a1 and HeFa in annex
a2. in this context, sasol has again led the way by
obtaining approval for the first sKa, secundas Heavy
naphtha#1, which was approved as a semi-synthetic
blend component in May 2010 by the aviation Fuels
committee (aFc) (and formally included in DeF stan
91-91, issue 7, as published on 18 February 2011).
it is expected that other sKas, that can potentially
be used up to 100% on their own as Jet a/a-1 fuels,
2
similar to the sasol FsJF, will only be accommodated
later under the generic approval protocol followed by
astM international.
Figure 2 sasols piet roets with the 100% synthetic Jet a-1, in
front of the Boeing 737-200.
Figure 3 the Boeing 737-200 being filled with 100% synthetic
Jet a-1.ibility with seal materials.
2.5 alcohol-to-Jet (atJ)
overview
alcohol to jet (atJ) alternative jet fuel is a variety of
metabolically-derived kerosene (described in section
2.3.3) and represents multiple processes in which
primary feedstocks are converted to alcohol inter-
mediates, which are then chemically converted into
jet range hydrocarbons. a number of companies are
developing atJ technologies for alcohol production,
alcohol conversion, or both. astM has convened
a task force focused on atJ fuels, which is expected
to be the next alternative aviation fuel process to
be certified.
atJ requires two principal conversion steps: 1) the
conversion of feedstocks to alcohols and 2) the conver-
sion of alcohols to jet fuel. as illustrated in the figure
below, the primary feedstocks for atJ may be starches
or sugars, biomass, or industrial waste gases. starches
and sugars may be converted to alcohols through direct
fermentation. Biomass may be converted to alcohols
by pretreatment to release sugars, followed by fermen-
tation, or by gasification to produce synthesis gas
(co + H
2
), followed by gas fermentation. the alcohol
intermediates may be ethanol, butanol, other alcohols,
or mixed alcohols. alcohols are then converted to jet
using standard chemical processes.
Figure 4 overview of alcohol-Derived (aD) or alcohol-to-Jet processes.
2
2.5.1 comparison to currently
available processes
Both Ft and HeFa produce only the paraffinic content
of jet fuel and rely on petroleum resources in jet fuel
blends to provide the aromatic content. some atJ
processes provide a route to renewable aromatic
hydrocarbons in the jet fuel range, in addition to
branched and cyclic paraffins, providing a pathway to
a 100% substitute for petroleum derived jet as well as
a blending component.
atJ processes can utilize traditional feedstocks such
as corn and sugarcane, energy crops like miscanthus
and switchgrass, and other waste biomass sources
like municipal solid waste or agricultural waste such as
bagasse or corn stover. in addition, companies have
demonstrated that woody biomass, and even industrial
waste gases integrate with atJ technology. this feed-
stock flexibility significantly expands the feedstocks for
alternative aviation fuels beyond those suitable for Ft
and HeFa, lowers feedstock costs and creates a clear
path to commercial scale production.
a summary of atJ processes in development is
provided in the table below. these often represent
partnerships between alcohol production and alcohol
conversion technology providers, and use different
alcohol intermediates. u.s. Federal agencies, such
as Defense advanced research projects agency and
the Department of energy have funded r&D programs
to develop atJ processes. in addition, the Defense
logistics agency recently awarded a procurement
contract to Gevo for up to 11,000 gallons of atJ for
fuel testing. Downstream partnerships have already
been announced in anticipation of commercial atJ
production: united airlines/Gevo and Virgin atlantic/
lanzatech/swedish Biofuels have announced their
intent to utilize atJ fuels for future commercial flights.
Company Feed stock Primary Processing Intermediates Conversion Process Final Fuel
Gevo Corn; Biomass Direct Fermentation Isobutanol Dehydration, Oligomer-
ization, Fractionation,
Hydrogenation
AD-SPK
Cobalt Biomass Direct Fermentation n-butanol Dehydration, Oligomeriza-
tion, Hydrogenation
AD-SPK
Byogy Sugar Cane; Corn;
Biomass
Direct Fermentation Ethanol & Other Alcohols Dehydration, Catalytic
Synthesis Fractionation,
Polishing
JP8/Jet A-1
Terrabon/Logos Biomass Fermentation/Reduction Mixed Alcohols Dehydration, Oligomeriza-
tion, Hydrogenation
JP8/Jet A-1
LanzaTech/Swedish
Biofuels
Biomass; Industrial Gas Direct Fermentation Ethanol & Other Alcohols Chemical Synthesis AD-SPK & JP8/Jet A-1
Virent Sugars; Starches;
Biomass
Thermal Catalytic Alcohols, Ketones, &
Aldehydes
Condensation, Hydrode-
oxygenation Dehydration,
Oligomerization,
Hydrogenation
AD-SPK & JP8/Jet A-1
Zeachem Biomass Fermentation/Reduction Ethanol & Propanol Dehydration, Oligomeriza-
tion, Hydrogenation
AD-SPK
2.5.2 atJ certification
and approval process
the commercial aviation alternative Fuels initiative
(caaFi) and the Federal aviation administration (Faa)
are working aggressively to accelerate certification of
new alternative aviation fuels. Many of the companies
with atJ technology processes are collaborating with
caaFi, the Faa, engine manufacturers, and many other
aviation industry stakeholders and certification bodies
to support the astM international certification of an
alcohol derived jet fuel. the atJ pathway is the next
upcoming class of alternative jet fuel processes to be
evaluated for certification in 2012. in accordance with
astM D4054, several companies with atJ processes
are currently producing fuel samples for testing by the
air Force research laboratory (aFrl) and inclusion
in a detailed research report that will be provided to
engine manufacturers and presented at the upcoming
astM D02 conference in December of 2011.
2
2.6 compatibility of
new Fuels with Fuel
infrastructure
us air Force experience
the us air Force launched a full-scale effort in 2007
to certify its entire fleet of aircraft on the use of an
alternative aviation fuel consisting of a blend of 50%v
(percent by volume) Jp-8 and a fuel produced from
a feedstock that did not involve crude oil. at that time,
an alternative fuel produced via a Ft synthesis was
the lone non-crude-oil-based fuel that was in full-scale
production and was consequently available in quanti-
ties large enough to support this air Force certification
effort. a blend of 50%v Jp-8 and an Ft-derived fuel was
therefore chosen as the alternative certification fuel.
the properties of what was considered to be an
acceptable Ft fuel were defined in the F revision to
the specification for Jp-8 (F-34), Mil-Dtl-83133. as
part of this effort, the air Force initiated an effort to
determine any impact that a Jp8/Ft-derived alternative
fuel blend might have on the part of the air Force infra-
structure (aFi) that is used to handle and store fuels.
this aFi fuel certification effort included an investiga-
tion of the following:
the compatibility of an Ft-derived fuel and Jp-8
fuel blend with fuel-wetted materials found in
the aFi;
the compatibility with fuel Filter/separator (F/s)
equipment;
any change in the performance of equipment
used in the fuels infrastructure, followed by a field
evaluation in an isolated working fuel storage and
delivery system.
the investigation of the aFi materials compatibility
relied to some extent on laboratory-scale materials
testing which had been performed by the air Force
research laboratory (aFrl) prior to and during the
initial stages of the aircraft fleet certification effort. this
was due to the fact that some of the materials tested
in the fleet certification work were identical to or suffi-
ciently similar to the materials found in the aFi.
the fuels used in this work were for the most part
blends with varied contents ranging from 100%v
Ft (0%v Jp-8) down to 0%v Ft (100%v Jp-8). this
testing involved both liquid and vapor phase expo-
sures. the materials used in these tests included both
metallics and non-metallics (including collapsible fuel
storage tank materials) along with pertinent adhesives,
sealants and coatings. in some cases, these materials
were tested in both new and aged conditions (i.e., after
having been exposed to Jp-8 for a number of months).
several materials were tested in a sequence that
mimicked the changing environments of switch loading
between an Ft fuel blend with Jp-8 and neat Jp-8.
the work addressing the compatibility with air Force
F/s equipment included both military and commer-
cial equipment and was conducted in two parts.
the first part consisted of single element tests on
filter elements manufactured per ei 1581 5th edition,
and on Mil-prF-32148 shipboard elements utilizing
a mixture of Ft fuel and Jp-8 at 50%v with all required
military additives. the second part was performed
with the same type of equipment and with a mixture of
Ft fuel and Jp-8 at 50%v without any of the additives.
the equipment and field evaluations were preceded
by a literature review of studies and reports from
investigations which had already taken place in order
to better focus these efforts. the facilities and equip-
ment evaluated included aviation fuel-related receiving,
storage, pumping, transfer, dispensing, direct fueling
hydrant systems and associated fuel system compo-
nents. the field evaluation was performed utilizing
a working type iii hydrant fueling system at an air
Force base for a period of six months beginning in
May 2009. initially, a baseline evaluation was accom-
plished using standard Jp-8 fuel. Following this, the
system was operated using a 50%v mixture of Jp-8
and an Ft fuel. During the evaluation, the system was
continuously inspected for fuel leakage or any sign of
system anomalies. in addition, measurements were
made throughout the evaluation on fuel flow rates
and pressures.
the results of this evaluation suggest that no signifi-
cant material incompatibilities should be anticipated
when using a blended fuel containing up to 50%v Ft
synthetic fuel and Jp-8. the us air Force is, however,
continuing to require an aromatics content of at least
8%v in any fuel blend consisting of a mixture of Jp-8
and synthetics. in addition, these aromatics must
originate in the petroleum-based content of the blend.
this requirement is based on studies performed in the
past which have concluded that a minimum aromatics
content be maintained to ensure the continued integ-
rity of some nitrile-based sealing materials. the results
of the F/s testing demonstrated that the Ft fuel
blended with Jp-8 at 50%v had no effect on the F/s
equipment being able to remove sediment or water
from the fuel and based on the operational portion of
this evaluation, no significant differences were found in
the performance of equipment or facilities when using
a blended fuel consisting of 50%v synthetic and 50%v
Jp-8. as a result of these studies, air Force fueling
systems were certified as compatible with a blended
fuel containing up to 50%v Ft synthetic fuel and Jp-8
in March 2010.
2
Following the successful evaluation of aFi with Ft
derived synthetic fuels, the air Force began an evalua-
tion of synthetic aviation fuel derived using a bio-based
feedstock and hydroprocessing techniques. Because
of the similarities of this Hydroprocessed renewable
Jet (HrJ) and the Ft fuels tested, the certification
process was streamlined to include fuel wetted mate-
rial testing as well as single element ei 1581 filtration
testing. aFrl is finishing up on material testing using
the same evaluation criteria used in the Ft certifi-
cation. additional elongation and tensile strength is
being conducted on Buta-n materials found in fuel
valve diaphragms. aFrl feels this additional testing
is warranted due to the constant state of flex these
diaphragms undergo during refueling operations.
the filtration testing was modified to include single
element testing using various combinations of military
additives to determine if an additive, mixed with the
blended fuel, would produce filterability results which
varied from that seen in traditional Jp-8. these reports
are being evaluated.
to date, no variables have been seen which would
preclude certification of aFi on a blended fuel
containing up to 50%v HrJ synthetic fuel and Jp-8.
Barring any unforeseen test results, aFrl expects air
Force fueling systems to be certified on a blended fuel
containing up to 50%v HrJ synthetic fuel and Jp-8
during the spring of 2012.
3
3.1 chapter summary
Meeting sustainability criteria is a crucial requirement for
biofuels in aviation. reduction of greenhouse gas emis-
sions through the use of sustainable biojet fuel is seen
as a major contributor to meeting the aviation industrys
climate change goals. Various regulatory (eu reD, us
rFs) and voluntary standards set sustainability require-
ments for biofuels, the most comprehensive one being
the one of the roundtable on sustainable Biofuels
(rsB), which has recently started its certification activ-
ities. the first certificates are expected to be issued
in late 2011 or early 2012. two of these rsB certifi-
cation efforts are described for Jatropha being grown
in Brazil and in Mozambique. there are other sustain-
ability certifications available, and the rsB described
in this chapter represents just one example.
3.2 introduction
sustainability is one of the most important requirements
for alternative fuels in aviation, which is supported by
all aviation stakeholders, including airlines, manufac-
turers, and airports as well as national and international
authorities. as a consequence of the experience with
first-generation biofuels for other industrial applications,
especially regarding the food vs. fuel competition,
iata and various airlines have been promoting the
application of appropriate sustainability criteria from
the early times of aviation biofuels development.
Moreover, reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions is the major driver for the aviation industry to
push for the use of sustainable biofuels. in 2009
iata, together with the other global aviation stake-
holders, established a set of high-level goals to limit
and reduce aviations impact on climate change that
includes the following:
a cap on global aviation co
2
emissions (carbon-
neutral growth) from 2020;
a reduction in co
2
emissions of 50% by 2050
relative to 2005 levels.
the use of biofuels is expected to strongly contribute
to the achievement of these goals. there are a number
of biofuels from various feedstocks usable for avia-
tion which typically achieve GHG emission reductions
around 80% or better.
3.3 Governmental regulations
and sustainability
standards
Both the eu and the us have introduced regulatory
standards (renewable energy Directive (reD) in
the eu, renewable Fuel standard (rFs) in the us)
prescribing criteria that biofuels for industrial applica-
tions have to meet in order to be eligible for incentives
or to be counted towards a biofuel blend or volume
mandate. in particular, specific GHG reduction thresh-
olds are required by these standards. the aviation
sector is not subject to obligations of using biofuels
since aviation biofuels have been certified only recently
and are not yet available in large commercial quantities.
in parallel to governmental regulations there are
various voluntary standards for biofuel sustainability,
normally with more comprehensive requirements
that the regulatory ones. one example is the round-
table on sustainable Biofuels (rsB), an international
multi-stakeholder initiative coordinated by the ecole
polytechnique Fdrale de lausanne (epFl), and
which was the first institution to develop sustainability
criteria for biofuels. Between 2007 and 2011, it set
up a sustainability standard consisting of a compre-
hensive set of environmental, societal and economic
criteria. the sustainable aviation Fuel users Group
(saFuG), an association of today 23 airlines, 3 aircraft
manufacturers and a biofuel supplier (www.safug.org),
considers the rsB standard as a reference. there are
seven voluntary standards recognized by the euro-
pean commission for certification of biofuels under
the european renewable energy Directive (reD),
the best known among them being rsB and iscc
(international sustainability and carbon certification).
3. sustainability
3
a comprehensive overview of biofuel regulations and
both regulatory and voluntary sustainability standards
can be found in the iata 2010 report on alternative
Fuels.
unfortunately the different existing sustainability stan-
dards do not only cover different criteria, but also use
different methodologies to determine impact param-
eters such as lifecycle GHG emissions. reD, rFs and
rsB use substantially different methods to account
for the different sources of GHG emissions and to
share them between co- and by-products; lifecycle
GHG emission values determined according to these
standards are thus not comparable. For aviation, due
to its global and border-crossing nature, these diver-
gent regulations make it difficult to make best use of
incentives for biojet fuel. achieving harmonization or
at least mutual recognition between the different stan-
dards has thus been identified as an important need
for a successful deployment of biojet fuel worldwide.
the following sections focus on the latest achieve-
ments in establishing rsB certification as well as two
practical examples of assessment of jatropha biofuel
feedstock production in Mozambique and Brazil.
Jatropha is one of the feedstocks that see aviation as
a major customer for the future.
3.4 rsB certification
the global rsB standard, which was described more
in detail in the iata 2010 report on alternative Fuels,
is applicable to all types of feedstock throughout the
entire supply chain.
the rsB certification system was officially launched on
23 March 2011 at the World Biofuels Market confer-
ence in rotterdam. this milestone was the culmination
of the work accomplished by rsB members over the
last four years, during which more than 120 organi-
zations worldwide developed the standard through
consensus and an open and transparent multi-stake-
holder process.
on July 19, 2011 the european union recognized
the rsB standard and certification system as a way
to demonstrate compliance with the eu renewable
energy Directive (eu reD), which was another key
milestone for the rsB.
another important step forward for the rsB was
the legal establishment of the rsB services Foun-
dation, which has been legally incorporated in the
united states as a 501(c) 3 non-profit. rsB services
Foundation will work closely with the rsB on the imple-
mentation of the rsB standard. since July 2011, the
rsB has received eight applications for certification
and is working with a number of companies who are in
the pipeline for certification. the first certificates are
expected to be issued towards the end of 2011 or in
the first months of 2012.
the rsB is in close contact with members of the
aviation industry, including airlines, biojet producers,
aircraft manufacturers and other stakeholders, in order
to work towards the production of sustainable and
certified aviation biofuel.
in addition to building industry support, the rsB has
started to work more closely with the auditing and
verification community. around a dozen certification
bodies around the world have indicated their interest
in offering rsB auditing and verification services. the
first certification body was awarded rsB accredita-
tion in september (sGs) and a number of others will
follow shortly.
in 2011 the rsB held three auditor training courses,
in lausanne (april 2011), Mexico city (June 2011)
and Kuala lumpur (september 2011). starting in
January 2012 the rsB will move to an e-learning
auditor training platform, in which course modules are
taken online, followed by a short face-to-face course.
on-site training courses will be held throughout 2012
in different locations throughout the world.
in order to facilitate the implementation of the rsB
standard for biofuels made from certain end of life
products, the rsB secretariat is developing a policy
for Municipal solid Waste (MsW), used cooking oil
(uco) and Wastewater used to produce biofuels.
additional biofuel pathways that qualify for end-of-life
status may be added in the future, when demonstrating
upstream compliance for feedstock sources is not
necessary or feasible.
Within the area of indirect impacts, the rsB secre-
tariat is drafting a proposal on how to address indirect
impacts of biofuel production in the rsB standard.
this proposal will be informed by the results of the
project certification system for low indirect impacts
Biofuels (ciiB), a collaboration project between rsB,
ecofys, WWF international and several other partners.
the rsB policy on indirect impacts will be discussed
by the rsB membership and steering Board in 2012.
3
in september of 2011 the rsB organized, in collab-
oration with Brazilian nGo 4 cantos do Mundo, an
outreach on biofuels, sustainability and certification in
the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. the rsB hopes to
organize more of such outreaches in the year to come
to build capacity in the area of biofuels sustainability
and certification in key biofuel producing regions of
the world.
in addition, the rsB continues to collaborate with
biofuel operators, governments, nGos and other
organizations in the area of biofuel sustainability. the
rsB is looking forward to 2012 as a year of growth
and expansion for the organization.
3.5 Field research testing
of the rsB social
Guidelines and relevant
Definitions in the context
of the novabra Jatropha
project in colatina,
espirito santo, Brazil
the roundtable on sustainable Biofuels (rsB) aims
to offer a one stop third party certification system
to biofuels operators by covering different feedstock,
different supply chains and offering certification for
different markets. in november 2009, the steering
Board of the rsB approved Version one of the rsB
standard and certification system for use during
a series of pilot tests in 2010. after several months of
field testing in pilot projects, followed by a 2 months
consultation period of rsB members and of the
public, the rsB steering Board validated Version 2.0
in november 2010. in 2011 rsB began accepting
applications for certifications. the rsB standard will
now be regularly revised for improvements and adap-
tations to new and relevant developments.
the rsB principles & criteria (p & cs) cover social
issues which are critical for the long term sustain-
ability of biofuels. these issues include local food
security issues (covered in principle 6), how biofuels
can contribute to local development (principle 5), how
land rights and water rights are duly acknowledged
(principle 9 & 12) as well as the involvement of stake-
holders (principle 2) and labour and human rights
(principle 4). the rsB secretariat in cooperation
with several world experts has now developed guide-
lines to guide operators through the implementation
of the social principles and has developed definitions
for region of poverty (principle 5), region of food
insecurity (principle 6) and legitimate land dispute
(principle 12). these guidelines and definitions are
now being tested in six different contexts (from small
producers to large plantations, various crops) to
evaluate their feasibility, appropriateness and prac-
tical validity.
this field research will focus on the novabra Jatropha
project in the region of colatina, espirito santo, Brazil.
the project aims at the introduction of Jatropha as
a non-food feedstock amongst small holders for the
production of sustainable biofuels. its goal is to reach
25,000 hectares of Jatropha plantations in the next eight
years, generating a new virtuous economic cycle in the
communities engaged with the program. By 2011, it
had already reached 1200 hectares with 480 families
from rural settlements, coffee plantations, and cattle
ranches. the state Government of espirito santo is
giving full official support to this project by setting up
a Jatropha Knowledge center in the region.
the outcomes of the field research will be the
following:
1. results on the feasibility, appropriateness and
practical validity of the definitions and guide-
lines, based on the field research conducted in
colatina, espirito santo, Brazil.
2. recommendations on the applicability of
the standard to smallholders and the planta-
tion model, as observed in the context of the
novabra project.
these results will inform the revision of the guidelines
and inform the discussion on the adoption of the rele-
vant definitions. they will also provide useful insight
into possible changes required in social principles
during the preparation of Version 3 of the standard. as
rsB aims to be accessible to smallholder, it will also
provide substantial feedback on the possible need for
adaptation or provision or further clarification to ensure
the standard can be used by smallholders.
3
3.6 sustainability assessment
and GHG Balance of
Jatropha in Mozambique
in a pilot project of the Jatropha alliance in Mozam-
bique, the principles of the roundtable on sustainable
Biofuels (rsB) have been directly applied to Jatropha
plantations on the ground. this project has demon-
strated that Jatropha is able to justify its claim as
a sustainable alternative to first generation biofuels.
the project team reported that the rsB toolset works
well in practice. the rsB standard is quite demanding
in terms of data, striving for excellence in analyzing all
sustainability issues in operations and planning. the
project team concluded that rsB certification could
be a challenge for organizations dealing with a large
number of smallholder farmers. However, the rsB has
confirmed it is addressing the issue of streamlining
smallholder certification operations.
Figure 5 Jatropha plant.
it was also found that the required effort to achieve
compliance varied significantly from principle to
principle. an appraisal of the ease of providing docu-
mentation, conducting assessments and gaining
compliance was performed. the project resulted in
a gap analysis on each company to identify where
compliance with rsB was reached and where further
efforts needed to be made. Based on the identified
gaps, a company specific roadmap for rsB certifica-
tion was developed. early results indicate that Jatropha
production in Mozambique is well enough advanced to
be certifiable according to the rsB standard.
in the second part of the study, Jatropha alliance
and its partner sun Biofuels demonstrated that even
under conservative assumptions on yields and other
parameters, sun Biofuels produces a GHG savings of
48% compared to the local fossil equivalent. However
there is a potential to save up to 73%, if the nitrogen
fertilizer were to be substituted by organic fertilizer
(e.g. Jatropha seed cake).
Finally, the study calculates the impact of land use
change on GHG savings. if perennial Jatropha is
grown on former cropland, this pushes the actual GHG
savings to above 100%, due to the effects of carbon
fixing. cultivating Jatropha on former annual crop-
land or grassland savannah leads to a positive GHG
impact, whereas cultivation on forest or dense scru-
bland is not recommendable from a GHG perspective.
the Jatropha alliance therefore strongly recommends
not planting Jatropha on forest or dense scrubland.
the final report and project toolbox are available to the
public online
1
.
1. www.jatropha-alliance.org
4
4.1 Chapter Summary
If the production of biojet fuel is to attain sufficiently
large volumes to meet the industrys expectations for
emissions reduction, there will need to be government
programs in place to incentivize the construction of
biofuel production plants. In the US, a reverse auction
mechanism to promote cellulosic biofuels has been
established but lack of funding to-date has constrained
the impact of this mechanism. An announced invest-
ment of $USD 510 million by the US Department of
Energy has been directed towards the development
of a domestic biojet fuel industry, and is designed to
help overcome the risk of investing in biojet produc-
tion. The European Commission has announced the
European Biofuels Flight Path Initiative, which aims to
achieve 2 million tons of biojet fuel in the European
Market by 2020. Second generation biofuels derived
from feedstock indigenous to developing countries
provide a potentially viable commercial opportunity in
the medium to long term but require further research
and development. Two pull mechanisms for incen-
tivizing biojet production are considered, a blend
mandate and forward contracts.
4.2 Introduction
In the economics chapter of last years report, the
focus was on providing an overview on the economics
of aviation biofuels as well as providing cost ranges
for the FT and HEFA processes. This year it focuses
on providing an analysis on a range of policy options
that can be employed to promote drop-in biojet fuels.
The chapter is split into two sections. The first section
analyzes potential push policy options that can be
used to stimulate the advancement of aviation biofuels
through research, development, demonstration and
eventually deployment. The second section focuses
on analyzing pull instruments that can be used to give
demand certainty to aviation biofuel producers.
4.3 Push Mechanisms
4.3.1 Research and
Development Funding
There are several programs that are currently in place to
support research and development in aviation biofuels
with most of these programs centered in developed
countries. The US and the EU are most actively
engaged in research and development of aviation
biofuels, building on longer experience from automo-
tive biofuel. Australia is also playing an increasingly
important role. Among developing countries Brazil is
clearly a frontrunner in automotive biofuels, in particular
ethanol from sugarcane, and has started to undertake
an increasing amount of research and development
of aviation biofuels. Various consortia have under-
taken research and development for aviation biofuels,
which are again dominated by companies from US and
Europe and include aviation fuel users, aircraft manu-
factures, and refiners, as well as other participants of
the supply chain (see Chapter 5 for examples). While
in the past years the focus has been on development
and testing of the feasibility of biojet fuels, the current
challenge, which requires much larger investment,
is incentivizing the construction of commercial scale
biojet demonstration and deployment plants.
4.3.2 US Research &
Development Programs
The US has actively supported development of
biofuel production including production incentives
for cellulosic biofuels. Through the Energy Policy
4. Economic Policy for
Biojet Production
1. Reverse auctions refer to the competition between multiple sellers to offer the lowest price to a single buyer through an organized
bidding process.
4
Act of 2005, an incentive program for production of
cellulosic biofuels using reverse auctions
1
was estab-
lished. The Energy Independence and Security Act
of 2007 updated Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS2)
to introduce explicit mandates for use of cellulosic
biofuels but did not make changes to the reverse
auction program. The RFS2 program is described in
the 2010 IATA Report on Alternative Fuels in Chapter
4.5.1. The slow pace of the reverse auction program
and the modest funding actually appropriated by
Congress has led to this mechanism not being able
to support the construction of demonstration projects
for cellulosic biofuels. The Energy Policy Act of 2005
allowed for USD 1 billion to be channeled through
the reverse auction program but to-date the appro-
priations to support the mechanism had only been
about USD 5 million through the FY2008 budget of
the Department of Energy (DOE). Under the FY2012
budget of the DOE, USD 150 million is proposed to
support the reverse auction program. If these funds
are appropriated, this mechanism could start making
a meaningful contribution to achieving its objectives,
which includes the acceleration of deployment and
commercialization of biofuels as well as the delivery of
the first one billion gallons of annual cellulosic biofuel
production by 2015. Should the program be scaled
up, it is critical that it specifically targets biofuels that
meet the ASTM D7566 specification to ensure suit-
ability for use in aviation.
The US government recognized that given the
economic environment, significant start-up risks,
and competitive barriers posed by established fuels,
industry will not assume all the uncertainty and risk
associated with providing a commercially viable
production capability for advanced drop-in biofuels,
including biojet fuels. To address some of these short-
falls, the US government (through an MoU between
the Department of the Navy, Department of Energy
and Department of Agriculture) announced in August
2011 a funding pledge of 510 USD million, envisioned
to be matched by the private sector, over three years
to work with private industry to create advanced
drop-in biofuels for the Department of Defense and
private sector transportation throughout the US. The
objective of the initiative is the construction or retro-
fitting of domestic commercial (or pre-commercial)
scale advanced drop-in biofuel plants and refineries
that have the following properties:
The capability to produce drop-in replacement
advanced biofuels meeting military specification
at a price competitive with petroleum;
A geographically advantageous location with
ready market access;
Results in no significant impact on supply of agri-
cultural commodities for the production of food.
The MoU states that the US aims to attain enhanced
reliability of fuel supplies through diversification to
advanced drop-in biofuels in order to sustain US military
capabilities through reducing its vulnerability to poten-
tial disruption of crude oil supplies. The US needs to
ensure that the pledged funding is delivered and other
policy mechanisms, such as those employed through
the Department of Energys loan guarantee program,
further complement efforts to catalyze commercializa-
tion of drop in biofuels.
4.3.3 European Research &
Development Programs
The European Commission, in close coordination
with Airbus, leading European airlines and key Euro-
pean biofuel producers, have launched the European
Advanced Biofuels Flight Path Initiative, an industry
wide initiative to speed up the commercialization
of aviation biofuels in Europe. Through this initiative
the aim is to deploy at least 2 million tons of biofuels
per annum in aviation in the EU by 2020. Milestones
to achieving that goal include the development, by
2015, of a reliable supply chain for certified sustain-
able resources, the conversion of hydroprocessed
vegetable oil (HVO) plants to HEFA plants to produce
aviation biofuels and the commissioning of three plants
producing lignocellulosic (FT) biojet fuel. By 2018,
the aim is to commission an additional four plants
producing FT biojet and at least two HEFA plants
producing algae and microbe oil based biofuels. There
are several compelling reasons that call for govern-
ment support in the realization of these objectives,
which include:
Market and financial risks are currently too high for
private investors;
Technology risks are high at demonstration or
early deployment stage;
Traditional energy technologies can have an advan-
tage due to embedded capital and infrastructure.
4
An analysis of financing mechanisms under the frame-
work of the Strategic Energy Technology Plan
1
by the
Centre for European Policy Studies proposes some
financial mechanisms through which the EU can
support the implementation of the European Advanced
Biofuels Flight Path Initiative; these include:
Incorporation of aviation biofuel projects as part
of the Risk Sharing Financial Facility (or estab-
lishment of dedicated instrument) addressing
bankable project for which the credit risk is
perceived to be low or sub-investment grade.
The budget for the new phase of this facility is
expected to be 5 billion Euros from 2014-2020;
The expansion of loan guarantee instruments
can be complemented with EU project bonds
for specific late stage more mature long-term
projects;
Another source of funding could be the NER
300 program established through the Emis-
sions Trading Directive. The program aims to
support demonstration of low-carbon technolo-
gies at commercial scale through co-funding at
least 34 innovative renewable energy technology
demonstration projects within the EU. It was
estimated that such a program could provide
4.5 billion in co-funding and aims to leverage
matching funds from the industry;
The European Commission, through the EU 2020
Strategy, committed itself to bringing in innovative
incentive mechanisms linked to the carbon market.
The EC is in the process of securing technical
support
2
to assist the commission in the develop-
ment of an instrument in clean technologies with
allowances for the EU Emission Trading Scheme.
The incentive mechanism is envisioned to provide
additional carbon allowances for innovative tech-
nologies demonstration plants and existing best
technologies deployment in industrial sectors.
The EC is considering the establishment of an
Innovation/Technology Accelerator under the
EU ETS, which would reward early investors in
top performing low-carbon technologies with
rewarding them with additional allowances;
EU Member States may choose to provide loan
guarantees;
Other fiscal incentives such as low interest
payment and equity capital.
No single mechanism on its own would appear to
be sufficient to bridge the current cost gap between
convention jet fuel and aviation biofuels. a combination
of these mechanisms would need to be made available
to enable commercialization of biojet fuel. Given the
relative infancy of the industry, public partnership with
private developers is essential for de-risking these
investments. At the initial stage of demonstration,
for the period leading up to 2020, there will likely be
a need for greater equity or grant based financing from
public sources to realize commercial scale in avia-
tion biofuel production. The EU needs to leverage the
mechanisms identified under the SET plan to bring to
full implementation the European Advanced Biofuels
Flight Path Initiative.
4.3.4 Enhancing Production of
Indigenous Second Generation
Biofuels in Developing
Countries
Second generation biofuels derived from feedstock
indigenous to developing countries provide a poten-
tially viable commercial opportunity in the medium
to long term but require further research and devel-
opment. In addition to not directly being part of the
food supply, there is often higher potential for yield
increases in these feedstock sources through genetic
and agronomic improvements, which have mostly
already been made in the past for species serving
as food. While some research and development has
already been undertaken, to realize the potential of
these second generation biofuel sources, a targeted
approach supporting research and development into
increasing yields and other favorable properties within
second generation feedstock sources that are preva-
lent in developing countries is warranted.
The Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR) is a global partnership that unites
organizations engaged in research for sustainable
development with the funders of this work. CGIAR
includes a consortium of fifteen centers that were
established to lead, coordinate and support research.
Partner agencies of CGIAR have already initiated
technology oriented biofuels research but this has not
been undertaken on a large scale. The gap in adequate
research on second generation fuels indigenous to
developing countries may be possible to address
1. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/set_plan/set_plan_en.htm
2. http://ec.europa.eu/clima/tenders/2011/213427/specifications_en.pdf
4
through creating a global research program by using
CGIAR as a platform for undertaking and coordi-
nating this research. To achieve scale, such a global
research program would need to bring together main
users of fuel across different industries (namely avia-
tion and automotive), governments, existing research
initiatives, agricultural researchers and others to
launch a multi-year research program into developing
higher value second generation biofuel production.
Undertaking such research can help facilitate the
scale up of production from these potential biofuel
sources. CGIAR has a long relationship with develop-
ment institutions and governments, which frequently
use findings from the latest research undertaken by
CGIAR to help demonstrate and deploy new innova-
tion in the agricultural sector in developing countries.
Findings from the research undertaken could be used
to scale up production of second generation biofuels
with support from development institutions, potentially
leveraging their expertise in sustainable development
to demonstrate how to scale up such approaches in a
sustainable way in developing countries.
4.4 Pull Mechanisms
Some biofuel producers have raised concerns that one
potential bottleneck in achieving commercialization
and scale-up of biofuel production is due to insufficient
demand for aviation biofuels. Until HEFA was certi-
fied for aviation use in 2011, biofuel producers were
hesitating to invest in aviation biofuels or even did not
recognize aviation as a potential customer. With the
start of commercial flights using biofuels this is now
changing, but there are still strong concerns regarding
the time period needed for aviation biofuels to become
cost competitive with conventional jet fuel. To alleviate
these concerns an appropriate policy signal can be
used to provide certainty of demand for the fuel. There
are several mechanisms that are advocated by policy
makers, the two considered in this report are the blend
mandate and the use of forward contracts.
4.4.1 Blend Mandate
A blend mandate is a policy instrument that requires
that a specified volume or percentage of biofuels be
used within the fuel mix. This instrument is widely used
in the automotive fuel sector. While such a mecha-
nism would provide some degree of certainty, the total
demand would be determined by the level at which
the mandate is set. Since in the medium term aviation
biofuels can be produced through a fairly diversified
and large number of producers a situation may arise
where producers have uncertainty about the volume of
the fuels that they may be able to sell under the speci-
fied mandate. This would happen if producers dont
have information on planned production volumes of
their competitors. Given the lack of current availability of
supply, this is unlikely to happen in the immediate term.
However, due to limited demand outside the scope of
the mandate and risk aversion of investors to scale up
production beyond the point of demand certainty can
serve as an obstacle to scaling up production.
Another result of a blend mandate would be higher fuel
costs for fuel users for the short to medium term. The
mid-range of current cost estimates for FT and HEFA
processes suggest that prices for aviation biofuels are
roughly double the current jet kerosene price today.
The blend mandate, if required at all fueling points,
may also lead to local price spikes driven by difference
in availability of aviation biofuels in different markets.
Potentially the most adverse impact from this policy
would be that it could lead to stifling innovation. If
biofuel developers mobilize their resources to bringing
fuels to market without channeling resources to make
aviation biofuels cost competitive with jet kerosene
this could lead to the scaling-up of structurally flawed
options that would never be cost competitive with
conventional jet fuel. While the blend mandate may
create opportunities for learning and innovation it may
also lead to scale up in production at the expense of
developing pathways that have potential to be commer-
cially viable in the medium to longer term.
4.4.2 Forward Contracts and
Off-Take Agreements
Forward contracts or off-take agreements are already
being used in the industry to promote the use of biojet
fuels. However, these tend to be limited by geographic
location, quantity or scope. Purchases of biojet fuels
to-date suggest that there is a significant premium
being paid to producers but there is evidence that
costs have potential to reduce significantly with scale
as suggested by the recent contract made by the
US Defense Logistics Agency.
1
Such contracts are
1. Sustainable Oils contracted to deliver aviation fuels (HRJ8) derived from camelina to the US Defense Logistics Agency at USD 66.60 per
gallon for the 100,000 gallons but offered to provide an additional 100,000 gallons at price of USD 34.9 per gallon. The prices should
be considered in the context of volumes delivered in R&D quantities and are far from being competitive with jet kerosene, but nonetheless
suggest significant economies of scale.
4
important in incentivizing learning and stimulating the
aviation biofuels market. They can prove to be impor-
tant sources of revenue for aviation biofuel producers
that are involved in research and development of
biofuels, particularly at the development stage.
An overarching framework contract that sets out
the parameters under which industry would be able
to purchase aviation biofuels can complement short
and medium term agreements and create large scale
demand while sending the appropriate price signal
over the longer term. Given the cost advantage of
conventional jet fuel, it is unlikely that such a contract
will be called upon in the short-to-medium term but it
would nonetheless be important in setting a price floor
for aviation biofuels. The forward contract would need
to address the following parameters:
Fuel specification: The contract would indicate that
the fuel purchased would need to be from a qualified
fuel and meet the technical specifications under the
ASTM agreed criteria as well as a set of sustainability
criteria according to one of the regulatory or voluntary
standards (see Chapter 2 for specifications).
As indicated earlier, there are two processes (FT and
HEFA) that are already approved for use in commer-
cial aviation. However, the framework contract can
leave open the possibility of purchasing other types of
fuels so long as they meet the existing or future ASTM
specification for approved fuels. By keeping the possi-
bility to purchase fuel developed from new processes
or accepted specifications the forward contract would
not disadvantage any future process or specification
that may be developed that is capable of meeting the
needs of commercial aviation.
Meeting sustainability criteria according to regulations
in force (e. g. EU RED) is a prerequisite for benefit-
ting from specific public incentives. Meeting voluntary
sustainability standards such as the RSB can in addi-
tion be used for corporate responsibility purposes.
The price could be formulated through the use of
several inputs, which include:
Price of conventional jet fuel: Under the framework
contract, increases in the price of conventional jet fuel
above a certain threshold would result in equivalent
increases in the price of aviation biofuels. If govern-
ment support is mobilized, a floor price for jet fuel can
also be set, for example 20% below current market
prices for jet kerosene. In the event of a fall in the
price of conventional jet fuel below the specified
level, a government support mechanism would cover
the price differential between the set floor price and
the price of conventional jet fuel. Such a government
support mechanism would only be called upon when
and if the price of conventional jet fuel in the future
falls more than the specified amount, for example 20%
below the current prices. Oil prices are forecast to
rise over the foreseeable future but such a mechanism
can remove downward price risk from movements in
conventional jet fuel for aviation biofuel producers. It
would also allow aviation biofuel producers to benefit
from upside movements in conventional jet fuel prices.
Drops in prices of oil products can be caused by short
term surges in supply or slumps in demand, which
would be very disruptive to a nascent industry trying to
mobilize capital for long term investment.
Price of Carbon: Another component that can be
integrated into the price of aviation biofuel is the price
of carbon. Prices for carbon vary significantly from
one regulatory scheme to another, which can create
unequal demand for carbon assets as well as high
variability in prices. Current prices for allowances
under the EU ETS are around 15USD per ton of CO
2

which, if applied, would provide an incentive of about
3.5 cents USD per liter of aviation biofuel or roughly
5% above conventional jet fuel prices. Prices for EUAs
are forecast (i.e. Bloomberg New Energy Finance) to
increase significantly under phase III of the EU ETS,
with high-end estimates indicating rises to about
45 USD in 2015 and about 75 USD 2020, which
would translate to an additional incentive for avia-
tion biofuels of 10.5 cents USD and 17.5 cents USD
per liter in 2015 and 2020 respectively. This would
likely still represent an insufficient incentive compared
to the cost advantage enjoyed by conventional jet
fuel in the medium term. In addition, as noted earlier,
there is significant uncertainty in the price forecasts
of carbon assets within a regulatory scheme as well
as across different schemes, which further contrib-
utes to price uncertainty. In this context, it may be
appropriate to consider policy proposals that policy
makers have put forward in the context of promoting
demonstration of carbon capture and storage (CCS)
facilities. In considering policy options for promotion
of CCS to encourage rapid commercialization several
proposals put forward by policy makers have included
allowing multiple crediting for CO
2
captured during
the first few years of a regulatory regime. For example,
incentives for CCS demonstration are detailed in the
Americas Climate Security Act of 2007 also known
as the Lieberman-Warner bill, which was approved
by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public
4
Works but failed to clear the Senate over concerns
that it would damage the economy. The bill indicated
that a bonus allowance adjustment factor should
be applied that starts with a bonus multiple of 4.5
in 2012 gradually decreasing to a bonus multiple of
0.5 in 2039 for each metric ton of carbon emissions
avoided through capture and geologic sequestra-
tion of emissions. A similar incentive mechanism was
also proposed by the Waxman-Markey bill as well
as in other contexts, including by policy makers in
Europe, Canada and other parts of the world. Further
assessment may be warranted whether the approach
of incentivizing aviation biofuel use through multiple
crediting of CO
2
reduction would be appropriate for
use in the aviation industry during the early stage of
aviation biofuels deployment, for example until 2020.
Contexts where such an approach may be considered
could include the industrys climate change strategy
or other emission trading schemes, such as the
proposed inclusion of aviation under the EU ETS. The
existence of such an incentive would enable airlines
to pay a higher premium for use of aviation biofuels,
which can contribute to their commercialization.
Quantity: a key advantage of the framework contract
is that it is able to offer a premium price for avia-
tion biofuels while providing a signal for large scale
demand. Assuming a technically feasible blend of
50% of aviation biofuels with conventional jet fuel, the
price premium offered would be on almost 40 billion
gallons of aviation biofuels in 2015. Constraints on the
supply side would prevent the uptake at such levels
but nonetheless the forward framework contract would
send a premium price signal for half of the industrys
fuel forecasted consumption. While not a concern in
the immediate future, in the medium to long term it
may be important to also consider any local surges
in supply of aviation biofuels that could limit uptake at
a particular site due to blend threshold constraints. In
this context the contract could include provisions for
the transportation and market access of the produced
aviation biofuels.
5
5.1 chapter summary
this chapter gives descriptions of the following wide-
scope biojet projects that have been undertaken by
groups of stakeholders:
aireG is a German association of 25 organiza-
tions that is focusing on five working groups:
provision of feedstock, technologies of fuel
production, fuel utilization, quality and certifica-
tion, and sustainability;
in the us, the Defense logistics agency is
purchasing biofuels for the army, navy, and air
Force who are certifying their aircraft for using
these new fuels;
also in the us, the Farm to Fly program was initi-
ated u.s. Department of agriculture (usDa),
air transport association of america, inc. (ata)
and the Boeing company (Boeing), and aims
to accelerate the availability of a commercially
viable sustainable aviation biofuel industry in the
united states, increase domestic energy security,
establish regional supply chains and support rural
development;
in Brazil a sustainable biojet program involving
multiple local stakeholders aims to study feed-
stock, logistics, industry, sustainability, and
funding through a series of pilot programs already
in operation;
sWaFea is a european program that spent the last
two years investigating different biojet pathways
and analyzing policy, economic and environmental
matters. amongst other recommendations, the
sWaFea report proposes reinvesting some of
the funds collected by member states under the
eu ets into biojet production plants;
caaFi is a us-based program responsible for
significant accomplishments in alternative fuel
certification and deployment. caaFi played
a leading role in the creation of the Farm to Fly
program, as well as several other initiatives.
5.2 aireG the new
German centre
of competence on
aviation Biofuels
in Germany 25 organizations have come together this
year to form a unique association. aireG aviation
initiative for renewable energy in Germany strives
to gain a truly all-encompassing perspective on the
field of aviation biofuels. aireG believes that biomass
production, conversion and distribution have to be opti-
mized in order to achieve a sufficient supply of biofuel
at fair prices within a reasonable time. Following that
objective aireG is bringing together companies and
organizations from biomass producers to airlines, from
aircraft manufacturers to airports and from universities
to consulting firms. this broad spectrum will enable
aireG to connect know-how across the entire value-
creation chain and to act as a catalyst for sector-wide
progress at the same time.
as a nonprofit organization aireGs membership is
open for all parties willing to contribute to furthering
the common cause of establishing sustainable ways
to introduce aviation biofuels. aireG is taking into
account that there are no national solutions in this
field; therefore aireG is inviting companies and orga-
nization from around the globe to join the effort.
aireGs comprehensive approach is further empha-
sized by the set-up of our working groups that are
shedding light on the specific aspects of how to imple-
ment aviation biofuels on a large scale.
1. starting with topics concerning the provision
of Feedstock, aireG experts are comparing
different types of crops regarding their respec-
tive benefits, detecting adequate regions for
mass-production and assessing the sustain-
ability for all options of feedstock provision.
5. stakeholder initiatives
5
2. With the assumption that Jet a 1 will remain
the standard aviation fuel and drop-in synthetic
fuels are the way to usher in a new era, an
aireG team is working on technologies of
Fuel production. critical issues are to ensure
the quality of biofuels, to identify the most
efficient conversion process and to establish
a roadmap for extensive distribution.
3. in Fuel utilization aireG aims to verify that
aviation biofuels will not require adaptation of
fleet or infrastructure. We are also looking into
assessing the future demand in Germany and
beyond in order to determine the feasibility of
current emission reduction goals.
4. the Quality and certification working group
will ensure that the largely self-regulated stan-
dardization is providing for sufficient transfer
of know-how to new market participants. also,
this group will be concerning itself with assuring
standard compliance of biofuels and assisting
during certification of new aviation biofuels.
5. on top of all that rests the question of sustain-
ability, the objective of the fifth working group.
this group will be contributing to implement
and further develop sustainability criteria along
the value-creation chain. By doing so, it will
be able to evaluate different incentive systems
for emission reduction and to identify research
requirements and needs for political action.
after one year of progress, aireGs findings will be
presented and more input requested during a full-day
international conference program on aviation biofuels
during the 2012 Berlin air show.
5.3 us Defense logistics
agency (Dla) energy
Biofuels initiatives
the Military services along with Dla energy are
currently involved in multiple initiatives to support
the certification and commercialization of alternative
aviation fuels. alternative aviation fuels serve critical
needs for the country and the Department of Defense
including increased energy security through decreased
petroleum consumption, enhanced use of domestic
resources, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,
and establishment of a larger fuel supply base in order
to fulfill consumption needs.
Dla energy has supported the services in their certifi-
cation efforts through numerous procurement actions.
During 2007 and 2008 Dla energy awarded three
contracts for 730,000 gallons of Fischer tropsch
fuels derived from both coal and natural gas feed-
stocks, fulfilling the test quantities required by the air
Force for certification. in 2009 and 2010 Dla energy
established seven contracts totaling 800,000 gallons
for delivery of hydrotreated renewable (Hr) Jp-8,
Jp-5 and F-76 for air Force, army and navy certifi-
cations programs. these fuels were derived from
a variety of feedstocks including camelina, tallow and
algal oil. additional work underway involves procure-
ment of HrJ-5 and Hr F76 fuels in support of the
navys sail the Great Green Fleet initiative. a Dla
energy solicitation recently closed on august 16,
2011 for procurement of 100,000 gallons of HrJ-5
and 350,000 gallons of Hr F76. Delivery of the fuel
will take place by May 1, 2012 to puget sound naval
shipyard where it will be blended with its petroleum
counterparts and used to demonstrate a Green strike
Group. Most recently Dla energy awarded a contract
for 11,000 gallons of aviation fuel derived from the
dehydration and oligomerization of alcohols. this
effort supports the next step in the air Forces alterna-
tive fuels certification program which aims to certify
alcohol to Jet (atJ) fuels.
For the next step, Dla energy is focused on bridging
the gap between certification and commercial scale
production by supporting a variety of demonstration
programs and initiatives through partnerships with
other government organizations and industry. these
efforts allow for a competitive industry, ensuring the
military has a supplier base capable of producing
operational volumes in order to meet their future goals.
the air Forces goal is to be prepared to cost compet-
itively purchase 50 percent of its domestic aviation
fuel requirement from an alternative source by 2016.
the navys goal is to satisfy 50 percent of all energy
requirements with alternative sources by 2020.
to help foster the growth of production capacity,
Dla energy and the air transport association signed
a strategic alliance for alternative aviation fuels on
March 19, 2010. this will leverage the larger require-
ments of the commercial airlines with the financial
stability of the government, incentivizing commercial
financing for the alternative fuels industry.
5
in addition, Dla energy is currently involved in the
Green initiative for Fuels transition pacific, which is
a working group of over 30 member organizations
and commands, co-led by united states pacific
command and the united states Department of the
navy. the group aims to purchase and use cost-
competitive domestically produced advanced biofuels
by 2018 to displace at least 25 percent of the fuel
used by the Department of Defense in Hawaii. the
estimated requirements for aviation and marine
diesel fuels in Hawaii are 78,550,000 gallons of Jp8,
7,180,000 gallons of Jp5, and 42,250,000 gallons
of F76.
the pacific northwest is another area of promise
for the commercialization of alternative energy. Dla
energy currently participates in the Farm to Fly
(detailed in section 5.4) and sustainable aviation
Fuels northwest (saFn) initiatives, designed to bring
together aviation biofuels chain stakeholders with
the goal of providing fuel to the pacific northwest.
a regional analysis of feedstocks, conversion tech-
nologies, logistics and environmental impacts has
recently been completed by saFn detailing some of
the more promising opportunities for the region.
lastly, Dla energy is providing technical and
contracting support to the Doe, navy and usDa
Biorefineries program which aims to partner with
industry to create robust domestic production for
advanced drop-in biofuels. it is envisioned that two
to three bio-refineries, each capable of producing in
excess of 10 million gallons of advanced biofuels by
2016, will result from the initiative. in support of the
program Dla energy anticipates potential award of
fuel contracts to the biorefineries for delivery of military
grade alternative fuel blends.
Dla energy has encountered a variety of hurdles
during the alternative fuel procurement process, both
in certification and commercial volumes. Major industry
concern includes the availability of feedstock and inter-
ruptions in supply. this stems from uncertainty due
to harvest quantities and weather and environmental
conditions, which may unexpectedly limit the amount
of feedstock available to a supply during a given time-
frame. other concerns include lack of crop insurance
for many popular biofuels feedstock candidates such
as camelina.
long term contracts and off-take agreements are
another pertinent issue. Discussions with industry have
revealed a need for 10 year minimum supply contracts
with a preference for up to 20 years. the contracts
and off-take agreements are vital for producers to gain
financing from capital investors. this is of concern
because currently Dla energy is limited to five year
contracts with up to and additional five option years
and it has been conveyed the options years hold little
to no value when attempting to gain financial backing.
several efforts have been made by Dla energy to gain
authority to award longer term contracts with some
progress being realized with each attempt. a revised
legislative proposal has recently been submitted and
there is hope for long term contracting authority to be
granted sometime in 2013.
environmental sustainability challenges, such as green-
house gas emissions, water use, land use, particulate
emissions, nutrient depletion and competition with
food have also come to the forefront of the biofuels
discussion. Greenhouse gas emissions are particu-
larly important to Dla energy because of mandates by
section 526 of the energy independence and secu-
rity act (eisa) of 2007. this regulation requires the
life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of government-
procured alternative fuels, other than for r & D testing,
be less than or equal to that of conventional petro-
leum. currently, Dla energy is working with other
government agencies, academia and commercial
industry through the commercial aviation alterna-
tive Fuels initiative (caaFi) environmental group, to
develop guidance and compliance mechanisms for
lifecycle greenhouse gas emission regulations like
section 526 of the eisa. in april of 2009, the air
Force research laboratory (aFrl) published a docu-
ment titled, Framework and Guidance for estimating
Greenhouse Gas Footprints of aviation Fuels. this
document provides methodologies and modeling
guidance for calculating the lifecycle greenhouse gas
emissions of alternative aviation fuels. subsequently
the group authored a case study life cycle Green-
house Gas analysis of advanced Jet propulsion Fuels:
Fischer-tropsch Based spK-1 case study to further
the guidance in this area of research. Future work
will include comparisons of existing lifecycle analysis
models and metrics and an eventual mechanism which
can be used for section 526 eisa compliance. Work
has begun to address mechanisms for evaluating
other environmental sustainability indicators beyond
greenhouse gas emissions, but much more needs to
be accomplished in terms of lifecycle guidance, base-
line comparisons and regional impacts.
5
through partnerships across the biofuels stakeholder
value chain, the hope is to help the alternative fuels
industry grow into a strong supplier base. Dla energy
could then continue doing what we have done for
decades: buying fuel for our customers, no matter how
the product may have changed.
5.4 the united states
Farm to Fly initiative
in July 2010, the u.s. Department of agriculture
(usDa), air transport association of america, inc.
(ata) and the Boeing company (Boeing) signed
a resolution memorializing their commitment to work
together on a Farm to Fly initiative to accelerate the
availability of a commercially viable sustainable avia-
tion biofuel industry in the united states, increase
domestic energy security, establish regional supply
chains and support rural development.
1
although
these organizations already were working together
under the commercial aviation alternative Fuels
initiative
(caaFi), they had determined that an even

more focused effort would be needed to further align
u.s. biofuels agricultural policy which up to then
had almost entirely been focused on the production
of biofuels for automobiles and trucks to provide
opportunity for farmers and fuel producers to generate
feedstocks and fuels for aircraft.
While the usDa, ata and Boeing remain the drivers
of Farm to Fly, the coalition has been expanded to
include the u.s. Department of energy (Doe), the
Department of transportation (Dot) and the Depart-
ment of Defense (DoD). the Farm to Fly working
team focuses both on existing government authority
and private initiatives and on areas that may require
additional rulemaking, statutory changes, govern-
ment funding or private investment to align u.s. rural
development and biofuel agricultural policy to promote
the commercial-scale production of sustainable feed-
stocks and the development of an aviation biofuel
production and distribution supply chain.
With respect to existing programs, the Farm to Fly
working team focuses on meeting the directive in the
2008 u.s. Farm Bill that states that u.s. programs
aimed at energy crops should be equally available
for air transportation fuels as for ground transporta-
tion fuels.
2
accordingly, the Farm to Fly working team
has been working to make aviation fuel feedstocks
and production eligible for existing u.s. alternative
energy programs, such as the Biorefinery assistance
program (Bap), Biomass crop assistance program
(Bcap), and the u.s. crop insurance program. the
Farm to Fly working team also is working to demon-
strate a sustainable supply chain, with a recent pilot
project, sustainable alternative Fuels northwest,
assessing and reporting on the sustainable produc-
tion of biomass, collection and delivery of feedstocks,
crushing and preparation, process technologies
for aviation alternative fuels and co-products, and
blending and delivery of resulting fuels to end-users
at airports.
a key goal of the Farm to Fly initiative is also to marshal
new and existing funding and mechanisms to prove
that commercial-scale production of alternative avia-
tion fuels is possible and commercially sustainable.
the intent is to jump start this industry and build the
necessary bridge to a future in which the industry is
entirely funded by private capital. the 2011 announce-
ment by the usDa, Doe and u.s. navy that they
plan to invest up to $510 million over three years in
a public-private partnership to produce advanced
drop-in aviation and marine fuels is a significant step
toward meeting this goal.
While significant work lies ahead, the Farm to Fly initia-
tive is enabling aviation to more fully participate in the
supply chain essential to making alternative aviation
fuels a reality.
1. http://www.airlines.org/energy/alternativeFuels/Documents/FarmtoFlyresolution071410.pdf
2. conf. rpt. 110-627, on H.r. 2419; p. 911, May 13, 2008
5
5.5 the Brazilian Biojet
Fuel platform
From the initial business concept presented last year,
the Brazilian Biojet Fuel platform is bringing together
additional stakeholders to structure and implement an
integrated biojet fuel value chain in Brazil focused on
three key units: the sustainable Multi-Feedstock unit,
the logistics unit, and the Biorefinery unit. inocas
will advise on the rsB compliance issues, Quinvita will
supply technology and planting material for Jatropha
projects, cnaGa will integrate logistic systems, and
santiago advisors will provide project management
and financial advice (see Figures 6 and 7).
Figure 6 schematic showing contributors roles in the Brazilian Biojet Fuel platform. the six main areas of focus are shown along the
top, with the three phases of feedstock development along the bottom, and the advisors on either side.
Figure 7 the five modules of the Brazilian Biojet Fuel platform.
5
5.5.1 the sustainable
Multi-Feedstock unit
the strategic mission of this unit is to deal with the
major challenge of providing competitively priced
sustainable feedstock to the platform, respecting the
sustainability criteria of rsB, in the volume demanded
by the carbon neutral Growth (cnG) goals of iata.
competitively priced sustainable feedstock can only
be achieved if the right planting material (high yield
productivity, disease resistant, etc.) is made available
to farmers, with adequate financing mechanisms, to
foster an energy and food program, envisaging both
food and energy security.
therefore, much emphasis at this initial structuring
phase of the integrated biojet fuel value chain is being
placed on a Jatropha research and development under
a public-private partnership (ppp) with embrapa
agroenergia, the foremost research institution of the
Brazilian Ministry of agriculture (Mapa). this means
coordinating a Brazilian research network amongst the
institutions shown in Figure 8.
as part of the multi-phase feedstock program, the
platform is undertaking the domestication issues for
Jatropha, Macauba, Dende, Babassu, and adaptation
of camelina as a winter crop to the warmer climates
of Brazil.
several advances have been made in the Brazilian
Jatropha domestication program, including better
understanding of the plant physiology, pruning tech-
niques adjusted to the plant physiology, mechanized
harvesting, seed cake detox, etc. pan american
genetic material exchange has been led by curcas
Diesel Brazil, Global clean energy, Quinvita and sG
Fuels; each offering their material and services in
the Brazilian market. With cooperative agreements
between aBppM and pan american research insti-
tutions, one can expect that adequate initial planting
material will finally be available for the scaling up of
Jatropha plantations in Brazil next year.
an agreement has been reached with longido to set
up the value chain to explore the potential of 18 million
hectares of native babassu forest, based on present
brownfield in Maranho, and feasibility check of the
value chain for biomass, and oil.
procedures are underway for the introduction of
camelina in Brazil as a winter crop to soy, leveraging
on the existing soy value chain.
Macauba and Dende will be the next cultures to be
addressed by the research program of embrapa
agroenergia with the Brazlian Biojet fuel platform,
uniting efforts for a comprehensive research and
development program.
Figure 8 Map showing the Brazilian Ministry of agriculture institutions engaged in relevant research activities.
5
5.5.2 the logistic unit
Harvest logistics, consolidation and crushing centers,
silos and tank farms, and integrated regional inter-
modal transportation networks are being planned for
each production hub. the first phase will deal with the
southeastern Hub, to serve the major markets of so
paulo and rio. Final integration assurance with major
airport logistic operators will be addressed once the
value chain is in place.
in the first phase, sustainable feedstock will be
exported while awaiting the local biojet fuel production
plant to be fully operational.
5.5.3 the Biorefinery unit
Based on the production hub concept, the platform
is finalizing the site and technology selection to install
a pilot plant in the southeastern region to supply
biojet fuel to the major airports of so paulo and rio
de Janeiro in Brazil. presently undergoing a tech-
nical evaluation, the pilot plant will be co-located with
a major operating chemical company to reduce the
time to market, and to optimize the production costs
for final competitive pricing.
5.6 sWaFea: a european
study on the Feasibility
and impact of the
introduction of alternative
Fuel in aviation
1
5.6.1 Background
committed to taking an active role in climate change
mitigation and in the promotion of secure and sustain-
able energy sources, the european commissions
Directorate General for Mobility and transport initiated
the sWaFea study in February 2009 to investigate the
feasibility and impacts of the use of alternative fuels in
aviation. alternatives to crude oil-based kerosene are
seen as an important component in the efforts to reach
the target set by the european Directive for renewable
energy (reD) to introduce 10% of renewable energy
in transport by 2020. its also an important develop-
ment with view to the introduction of aviation in the
ets from 2012.
the study aimed to develop a comparative analysis of
different fuels and energy-carrier options for aviation
on the basis of current knowledge, and to propose
a possible vision and roadmap for their deployment in
order to facilitate and support future policy decisions.
the sWaFea study, which delivered its findings and
recommendations in april 2011
2
, encompassed all
aspects of the possible introduction of alternative fuels
in aviation using a highly multidisciplinary approach.
this included technical, environmental, and economic
assessments. the study was carried out under the
leadership of the French aerospace research lab
onera, in cooperation with a consortium of twenty
partners
3
bringing together european research orga-
nizations and representatives of virtually every major
stakeholder in the aviation fuel chain.
1. The SWAFEA study was funded by the European Commissions Directorate General for Mobility and Transport under contract TREN/
F2/408.2008/SI2.518403/SI2.519012. The contents or any views expressed herein have not been adopted or in any way approved
by the European Commission and should not be relied upon as a statement of the Commissions or DG Mobility and Transports views.
The contract was carried out by a team led by ONERA and gathering 20 partners from industry, airlines and research. Statements
presented here represent a collective work and a general agreement on the high level conclusions derived from parallel works carried
out in the frame of the study. As such, it does not engage the individual responsibility of each of these organizations and corporations
on any and all the topics covered by the study.
2. sWaFea final report is available on www.swafea.eu
3. sWaFea partners : airbus, airFrance, altran, Bauhaus luftfahrt, cerfacs, concawe, Dlr, eaDs-iW, embrarer, erdyn, iata, ineris, iFpen,
onera, plant research international (Wur), rolls-royce uK and rolls-royce Deutschland, shell, snecma, university of sheffield
5
5.6.2 summary of sWaFea report
although the aviation sector has a good track record
in reducing its environmental impact through efficiency
gain, it is highly unlikely to reduce or even stabilize its
emissions through this means alone.
Biofuels present real potential for reducing GHG emis-
sions, provided that the feedstock production step
is well mastered. However, even if the Ft and FeFa
pathways are available in the short term to produce
jet quality fuels, they lack the necessary cost-compet-
itiveness with conventional jet fuel needed to promote
their development, even with the exemption of biofuels
from the eu ets. in addition, biomass availability and
production development appear as the critical bottle-
necks for biofuel ramp-up and for achieving emissions
reductions targets.
Both biomass availability and economics provide
evidence of the need for more efficient processing
pathways with higher transformation yields and
reduced costs, and for new sources of feedstocks. in
that field, algae today appear as a promising focus of
research. a higher economic efficiency is also expected
from sugar-derived hydrocarbons pathways.
Biofuels provide a solution for aviation emissions
reductions and also for the diversification of fuel supply,
but achieving significant reduction will need time and
a determined policy, meaning also that aviation will have
to offset part of its emissions beyond 2030. initiatives
have to be decided immediately to kick off the process
and generate the learning and technological progress
which is required for a faster future deployment in
order to achieve emissions reductions targets.
Defining a small minimum goal for biofuel introduc-
tion in aviation by 2020 could be a first step on which
policy measures suitable for triggering a start-up of the
production could be based.
no single measure appears able to simultaneously
achieve this production target, a significant involve-
ment of multiple stakeholders in biofuel production, and
the emergence of diversified technologies. the limited
profitability margin of airlines is also to be kept in mind,
considering their limited capacity and willingness to
pay a premium for biofuel, especially in situation where
policy measures could induce competition distortion.
a combination of measures is probably preferred. in
particular a global plan pushing for the emergence
of a number of end-to-end projects addressing the
complete production chain from feedstock to fuel could
be a way to reach a minimum production target while
favoring technology development and diversity along
with the development of energy biomass production.
such a plan could possibly be funded by the revenue
of ets auctions. to complement it, a quota mandate
policy on fuel production could be investigated, in
a push and pull approach that guaranties that the
deployment occurs and also may offer possibilities to
distribute the funding over a wider range of payers.
in all cases, early deployment should be partnered
with an intensification of the research into innovative
processes and feedstock, and should be considered
in synergy with other sectors and in particular with the
automotive industry.
5.7 caaFi
caaFi evaluates alternative jet fuels in teams focused
in four areas: fuel certification and qualification, envi-
ronment, business and economics and research
and development. Key accomplishments include the
following:
approval by astM international of synthesized
hydrocarbon jet fuels (D7566 specification HeFa
annex);
initial pre-purchase agreements announced with
three alternative-fuel suppliers (altair Fuels,
rentech, solena);
strengthening and expanding the strategic alli-
ance between airlines (via ata) and the Defense
logistics agency (Dla), creating a single market
for alternative jet fuel;
over 60 energy suppliers engaged in development
and deployment discussions;
raised the commitment of aviation as a priority with
respect to biofuel deployment by u.s. government;
Farm to Fly resolution between ata, Boeing and
usDa to accelerate commercial availability of
sustainable aviation biofuels in the united states.
5.7.1 caaFi Goals
caaFis main goal is to promote the development of
alternative jet fuel options that offer equivalent levels
of safety and compare favorably on cost with petro-
leum-based jet fuel while also offering environmental
improvement and enhanced security of energy supply
for aviation. since its inception, caaFi has sought to
improve energy security and environmental sustain-
ability for aviation by exploring the use of alternative
jet fuels. together, these stakeholders are leading the
development and deployment of alternative jet fuels for
commercial aviation.
5
in 2006 fuel became the single largest component of
u.s. passenger airline operating costs for the first time
in history. concern about the environment impacts,
particularly greenhouse gases emissions, associated
with all sectors of the economy is rising and avia-
tion is no exception. While u.s. commercial aviation
accounts for less than 2 percent of u.s. greenhouse
gas emissions, it drives more than 5 percent of u.s.
gross domestic product and more than 10 million
u.s. jobs. secure and sustainable fuel sources are
essential for its continued prosperity.
aviations scope is international and it is highly
integrated in its fuel supply chain. also, because
commercial aviation is particularly adept at aligning
and coordinating its stakeholders, the industry is
particularly well positioned to pursue alternative fuels.
5.7.2 Function and Focus
caaFi primarily serves as a forum for exchanging
information among stakeholders and coordinating the
variety of efforts necessary to support development of
alternative aviation fuels. an important goal and result
of its activities is educating stakeholders like govern-
mental agencies, fuel producers and others outside
the industry about commercial aviation and its unique
needs. caaFi seeks to fulfill its goals in a variety of
ways, including convening technical workshops, partic-
ipating in domestic and international aviation, energy,
and financial industry forums and communicating with
the news media. the four caaFi teams Fuel certi-
fication and Qualification, environment, Business and
economics, and research and Development meet
regularly to share progress, identify gaps and hurdles,
determine next steps for the earliest possible devel-
opment and deployment of jet fuel alternatives, and
expand global engagement. the goals and activities of
caaFis four teams are summarized below:
Fuel certification and qualification to ensure the
safety of any alternative fuels given the demanding
environment posed by aviation operations, partici-
pants are creating a new jet-fuels approval process
via the astM international standard-setting body.
Fuel approval will enable the safe use of alterna-
tive jet fuels and assure manufacturer, user and
regulatory confidence in them;
research and development to improve under-
standing of the broad range of new fuel-production
technologies and feedstocks that can be applied
to aviation, participants are sharing analyses and
identifying and coordinating research activities;
environment to ensure the environmental
impacts of alternative fuels are evaluated in a
consistent, scientific manner, participants are
working to assess emissions that affect local air
quality and greenhouse gas emissions on a full life
cycle basis, and to identify and develop standards
for assessing sustainability criteria;
Business and economics to facilitate the deploy-
ment of alternative jet fuels in the marketplace,
participants are connecting fuel producers and
consumers, evaluating the business case for use
of alternative jet fuel, and identifying opportunities
for deployment.
caaFi participants (including iata) meet regularly to
update the state of alternative jet-fuel developments in
these areas, identify opportunities, gaps and hurdles
and decide on next steps required in the research,
development and deployment process. caaFi held its
most recent General Meeting on nov. 30-Dec. 1, 2011.
2011 Accomplishments
approval by astM international for synthesized
hydrocarbon jet fuels (D7566 specification HeFa
annex);
initial pre-purchase agreements announced by
several u.s. airlines, plus air canada and united,
with solena Fuels in northern california;
updated Fuel readiness level documentation;
completed aviation fuel-specific greenhouse gas
life cycle analyses (lcas) for multiple fuels;
updated and streamlined unified research and
development road maps to inform investment
decisions by the public and private sectors;
played valuable roles within the crc, iata and
astM international in support of alternative fuels
development;
strengthened the strategic alliance between
airlines (via ata) and the Defense logistics
agency (Dla), creating a single market for alter-
native jet fuel;
over 60 energy suppliers engaged in develop-
ment and deployment discussions;
Facilitated alternative-fuel development projects
in more than 20 states;
Vastly expanded an ongoing joint outreach
program, to the aviation community, with u.s.
cabinet-level participation at the paris interna-
tional air show;
supported outreach to airports and a variety of
airport related projects through the involvement
of airports council international-north america
(aci-na);
5
expanded the concept of aviation as a priority
with respect to biofuel deployment by u.s.
government;
continued to support the Farm to Fly initiative
between ata, Boeing and usDa aimed at accel-
erating commercial availability of sustainable
aviation biofuels in the us and helped facilitate
the announcement of Federal matching funds
from usDa, Department of energy and u.s. navy
supporting Farm to Fly;
Won the prestigious 2011 Washington airports
task Force Williams trophy award.
5.7.3 Flying into the Future
the Flight continues
caaFi continues to build upon on the foundation of
the past five years by accelerating the development of
viable alternative aviation fuels. caaFi is supporting
the progression of parallel alternative aviation fuel
pathways through the astM international approval
process. in 2011 and 2012 caaFi and astM continue
to be presented with a growing number of focused fuel
producers employing a number of new technologies.
in previous years, the astM addressed a single tech-
nology at a time; first was Fischer-tropsch and second
was HeFa (HrJ). By engaging astM in a parallel
process approval strategy, caaFi and astM provide
a means of working toward simultaneous approvals of
emerging fuel technologies. the end result will be a
wider array of alternative fuels which will be brought to
the market place sooner while maintaining the integ-
rity of the astM process. caaFi remains committed
to working with public and private-sector participants,
caaFi will continue to facilitate the sharing of informa-
tion and coordination of stakeholder efforts, including
identification of funding and support for research
and development, loan guarantees, tax incentives
and broader crop-insurance programs. in addition,
caaFi will continue its outreach initiatives and tech-
nical support to regional alternative-fuels initiatives
throughout the united states.
6
6.1 chapter summary
as described in chapter 1, there were over three
hundred announced projects in alternative aviation
fuels in 2011, making it impractical to report them all.
instead, this chapter contains several notable develop-
ments that have been reported in the news this year.
these developments are as follows:
in Mexico, a project named Flight plan has been
launched by the national airport services provider,
asa, in which locally grown feedstock was
converted to biojet and consumed by interJet
and aero Mexico on the first commercial transat-
lantic flight;
the lufthansa group of airlines has begun oper-
ating eight daily biojet flights between Hamburg
and Frankfurt on a dedicated a321, under the
project name puresky;
the Qantas group has entered into agreements
with solena and sapphire energy to develop their
technology for the australian biojet market;
air France flew what it believes is the greenest
flight ever by utilizing a combination of biojet fuel,
and technological and operational optimization;
taroM, the romanian airline, has embarked on
an ambitious biojet fuel project that includes anal-
yses of camelina as the primary feedstock and the
effects on the entire supply chain from the crop to
finished fuel;
skynrG, a provider of biojet fuel, has expanded its
logistics and distribution operations, and provided
the biofuel to multiple green flights in 2011;
BioJet corporation has received us1.2 Billion in
financing equity that have allowed it to become
what it believes is the largest producer of Jatropha
in the world.
6.2 recent activities on
sustainable aviation
Biofuels in Mexico
Following the objectives that the aviation industry has
set for itself, the Mexican Federal Government, has
implemented an ambitious strategy for the promo-
tion and development of sustainable aviation biofuels.
aeropuertos y servicios auxiliares (asa, airports
and auxiliary services), the agency in charge of this
endeavor, designed a comprehensive far-reaching
road-mapping exercise called the Flight plan towards
sustainable aviation Biofuels in Mexico.
the idea behind the Flight plan was to actively
work to understand the supply chain through which
commercially viable and sustainable aviation fuels can
be obtained. asa is the sole supplier of jet fuel in
Mexico, responsible for all into-plane operations and
the management of over 60 fuel farms in the Mexican
airport network (Figure 9). Being the last link in the
supply chain gives it a holistic view that enables the
organization to act as a catalyst in this process.
the Flight plan exercise was able to pull all interested
stakeholders along the aviation biofuel value chain.
all levels of government (federal, state, and local),
academic and research institutions, together with the
private sector, from small producers in the agriculture
industry to big financial institutions, participated in
the process. the main objective was to analyze the
existing and missing links in this chain, being similar to
a road-mapping exercise in that it looks into the market
drivers, the associated products and services, and
the technologies that could help an aviation biofuel
industry get off its feet. the main goals of the Flight
plan were to diagnose the state in which the different
parts of the supply chain were, get all the interested
stakeholders involved, and communicate to society
at large the benefits that aviation biofuels can bring.
6. notable Developments
notice: the presentation of specific companies, products or services in the report does not imply that these specific companies,
products or services are endorsed or recommended by iata as such or in preference to others of a similar nature which are not
mentioned or represented herein. opinions expressed by any company in the presentations appearing in the report are that companys
sole opinions and do not necessarily reflect those of iata.
6
support from many organizations was critical to the
success of the Flight plan, including international
companies such as Boeing and uop-Honeywell, but
others such as the roundtable for sustainable Biofuels
(rsB) were also heavily involved.
as part of the process, a proof of concept exercise
was also carried out. Jatropha seeds were collected
throughout Mexico to serve as a source of feedstock
for the production of a first batch of a HeFa (Hydro-
processed esters and Fatty acids) type fuel. close to
35 tons of seed were sent to an oil production facility
in the city of Guadalajara, in central-western Mexico,
where the oil was extracted to produce approximately
10,000 liters. the crude jatropha oil was subjected to
a cleaning process to remove impurities, and it was
subsequently sent to a uop-Honeywell refining facility
near the city of Houston, texas. after the refining
process was completed, the resulting synthesized
paraffinic kerosene or BiospK, was imported back to
Mexico, where it was blended with fossil-based Jet
a-1 fuel in a 27%-73% ratio.
in parallel, the fuel farm located at the Mexico city
international airport (Mcia) received several upgrades
in its infrastructure. a small, unused tank, together with
the filtering and reception areas were revamped to
receive the BiospK/Jet a-1 blend (Figure 10), and
some of the refueling equipment was also updated to
reflect the use of biofuel (Figure 11).
Figure 10 storage tank for the BiospK/Jet a-1 blend.
Figure 9 network of fuel farms managed by asa.
6
on april 1st, 2011, as the closing event for the Flight
plan exercise, the first demonstration flight in Mexico
was carried out, using an airbus a-320 aircraft from
interjet. the route was Mexico city tuxtla Gutierrez,
the capital city of the southern state of chiapas, as it
was this state where most of the jatropha seed was
collected. close to 120 observers were on board,
as this historic flight took off from the Mcia, mostly
members of the press, but also with several important
members of the Mexican political landscape, including
the Governor of chiapas.
Figure 12 take-off of the first demonstration flight in Mexico.
once the astM approved the standard specifica-
tion for aviation turbine Fuels containing synthesized
Hydrocarbons on July 1st of 2011, the first two
commercial flights in the american continent were
done, also by interjet, and also between the cities of
Mexico and tuxtla Gutierrez. almost 300 passengers
flew on these flights, marking the dawn of a new era in
Mexican aviation history.
Figure 13 aeromexicos Boeing 777 parked at the Madrid-Barajas
tarmac after the first transoceanic flight.
on august 1st of this year, the first commercial trans-
oceanic flight on a wide-body jet using biojet fuel in
the world was executed by aeromexico, carrying more
than 250 passengers between Mexico city and Madrid
(Figure 13). the flight used over 26,000 liters of a 25%
BiospK 75% Jet a-1 blend derived from camelina
oil. the route was chosen in part as a bolstering
mechanism for the treaty that was signed between
the governments of Mexico and spain to promote the
development of sustainable aviation biofuels.
Figure 11 refueler updated with biofuel imagery.
6
6.2.1 next steps at asa
the Flight plan towards sustainable aviation Biofuels
in Mexico has proved to be an invaluable exercise to
identify the existing and missing links along the value
chain of this new type of energy.
new lines of research have emerged and the chal-
lenge is to find the necessary funding to pursue them.
this, together with the implementation of the defined
action items are the necessary next steps to follow so
that a necessary aviation biofuel industry is established
in Mexico.
as asa works on putting together the pieces of the
puzzle to define the successful path Mexico will be
following in the next few years, the results that will
benefit Mexican society, such as the reduction in
greenhouse emissions, the promotion of agriculture in
marginal land, new jobs, and a major boost for a new
industry, are well under way.
6.3 lufthansas new Brand
puresky
sky Friendly energy
lufthansa has created its own brand in order to

focus all alternative fuels activities towards its aim:
a contribution to mitigate climate change by reducing
greenhouse gases.
6.3.1 puresky Working Group
the lufthansa Group of airlines (austrian airlines,
British Midland, Brussels airlines, Germanwings,
lufthansa passenger airline, lufthansa cargo, swiss
international air lines) has formed the puresky
working group with representatives from all member
airlines to coordinate group activities with regards
to biofuels.
6.3.2 Burn Fair inflight
evaluation of engine
Behavior and corresponding
research Work
since July 15th, 2011, a dedicated a321 with the
tailsign D-aiDG operates on a closed loop between
Hamburg and Frankfurt with 8 flights per day burning
a 50/50 biofuel blend in the starboard engine. the
engine footprints of the brand new aircraft have been
taken by lufthansa technik prior to commencement of
evaluation flights and the engine behavior is frequently
monitored as well as a comparison of both engines
with regards to systems, burning chamber and overall
performance. the aircraft is fueled only in Hamburg
with the block-fuel for the entire roundtrip: after three
months of operation observers can already monitor
a 1 per cent lower fuel burn in the bioblend-engine
(a figure expected due to the higher energy content).
6
leading German research institutes such as Bauhaus
luftfahrt, DBFZ-German Biomass research center,
technical university Hamburg-Harburg and Dlr
stuttgart and Dlr Hamburg are calculating effective
co
2
reductions as well as how well the sustainability
criteria have been met. this project is funded by the
German government.
6.3.3 QuanaBiol Quality and
sustainability requirements
for Biofuels
Fraunhofer institute uMsicHt, technical university of
Berlin, Bauhaus luftfahrt and lufthansa jointly share
a two-year research project on quality requirements
for production, handling and storage of biofuels as
new market participants suffer from lack of knowledge
and practice how to meet the iata fuel standards and
the Joint Guidelines-standard of the international oil
companies. the project aims to create the foundation
for an iso-standard for fuel handling and storage.
this project will be funded by the German government.
6.3.4 sustainable Biokerosene
Feedstock supply for
aviation leuphana
university
lufthansa cooperates with the center for sustain-
ability Management of the leuphana university
lneburg (40 miles southeast of Hamburg). the coop-
eration has already started with camelina test fields
in romania and ukraine and covers single camelina
plants on dedicated fields as well as a intercropping
of camelina and peas (Food and Fuel in a joint
farming approach).
6.3.5 aireg e.V. aviation initiative
for renewable energy
in Germany
lufthansa is one of the founding members of this initia-
tive, which is described in chapter 5. the initiative
counts for 24 members along the supply chain from
farming to the aircraft wing.
6
6.4 platform for sustainable
aviation Fuels university
of lneburg/Germany
the key challenge for alternative jet fuel is: how,
when and where can large volumes of feedstock
be produced, and how can their sustainability be
ensured? the platform for sustainable aviation Fuels
is a three year r&D project dedicated to these ques-
tions. the platform builds on two thematic pillars: one
is feedstock production in temperate climates with
annual crops, the other plant oil production in (sub-)
tropical climates.
in the tropics, integrated afforestation programs with
oil-bearing plants such as Moringa, pongamia, Jatropha
or acrocomia are developed. pilot projects will be
implemented in cooperation with industry partners.
in such projects, the ecological, economic and social
sustainability of plantation concepts will be continu-
ously improved focusing on carbon sequestration,
biodiversity conservation, positive social impacts and
profitability. as a starting point for this research pillar,
a global market study has been conducted, compiling
key data of existing projects with oil-bearing trees such
as Jatropha, Moringa and pongamia. the study gives
an overview about the status quo and sustainability
of the industry. in addition, it can serve as a starting
point for the future expansion of plant oil production in
cooperation with existing and new projects. the study
will be published by the end of 2011.
in regions with temperate climate, new agronomic
concepts for annual oil crops such as camelina
are tested for production. such concepts include
different types of intercropping as well as catch crop-
ping. likewise, the concepts are designed to meet
existing sustainability standards, and pilots are being
conducted together with industry partners.
the interdisciplinary team of currently 12 researchers
is based at the leuphana university in lneburg
(Germany) where it cooperates with the centre
for sustainability Management and the institute for
ecology. partners in academia include university of
south australia as well as the Yale school of Forestry
(usa). in collaboration with partners from academia
and business, the project on the one hand aims at
developing concepts of sustainable production and
value chain design for bio jet fuel. on the other hand,
the project is explicitly focused on commercially
realizing such concepts in practice. in this context,
inocas GmbH (innovative oil and carbon solutions)
has been founded as a spin-off company. lufthansa
aG is among the platforms first cooperation partners
from the industry; further collaborations and support
of industry partners will be developed in the future.
the project is funded by the eu with euro 2.7 million.
6.5 Qantas sustainable
aviation Fuels
the aviation industry is committed to reducing its
greenhouse gas emissions and the Qantas Group is
at the forefront of efforts to do so in the asia-pacific
region. escalating fuel costs and the patchwork
introduction of new regulatory schemes for carbon
emissions have only underlined the imperative for the
industry to develop new technologies. the Qantas
Group is preparing for compliance across three juris-
dictions and bringing forward the technology required
to minimise its environmental footprint.
During 2010/11, with the european union and austra-
lian emissions trading schemes moving closer, the
Qantas Group launched collaborations with two
leading u.s. companies involved in developing
sustainable aviation fuel technology while continuing
our work in fuel optimisation and technology develop-
ment, reducing resource consumption and engaging
with employees and community groups on environ-
mental goals.
though technology development and more efficient
flight operations and aircraft can deliver substantial
short-to-medium term gains, only the development
of low-carbon alternatives to traditional jet fuel at
commercial scale will truly produce a step-change in
aviations emissions profile.
Qantas has been closely involved in the development
of the sustainable aviation fuels industry for a number
of years, and with growing global consensus for action
on climate change and emergence of carbon pricing
policies, the case for low carbon fuels has never been
so clear.
a wide range of promising technologies available; the
challenge for Qantas is to determine the most viable in
terms of economics and sustainability.
as a signatory of the saFuG (sustainable aviation
Fuel users Group) pledge, Qantas actively reviews
suppliers and potential pathways against strict
sustainability criteria. potential biomass feedstocks
are assessed to ensure they do not displace food
sources, minimise biodiversity impacts, require minimal
land and energy to produce, and do not compromise
fresh water resources. in addition, the refined biomass
must be capable of being dropped in to the aviation
fuel supply chain and must be price-competitive with
current jet kerosene.
6
6.5.1 Qantas Biojet projects
in early 2011, the Qantas Group entered into collabora-
tions with two leading u.s. companies, solazyme and
solena, to investigate the potential for their signature
technologies in the australian market. these collabo-
rations are focused on developing feasibility studies
and business cases for each technology.
san Francisco-based solazyme has developed
a process based on the fermentation of algae in
combination with certain sustainable feedstocks
such as sugar cane to produce algal oils, which
can then be refined into jet fuel. it has entered trial
agreements with the u.s. navy and also works with
major global corporations such as unilever. Given
Queenslands abundant sugar cane supplies, there
is considerable potential for, an interest in, the tech-
nology in australia.
solena Fuels, which is already working with British
airways on the development of a fuel plant in london,
specialises in the gasification of waste to produce
fuel. its business model draws on the ample produc-
tion of various types of waste in major cities such as
london or sydney and has clear benefits in terms of
scale, proximity to supply infrastructure and avoidance
of landfill.
6.5.2 australian Biojet initiatives
in May 2011, the australian sustainable aviation Fuel
users Group (asaFuG), of which Qantas is a founding
member, launched the sustainable aviation Fuel road
Map (saFrM).
the report highlighted australias advantages as
a potential saF producer: a temperate climate, large
land base, geopolitical stability, strengths in agricul-
tural production and a commitment to sustainability.
the study also identified the current infrastructure
constraints and how a new saF industry might address
those issues.
to assist in the development of the industry, the report
set out a list of key recommendations and conditions
for industry, the private sector and government with
a focus on market structure, biomass supply, refining
and certification.
the saFrM report made clear that the commercially-
viable production of such fuels in australia will depend
on these conditions being met in particular the
adequate availability of government funding support
and private capital.
However, with australias growing economy, natural
resources and human capital, the possibilities are
exciting, and the Qantas Group is well-positioned to
lead the industry in the asia-pacific region.
6
6.6 air Frances Green Flight
on the 13th of october 2011, air France performed
what it considers the greenest ever commercial biofuel
passenger flight. this flight from toulouse-Blagnac to
paris-orly using an airbus a321 demonstrated the
halving of co
2
emitted compared to a regular flight.
the biofuel used, provided by skynrG, constitutes
a renewable, sustainable energy source which has
none of the environmental or social impacts linked to
the use of agricultural biomass. it was made from used
cooking oil; this type of biofuel does not compete with
the food chain nor does it deplete water resources.
the biofuel was one aspect of this flight, but to
reduce fuel consumption and cut co
2
emissions at
the same time air Frances pilots, in conjunction with
air traffic control (DGac-Dsna), applied the most
fuel-efficient procedures in each phase: the use of
electrically-powered generators on the ground, taxiing
on the power of a single engine, a steady climb out of
toulouse, a higher cruising altitude and a continuous
descent approach into paris-orly airport. light mate-
rials were used on the aircraft to reduce total weight
and reduce fuel consumption.
this fully-optimized flight is an illustration of the 4 pillars
strategy of iata and shows how air France intends to
reconcile the development of air transport with control
over its co
2
emissions. Biofuel development is one of
the priorities of air-France KlM group, whose strategy
is to explore all parts of the supply chain from produc-
tion to commercialization: air France is involved in a Btl
from forestry waste production plant project and is set
to receive 2000 tons of Btl per year from 2014, while
KlM operates regular biofuel flights from amsterdam
to paris and skynrG, a joint venture between KlM,
north sea Group and spring associates stimulates
the technical and economical development of sustain-
able biofuels.
6
6.7 taroM and the First
european camelina
Value chain
taroM, the romanian national airline is investigating
the development of a program related to emissions
cuts, preparing for the eu-ets challenges. apart from
managing fuel burn in a responsible manner, taroMs
management is actively involved in a demanding
biofuel project.
6.7.1 the romanian camelina
Value chain
airbus and taroM romanian air transport together
with a consortium of key stakeholders have estab-
lished one of europes first projects aiming to establish
a sustainable biojet fuel processing and production
capability. the aim of the project is to provide a biofuel
made from the camelina plant, as a sustainable substi-
tute to fossil based jet fuel.
this project is part of an ambitious airbus global
program connecting farmers, refiners and the end user
(i.e. taroM) to form regional and sustainable biofuel
value chains. in order to be sustainable, these value
chains must not compete with land, water or food. the
partnership works by encouraging local farmers to
farm non-arable land in the confidence that their crops
will be bought by refiners which will have, in return,
customers in the airlines.
unlike other biofuel value chains projects, taroMs
project has its particularities. thus, there is an oppor-
tunity to extend the project in the c-e european region
and the sustainability aspects are very much focusing
on land use change.
the main partners involved in this consortium are:
taroM, airBus, camelina company espaa and
uop, a Honeywell company. each company has its
own role in this project: airbus is providing technical
and project management expertise and is sponsoring
the sustainability assessment and lca studies; cce
is contributing its knowledge on camelina agronomy,
including technologies on camelina growth, agricultural
monitoring networks and plant science; Honeywells
uop is applying its aviation biofuel refining technology
and taroM, as the user, will execute commercial
flights with the biofuel resulting from the 2010-2011
research and demo-trials.
the consortium is working together with the Bucha-
rest university of agronomical sciences and Veterinary
Medicines centre of Biotechnology (BioteHGen)
on the sustainable agricultural phase of the project
regarding the camelina plantations, harvesting and
oil production.
the sustainability studies and the lca are conducted
by the Manchester Metropolitan university, assisted by
coMoti, a romanian aircraft engine research estab-
lishment. the atmospheric impact assessment will
also be conducted, with focus on the airports local air
quality, not only on co
2
.
However, the main aim of this project is to go from
research to development and deployment. thus,
the consortium is expecting that in 2013-2014, the
camelina biofuel to be produced in romania and avail-
able for taroM and sky team partners on a daily
operation, as a drop in solution.
6.7.2 camelina Feedstock
taroM and its consortium partners are working
with local solutions for local community/geography
and camelina is indigenous to romania. camelina
has been chosen because of its good energy poten-
tial, considering the fact that one hectare of camelina
produces 0.5-1 tonnes of oil, it has great rotation prop-
erties and can also grow on marginal land, so it does
not compete for agricultural land. camelinas co
2
life
cycle suggests 50%-80% lower emissions compared
to jet fuel.
6.7.3 project structure
in 2011 the projects aim is to further verify the
sustainability and economic viability of producing
bio-kerosene. cce and BioteHGen have imple-
mented various camelina placement trials in different
locations in romania, with the purpose of assessing
sustainability of different production models and soil
types, including contaminated soil and uncultivated
land, in order to identify the best techniques and
genetic material.
the studies will provide the consortium with sufficient
information to choose the best solution in terms of
sustainability and economic viability in order to move
forward to the implementation phase. a Biofuel refinery
development is in progress, in partnership with uop
and a romanian local refinery.
6
taroMs first Biofuel Flight is planned to take place
in the first half of 2012. the project will be linked with
the european advanced Biofuels Flightpath (2M tons
of biofuels to be produced in europe by 2020).
some examples of the research aspects of value chain
are illustrated in Figure 14 and Figure 15.
12 demo-trials were selected across romania,
including 3 varieties of camelina sativa in two
periods of sowing (autumn and spring): austrian
camelina -calena; Germania- Gp 202 and romanian
-camelina.
6.7.4 next steps: Development
and Deployment
the next step after research will involve a joint effort
with a romanian Government working group, initiated
to speed up the process of production and commer-
cialization, so taroM and its sky team partners can
benefit from camelina biofuel according to their needs.
the members of this working group are from different
ministries representing several parts of the value chain:
agriculture, economy, environment and finance. the
chair is represented by the Ministry of transport and
infrastructure, which is taroMs owner.
6.7.5 What Makes this
project special?
one important objective is to verify the opportunity
to use contaminated land as part of available land for
camelina value chain. romania has 800,000 Ha of
contaminated land which need to be further researched
and checked of heavy metals traceability. Manchester
Metropolitan university is tasked with this challenging
research, but if the results are positive, the debate fuel
vs. food will have a different meaning and the results
can be extended to other projects using feedstocks
for biofuels.
Figure 14 camelina from sowing to harvesting: Mihailesti demo trial: March-July 2011
Figure 15 camelina seeds, cake and oil.
6
another special aspect of this project is its pros-
pect to be extended in the c-e europe. this part of
europe has a real opportunity to produce camelina
biofuel, which, as a rotational plant seems to tick all
the required sustainability criteria.
thus, a more practical way, from the airlines industry
perspective, is a regional project which will investigate
the value chain from farmers to the aircraft, to identify
the missing link and assess the sustainability criteria,
with focuses on land versus food. the consortium
has to consider the uncultivated land availability, or
degraded, marginal land which can be enriched in
nutrients by using camelina crops. the entire region
has strong research in agriculture and the fact that
camelina cake is also an animal feed is a plus already
known by some farmers in the region. this project will
generate several jobs across the value chain, as well
as new markets for camelina oil and cake.
6.7.6 the projects Focus
the focus is on development and deployment, based
on local knowledge, farmers willingness to take part
in this kind of project, as well as the availability of
marginal, contaminated and uncultivated land. it has
to be kept in mind that camelina is a rotational plant to
cereals, for instance, so that an intercrops opportunity
can be also considered. However, existing facilities
related to refineries are helping the value chain and
this can also help the present economic climate. the
assessment priorities should be on production and
commercialization. an important factor is also the
willingness to change mentalities for all the involved
sectors: regulators, farmers, refineries, airlines. and of
course, the sustainability criteria have to be followed
closely during the entire value chain.
6.7.7 are there any limits?
Yes, of course. they are mainly cost related, as the
interest in a big refinery will generate a large invest-
ment. the business case needs to be well defined,
a financial system in place indentified and also, there
is a need for a strong lobby locally, backed up by the
aviation sector. the european industrial Bioenergy
initiative (eiBi) can be an answer. an important factor in
this equation is that the owner of the technology turns
the oil into biofuel and uop, a Honeywell company,
is such an example. the company is also well known
in the c-e european region.
However, airbus & taroM partnership has estab-
lished the first european biofuel value chain project
which will answer to several unknowns.
6.8 skynrG
the Fuel Future
6.8.1 skynrGs Mission
Mission: to help make the market for truly sustainable
jet fuel that is affordable.
skynrG develops and sells sustainable jet fuel for the
global aviation market based on a one-stop-shop prin-
ciple that takes care of the entire chain and guarantees
6
delivery of truly sustainable jet fuel, at the lowest price
in the market. skynrG is a supply chain director, with
excellent relationships and strong partners in all parts of
the supply chain (feedstock, logistical, refining, quality
control, sustainability). it has access to all production
locations in the world. the current short term focus
is on demand aggregation to enable production runs
(which requires a minimum volume that often cannot
be met by a single airline).
in addition to selling and promoting sustainable avia-
tion fuel, skynrG puts a lot of effort into guaranteeing
sustainability, which it believes is the crucial factor
in ensuring this emerging market is a success. the
sustainability of alternative aviation fuels depends on
many factors and has to be assessed on a case-by-
case basis. to make the right decisions now and in
the future, skynrG is advised by an independent
sustainability Board consisting of the Dutch branch of
the World Wildlife Fund for nature (WWF-nl), soli-
daridad, and the copernicus institute of the university
of utrecht. in addition, skynrG supports the round-
table on sustainable Biofuels, and have been elected
co-chair of chamber 3 for 2012.
6.8.2 skynrG accomplishments
over the last 18 months skynrG has developed the
technical, sustainability, supply chain logistics and
marketing capabilities to deliver sustainable jet fuel to
any commercial airline globally. skynrG has a proven
track record, which includes:
supporting KlM to achieve the first commer-
cial flight ever (and its subsequent green route
aMs-cDG);
Delivery to three other leading airlines (Finnair,
thomson, airFrance);
Delivery to five other commercial airlines in Q4
2011, with at least one on every continent of
the world.
although these first commercial flights and green
routes represent a small overall contribution to global
jet fuel supplies, they are an essential catalyst for the
creation of this new market. some benefits of these
flights include the following:
Demonstrate to the world that the aviation industry
is serious about sustainable jet fuel;
engage key stakeholders (e.g. airlines, airports,
airline customers, governments, suppliers, inves-
tors, technology developers and nGos) to join
the race;
top left to bottom right: KlM, thomson airways, Finnair, airFrance.
6
provide great learning and insights in devel-
oping the downstream part of the supply chain
by going from theory to practice (e.g. astM
certification, traceability, sustainability, chain effi-
ciencies, ets);
Help in pushing down the price curve down
through initial scale.
6.8.3 skynrG Bioports
skynrG has been building a strong set of business
development tools based on the experience, volume
and solid relationship with KlM at schiphol airport.
How does this work? KlM has set (ambitious) bio
jet fuel targets and wants to play an active role in
the development of bio jet fuel. schiphol airport has
recognized its role in the bio jet fuel supply chain
and wants to contribute to the development. involve-
ment of the airport and access to the fuel systems
turns out to be a crucial part in developing the biofuel
supply chain. in this relationship, skynrG is not just
the supplier of the sustainable jet fuel, but also the
principal driver in making it structurally affordable
(feedstock control, technology, investments, legisla-
tion/lobby, co-funding options). the knowledge and
experience has given skynrG a blue-print which it
aims to replicate at three to five other strategic airport
bio-hub locations worldwide in partnership with the
selected carrier and airport. this will fortify skynrGs
global leadership position through demand aggrega-
tion and price leadership.
6.9 BioJet corporation
1
the past year has been a banner one for BioJet.
the company is a leading international supply chain
integrator for renewable (bio) jet fuel and related
co-products which include green diesel, etc. Formed
in late 2008, BioJet was the first company to operate
across the entire supply chain by owning and controlling
large quantities of bio-feedstock, developing refining/
conversion capacity, solving aviation fuel supply logis-
tics, and handling sales to end users. BioJet was the
first to employ the model within aviation biofuels and
remains first mover.
6.9.1 2011 Highlights
February BioJet receives us$1.2 Billion financing
facility from equity partners Fund.
april BioJet acquires abundant Biofuels corp.
making BioJet worlds largest Jatropha feedstock
developer.
april BioJet and council of energy resource tribes
(cert) form exclusive relationship to develop multi-
billion dollar renewable jet and diesel feedstock and
refining facilities on native american lands.
June BioJet gains worldwide exclusive rights to
disruptive camelina crop yield technology, expects to
double camelina crop yields. arpa-e funds project.
July BioJet offers 1 Billion gallons of renewable jet
fuel to the industry at $3 price cap on future deliv-
eries. no other competitor matches pricing.
July university of West indies and BioJet announce
uWi/BioJet Biofuels research center.
august BioJet gains worldwide exclusive to disrup-
tive hybrid Gtl/Bio refinery process. cheaper and
more flexible than any straight hydroprocessing
process.
october BioJet forms BioJet asia pac subsid-
iary to develop aviation biofuels in china and asia
pac domain
6.9.2 capital & Finance
the primary and dominant underlying issue in the
biofuel supply chain is capital. to date, the single
greatest barrier to achieving targets in the world
biofuel industry remains inadequate capital.
1. since March 2010, BioJet has been the first alternative Fuels strategic partner of iata.
6
in February 2011, BioJet closed on a $1.2 Billion
financing facility. this funding represents the corner-
stone of the companys us$6 Billion, 10 year
capital assets development program. We believe
this is the largest funding ever done in the renew-
able jet or diesel fields. currently, BioJet is involved in
discussions on another $300 million, strategic acqui-
sitions of 4 different companies in the feedstock and
refining spaces, and 10 discussions involving project
joint ventures.
6.9.3 Feedstock
the other primary issue in any biofuel is the feedstock
source. the company is fundamentally agnostic with
regard to feedstocks and is committed to utilizing any
and all sustainable and economically viable sources in
the fulfillment of its mission, making it unique among
renewable jet and diesel fuel producers. BioJet oper-
ates in multiple feedstocks which include Jatropha,
camelina, algae, Biomass, sugars, and designer
sources, such that it will be diversified across all the
major potential sources of feedstock. the companys
model dictates that it must own all, or a dominant
portion, of feedstock projects. this policy drastically
reduces risk.
Jatropha
With the acquisition of abundant Biofuels corpora-
tion, it is believed that BioJet is now the worlds largest
Jatropha developer with existing and planned projects
running to 4 million hectares in 10 different countries
and another 3 million hectares in negotiation. abun-
dant holds one of the top Jatropha agronomy teams
in the world and is active in crop yield optimization in
concert with several leading seed laboratories.
Camelina
the company believes that by 2013 it will be the
worlds largest camelina producer. it currently has
camelina cultivation/refining under development
in argentina and is in the planning stages for large
camelina projects in the u.s. and eastern europe
including russia, romania, slovenia, etc.
the limiting factor in camelina is availability of seed.
currently, the company holds enough seed to plant
2 million acres of camelina. of major importance,
BioJet holds the worldwide exclusive to disruptive
technology which it believes will double the crop yield
of camelina, thereby halving the cost of production.
Algae
BioJet believes that the viability of algae is still some
years in the future. However, the company has reviewed
over 150 algae projects and has joint venture agree-
ments pending.
Biomass
BioJet has several cutting edge Biomass conversion
technologies in negotiation. the build-out quantity of
biomass exceeds 1 billion gallons equivalent per year.
6.9.4 native american projects
BioJet will develop large camelina and algae proj-
ects as well as refining/conversion capacity on
native american lands in the u.s. through its multi-
billion dollar exclusive joint venture with the council
of energy resource tribes (cert). their 57 sover-
eign tribal members have absolute control over major
natural resources which include oil, gas, coal, uranium,
water and agricultural lands, the latter comprising of
56 million acres. cert has commented We believe
our sovereign members along with BioJet are well
suited to lead one of the largest economic transitions in
history the transition from a fossil based to a biofuel
based transportation sector, and on a larger scale, the
transition to building a foundation for sustainable tribal
communities and an infrastructure for energy indepen-
dence for the united states.
6.9.5 refining/conversion
in previous years, BioJet developed relationships with
uop and ncsu to utilize their refining technologies in
plants in asia, south caribbean, and europe.
recently, BioJet concluded a deal with emerging
Fuels technology which gives the company world-
wide exclusive control of the disruptive natural gas
to synthetic fuel/plant oil to biofuel hybrid plant tech-
nology. emerging Fuels is one of the worlds leaders
in gas to liquid fuel technologies and hydroprocessing
technologies. resultant fuels will be significantly
cheaper than other types of petroleum or biofuels.
6
6.9.6 sales/offtake
BioJet has several major finished fuel contracts
in negotiation and expects to have completed a
us$1.5 Billion supply contract with a highly respected,
major air carrier by the end of 2011. the company
also expects to complete a us$1 Billion feedstock oil
supply contract this year. Deliveries of fuel begin in
2013 and feedstock oil in 2012.
6.9.7 sustainability
BioJet continues to be a world leader in sustain-
ability. BioJet chairman, Mitch Hawkins, was elected
chairman of roundtable on sustainable Biofuels
services and the corporation continues to hold two
Board seats at the prestigious rsB standards.
BioJet is also active in iso and other sustain-
ability programs.
the applied definitions and acronyms in the report are mentioned in this glossary.
Definitions
1
st
generation biofuel = biofuel produced from biomass that may compete with food production,
degrade fresh water supply, cause deforestation and/or reduce biodiversity
2
nd
generation biofuel = biofuel made from sustainable, non-food biomass such as algae, jatropha, etc.
agricultural residues = by-products from agriculture that are not well utilized
alternative fuel = fuel from non-petroleum source
anaerobic digestion = digestion in the absence of oxygen
aromatics = molecule with a carbon ring of unsaturated bonds
astM D1655 = astM standard specification for aviation turbine Fuels
astM D7566 = astM standard specification for aviation turbine Fuels containing
synthesized Hydrocarbons
Barrel = volume measure of 159 liters or 42 us gallons
Biochemical = processing material with organisms or enzymes
Biodiesel = alkyl esters derived from fatty acids of biological origin
Biofuel = fuel produced out of biomass
Biojet fuel = jet fuel produced out of biomass
Biomass = renewable biological raw material such as plants, algae, organic waste etc.
Blend = mixing of different types of fuel
Butanol = alcohol with a 4-carbon atom based carbon chain
carbon footprint = net amount of carbon dioxide emissions attributed to a product or activity
carbon neutral = with zero carbon footprint (co
2
emissions = co
2
absorption)
catalyst = material that facilitates a chemical reaction
cellulose = organic compound consisting of linked D-glucose units
cloud point = temperature at which solids (wax) begin to form and separate from the fuel
co
2
= carbon dioxide
Def stan 91-91 = uK Defense standard for turbine Fuel, aviation Kerosene type
Density = mass per unit volume
Distillation = the separation of liquids by means of difference in boiling points
Drop-in fuel = alternative fuel that is indistinguishable from conventional fuel, with no changes
of aircraft, engine or supply infrastructure required
esterification = process to produce esters from fatty acids and alcohols, e.g. FaMe and Faee
ethanol = drinkable alcohol with 2 carbon atoms
FaMe/Faee = Fatty acid Methyl esters/Fatty acid ethyl esters ester based biodiesels
Feedstock = raw material such as biomass, oils, fats, coal and gas
Forest residues = by-products from forestry industries
Fractionation = physical separation through progressive evaporation of volatile components
Freezing point = temperature at which a solid freezes on cooling
Ft fuel = fuel produced with the Fischer tropsch process
Fuel additive = additive to fuel to improve a certain property
Gasification = process transforming feedstock into co and H
2
under high temperature
Gallon = 3.785 liters
Hydrocarbons = molecules made out of carbon and hydrogen, used as fuels
Hydrocracking = cutting down carbon chains under influence of hydrogen
Hydrogenated = raw material upgraded by hydroprocessing
Hydrotreatment = saturating and removing impurities in hydrocarbons using hydrogen
Glossary
Hydroprocessing = upgrading of oils with hydrogen, current technology in refineries
industry residues = by-products from industries that are not or not well utilized
lignin = complex organic polymer commonly derived from wood and plant material
Marginal lands = lands with poor soils
Methanol = smallest alcohol with only 1 carbon atom and low specific energy
oil crops = plants that produces oil, palm oil, jatropha oil, soybean oil, etc.
paraffin = straight-chain alkane hydrocarbons with general formula c
n
H
2n
+2
polymerization = chemical process bonding together multiple small molecules
pyrolysis = heating in absence of oxygen resulting in thermal decomposition
solid biomass = biomass in solid state, such as wood, switch grass, etc.
specific energy = amount of energy per unit weight or volume
spK = synthetic paraffinic Kerosene, jet fuel substitute lacking aromatic compounds
aeMp = annual emissions Monitoring plan
aer = annual emissions report
aFrl = air Force research laboratory (usa)
astM = american society of testing and Materials (usa)
ata = air transport association (usa)
Btl = Biomass to liquids (Fischer-tropsch process)
Btu = British thermal unit
caa = civil aviation authority
caaFi = commercial alternative aviation Fuels initiative (usa)
ctl = coal to liquids (Fischer-tropsch process)
Dla = Defense logistics agency (usa)
Doe = Department of energy (usa)
ec = european commission
epa = environmental protection agency (usa)
ets = emissions trading scheme
eu = european union
eua = european union emission allowance
euaa = european union aviation emission allowance
Ft = Fischer-tropsch process
Faa = Federal aviation administration (usa)
Fae = Fatty acid ester
Faee = Fatty acid ethyl ester
FaMe = Fatty acid Methyl ester
Ge = Gasoline equivalent
GHG = Greenhouse Gas
Gtl = Gas to liquids (Fischer-tropsch process)
HeFa = Hydroprocessed esters and Fatty acids
HrJ = Hydroprocessed renewable Jet fuel
iea = international energy agency
lca = lifecycle analysis
lGe = liters of Gasoline equivalent
MJ = Megajoule
oeM = original equipment Manufacturer
partner = partnership for air transportation noise & emission reduction
ppp = public private partnership
reD = renewable energy Directive (eu)
rFs = renewable Fuel standard (usa)
rsB = roundtable on sustainable Biofuels
spK = synthetic paraffinic Kerosene
sWaFea = sustainable Way for alternative Fuels and energy in aviation
usaF = united states air Force
acronyms
iata would like to express its appreciation to the following experts for their valuable contributions
to this report:
George anjaparidze iata
Michel Baljet iata
steve Barker ata
sabrina Bringtown air France
Joachim Buse lufthansa
laurel Harmon lanzatech
Mitch Hawkins Biojet corporation
Victoria Junquera roundtable on sustainable Biofuels
Dirk Kronemeijer skynrG
Mike lu aBppM
Jorin Mamen iata
Dragos Munteanu taroM
philippe novelli sWaFea
Brian pearce iata
Virgil regoli air Force petroleum agency
alejandro rios asa
thomas roetger iata
pam serino Defence energy support center
steven shaeffer usaF petroleum agency
Glenn toogood Qantas
carl Viljoen sasol
George Wilson southwest research institute
nancy Young ata
thilo Zelt Jatropha alliance
acknowledgements
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IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels

Effective December 2011

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