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Chapter 12

Greens Functions
12.1 One-dimensional Helmholtz Equation
Suppose we have a string driven by an external force, periodic with frequency
. The dierential equation (here f is some prescribed function)
_

2
x
2

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
U(x, t) = f(x) cos t (12.1)
represents the oscillatory motion of the string, with amplitude U, which is tied
down at both ends (here l is the length of the string):
U(0, t) = U(l, t) = 0. (12.2)
We seek a solution of the form (thus we are ignoring transients)
U(x, t) = u(x) cos t, (12.3)
so u(x) satises
_
d
2
dx
2
+k
2
_
u(x) = f(x), k = /c. (12.4)
The solution to this inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation is expressed in terms of
the Greens function G
k
(x, x

) as
u(x) =
_
l
0
dx

G
k
(x, x

)f(x

), (12.5)
where the Greens function satises the dierential equation
_
d
2
dx
2
+k
2
_
G
k
(x, x

) = (x x

). (12.6)
125 Version of November 23, 2010
126 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
As we saw in the previous chapter, the Greens function can be written down
in terms of the eigenfunctions of d
2
/dx
2
, with the specied boundary conditions,
_
d
2
dx
2

n
_
u
n
(x) = 0, (12.7a)
u
n
(0) = u
n
(l) = 0. (12.7b)
The normalized solutions to these equations are
u
n
(x) =
_
2
l
sin
nx
l
,
n
=
_
n
l
_
2
, n = 1, 2, . . . . (12.8)
The factor
_
2/l is a normalization factor. From the general theorem about
eigenfunctions of a Hermitian operator given in Sec. 11.5, we have
2
l
_
l
0
dxsin
nx
l
sin
mx
l
=
nm
. (12.9)
Thus the Greens function for this problem is given by the eigenfunction expan-
sion
G
k
(x, x

) =

n=1
2
l
sin
nx
l
sin
nx

l
k
2

_
n
l
_
2
. (12.10)
But this form is not usually very convenient for calculation.
Therefore we solve the dierential equation (12.6) directly. When x = x

the
inhomogeneous term is zero. Since
G
k
(0, x

) = G
k
(l, x

) = 0, (12.11)
we must have
x < x

: G
k
(x, x

) = a(x

) sin kx, (12.12a)


x > x

: G
k
(x, x

) = b(x

) sin k(x l). (12.12b)


We determine the unknown functions a and b by noting that the derivative of G
must have a discontinuity at x = x

, which follows from the dierential equation


(12.6). Integrating that equation just over that discontinuity we nd
_
x

+
x

dx
_
d
2
dx
2
+k
2
_
G
k
(x, x

) = 1, (12.13)
or
d
dx
G
k
(x, x

x=x

+
x=x

= 1, (12.14)
because 2G
k
(x

, x

) 0 as 0. Although
d
dx
G
k
(x, x

) is discontinuous at
x = x

, G(x, x

) is continuous there:
G(x

+, x

) G(x

, x

) =
_
x

+
x

dx
d
dx
G(x, x

)
12.1. ONE-DIMENSIONAL HELMHOLTZ EQUATION127 Version of November 23, 2010
=
_
x

dx
d
dx
G(x, x

) +
_
x

+
x

dx
d
dx
G(x, x

)
=
_
d
dx
G(x, x

x=x

+
d
dx
G(x, x

x=x

_
, (12.15)
where by the mean value theorem, 0 < , 0 <

. Therefore
G(x, x

x=x

+
x=x

= O() 0 as 0. (12.16)
Now using the continuity of G and the discontinuity of G

, we nd two
equations for the coecient functions a and b:
a(x

) sinkx

= b(x

) sin k(x

l), (12.17a)
a(x

)k cos kx

+ 1 = b(x

)k cos k(x

l). (12.17b)
It is easy to solve for a and b. The determinant of the coecient matrix is
D =

sinkx

sink(x

l)
k cos kx

k cos k(x

l)

= k sin kl, (12.18)


independent of x

. Then the solutions are


a(x

) =
1
D

0 sink(x

l)
1 k cos k(x

l)

=
sin k(x

l)
k sin kl
, (12.19a)
b(x

) =
1
D

sinkx

0
k cos kx

=
sin kx

k sin kl
. (12.19b)
Thus we nd a closed form for the Greens function in the two regions:
x < x

: G
k
(x, x

) =
sin k(x

l) sinkx
k sinkl
, (12.20a)
x > x

: G
k
(x, x

) =
sin kx

sin k(x l)
k sinkl
, (12.20b)
or compactly,
G
k
(x, x

) =
1
k sin kl
sin kx
<
sin k(x
>
l), (12.21)
where we have introduced the notation
x
<
is the lesser of x, x

,
x
>
is the greater of x, x

. (12.22)
Note that G
k
(x, x

) = G
k
(x

, x) as is demanded on general grounds, as a conse-


quence of the reciprocity relation (11.110).
Let us analyze the analytic structure of G
k
(x, x

) as a function of k. We see
that simple poles occur where
kl = n, n = 1, 2, . . . . (12.23)
128 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
There is no pole at k = 0. For k near n/l, we have
sin kl = sin n + (kl n) cos n +. . . = (kl n)(1)
n
. (12.24)
If we simply sum over all the poles of G
k
, we obtain
G
k
(x, x

) =

n=
n=0
(1)
n
sin
nx<
l
sin
n
l
(x
>
l)
n
l
(kl n)
=

n=
n=0
sin
nx
l
sin
nx

l
n
_
k
n
l
_
=

n=1
sin
nx
l
sin
nx

l
1
n
_
1
k
n
l

1
k +
n
l
_
=

n=1
2
l
sin
nx
l
sin
nx

l
1
k
2

_
n
l
_
2
. (12.25)
This is in fact equal to G
k
, as seen in the eigenfunction expansion (12.10),
because the dierence is an entire function vanishing at innity, which must be
zero by Liouvilles theorem, see Sec. 6.5.
12.2 Types of Boundary Conditions
Three types of second-order, homogeneous dierential equations are commonly
encountered in physics (the dimensionality of space is not important):
Hyperbolic:
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
u(r, t) = 0, (12.26a)
Elliptic:
_

2
+k
2
_
u(r) = 0, (12.26b)
Parabolic:
_

t
_
T(r, t) = 0. (12.26c)
The rst of these equations is the wave equation, the second is the Helmholtz
equation, which includes Laplaces equation as a special case (k = 0), and the
third is the diusion equation. The types of boundary conditions, specied
on which kind of boundaries, necessary to uniquely specify a solution to these
equations are given in Table 12.1. Here by Cauchy boundary conditions we
means that both the function u and its normal derivative u/n is specied on
the boundary. Here
u
n
= n u, (12.27)
where n is a(n outwardly directed) normal vector to the surface. As we have
seen previously, Dirichlet boundary conditions refer to specifying the function
u on the surface, Neumann boundary conditions refer to specifying the nor-
mal derivative u/n on the surface, and mixed boundary conditions refer to
12.3. EXPRESSIONOF FIELDINTERMS OF GREENS FUNCTION129 Version of November 23, 2010
Type of Equation Type of Boundary Condition Type of Boundary
Hyperbolic Cauchy Open
Elliptic Dirichlet, Neumann, or mixed Closed
Parabolic Dirichlet, Neumann, or mixed Open
Table 12.1: Boundary conditions required for the three types of second-order
dierential equations. The boundary conditions referred to in the rst and third
cases are actually initial conditions.
specifying a linear combination, u + u/n, on the surface. If the specied
boundary values are zero, we say that the boundary conditions are homogeneous;
otherwise, they are inhomogeneous.
Example.
To determine the vibrations of a string, described by
_

2
x
2

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
u = 0, (12.28)
we must specify
u(x, 0),
u
t
(x, 0) (12.29)
at some initial time (t = 0). The line t = 0 is an open surface in the (ct, x)
plane.
12.3 Expression of Field in Terms of Greens
Function
Typically, one determines the eigenfunctions of a dierential operator subject
to homogeneous boundary conditions. That means that the Greens functions
obey the same conditions. See Sec. 11.8. But suppose we seek a solution of
(L ) = S (12.30)
subject to inhomogeneous boundary conditions. It cannot then be true that
(r) =
_
V
(dr

) G(r, r

)S(r

). (12.31)
To see how to deal with this situation, let us consider the example of the
three-dimensional Helmholtz equation,
(
2
+k
2
)(r) = S(r). (12.32)
130 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
We seek the solution (r) subject to arbitrary inhomogeneous Dirichlet, Neu-
mann, or mixed boundary conditions on a surface enclosing the volume V of
interest. The Greens function G for this problem satises
(
2
+k
2
)G(r, r

) = (r r

), (12.33)
subject to homogeneous boundary conditions of the same type as satises.
Now multiply Eq. (12.32) by G, Eq. (12.33) by , subtract, and integrate over
the appropriate variables:
_
V
(dr

)
_
G(r, r

)(
2
+k
2
)(r

) (r

)(
2
+k
2
)G(r, r

=
_
V
(dr

) [G(r, r

)S(r

) (r

)(r r

)] . (12.34)
Here we have interchanged r and r

in Eqs. (12.32) and (12.33), and have used


the reciprocity relation,
G(r, r

) = G(r

, r). (12.35)
(We have assumed that the eigenfunctions and hence the Greens function are
real.) Now we use Greens theorem to establish

d
_
G(r, r

(r

) (r

G(r, r

+
_
V
(dr

) G(r, r

)S(r

) =
_
(r), r V,
0, r V,
(12.36)
where in the surface integral d is the outwardly directed surface element, and
r

lies on the surface . This generalizes the simple relation given in Eq. (12.31).
How do we use this result? We always suppose G satises homogeneous
boundary conditions on . If satises the same conditions, then for r V
Eq. (12.31) holds. But suppose satises inhomogeneous Dirichlet boundary
conditions on ,
(r

=
0
(r

), (12.37)
a specied function on the surface. Then we impose homogeneous Dirichlet
conditions on G,
G(r, r

= 0. (12.38)
Then the rst surface term in Eq. (12.36) is zero, but the second contributes.
For example if S(r) = 0 inside V , we have for r V
(r) =
_

d [

G(r, r

)]
0
(r

), (12.39)
which express in terms of its boundary values.
If satises inhomogeneous Neumann conditions on ,

(r

= N(r

), (12.40)
12.4. HELMHOLTZ EQUATIONINSIDE A SPHERE131 Version of November 23, 2010
a specied function, then we use the Greens function which respects homoge-
neous Neumann conditions,

G(r, r

= 0, (12.41)
so again if S = 0 inside V , we have within V
(r) =
_

d G(r, r

)N(r

). (12.42)
Finally, if satises inhomogeneous mixed boundary conditions,
_

n

(r

) +(r

)(r

)
_

= F(r

), (12.43)
then when G satises homogeneous boundary conditions of the same type
_

n

+(r

)
_
G(r, r

= 0, (12.44)
we have for r V
(r) =
_
V
(dr

) G(r, r

)S(r

)
_

d G(r, r

)F(r

). (12.45)
12.4 Helmholtz Equation Inside a Sphere
Here we wish to nd the Greens function for Helmholtzs equation, which sat-
ises
(
2
+k
2
)G
k
(r, r

) = (r r

), (12.46)
in the interior of a spherical region of radius a, with homogeneous Dirichlet
boundary conditions on the surface,
G
k
(r, r

|r|=a
= 0. (12.47)
We will use two methods.
12.4.1 Eigenfunction Method
We know that the eigenfunctions of the Laplacian are
j
l
(kr)Y
m
l
(, ), (12.48)
in spherical polar coordinates, r, , ; that is,
(
2
+k
2
)j
l
(kr)Y
m
l
(, ) = 0. (12.49)
132 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
Here j
l
is the spherical Bessel function,
j
l
(x) =
_

2x
J
l+1/2
(x), (12.50)
and the Y
m
l
are the spherical harmonics,
Y
m
l
(, ) =
_
2l + 1
4
(l m)!
(l +m)!
_
1/2
P
m
l
(cos )e
im
, (12.51)
where P
m
l
is the associated Legrendre function. Here l is a nonnegative integer,
and m is an integer in the range l m l. For example, the rst few
spherical Bessel functions (which are simpler than the cylinder functions, the
Bessel functions of integer order) are
j
0
(x) =
sin x
x
, (12.52a)
j
1
(x) =
sin x
x
2

cos x
x
, (12.52b)
j
2
(x) =
_
3
x
3

1
x
_
sinx
3
x
2
cos x, (12.52c)
and in general
j
l
(x) = x
l
_

1
x
d
dx
_
l
sinx
x
. (12.53)
The associated Legrendre function is given by
P
m
l
(cos ) = (1)
m
sin
m

_
d
d cos
_
l+m
(cos
2
1)
l
2
l
l!
. (12.54)
For example, the rst few spherical harmonics are
Y
0
0
=
1

4
, (12.55a)
Y
1
1
=
_
3
8
sin e
i
, (12.55b)
Y
0
1
=
_
3
4
cos , (12.55c)
Y
1
1
=
_
3
8
sin e
i
, (12.55d)
Y
2
2
=
_
15
32
sin
2
e
2i
, (12.55e)
Y
1
2
=
_
15
8
cos sin e
i
, (12.55f)
Y
0
2
=
_
5
16
(3 cos
2
1), (12.55g)
12.4. HELMHOLTZ EQUATIONINSIDE A SPHERE133 Version of November 23, 2010
Y
1
2
=
_
15
8
cos sin e
i
, (12.55h)
Y
2
2
=
_
15
32
sin
2
e
2i
. (12.55i)
The eigenfunctions must vanish ar r = a, so if
ln
is the nth zero of j
l
,
j
l
(
ln
) = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , (12.56)
the desired eigenfunctions are

nlm
(r, , ) = A
nl
j
l
_

ln
r
a
_
Y
m
l
(, ), (12.57)
and the eigenvalues are

ln
= k
2
ln
=
_

ln
a
_
2
. (12.58)
The normalization constant A
nl
is determined by the requirement that
_
r
2
dr d|
nlm
(r, , )|
2
= 1, (12.59)
where d = sin d d is the element of solid angle. Since the spherical har-
monics are normalized so that [ = (, ) represents a point on the unit sphere]
_
dY
m

l
()Y
m
l
() =
ll

mm
, (12.60)
the normalization constant is determined by the requirement
|A
nl
|
2
_
a
0
r
2
dr
_
j
l
_

ln
r
a
__
2
= 1. (12.61)
Now
_
a
0
r
2
dr j
l
(
ln
r/a)j
l
(
lm
r/a) =
nm
1
2
a
3
j
2
l+1
(
ln
), (12.62)
which for n = m follows from the orthogonality property (11.68). So
|A
nl
| =
_
2
a
3
1
j
l+1
(
ln
)
, (12.63)
and the Greens function has the eigenfunction expansion
G
k
(r, r

) =

nlm
2
a
3
1
j
2
l+1
(
ln
)
Y
m
l
()Y
m
l
(

)j
l
(
ln
r/a)j
l
(
ln
r

/a)
k
2
(
ln
/a)
2
, (12.64)
where = (, ),

= (

).
134 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
This result can be simplied by carrying out the sum on m, using the addition
theorem for spherical harmonics,
4
2l + 1
l

m=l
Y
m
l
(

)Y
m
l
() = P
l
(cos ), (12.65)
where P
l
(cos ) = P
0
l
(cos ) is Legendres polynomial, and is the angle between
the directions represented by and

, or
cos = cos cos

+ sin sin

cos(

). (12.66)
Then we obtain
G
k
(r, r

) =
2
a
3

nl
2l + 1
4
P
l
(cos )
1
j
2
l+1
(
ln
)
j
l
(
ln
r/a)j
l
(
ln
r

/a)
k
2
(
ln
/a)
2
. (12.67)
This leads us to the second method.
12.4.2 Discontinuity (Direct) Method
Let us adopt the angular dependence found above:
G
k
(r, r

) =

l=0
2l + 1
4
P
l
(cos )g
l
(r, r

), (12.68)
where we will call g
l
the reduced Greens function. Because Y
m
l
is an eigenfunc-
tion of the angular part of the Laplacian operator,

2
Y
m
l
() =
l(l + 1)
r
2
Y
m
l
(), (12.69)
and the delta function can be written as
(r r

) =
1
rr

(r r

)(

), (12.70)
we see that, because of the orthonormality of the spherical harmonics, Eq. (12.60),
the Greens function equation (12.46) corresponds to the following equation
satised by the reduced Greens function, the inhomogeneous spherical Bessel
equation,
_
d
2
dr
2
+
2
r
d
dr

l(l + 1)
r
2
+k
2
_
g
l
(r, r

) =
1
rr

(r r

). (12.71)
We solve this equation directly. For (0 < r

< a)
0 r < r

: g
l
(r, r

) = a(r

)j
l
(kr), (12.72a)
r

< r a : g
l
(r, r

) = b(r

)j
l
(kr) +c(r

)n
l
(kr). (12.72b)
12.4. HELMHOLTZ EQUATIONINSIDE A SPHERE135 Version of November 23, 2010
Only j
l
appears in the rst form because the solution must be nite at r = 0,
and the second solution to the spherical Bessel equation,
n
l
(x) =
_

2x
N
l+1/2
(x), (12.73)
where N

is the Neumann function, is singular at x = 0. For example,


n
0
(x) =
cos x
x
, (12.74)
and in general
n
l
(x) = x
l
_

1
x
d
dx
_
l
cos x
x
. (12.75)
To determine the functions a, b, and c, we proceed as follows. The boundary
condition at r = a, g
l
(a, r

) = 0, implies
0 = b(r

)j
l
(ka) +c(r

)n
l
(ka), (12.76)
or
b(r

)
c(r

)
=
n
l
(ka)
j
l
(ka)
. (12.77)
Thus we can write in the outer region,
a r > r

: g
l
(r, r

) = A(r

)[j
l
(kr)n
l
(ka) n
l
(kr)j
l
(ka)]. (12.78)
The next condition we impose is that of the continuity of g
l
at r = r

:
a(r

)j
l
(kr

) = A(r

)[j
l
(kr

)n
l
(ka) n
l
(kr

)j
l
(ka)]. (12.79)
On the other hand, the derivative of g
l
is discontinuous at r = r

, as we may
see by integrating Eq. (12.71) over a tiny interval around r = r

:
d
dr
g
l
(r, r

r=r

+
r=r

=
1
r
2
, (12.80)
which implies
ka(r

)j

l
(kr

) kA(r

)[j

l
(kr

)n
l
(ka) n

l
(kr

)j
l
(ka)] =
1
r
2
. (12.81)
Now multiply Eq. (12.79) by kj

l
(kr

), and Eq. (12.81) by j


l
(kr

), and subtract:
j
l
(kr

)
r
2
= kA(r

)j
l
(ka)[j
l
(kr

)n

l
(kr

) n
l
(kr

)j

l
(kr

)]. (12.82)
Now j
l
, n
l
are the independent solutions of the spherical Bessel equation
_
1
r
2
d
dr
_
r
2
d
dr
_

l(l + 1)
r
2
+k
2
_
u = 0, (12.83)
136 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
the Wronskian of which,
(r) j
l
(kr)n

l
(kr) n
l
(kr)j

l
(kr) (12.84)
has the form
(r) =
const.
r
2
, (12.85)
as we saw in Problem 4 of Assignment 8. We can determine the constant by
considering the asymptotic forms of j
l
, n
l
,
j
l
(kr)
sin(kr l/2)
kr
, kr 1, (12.86a)
n
l
(kr)
cos(kr l/2)
kr
, kr 1, (12.86b)
which imply
(r) =
1
k
2
r
2
[sin
2
(kr l/2) + cos
2
(kr l/2)]
=
1
(kr)
2
. (12.87)
Thus since the right-hand side of Eq. (12.82) is proportional to the Wronskian,
we nd the function A:
A(r

) = k
j
l
(kr

)
j
l
(ka)
, (12.88)
and then from Eq. (12.79) we nd the function a:
a(r

) =
k
j
l
(ka)
[j
l
(kr

)n
l
(ka) n
l
(kr

)j
l
(ka)]. (12.89)
Hence the Greens function is explicitly
r < r

: g
l
(r, r

) = k
j
l
(kr)
j
l
(ka)
[j
l
(kr

)n
l
(ka) n
l
(kr

)j
l
(ka)], (12.90a)
r > r

: g
l
(r, r

) = k
j
l
(kr

)
j
l
(ka)
[j
l
(kr)n
l
(ka) n
l
(kr)j
l
(ka)], (12.90b)
or
g
l
(r, r

) = kj
l
(kr
<
)j
l
(kr
>
)
_
n
l
(ka)
j
l
(ka)

n
l
(kr
>
)
j
l
(kr
>
)
_
, (12.91)
where r
<
is the lesser of r, r

, and r
>
is the greater.
From this closed form we may extract the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of
the spherical Bessel dierential operator appearing in Eq. (12.83). The poles of
g
l
occur where j
l
(ka) has zeroes, all of which are real, at ka =
ln
, the nth zero
of j
l
, or
k
2
=
_

ln
a
_
2
. (12.92)
12.5. HELMHOLTZ EQUATIONIN UNBOUNDEDSPACE137 Version of November 23, 2010
In the neighborhood of this zero,
j
l
(ka) = (ka
ln
)j

l
(
ln
). (12.93)
But at the zero the Wronskian is
1
(
ln
)
2
= n
l
(
ln
)j

l
(
ln
). (12.94)
Now from the recursion relation
J

(z) =

z
J

(z) J
+1
(z), (12.95)
we see that the derivative of the spherical Bessel function (12.50) satises, at
the zero,
j

l
(
ln
) = j
l+1
(
ln
). (12.96)
Thus the residue of the pole of g
l
at k =
ln
/a is
1
a
2

ln
j
l
(
ln
r
<
/a)j
l
(
ln
r
>
/a)
j
2
l+1
(
ln
)
. (12.97)
Now j
l
is an even or odd function of z depending on whether n is even or odd.
So if
ln
is a zero of j
l
, so is
ln
, and hence if we add the contributions of
these two poles, we get the corresponding contribution to g
l
:
g
l
(r, r

)
1
a
2

ln
j
l
(
ln
r/a)j
l
(
ln
r

/a)
[j
l+1
(
ln
)]
2
_
1
k
ln
/a

1
k +
ln
/a
_
. (12.98)
Summing up the contribution of all such pairs of poles, we obtain
g
l
(r, r

) =
2
a
3

n=1
j
l
(
ln
r/a)j
l
(
ln
r

/a)
[j
l+1
(
ln
)]
2
1
k
2
(
ln
/a)
2
, (12.99)
which is the eigenfunction expansion displayed in Eq. (12.67).
12.5 Helmholtz Equation in Unbounded Space
Again we are solving the equation
(
2
+k
2
)G
k
(r, r

) = (r r

), (12.100)
but now in unbounded space. The solution to this equation is an outgoing
spherical wave:
G
k
(r, r

) = G
k
(r r

) =
1
4
e
ik|rr

|
|r r

|
. (12.101)
138 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
This may be directly veried. Consider a small sphere S, of radius , centered
on r

:
_
S
(dr)(
2
+k
2
)G
k
(r r

)
_
S
(d)
2

1
4
e
ik

_
=
_
d
2
d
d
_

1
4
e
ik

=
1, (12.102)
as 0. Evidently, for r = r

, G
k
satises the Helmholtz equation, (
2
+
k
2
)G
k
= 0.
Alternatively, we may construct G
k
from the eigenfunction expansion (11.109),
G
k
(r r

) =

n
(r

)
n
(r)

(12.103)
where = k
2
,
n
= k
2
, where the eigenfunctions are solutions of
(
2
+k
2
)
k
(r) = 0, (12.104)
that is, they are plane waves,

k
(r) =
1
(2)
3/2
e
ik

r
, (12.105)
Here the (2)
3/2
factor is for normalization:
_
(dk

)
k
(r)

k
(r

) = (r r

), (12.106a)
_
(dr)
k
(r)

k
(r) = (k k

), (12.106b)
where we have noted that the spectrum of eigenvalues is continuous,

_
(dk). (12.107)
Thus the eigenfunction expansion for the Greens function has the form
G
k
(r r

) =
_
(dk

)
(2)
3
e
ik

e
ik

r
k
2
k
2
. (12.108)
Let us evaluate this integral in spherical coordinates, where we write
(dk

) = k
2
dk

= cos

, (12.109)
where we have chosen the z axis to lie along the direction of r r

. The
integration over the angles is easy:
G
k
(r r

) =
1
(2)
3
_

0
dk

k
2
_
2
0
d

_
1
1
d

e
ik

|rr

k
2
k
2
=
1
(2)
2
1
2
_

dk

k
2
k
2
k
2
1
ik

_
e
ik

e
ik

_
, (12.110)
12.5. HELMHOLTZ EQUATIONIN UNBOUNDEDSPACE139 Version of November 23, 2010
-

-

k
k

Figure 12.1: Contour in the k

plane used to evaluate the integral (12.110).


The integral is closed in the upper (lower) half-plane if the exponent is positive
(negative). The poles in the integrand are avoided by passing above the one on
the left, and below the one on the right.
dening = |r r

|, where we have replaced


_

0
by
1
2
_

because the inte-


grand is even in k
2
. We evaluate this integral by contour methods. Because
now k can coincide with an eigenvalue k

, we must choose the contour appropri-


ately to dene the Greens function. Suppose we choose the contour as shown
in Fig. 12.1, passing below the pole at k and above the pole at k. We close the
contour in the upper half plane for the e
ik
and in the lower half plane for the
e
ik
term. Then by Jordans lemma, we immediately evaluate the integral:
G
k
(r r

) =
1
(2)
2
1
2
_

2i
2k
k e
ik
i
+
2i
2k
k e
ik
i
_
=
1
4
e
ik

, (12.111)
which coincides with Eq. (12.101). If a dierent contour dening the integral
had been chosen, we would have obtained a dierent Greens function, not
one corresponding to outgoing spherical waves. Boundary conditions uniquely
determine the contour.
Note that
G
k
(r, r

) = G
k
(r

, r), (12.112)
even though G
k
is complex. The self-adjointness property (11.110) implied by
the eigenfunction expansion is only formal, and is spoiled by the contour choice.
140 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
12.6 Greens Function for the Scalar Wave Equa-
tion
The inhomogeneous scalar wave equation,
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
(r, t) = (r, t), (12.113)
requires boundary and initial conditions. The boundary conditions may be
Dirichlet, Neumann, or mixed. The initial conditions are Cauchy (see Sec. 12.2).
Thus, we might specify at an initial time t = t
0
both (r, t
0
) and

t
(r, t
0
) at
every point r in the region being considered.
The corresponding Greens function G(r, t; r

, t

) satises
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
G(r, t; r

, t

) = (r r

)(t t

). (12.114)
It must satisfy the homogeneous form of the boundary conditions satised by
. Thus, if has a specied value everywhere on the bounding surface, the
corresponding Greens function must vanish on the surface. In classical physics
it is customary to adopt as initial conditions
G(r, t; r

, t

)
G
t
(r, t; r

, t

)
_
= 0 if t < t

. (12.115)
These then dene the so-called retarded Greens functions. They ensure that
an eect occurs after its cause. (In fact, however, this time asymmetry of the
Greens function, which is not present in the wave equation, is not necessary;
and in fact it is impossible to maintain in relativistic quantum mechanics.)
With such a Greens function, what takes the place of the self-adjointness
property given in Sec. 11.8? Since the second time derivative is invariant under
t t, we have in addition to the inhomogeneous equation (12.114)
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
G(r, t; r

, t

) = (r r

)(t t

). (12.116)
Multiply Eq. (12.116) by G(r, t; r

, t), Eq. (12.114) by G(r, t; r

, t

), subtract,
and integrate over the volume being considered, and over t fromto T, where
T > t

, t

:
_
T

dt
_
V
(dr)
_
G(r, t; r

, t

)
2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
G(r, t; r

, t

)
2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
G(r, t; r

, t

)
1
c
2

2
t
2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
+G(r, t; r

, t

)
1
c
2

2
t
2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
_
= G(r

, t

; r

, t

) +G(r

, t

; r

, t

). (12.117)
12.6. GREENS FUNCTION FORTHE SCALAR WAVE EQUATION141 Version of November 23, 2010
Now use Greens theorem, together with the corresponding identity,

t
_
A

t
B B

t
A
_
= A

2
t
2
B B

2
t
2
A, (12.118)
to conclude that
G(r

, t

; r

, t

) G(r

, t

; r

, t

)
=
_
T

dt
_

d
_
G(r, t; r

, t

)G(r, t; r

, t

)
G(r, t; r

, t

)G(r, t; r

, t

)
_

_
V
(dr)
1
c
2
_
G(r, t; r

, t

)

t
G(r, t; r

, t

)
G(r, t; r

, t

)

t
G(r, t; r

, t

)
_

t=T
t=
. (12.119)
The surface integral vanishes, since both Greens functions satisfy the same
homogeneous boundary conditions on . (The boundary conditions are time
independent.) The second integral is also zero because from Eq. (12.115)
G(r, ; r

, t

)
G
t
(r, ; r

, t

)
_
= 0, (12.120a)
since < t

, and
G(r, T; r

, t

)
G
t
(r, T; r

, t

)
_
= 0, (12.120b)
since T < t

. Thus the reciprocity relation here is


G(r, t; r

, t

) = G(r

, t

; r, t) (12.121)
How do we express a solution to the wave equation (12.113) in terms of the
Greens function? The procedure is the same as that given earlier. The eld,
and the Greens function, satisfy

2
(r

, t)
1
c
2

2
t
2
(r

, t

) = (r

, t

), (12.122a)

2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
1
c
2

2
t
2
G(r, t; r

, t

) = (r r

)(t t

). (12.122b)
Note that the dierentiations on G are with respect to the second set of argu-
ments (this equation follows from the reciprocity relation). Again multiply the
rst equation by G(r, t; r

, t

), the second by (r

, t

), subtract, integrate over


the volume, and over t

from t
0
< t to t
+
, where t
+
means t +, 0 through
142 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
positive values. Then for r V ,
_
t
+
t0
dt

_
V
(dr

)
_
G(r, t; r

, t

)
2
(r

, t

) (r

, t

)
2
G(r, t; r

, t

1
c
2
_
G(r, t; r

, t

)

2
t
2
(r

, t

) (r

, t

)

2
t
2
G(r, t; r

, t

)
_ _
= (r, t) +
_
t
+
t0
dt

_
V
(dr

) G(r, t; r

, t

)(r

, t

). (12.123)
Now we again use Greens theorem and the identity (12.118) to conclude
(r, t) =
_
t
+
t0
dt

_
V
(dr

) G(r, t; r

, t

)(r

, t

_
t
+
t0
dt

d
_
G(r, t; r

, t

(r

, t

) (r

, t

G(r, t; r

, t

1
c
2
_
V
(dr

)
_
G(r, t; r

, t
0
)

t
0
(r

, t
0
) (r

, t
0
)

t
0
G(r, t; r

, t
0
)
_
.
(12.124)
This is our result. The interpretation is as follows:
1. The rst integral represents the eect of the sources distributed through-
out the volume V .
2. The second integral represents the boundary conditions. If, for example,
satises inhomogeneous Neumann boundary conditions on ,
n

= f(r

) (12.125)
is specied, then we use homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions for
G,
n G(r, t; r

, t

= 0. (12.126)
Then the second integral reads

_
t
+
t0
dt

d G(r, t; r

, t)

(r

, t

). (12.127)
That is, n

(r

, t

) represents a surface source distribution. Other


types of boundary conditions are as discussed earlier.
3. The third integral represents the eect of the initial conditions, where
(r

, t
0
),

t
0
(r

, t
0
) (12.128)
12.7. WAVE EQUATIONINUNBOUNDED SPACE143 Version of November 23, 2010
are specied. They correspond to impulsive sources at t = t
0
:

init
(r

, t

) =
1
c
2
_

t
0
(r

, t
0
)(t

t
0
) +(r

, t
0
)

(t

t
0
)
_
. (12.129)
We verify this statement by integrating by parts, and letting the lower
limit of the t

integration be t
0
.
12.7 Wave Equation in Unbounded Space
We now wish to solve Eq. (12.114)
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_
G(r, t; r

, t

) = (r r

)(t t

), (12.130)
in unbounded space by noting that then G is a function of R = r r

and
T = t t

only,
G(r, t; r

, t

) = G(r r

, t t

) = G(R, T). (12.131)


Then we can introduce a Fourier transform in space and time,
g(k, ) =
_
(dR) dTe
ikR
e
iT
G(R, T). (12.132)
The Fourier transform of the Greens function equation is (we have set c = 1
temporarily for convenience),
(k
2
+
2
)g(k, ) = 1, (12.133)
where we write k
2
= k k, which has the immediate solution
g(k, ) =
1

2
k
2
. (12.134)
Thus the Greens function has the formal representation
G(R, T) =
_
(dk)
(2)
3
d
2
e
ikR
e
iT
1

2
k
2
. (12.135)
The integral here is not well dened until we impose the boundary condition
(12.115)
G(R, T) = 0 if T < 0. (12.136)
This will be true if the poles are located above the real axis, as shown in Fig. 12.2.
Here the contour is closed in the upper half plane if T > 0, and in the lower half
plane if T < 0. In both cases, by Jordans lemma, the innite semicircle gives
no contribution. We have
_

d
2
e
iT
1
( k)( +k)
=
_
i
_
e
ikT
2k

e
ikT
2k
_
, T > 0,
0 T < 0.
(12.137)
144 Version of November 23, 2010 CHAPTER 12. GREENS FUNCTIONS
- -

k +i k +i

Figure 12.2: Contour in the plane used to evaluate the integral (12.135).
Thus, if T > 0,
G(R, T) =
1
(2)
3
_

0
k
2
dk 2
_
1
1
de
ikR
i
2k
_
e
ikT
e
ikT
_
=
i
(2)
2
_

0
k dk
2ikR
_
e
ikR
e
ikR
_ _
e
ikT
e
ikT
_
=
1
(2)
2
1
2R
1
2
_

dk
_
e
ik(R+T)
+e
ik(R+T)
e
ik(RT)
e
ik(TR)
_
=
1
2
1
2R
[(R +T) (R T)] . (12.138)
But R and T are both positive, so R + T can never vanish. Thus we are left
with
G(R, T) =
1
4
1
R
(R T), (12.139)
or restoring c,
G(r r

, t t

) =
1
4
1
|r r

_
|r r

|
c
(t t

)
_
. (12.140)
The eect at the observation point r at time t is due to the action at the source
point r

at time
t

= t
|r r

|
c
. (12.141)
Physically, this means that the signal propagates with speed c.
12.7. WAVE EQUATIONINUNBOUNDED SPACE145 Version of November 23, 2010
Let us make this more concrete by considering a simple example, a point
charge moving with velocity v(t) =
d
dt
r(t),
(r, t) = q(r r(t)). (12.142)
There are no eects from the innite surface, nor from the innite past, so we
have from Eq. (12.124)
(r, t) =
_
t
+

dt

_
V
(dr

) G(r r

, t t

)(r

, t

)
=
q
4
_
t
+

dt

1
|r r(t

)|

_
|r r(t

)|
c
(t t

)
_
. (12.143)
If we let R(t

) = r r(t

), the distance from the source to the observation point


at time t

= t
R(t

)
c
, we write this as
(r, t) =
q
4
_
t
+

dt

1
R(t

_
R(t

)
c
(t t

)
_
. (12.144)
Let = R(t

)/c +t

, where = t determines the retarded time t

so
d = dt

_
1 +
1
c
dR
dt

_
, (12.145)
where
dR
dt

=
1
2R
d
dt

R R =
R v
R
, (12.146)
that is
d = dt

_
1
R v
Rc
_
. (12.147)
Thus the eld is evaluated as
(r, t) =
q
4
_
t+R(t)/c

d
R()
1
_
1
Rv
Rc
_
()
( t)
=
q
4
1
R(t) R(t) v(t)/c
. (12.148)

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