R9588Z7672

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting
Dr Peter Harrop IDTechEx www.IDTechEx.com

Research Consulting Events IDTechEx provides independent analysis on the development and application of RFID, printed electronics and smart packaging
North America IDTechEx, Inc. Suite 0222 222 Third Street Cambridge MA 02142 United States Tel: +1 617 577 7890 Fax: +1 617 577 7810 Europe (UK) IDTechEx Ltd Downing Park, Station Road, Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridge CB25 0NW United Kingdom. Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 813703 Fax: +44 (0) 1223 812400 Europe (Germany) IDTechEx Weststrae 49 D - 09112 Chemnitz Germany
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IDTechEx Ltd 2009 US Tel: +1 617 577 7890 UK Tel: + 44 (0)1223 813703 www.IDTechEx.com
Contents
1. 2. 3.
3.2. 3.3. 3.4.
Page
1 1 2
2 3 3
DEFINITION STATE OF PLAY NEEDS

Environmental need Needs of the Third World Needs in developed countries
4. 5.
5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4.
UBIQUITOUS DEPLOYMENT WILL COME MARKETS

The addressable market The market forecast Market by applicational sector Radical change in the consumer market
5 6
6 7 8 8
6.
6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
The technical need for energy harvesting The most available sources of energy The technology available and expected Key enablers To learn more about printed electronics
10
10 11 11 12 12
7.
7.1. 7.2. 7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.2.4. 7.2.5. 7.2.6. 7.3. 7.4.
UNUSUAL DEVELOPMENTS
Tame bats Favourite technologies take new forms Invisible harvesting Solar cells that work in the dark MEMS Electricity for underwater electronics New healthcare harvesting New polymer and metal alloy capabilities People power Biobatteries harvest body fluids
13
13 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 16
7.5. 7.6.
Nantennas Further reading
17 18
Tables
Table 3.2 Table 5.1 Table 6.1 Important potential energy harvesting markets by addressable numbers. application
Page
4 6 11
Examples of the primary motivation to use energy harvesting by type of device Examples of the main type of ambient energy that could be widely employed by
Figures
Fig. 3.1 Electrodynamic harvesting of heart energy to run implanted defibrillators and pacemakers Fig. 4.1 Fig. 5.1 Potentially widespread deployment of photovoltaics
Page
2 5 8 10 13 14 15 17
Global market value of energy harvesting for small electronic and electrical devices in 2014 Power requirements of energy harvesting and the types of battery used as suitable energy harvesting is awaited COM-BAT surveillance bat Transparent, flexible printed battery that charges in one minute Piezo eel for harvesting under water Nantenna array harvesting infrared
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4
1.
Definition
Energy harvesting or scavenging is the use of ambient energy to provide electrical power for small electronic and electrical devices making them self-sufficient often for decades. The technologies employed variously convert human power, body fluids, heat differences, vibration or other movement, dirt, vegetation, ultraviolet, visible light or infrared to electricity and there are more options coming along.
2.
State of play
Most energy harvesting concepts are in the laboratory and many are solutions looking for problems, yet practical applications of some harvesting technologies have been around for some time. They vary from the bicycle dynamo to the solar powered calculator or road sign and solar panels photovoltaics on space vehicles. That all adds up to a market of a few hundred million dollars yearly served by about 200 suppliers with modest sales and photovoltaics (PV) in the lead. The detail is given in the new IDTechEx report, Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019 www.IDTechEx.com. The old crystalline or amorphous silicon PV is no longer used for satellites because special versions optimised for energy harvesting by using other materials are now employed. That is the trend for terrestrial applications as well. Energy harvesting justifies its own optimised products. That is why IDTechEx now presents conferences on Photovoltaics Beyond Conventional Silicon in the USA and Europe. See www.IDTechEx.com
1
3.
Needs
Energy harvesting (EH) is primarily sought in order to make new things possible and to remove the expense, inconvenience and pollution that results from frequent replacement of batteries in small devices. The 30 billion coin cells sold yearly are a target as is avoiding the need to cut open patients in order to replace batteries in their sensors and bionics.
Fig. 3.1
Electrodynamic harvesting of heart energy to run implanted defibrillators and pacemakers
Source Southampton University Hospital UK
3.2.
Environmental need
Primarily, the environmental argument for energy harvesting is not saving power stations and their attendant pollution directly. After all, we define EH as powering small electronic devices not acting as a heavy power source for heating, motive power and so on. Information and communication technology ICT represent only two percent of the energy consumption in the world but they can lead to huge environmental savings if deployed more widely and appropriately to optimise heavy power creation and handling by utilities and others. Most notably, 38% of energy is consumed in buildings but it would be much less if electronic controls were cheaper and easier to install and move. More affordable building controls of longer life are the focus of most of the 70+ companies in the EnOcean energy harvesting alliance based in Germany. For example, EnOcean, presenting at a recent event, described how they have installed 4200 wireless and battery-less light switches, occupancy sensors and daylight sensors in a new building construction in Madrid. These are powered by energy harvesters and embedded in the building. This saved 40% of lighting energy costs by automatically controlling the lighting in the building, 20 miles in cables, 42,000 batteries (over 25 years) and most of the cost of retrofitting. Batteries usually contain poisons, so the environmental benefits are wide
ranging and substantial. Indeed EH is likely to replace many of the conventional batteries sold every year and give equipment ten times the life, without maintenance. Twenty year life becomes commonplace. That can involve harvesting feeding the laminar, long life rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors for storage of the harvested energy the combination giving ten times the life of todays throwaway battery. Sometimes the electronics will accept the input from energy harvesting with no storage at all and 100 year life may be in prospect.
3.3.
Needs of the Third World

Prosperity correlates strongly with education and lighting. The One Laptop Per Child initiative of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and similar initiatives by Intel, the Vellore Institute in India, the Chinese Government and others target sub $100 laptops that are extremely rugged and employ energy harvesting often several types of harvesting such as electrodynamics from human power and photovoltaics. Equally important are the projects seeking to create ubiquitous radio in the Third World such as the wind-up Freeplay versions originating in the UK and delivered through South Africa. The windup torches and lanterns already widely sold in the developed world typically employ large batteries for storage and this limits their life to a few years. The more elegant Freeplay technology needs no battery and life may be as much as twenty years. Then there is ubiquitous lighting being sought by Harvard University working with Lebn Solutions in South Africa and backed by the World Bank and others. Lebn Solutions, Inc. is a social enterprise working in off-grid energy delivery and lighting technology. The mission of Lebn is to help end the energy and lighting crisis in Africa by identifying and harnessing emerging technologies, developing and adapting them for the African market, and delivering them to rural villages in an innovative and accessible manner. The group was incubated under the tutelage of Professor David Edwards in the Harvard Idea Translation Lab. Lebn plans to offer more holistic solutions to the pressing problems in developing countries. First products will be deployed in Namibia and Tanzania. One priority is Microbial Fuel Cells MFCs which capture energy produced by naturally occurring microbial metabolism. This can generate electricity from organic-rich materials such as soil, manure, or food scraps. The team says MFCs are more reliable - working day or night, rain or shine - and are markedly less expensive.
3.4.
Needs in developed countries

The primary motivations for use of energy harvesting in developed countries, by type of device, are given below.
Table 3.2
Examples of the primary motivation to use energy harvesting by type of device

Primary reason for energy harvesting Convenience no drained batteries, never need to find a charging point or carry a heavy charger Mobile and inaccessible nodes become feasible in huge deployments such as monitoring trees in forest fires and sensors embedded in buildings and engines. Support costs greatly reduce. Operational availability security of use. New capabilities Safety. Operational availability security of use. Intrusive procedures reduced. Cost, convenience, reliability, better user interface eg electronically spoken prompting, scrolling of instructions. Cost, new merchandising features, better user interface eg moving color images become safe and viable
Source IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019
Device Mobile phones, e-books, laptops Wireless Sensor Networks
Military equipment Medical implants Healthcare disposables Consumer goods and packaging
About 90% of the envisaged applications of Wireless Sensor Networks will only be possible if affordable, practicable energy harvesting is available. For more on these technologies and markets read the IDTechEx report Wireless Sensor Networks 20092019.
4.
Ubiquitous deployment will come

Konarka has key intellectual property in two types of photovoltaics that are particularly suitable for energy harvesting organic and Dye Sensitised Solar Cells (DSSC). It envisages widespread deployment as shown below.
Fig. 4.1
Potentially widespread deployment of photovoltaics
Source Konarka
5.
Markets
The addressable market
The opportunities for energy harvesting are both numerous and expanding. We assess some of the most important potential as follows.
5.1.
Table 5.1
Important potential energy harvesting markets by addressable numbers.

Key indicator Addressable market for energy harvesting devices yearly 1000 billion
Market
Consumer goods excluding consumer electronics Buildings
There are 5-10 trillion consumer goods sold yearly. Potentially, EH could be used to drive electronic instructions, merchandising, novelties and selfadjusting use by dates on 10% of them or their packaging. There are about 500 million appropriate buildings built or refurbished yearly candidates for about 100 EH controls and sensors and maybe 50 EH lights as ultra low power lighting arrives Eventually, billions of nodes for Wireless Sensor Networks yearly are expected. The military handles at least two billion items yearly in its supply chains that are candidates for EH driven Real Time Locating Systems RTLS. Billions of industrial and military goods will need power for electronic instructions, warranty records etc in e-labels and e-packaging, self adjusting use by dates etc. 50 billion drug packs yearly and some of the 6.5 billion people in the world are candidates for EH driving sensors, drug delivery, instructions, selfadjusting use by dates , prompting and so on, driven by the demographic timebomb by which at least 50% of people will be elderly in the advanced nations within a few decades. Labels on consumer goods, healthcare, military and other products. 60 billion yearly of which 10% could well become e-labels 50 billion books published yearly and maybe 10% will have EH powered electronic advertising etc as featured with button batteries in Esquire magazine Oct 2008. The global market for electronic wristwatches is around $20 billion, say one billion units and improved EH makes it all a target. Another early target may be mobile phones at 4 billion yearly (people in East Asia change them every six months) and laptops at about 50 million yearly. Automotive is one of the largest users of sensors. About 60 million vehicles and about 500 million tires are made yearly. EH could drive 50 sensors per vehicle and one in each tire for pressure monitoring. One billion of the worlds smart cards yearly might be candidates in order to drive displays etc. About 3 billion are made
75 billion
Military, other industrial
50 billion
Healthcare
10 billion
Labels Books, e-books, magazines Consumer electronics
6 billion 5 billion
4 billion
Automotive sensors Smart cards
3 billion
1 billion
Market
Key indicator
Addressable market for energy harvesting devices yearly 50 million 2 billion 1.156 trillion
Source IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019.
Car keys Other TOTAL
Replacing button batteries Research, animals, financial etc.,
5.2.
The market forecast

A multi-billion dollar market awaits in ten years, with consumer applications dominant throughout. A market of tens of billions of dollars annually will emerge within twenty years, substantially industrial but with a ten billion dollar contribution from new consumer applications. The emerging applications by sector include: 1. Buildings - a huge market, where over 500,000 wireless control devices with no battery or ac mains connection have already been sold. These sharply reduce up front and ongoing costs, including huge gains in the cost of energy used for air conditioning etc. in buildings. 2. 90% of envisaged uses of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are impractical without energy harvesting. These mesh networks are rarely feasible because, in the biggest projects envisaged, such as those where nodes are embedded in buildings and machines for life or on billions of trees, the batteries would be inaccessible or prohibitively expensive to access. 3. Getting almost free power for electronics and lighting to Africa where batteries are not affordable: indeed, they are rarely even obtainable. 4. Bionics and sensors are needed in the human body that stay there for the life of the patient. These are the focus of a huge new research effort. 5. Mobile phones and laptop computers have batteries that frequently go down. Indeed, the power situation gets worse as more functionality is added, this inconvenience involving two billion people. In all these applications there is now a delightful conjunction of progress by which new forms of lighting and electronics need far less electricity and new forms of energy harvesting are better able to provide it. They can meet in the middle in just a few years. Forecasts are available in the IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019.
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5.3.
Market by applicational sector

IDTechEx finds that consumer applications are and will remain the greatest market for energy harvesting on small devices by value. However, industrial applications will grow fastest and will be at the billion dollar level in ten years. The segmentation by value projected for 2014, excluding bicycle dynamos and large space vehicles, is shown below. In addition to military and third world applications, the Other category includes uses in farming and research for example.
Fig. 5.1
Global market value of energy harvesting for small electronic and electrical devices in 2014
Aerospace 8% Industrial 4%
Military, Third World, Other 44%
Consumer 44%
5.4.
Radical change in the consumer market

So far, the market for energy harvesting in consumer goods has been largely confined to solar cells on calculators, wristwatches and the like and dynamos on bicycles. That will now change radically thanks to a huge push to overcome the problem of mobile phones and laptops and the next big successes, such as e-books, losing power. This is being aggravated by the trend towards more functionality such as incorporating cameras, video and quality sound and phones that emulate financial cards or project a video on the wall. Maybe all wristwatches, cameras, e-books, car keys and other mainstream mobile consumer electronics will adopt energy harvesting and certainly there is much work to create e-labels, e-packaging and electronic skin patches. Low cost energy harvesting at the one cent level has the potential to go way beyond the 60 billion conventional labels
currently printed every year or the $430 billion conventional packaging industry. It can take a bite from the $3 trillion consumer goods industry as a whole. The very success of the button battery is leading to considerable expense and inconvenience in changing them and it is an environmental threat as well. There has to be a better way. Nevertheless, it is very challenging, so wait up to ten years for massive deployment of energy harvesting in disposable consumer goods. IDTechEx has identified a desire in the industry to move from the technical niceties to commercialisation and market creation, including a close examination of what the potential users really want. In addition, investors and new entrants need to understand the potential and the progress so far. To serve these needs, it is staging a conference Energy Harvesting and Storage USA in Denver, on November 3-4, 2009 with optional Masterclasses and visits to local centres of excellence. See www.IDTechEx.com/ehUSA
6.
Technical aspects
The technical need for energy harvesting
The technical need for energy harvesting varies from very low power upwards as shown below. Of course, many other parameters must be taken into account as well.
6.1.
Fig. 6.1
Power requirements of energy harvesting and the types of battery used as suitable energy harvesting is awaited
100 W 10 W 1W 100 mW 10 mW 1 mW 100 W 10 W 1 W 100 nW 10 nW
P desktop P laptop Bicycle lighting GSM
PALM, MP3 Transceiver Bluetooth Miniature FM Receiver
Hearing aid RFID Tag Electronic watch or calculator
32 KHz quartz oscillator Standby

Source IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019.
However, there is more. For example sensors are a hot topic with a need for their widespread deployment in people, engines, buildings and much more besides, typically with a power requirement of 1 to 50 mW. It is impractical or extremely expensive to change batteries in sensors in most of the envisaged locations. The same is true of active RFID but with a wider range of required power, whether it is conventional, second generation ie Real Time Locating Systems or third generation ie Wireless Sensor Networks. For more read the IDTechEx reports, Active RFID 2009-2019, Real Time Locating Systems 2009-2019 and Wireless Sensor Systems 2009-2019 www.IDTechEx.com and attend RFID Europe September 29-30 www.IDTechEx.com/RFIDEurope
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6.2.
The most available sources of energy

Photovoltaics is the most popular form of energy harvesting at present but piezoelectrics is receiving almost as much research attention, though not yet the same market success. This new focus is because many of the next applications of energy harvesting are where there is no light. Engines, machinery and inside aircraft and people are examples of this. Here are some examples of applications with the type of ambient energy that could be employed. This explains why photovoltaics, piezoelectrics and electrodynamic power are current favourites with thermoelectric coming next and how this pecking order may pertain in ten years from now, even as the applications change radically. Capacitively generated power ie electrostatic EH not to be confused with capacitors for smoothing and storage, may follow but the situation is fluid.
Table 6.1
Examples of the main type of ambient energy that could be widely employed by application
Available ambient energy Movement Temperature difference
Market Light Consumer goods excluding consumer electronics Buildings Military, other industrial Healthcare Labels Books, e-books, magazines Consumer electronics Automotive sensors Smart cards Car keys Total
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6.3.
The technology available and expected

Energy harvesting tends to be intermittent and/ or varying in voltage and current and, for this reason, proven energy harvesting solutions often store the energy usually either with a capacitor, as with some bicycles, or with a rechargeable battery as with some wind-up lanterns. Indeed, certain wind-up radios manage this with clever clockwork that releases the energy at a required steady rate. We therefore have a considerable repertoire of energy harvesting technologies and uses today but there is a tsunami wave of new technologies and applications that will be both affordable and usable in the next few years. The technology options and progress are fully explained in IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting and Storage for Electronic Devices 2009-2019.
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6.4.
Key enablers
Key enablers of previously impossible energy harvesting include electronics in the host device that is tolerant of intermittent electric power with varying characteristics, ultra low power electronics and, for making the energy harvesting devices, printed and potentially printed electronics. For instance some energy harvesting piezoelectrics are printed now and the most efficient thermoelectric energy harvesting is achieved by layers a few microns thick. Printed electronic circuits save cost and space and photovoltaics is increasingly printed to save cost and make it flexible, even tightly rollable. This will give us the phone, rucksack or laptop where the solar panel is unwound then sprung back when not in use. Printing of copper is now possible and this will reduce the size and cost of some electrodynamic harvesting. Particle free inks are being announced that permit much finer detail and they may be useful for so-called nantennas discussed later in this white paper.
6.5.
To learn more about printed electronics

For more on printed and thin film electronics read the IDTechEx reports Introduction to Printed Electronics, Printed Electronics Forecasts, Players, Opportunities 2009-2019, Printed Photovoltaics and Batteries Technologies Forecasts and Players and attend the worlds largest conferences on Printed Electronics. IDTechEx stages these every year in the USA, Germany and Japan. Despite the publicity for so-called organic or plastic electronics, most of this technology involves inorganic or combined inorganic/organic chemistry. Those interested in this aspect should read the IDTechEx report, Inorganic and Composite Printed Electronics. See www.printedelectronicsworld.com, the IDTechEx portal that gives the details and also provides free daily analysis on this subject. The next printed electronics conference will be Printed Electronics Asia Tokyo September 30October 1 www.IDTechEx.com/peAsia then Printed Electronics USA San Jose December 2-3 www.IDTechEx.com/PEUSA
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7.
Unusual developments
Here are some of the more unusual developments in energy harvesting.
7.1.
Tame bats
Who would spend $22.5 million making a bat? Only in America, where the University of Michigan has 12 faculty members and 18 postgraduate students developing COM-BAT, a surveillance bat that will employ solar, wind, vibration and other sources to recharge its battery.
Fig. 7.1
COM-BAT surveillance bat
Source University of Michigan
This 15 centimeter, one watt robotic spy plane would gather data from sight and sound while flying and while perched to survey a scene, night and day.
7.2.
Favourite technologies take new forms Invisible harvesting

Many new printed electronic devices are transparent including metal oxide transistors. Invisible energy harvesting is on the way thanks to such components as the transparent photovoltaic film from AIST Tsukuba Japan and transparent film batteries of NEC Japan working with Waseda University.
7.2.1.
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Fig. 7.2
Transparent, flexible printed battery that charges in one minute
Source Waseda University
7.2.2.
Solar cells that work in the dark

We are beginning to see photovoltaics that can convert infrared as well as light into electricity, with product launches imminent. Dye Sensitised Solar cells DSSC from Sony in Japan and G24 innovations in the UK and organic OPV from Konarka, LumoFlex and Solarmer of the USA, Heliovolt and Heliatek of Germany and others are particularly promising in this respect. Indeed DSSC works well with very low levels of light, with polarised light and light at a very narrow angle of incidence. Further, Ohio State University dopes oligothiophene with molybdenum and tungsten to make solar cells harvesting UV, visible and IR, giving the widest spectrum of all.
7.2.3.
MEMS
We noted that the favourite EH technologies are electrodynamics, thermoelectrics, piezoelectrics and photovoltaics. Microminiature versions of all four, often with exotic new materials, are being tried in microelectromechanical systems MEMS. MEMS can go in previously inaccessible places, including within bionic man, and combine sensors and their power supply in one device. Indeed, MEMS offer cost and performance benefits as well. Such are the characteristics of MEMS that other forms of energy harvesting also have a place in them, capacitive generation being one. This has had only limited success in bulk systems because an electrical bias is needed but in MEMS that can be produced by metal oxide electrets. The California Energy Commission has produced MEMS piezo harvesters. Georgia Institute of Technology in the USA has piezo harvesters based on zinc oxide nanowires and Honeywell recently announced piezo powered MEMS. The University of Edinburgh specialises in MEMS and nano electromechanical systems NEMS for energy harvesting.
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7.2.4.
Electricity for underwater electronics

For electronic monitoring of undersea pipelines etc, Ocean Power Technology invented the Piezo Eel in 2001, a flag-like structure that moved with the tides to generate electricity.
Fig. 7.3
Piezo eel for harvesting under water
Source Ocean Power Technologies
The researchers said, Because of the properties of commercially available piezoelectric polymers, Eels will be relatively inexpensive and are easily scaleable in size and have the capacity to generate from milliwatts to many watts depending on system size and flow velocity of the local environment. A practical Eel structure has been developed that uses the commercially available piezoelectric polymer, PVDF. Future Eels may use more efficient electrostrictive polymer. Tokyo University in Japan is now taking this forward using a flapping piezoelectric plate behind a bluff underwater structure.
7.2.5.
New healthcare harvesting

Most of these developments promise exciting advances in healthcare as do larger systems. Indeed, the Holst Centre in the Netherlands has reported, A battery-free wireless 2channel EEG system has been developed, powered by a hybrid power supply using body heat and ambient light. The hybrid power supply combines a thermoelectric generator that uses the heat dissipated from a persons temples and silicon photovoltaic cells. The entire system is wearable and integrated into a device resembling headphones. The system can provide more than 1mW on average indoor, which is more than enough for the targeted application.
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7.2.6.
New polymer and metal alloy capabilities

Other promising approaches involve organic piezoelectric or electroactive polymers, possibly exhibiting electret properties as well. Strictly speaking, so called electroactive polymers can exhibit ionic effects that make them move under bias, as exploited by Micromuscle AB of Sweden, or they simply have the right mechanical properties to be deformed in a capacitor-like structure when a few kilovolts are applied as marketed by Artificial Muscle Inc of the USA. These are high impedance systems and relatively safe despite the voltage. The Technical University of Ilmenau in Germany researches flexoelectricity, in the belief that it may lead to applications that piezoelectrics cannot reach. However, North Carolina State University believes that its magnetostrictive materials can also contribute here because their advantages over piezo include ultra-high energy conversion efficiency, high power density, longer life cycles without the depolarization issue, and flexibility to operate in strong ambient vibrations. First use is intended to be Wireless Sensor Networks.
7.3.
People power
We saw that Southampton University Hospital in the UK is developing implanted defibrillators and pacemakers powered electrodynamically from the human heart that they administer counterintuitive but perfectly sound science. However, some of the zanier ideas may have difficulty gaining much market share. How many people will wear a knee brace to charge their mobile phone? Who will want to explain to airport security why they wear shoes with a mechanism in the heel? It is better to concentrate on local power production that vanishes into the fabric of life as with the special flooring tiles recently installed in front of the Tokyo and Shibuya stations in Tokyo Japan. As passengers step on the tiles they generate small vibrations that produce enough electricity to power signage. The three million people passing every week are unaware of what they are doing. Indeed, Innowattech of Israel has piezoelectric paving for railroads, roadways and runways that it claims can produce huge amounts of power. By contrast, IntAct of the USA looked in the human ear and found a useful piezoelectric material called prestin which it aims to form into power skin worn by astronauts and vehicles to generate electricity.
7.4.
Biobatteries harvest body fluids

Biobatteries are created within the human body or in diagnostic test, using the bodys fluids. Yale University develops biobatteries harvesting energy from the biological ion gradient. The University of Wollongong in New South Wales Australia recently announced a biobattery that produces a current of known strength to reverse the electrostatic charges holding an anti-inflammatory drug on an implanted polymer cathode. This releases the drug in a controlled manner. It uses a magnesium anode that oxidises away safely after use. Coating the polymer with a biodegradable polymer controlled the
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release rate. The device could be created with any implant that corrodes such as titanium hips and knees. IDTechEx observes that a similar principle could be used to drive certain electronic implants. There is also work on other options. For example, Ki Bang Lee, at the Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology in Singapore says, "We are striving to develop cheap, disposable credit-card sized biochips for disease detection. Our battery can be easily integrated into such devices, supplying electricity on contact with biofluids such as urine or blood."
7.5.
Nantennas
Idaho National Laboratory has billions of nano antennas on plastic film called nantennas for more efficient photovoltaics. INL is able to print (using e-beam UV lithography printing) trillions of coil antennas few microns across for infrared. INL claims that the ability to harvest infrared energy means that these antennas can convert residual heat into electricity even after the sun has gone down with a collection that is four times more efficient than in conventional photovoltaics. There is a need for further work on the rectification of that signal though, because these frequencies are in the range of 30 THz. Costs are uncertain as yet. The much smaller features needed to harvest light must await a breakthrough in printing technology.
Fig. 7.4
Nantenna array harvesting infrared
Source Idaho National Laboratory
IDTechEx provides many conferences, reports and technical, marketing, investment and fund raising consultancy in this subject. For more contact Raghu Das on r.das@IDTechEx.com or Dr Peter Harrop on p.harrop@IDTechEx.com
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7.6.
Further reading
If you are interested in any of these reports, please email Raoul at raoul@idtechex.com or telephone +1 617 577 7890 (US) / +44 (0)1223 813 703 (UK).
Energy Harvesting Reports

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Displays and Lighting: OLED, e-paper, electroluminescent and beyond A revolution is in the making. Electronics will never be the same as new applications are spawned. Invisible, origami, edible electronics, low cost materials and manufacturing will lead to the use of electronics in spaces traditionally bare of their functionality. The research and growth of new technologies, along with new materials and processing methods, is resulting in the increasing penetration of innovative electronics and the emergence of new products in the competitive fields of displays and lighting. Eye-catching, animated billboards; large-area, thin, flexible displays with amazing colour contrasts; windows that are converted into surface lighting elements at night. Inorganic and Composite Printed Electronics 2009-2019 The future $300 billion market for printed electronics is emerging via thin film electronics. The contribution of organic materials to this is greatly publicised and it has attracted over one thousand participants already. However, the best devices being developed usually rely on inorganic or combined inorganic/organic technology that is little publicised. With over 115 tables and figures, it critically compares the options, the trends and the emerging applications and is the first in the world to comprehensively cover this exciting growth area. The emphasis is on technology basics, commercialisation and the key players. Introduction to Printed Electronics Your essential report on printed electronics markets, technologies and companies. Printed electronics is a term that encompasses thin film transistor circuits (TFTCs), displays, interconnects, power, sensors and even actuators. Thousands of companies have now entered this market. The printing companies today will be the new electronic giants tomorrow. This report is vital reading to understand the opportunity of the technology, players, needs and timelines, giving global coverage from the biggest printing companies in the Far East to paper and packaging companies in Scandinavia to applications of the technology in the Americas. Organic and Printed Electronics in East Asia This is major new 283 page report analysing activity in printed electronics in Asia, where much is happening but relatively little has been reported openly. It covers 196 organisations in Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Singapore with addresses and contact details, organisational structure, appropriate technology, device objectives, recent and planned announcements, and plans for commercialisation. Much of the information and analysis of trends in this essential reference book is not available elsewhere. Organic and Printed Electronics in Europe This is the world's first and only report analysing the subject in depth. It compares and analyses the activities of 267 organisations in 19 countries by technology and region. It gives full contact details of these companies and, where appropriate, examples of patenting performance, research programs and scientific papers presented in 2007 onwards.
Organic and Printed Electronics in North America This is the world's first and only report analysing the subject in depth. It compares and analyses the activities of 208 organizations in North America by technology and region. It gives full contact details of these companies and, where appropriate, examples of patenting performance, research programs and scientific papers presented in 2007 onwards.
Printed and Thin Film Transistors and Memory 2009-2029 Printed electronics will be a $300 billion market within 20 years. The largest segment will be printed transistors and memory. They will drive lighting, displays, signage, electronic products, medical disposables, smart packaging, smart labels and much more besides. The chemical, plastics, printing, electronics and other industries are cooperating to make it happen. Already, over 100 organisations are developing printed transistors and memory, with first products being sold in 2007. Printed Photovoltaics and Batteries: Technologies, Forecasts and Players This comprehensive new report gives a thorough analysis of the subject by the well known consultant and academic Dr Bruce Kahn and Dr Harry Zervos with backing from the IDTechEx team of technical specialists. It covers the science and the manufacturing technology extremely thoroughly yet in an understandable form. 57 companies are profiled and forecasts are to 2018 are given, with projects for ten years after that to 2028.
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Barrier Films for Flexible Electronics The biggest opportunity for OLED displays and organic photovoltaics is when these devices can be flexible, allowing them to be more robust, versatile and made in large areas compared to conventional displays and photovoltaics. However, many of the materials used in OLED displays and organic photovoltaics are sensitive to the environment, limiting their lifetime. These materials can be protected using substrates and barriers such as glass and metal, but this results in a rigid device and does not satisfy the applications demanding flexible devices. Plastic substrates and transparent flexible encapsulation barriers can be used, but these offer little protection to oxygen and water, resulting in the devices rapidly degrading.
RFID and Smart Label Reports

Wireless Sensor Networks 2009-2019 This new 240 page report, with over 130 figures and tables, examines the activities of 20 developers and sellers of the new WSN and over 30 potential and actual applications. It has simple explanations of the technology and a comprehensive glossary of the jargon. First researched in late 2008, it is constantly updated to capture the rapid technical and commercial progress in this subject. It gives ten year forecasts and many summary comparisons. The research involved global visits, interviews by phone and email and extensive examination of databases, many not openly available. RFID Forecasts, Players and Opportunities 2009-2019 In 2009 the value of the entire RFID market will be $5.56 billion, up from $5.25 billion in 2008. This includes tags, readers and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs and all other form factors. By far the biggest segment of this is RFID cards, and $2.57 billion of the total $5.56 billion being spent on all other forms of RFID - from RFID labels to active tags..
HF RFID The Great Leap Forward This unique 180 page report details the great leap forward in HF RFID technologies, with unprecedented advances hitting the market in the next two years and some earlier inventions entering the mainstream at the same time. It is an unbiased assessment, with the problems of all these approaches being assessed as well as the opportunities.
Active RFID and Sensor Networks Active RFID is little reported but its use is growing rapidly. Already several applications have been above $100 million and there is more to come. Learn how to use it and how to sell it. Ten year forecasts from 2007 to 2017 show how Active RFID will develop in the years ahead
Real Time Locating Systems (RTLS) This unique report covers the technology and market for what will be a multi-billion dollar market by 2013. It includes active RFID devices based on WiFi, etc, and over 60 case studies. There are also detailed forecasts.
Item Level RFID Forecasts 2008-2018 and 100 Case Studies Item level RFID will shortly be the largest and most prosperous sector, driven by anticounterfeiting, archiving, standing assets and supply chain efficiency of high priced products. This unique new two part report gives the full picture and ten year forecasts.
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RFID Smart Cards, Tickets and Near Field Communication This major new report, globally researched in 2006, compares and contrasts contactless smart cards and tickets with NFC and other methods of using the mobile phone to replace the card or ticket. It has over 110 figures and tables and three appendices of further information. It forecasts progress for the next ten years with contactless smart cards, tickets and RFID enabled phones, from technology to applications, numbers and values RFID Profit, Fund Raising and Acquisition Strategy There is a great need for profit optimization and careful product positioning and repositioning in the frenetic but unforgiving RFID market that is increasing ten times to become a $26 billion business in 2016. RFID is entering most sectors of corporate, public and private life so understanding how to create enduring profit from such a choice of designs and applications, software, hardware and services, calls for great care and modern management tools. Printed and Chipless RFID Forecasts, Technologies & Players 2008-2018 This report analyzes the prospects of the end game of RFID - ultra low cost tags that do not include a silicon chip. We assess the technologies that are available and emerging, players, challenges, the opportunity and give ten year forecasts.
RFID in Australasia Ten year forecasts of tag numbers, unit prices and value, plus systems projections are presented. The total market by country is given. There is a full analysis of how IDTechEx sees the number of tags sold increasing tenfold over the next ten years and the market rocketing to around US$632 million in 2017. This 185 page report has over 60 tables and figures and more than 50 case studies.
RFID in China Researched over 12 months by IDTechEx analysts including Chinese native Ning Xiao, this report covers over 150 companies developing RFID in China, actual and potential sales, successes and impediments, standards, frequencies and case studies. Your complete guide to the RFID market in China.
Application Specific Reports

RFID for Animals, Food and Farming 2008-2018 This report concerns RFID in the food supply chain, from arable farming and livestock to presentation in the retail store. We even cover some benefits if the RFID tag stays on the food to the private home. Because the tagging of pets and use of RFID on animals and in conservation are closely allied topics, we cover these as well. Consumers also demand more information, as do the police and customs. This report analyses the use of RFID and allied technologies, with a profusion of case studies from across the world. RFID in Airports and Airlines 2008-2018 RFID is an extremely powerful enabling technology in airports and aircraft, serving to improve security against criminal attack, safety against general hazards, efficiency, error prevention and data capture and to remove tedious tasks. It can even create new earning streams where it makes tolling feasible without causing congestion and where new airport touch and go cards offer new paid services without delays.
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RFID in Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals 2008-2018 The RFID business is growing so fast that few applicational sectors can beat that scorching rate of growth. Healthcare is one of them thanks to the new tagging of drugs, real time location of staff and patients and other developments including automated error prevention. This unique report gives a full technical and market analysis illustrated by over 70 case studies. It is a vital resource for the healthcare profession and all who wish to support it. RFID for Postal and Courier Services 2008-2018 Detailed ten year forecasts are given plus a full explanation of the technologies. In detail, there are 30 new case studies of RFID in action in the postal and courier service in North America, Europe, the Middle East and East Asia. The major breakthroughs that will provide future success are discussed. Postal services ignoring this accelerating change will become uncompetitive and suppliers missing out will regret it.
Apparel RFID 2008-2018 Apparel RFID is the first big retail RFID success. This report is unique in analysing the use of RFID in the apparel value chain from tagging cloth in manufacture to retail fashion and rented apparel. 138 users and suppliers are profiled. From Chile to Canada and Sweden to Taiwan, there is something to learn from all of them, not just from the unusually broad approach in Germany, Italy, China, Japan and the USA. This industry is on the move in a manner unmatched almost anywhere else in the RFID market.
IDTechEx Subscription Services

RFID Case Studies Knowledgebase the largest in the world Over 3,700 case studies, over 4,800 organisations, 109 countries and growing rapidly. The variety of case studies in this Knowledgebase is a salutary reminder that, although the supply chain is seen as ultimately the biggest application for RFID, the less hyped applications such as Libraries & Archiving, Passenger & Personal Transportation, and Healthcare, are moving ahead extremely rapidly. This is a searchable electronic database, with many links and slide presentations, by far the largest available.
Also available from IDTechEx

Consumer Smart Packaging Electronic Smart Packaging Smart Packaging Food and Livestock Traceability Food and Livestock Traceability Encyclopedia RFID Food and Livestock Case Studies Near Field UHF RFID vs HF for Item Level Tagging Short Range Wireless The Encyclopaedia of Printed Electronics The IDTechEx RFID Encyclopedia Thirty RFID Case Studies in Logistics Thirty RFID Case Studies in Retail
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An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Dr Peter Harrop IDTechEx www.IDTechEx.com

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

DEFINITION STATE OF PLAY NEEDS

UBIQUITOUS DEPLOYMENT WILL COME MARKETS

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Nantennas Further reading

Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Electrodynamic harvesting of heart energy to run implanted defibrillators and pacemakers

Source Southampton University Hospital UK

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Needs of the Third World

Needs in developed countries

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Examples of the primary motivation to use energy harvesting by type of device

Device Mobile phones, e-books, laptops Wireless Sensor Networks

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Ubiquitous deployment will come

Potentially widespread deployment of photovoltaics

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Important potential energy harvesting markets by addressable numbers.

Consumer goods excluding consumer electronics Buildings

Military, other industrial

Labels Books, e-books, magazines Consumer electronics

Automotive sensors Smart cards

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Car keys Other TOTAL

Replacing button batteries Research, animals, financial etc.,

The market forecast

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Market by applicational sector

Military, Third World, Other 44%

Radical change in the consumer market

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

100 W 10 W 1W 100 mW 10 mW 1 mW 100 W 10 W 1 W 100 nW 10 nW

P desktop P laptop Bicycle lighting GSM

PALM, MP3 Transceiver Bluetooth Miniature FM Receiver

Hearing aid RFID Tag Electronic watch or calculator

32 KHz quartz oscillator Standby

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

The most available sources of energy

The technology available and expected

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

To learn more about printed electronics

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

COM-BAT surveillance bat

Source University of Michigan

Favourite technologies take new forms Invisible harvesting

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Transparent, flexible printed battery that charges in one minute

Source Waseda University

Solar cells that work in the dark

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

Electricity for underwater electronics

Piezo eel for harvesting under water

Source Ocean Power Technologies

New healthcare harvesting

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting

New polymer and metal alloy capabilities

Biobatteries harvest body fluids

An Introduction to Energy Harvesting