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Wind Load History: ANSI A58.1-1972 to ASCE 7-05 Kishor C. Mehta, ASCE Dist. Member P. W. Horn Professor, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 41023, Lubbock, TX 79409-1023; PH: (806) 742-3470 ext. 323; FAX: (806) 742-3446; email: Kishor.mehta@ttu.edu Abstract The first consensus wind load design criteria were published as ANSI A58.1-1972 by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI) in 1972. This document delineated wind load criteria based on probabilistically determined wind speed and tabulated forms of design load parameters. Since then, the wind load criteria have gone through major changes as revisions of the standard were made in ANSI A58.1-1982, ASCE 7-88, ASCE 7-93, ASCE 7-95, ASCE 7-98, ASCE 7-02 and ASCE 7-05. Major changes occurred in the wind load criteria in ANSI A 58.11982 and in ASCE 7-95. The most significant change is the reference wind speed, which changed from fastest-mile to a 3-second gust. Each revision made changes and adjustments in several different factors including the importance factor, terrain factor, directionality factor, gust effect factor and the pressure/force coefficients. This paper outlines only the significant changes in the wind load criteria as they have evolved over the last three decades. Introduction Over the past three decades, the minimum requirements of wind loads on buildings and structures have evolved with the advancement of knowledge of probability of wind speed occurrence and wind-structure interaction. The minimum requirements were specified in the load standards published by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in the early years, and now by American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) since 1988. Beginning with the mid-1990s, the wind load criteria have been adopted by model building codes for use by practicing professionals. Publication of the national standards which contain wind load criteria and designated as Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Structures are as follows: ANSI A58.1-1972 ANSI A58.1-1982 ASCE 7-88 ASCE 7-93 ASCE 7-95 ASCE 7-98 ASCE 7-02 ASCE 7-05

This paper presents the highlights of the changes of the wind load criteria in each of these standards. Prior to the consideration of the changes in the wind load criteria in each of the
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standards in this paper, important wind load parameters in determination of wind loads are delineated. Wind load parameters The approach to wind load determination includes assessment of wind speed and effects of windstructure interaction. Wind speed for a location is determined on a probabilistic basis using historical records. Reference wind speed is generally a 50-year mean recurrence interval (probability of 0.02 in a given year) wind speed. It is also referenced to an averaging time (e.g. 3second gusts), and to terrain similar to the airport. Wind speed is modified for terrain and height (exposure velocity pressure coefficient Kz ), the topography surrounding the structure (topographic factor Kzt), the probability of the direction of the approaching wind (directionality factor Kd), and the annual probability of occurrence of a wind speed other than 50-year MRI (importance factor I). Wind-structure interaction involves parameters of gust effect factors and the pressure or force coefficient. Gust effect factors are specified for flexible structures (dynamically sensitive structures Gf ) and for rigid structures (G). Pressure coefficients are for main wind-force resisting systems (MWFRS) or for components and cladding (C&C). Also, pressure coefficients are differentiated for external pressures (Cp) or for internal pressures (Cpi). Force coefficients (Cf) are specified for open buildings and other structures. The reason for specifying several different types of pressure and force coefficients is that all the coefficients are obtained from wind tunnel model testing, and as yet, there is no analytical method available to predict pressure and force coefficients. In the future, computational fluid dynamics technology will be able to predict pressure and force coefficients analytically. ANSI A58.1-1972 The standard titled the building code requirements for minimum design loads in buildings and other structures ANSI A58.1-1972 was the first consensus standard for structural loads. This and subsequent revisions of this standard contains load specification for dead loads, live loads, soil and hydrostatic pressure, wind loads, snow loads, earthquake loads and load combinations. Wind load parameters indicated above are included in the specification of wind loads. In this version of the standard, basic wind speed contours are given in three maps: 50 year MRI, 100 year MRI and 25 year MRI maps. Wind speed is the fastest-mile wind speed referenced at 30 feet above ground and in flat, open terrain (Exposure C). The reason for using the fastest-mile wind speed was due to the archived records of wind speed retained by the U.S. National Weather Service. Since 1930s the NWS recorded wind speed as the fastest-mile wind speed with fastestmile wind speed defined as a mile of wind passing by the wind measuring instrument (anemometer). Data of the annual maximum recorded fastest-mile wind speed was used to determine the wind speed probability of occurrence at a given location, and contours in maps were developed using archived data and statistics.
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Effective velocity pressures were obtained by multiplying basic wind pressure with height, terrain factor and gust factor. Three exposure factors defined height and terrain factors: Exposure A (center of large cities), Exposure B (suburban areas and towns), and Exposure C (flat and open terrain). Gust factors were defined for ordinary buildings (rigid buildings and structures), parts and portions (components and cladding), and for internal pressures. Tables for effective velocity pressures are given which include the basic wind pressure, gust factor and exposure factor. Nine pressure tables incorporating various exposures and gust factors are given in the standard. The variables in the tables are basic wind speed and height above ground and thus, the values of effective velocity pressures are obtained easily. Design pressures are calculated by multiplying the effective velocity pressure values obtained from the tables with the appropriate pressure coefficient values. The coefficients specified in the standard are external, internal, net, lift and drag coefficients as different coefficients reflect different types of structures and location of pressures. The format of this version of standard was easy to use by professionals because the effective velocity pressure values were given in tabular form; however, this tabular format also made it difficult to interpret the standard when it was necessary to go beyond the tables for unusual buildings and structures. In addition, wind speed contours were more detailed than the data could support them. ANSI A58.1-1982 This version of the standard uses the same basic philosophy as the previous standard, although the load provision layout looks different. The requirements in the standard are made more flexible so that the user would have the option between the use of the prescribed analytical procedure or the wind tunnel procedure. In addition, the values of different parameters of wind loads are given transparently so the user would have choice to use better values if available and justified. The basic wind speed was the fastest-mile wind speed, and additional archived data was used to refine the wind speed contours in the map. In addition, numerical simulation was used to obtain hurricane controlled wind speeds in the Atlantic Coast and Gulf Coast areas. It was recognized that the number of hurricanes making landfall in the coastal areas is not sufficient to perform pure statistical analysis of recorded wind speed data, and numerical Monte-Carlo simulation of hurricane storms provides more dependable and consistent design wind speed values. In addition, it was recognized that the three wind speed maps for different MRI were not justified for the available data. So, one wind speed map for a 50-year MRI is given with an importance factor to establish wind speed for MRI other than 50-year MRI. The concept of Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and Components and Cladding (C&C) was introduced to recognize wind pressures acting simultaneously on more than one surface for MWFRS and on one surface for C&C. This separation allowed the practicing professional to apply wind loads in a consistent manner. There are exceptions in some cases
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where loads on C&C are coming from two surfaces. (One of the examples is wind pressures on a purlin in the end bay of a building, since the purlin can experience upward acting load from the roof and axial load from the wall.) Innovative wind tunnel testing was done for metal building framing type of structures in mid1970s. To incorporate these latest wind tunnel results, a category of buildings less than 60 feet was created. For loads on C&C, pressure coefficients are given separately for building roof height less than 60 feet and for building roof height greater than 60 feet. The gust factor for buildings and other structures was refined and specified as the gust effect factor (GEF). For ordinary (rigid) buildings and structures, GEF was given in the body of the standard while for dynamically sensitive structures, a procedure for calculating GEF was given in the commentary of the standard. In addition, for C&C, GEF was combined with the pressure coefficient and given as one value. In these cases, the GEF should not be separated from the value because wind tunnel testing provided combined values of GEF and pressure coefficient. For terrain exposure, a new Exposure D for wind flowing over water was introduced. Terrain and height exposure values were given in a table in the standard as well as in an equation form in the commentary. This allowed professional practitioners to calculate terrain exposure values for structures beyond table or to develop software that would do this. Wind load determination in this version of the standard was accomplished by equations. Two equations were given; 1. For effective velocity pressure, and 2. For design pressure. The effective velocity pressure equation incorporated wind speed, the importance factor and the terrain exposure factor. This equation was independent of the building or structure for which the wind load is to be determined. The design pressure equation included GEF and pressure/force coefficient. A flow-chart table was provided to guide professional practitioners as to which equations and tabulated values were to be used, based on the type of building or structure under consideration. ASCE 7-88 and ASCE 7-93 In 1985, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) assumed responsibility for promulgating the A58.1 standard. This step was in keeping with an ongoing effort by ASCE to regain leadership in the civil engineering standards area. The transfer of authority to the Standards Committee of ASCE occurred after a careful review of ASCEs rules for Standards Committees to ensure that the very strict consensus process adhered by ANSI in the past was (and is) continued. ASCEs rules for Standards Committees developed in the late 1970s are updated when appropriate, and are published annually in the ASCE Official Register. Upon assuming the responsibility for the standard, ASCE invoked its open membership policy permitting the membership of the committee to increase from 46 members (during the development of ANSI A58.1-1982) to 88 members. The first charge given to its wind loads subcommittee (which retained its original membership) was to review the ANSI A58.1-1982 document for reaffirmation and recommend minor revisions for clarification and publication as
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the ASCE standard. Thus, there are no revisions to the ANSI A58.1-1982 wind load criteria when published as ASCE 7-88. The wind load subcommittee as part of ASCE 7 committee started looking in to significant revisions of the wind load criteria of ASCE 7-88 in 1990. However, when ASCE 7 committee was ready to ballot in 1991 for revision to ASCE 7-88, the subcommittee for wind load was not ready with the revisions of significance envisioned and needed. The ASCE 7 main committee voted for publication in 1993 because there were significant changes in the earthquake-loading criteria, and the bottom line was that the wind load criteria in ASCE 7-93 are essentially the same as in ASCE 7-88. ASCE 7-95 Even though the basic philosophy and procedure including determination of wind loads remained the same, there were significant changes in this revision of the wind load criteria. Some of the significant changes are as follows: The basic wind speed averaging time is a 3-second gust instead of fastest-mile speed. The topographic factor is added to reflect the wind speed-up over the hills and escarpment. Full and partial loading on MFFRS are added to account for torsional effects. An alternate procedure for determination of wind loads on MWFRS of building with roof height less than 60 feet has been added The internal pressure coefficients are adjusted in hurricane-prone regions to reflect debris impact The pressure coefficients for C&C of hipped, stepped, monoslope and other roofs were added The GEF for flexible and rigid structures are provided in unified equation form

The new map for basic wind speed is based on 3-second gust instead of fastest-mile wind speed. The U.S. National Weather Service phased out the collection and archiving of fastest-mile wind speed starting in the mid-1980s,which required a change in different averaging times for basic wind speed. After investigation of the archived wind speed data, gust speed was found to be historically recorded and archived for a large number of stations including NWS stations. Given the response characteristics of the instrumentation used to record wind speed, the peak gust is associated with an averaging time of approximately 3 seconds. The wind speed map was prepared from peak gust data collected at 485 weather stations where at least five years of data were available. For non-hurricane prone regions, wind speed data were merged from several stations to form a regional super station. It was found, through statistical analysis, that there was variation of wind speed less than 5 mph in the interior of the country, allowing use of 90 mph 3-second gust speed for most of the country. Along the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic coasts, wind speed was established using the Monte-Carlo simulation of hurricane storms, and the upgraded procedure was used. The change in the averaging time of basic wind speed necessitated readjustment in exposure terrain factor, GEF and some pressure coefficients.
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Wind speeds given in the map are related to flat and open terrain, but to account for potential wind speed-up on hills and escarpments, the topographic factor is introduced. In most cases, the topographic factor would have a value of 1.0, thus not affecting calculated wind loads. Wind tunnel tests conducted on specific high-rise buildings for clients around the world indicated that there was significant torsional loading on frames when wind is blowing obliquely. The requirement of partial loading on the MWFRS of buildings greater than 60 feet reflects this new knowledge. Wind tunnel tests conducted in late 1970s provided results for loading on the MWFRS of buildings with a roof height less than 60 feet. These results included structural actions of total uplift, total horizontal shear, bending moment at frame knees, and bending moment at ridges. The structural actions were converted into pseudo pressure coefficients by the wind tunnel investigators including the gust effect factor. These coefficients have been in use by metal building manufacturers, and in some model building codes since 1980s. The ASCE 7-95 wind load subcommittee included these coefficients as an alternate procedure. ASCE 7-98 The wind load provisions in this version are rearranged and updated with delineation of three methods: (a) an updated hurricane zone wind speeds, (b) the addition of a directionality factor, (excepting Exposure D for hurricane winds) and (c) a wind-borne debris provision. The three methods are specified as method 1: simplified procedure; method 2: analytical procedure; and method 3: wind tunnel procedure. The design pressures in tabular form are provided for buildings with roof height less than 30 feet, while the analytical procedures and specifications for wind tunnel procedures are essentially the same as in previous version. The wind speed contours in hurricane-prone areas are updated using the new procedure which includes the attenuation of wind speed inland from the coast. This updated hurricane wind speed also eliminates the use of the special Importance Factor for the coastal areas. The directionality factor is also introduced in this version. This factor is calibrated with combination of loads specified in Section 2 of the standard. The directionality factor should only be used in conjunction with the load factors given in this version of the standard. Exposure D is excepted for the hurricane coastal zone, as it is based on the investigation that waves during hurricanes are rough enough to provide friction equivalent to the flat, open terrain of Exposure C. The wind-borne debris provision is introduced. In parts of hurricane-prone regions, glazing in the wind-borne debris regions in the lower 60 feet of buildings needs to be impact resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering, or such glazing shall be considered as openings. ASCE 7-02
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The significant changes in this version of the standard are the expansion of the simplified procedure, the application of partial loading, and the revision in terrain exposures and provisions of low-rise buildings. The simplified procedure is expanded to make it applicable to buildings with roof heights of less than 60 feet, and extensive design wind pressure tables are provided for easy determination of wind load design pressures. The partial loading provisions are made applicable to buildings of all heights. Wind tunnel tests on low-rise buildings have shown that there is significant torsional loading on the frame, and so one-storey buildings with a roof height of less than 30 feet are excepted. The exposure categories are revised for the distance and surface roughness. Exposure Category A is taken out of the main part of the standard and is placed in the commentary to discourage the use of Exposure A without taking serious consideration or encouraging the use of wind tunnel. A new procedure to interpolate between exposure categories is given in the commentary. The application of load provisions on the MWFRS of low-rise buildings is further clarified. New figures are added to indicate the loading criteria for the specific direction of frames. This revision makes the application of wind loads on low-rise buildings more consistent. ASCE 7-05 The basic approach to wind loading has remained the same as previous versions of the standard; however, incremental changes are made in simplified procedure, the exposure categories and the wind-borne debris requirements. In addition, new pressure coefficients are provided for monoslope, pitched and troughed roofs. Force coefficients are also added for roof top equipment and walls and for free-standing signs. The most significant change for designers is the mandatory requirement of debris-resisting glazing in the lower 60 feet of buildings in a wind-borne debris region. Conclusion As indicated in this paper, major changes in wind load provisions occurred in ANSI A58.1-1982 and in ASCE 7-95. The basic analytical procedure instituted in ANSI A58.1-1982 has remained the same for twenty-five years, but the format of the provisions has changed over the time. Simplified procedures and wind tunnel procedures have been added as the provisions have evolved. Also, pressure and force coefficients for various shapes of buildings and structures have been added as they become available. However, the basic approach has remained the same.