Modelling of Load Devices Lisans Tezi

Modelling of Load Devices and Studying Load/System Characteristics
Kerstin Lindn and Inger Segerqvist

Technical Report No. 131L Department of Electrical Power Systems School of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1992
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Gteborg, Sweden
Technical Report No. 131L (Revised edition)
Modelling of Load Devices and Studying Load/System Characteristics
by
Kerstin Lindn and Inger Segerqvist
Submitted to the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Licentiate of Engineering
ALMER CH
KNISKA TE S
GSKOLA HO
GO
TEBORG
Department of Electrical Power Systems Gteborg, Augusti 1992
CHALMERS TEKNISKA HGSKOLA Institutionen fr Elkraftsystem S412 96 GTEBORG, Sweden
ISBN 917197038X
Chalmers Bibliotek ReproService Gteborg, Oktober 1993
Abstract
This thesis deals with deriving load models from laboratory measurements and studying the impact of tap-changers on both load and system characteristics. The laboratory measurements were carried out on various types of lighting, thermostat regulated radiators and refrigerators. The results show that lamps have no pronounced dynamic voltage dependence and that a large group of the tested lamps have an almost quadratic static voltage dependence in active power. Both fluorescent and mercury lamps have also a strong voltage dependence in reactive power. The bimetallic regulated radiators act as a constant impedance load during a time period of tens of seconds, but have a pronounced dynamic behaviour in a time range of minutes. Unexpectedly, the mean power was changed in an opposite direction to the voltage, i.e. when the voltage step was negative the mean power increased and vice versa, and the original mean power as it was prior to the disturbance was not regained. This effect is explained by two resistors in the bimetallic switch. The electronically regulated radiators also act as a constant impedance load during a time period of tens of seconds. The dynamic behaviour after a voltage step, in a time range of minutes, is a damped oscillation in mean power, where the prior mean power is regained. Refrigerators show no dynamic voltage dependence and active power has a static voltage dependence between constant current load and constant impedance load. Refrigerators have a poor power factor, are uncompensated, and the reactive power has a rather high voltage dependency. The studies on the impact of tap-changers on load and system characteristics are performed using load characteristics and the well-known up-curves. The studies are intended to elucidate the processes described (an increase in load and a decrease in feeding voltage) in an illustrative way.
Key words Load devices, load model, power system, up-curve, load characteristics, laboratory measurements.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our supervisor, Professor Bertil Stenborg, for his guidance and encouragement throughout this project. Special thanks to Kenneth Walve, Svenska Kraftnt, for the idea of this project and encouraging support, and to Bert Lanne, Chalmers University of Technology, for sharing his knowledge of measuring. Everyone at the Department of Electrical Power System and the Department of High Voltage are warmly acknowledged for creating a most friendly atmosphere. Special thanks to Jan-Olov Lantto for his help when producing this thesis, and to Jan Andersson for his help with the field measurements. We would like to express our gratitude to Vattenfall, Transmission, and to Svenska Kraftnt who took over the responsibility after the reorganization of Vattenfall, for the financial support. Special thanks to manager Dag Holmberg and Per-Olof Lindstrm for their interest in this project. Finally, we thank El och Trafikteknik AB and Gteborg Energi AB for letting us use their network in the field measurements and for furnishing us with street lamps, and Osram and Philips who provided us with lamps as test objects.
Introduction
One of the fields of research presenting greatest international interest is the study and analysis of voltage condition in power systems. The research is aimed towards problems concerning voltage stability and voltage collapse, as well as problems of transient stability. It is necessary to have sufficiently good models of how the load varies with voltage and frequency in order to carry out an analysis of these problems. The aim of this thesis is to increase the knowledge in load modelling - to derive accurate static load models and to estimate time constants for different load components. Furthermore the impact of on-load tap changers is studied. Chapter 1 gives a presentation of the load modelling definitions recommended by IEEE task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance and a discussion on some commonly used static and dynamic load models. Chapter 2 takes a look at some statistics on load compositions and the occurrence of the load devices tested in the laboratory at the Department of Electrical Power Systems at Chalmers University of Technology in Gteborg. Chapter 3 presents laboratory measurements on different types of lighting, radiators and refrigerators. Both static and dynamic measurements are performed in order to derive static load models and to identify the time-constants for the load components. Chapter 4 presents results from a field measurement on street lighting, and the results from the laboratory measurements are compared to the results from a field measurement on a composite load. In Chapter 5 the impact of on-load tap changers on both system and load characteristics are discussed. In Section 5.5 the studies are based on the ideas of Professor B. Stenborg.
Symbols and graphics The symbols used for quantities and units coincide with the IEC recommendations, except for the decimal sign which in this thesis is represented by a dot, and voltage which in this thesis is represented by U and u. Irregularities in the curves in Chapter 5 are due to the insufficient resolution of the plotting routines of the computer graphics application.
Contents
Abstracti Acknowledgementiii Introductionv Contentsvii
An introduction to load modelling1 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction1 Definitions1 Load models2 1.3.1 Static load models3 1.3.2 Dynamic load models5 1.3.3 How to derive parameters7 References9
1.4 2
Load composition11 2.1 2.2 2.3 Introduction11 Identifying a composite load11 Load components13 2.3.1 Lighting13 2.3.2 Electric heating13 2.3.3 Refrigerator/Freezer14 References15
2.4 3
Laboratory measurements on various loads17 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction17 Data acquisition system17 The static measurements19 The dynamic measurements19 Accuracy analysis19
3.6
Laboratory measurements on lamps20 3.6.1 Test objects20 3.6.2 Results from static measurements21 3.6.3 Results from dynamic measurements22 3.6.4 Accuracy analysis24 3.6.4.1 Harmonics generated by discharge lamps27 3.6.4.2 The inaccuracy due to harmonics30 3.6.4.3 The definition of reactive power under nonsinusoidal conditions31 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 The static load models32 The dynamic behaviour34 Discussion35
3.7
Laboratory measurements on electric heating devices36 3.7.1 Test objects36 3.7.2 The climate box38 3.7.3 Results39 3.7.4 Load model41 3.7.5 Discussion41 Laboratory measurements on refrigerators42 3.8.1 Test objects43 3.8.2 Results from static measurements43 3.8.3 Results from dynamic measurements44 3.8.4 Accuracy analysis44 3.8.5 The static load models45 3.8.6 Discussion47 References48
3.8
3.9 4
Field measurements49 4.1 4.2 Introduction49 Field measurements on street-lamp networks49 4.2.1 Test net49 4.2.2 Data acquisition system50 4.2.3 Dynamic measurements51 4.2.4 Accuracy51 4.2.5 Results52 4.2.6 Discussion55 Field measurements on composite load56 References57
4.3 4.4
Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics59 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Introduction59 System characteristics59 Load characteristics63 Tap changer influence on load characteristics64 5.4.1 Increase in load64 5.4.2 Decrease in feeding voltage67 5.4.3 Discussion69 5.4.3.1 Increase in load69 5.4.3.2 Decrease in feeding voltage71 Tap changer influence on system characteristic72 5.5.1 Increase in load74 5.5.2 Decrease in feeding voltage75 5.5.3 Discussion76 Reflections on some simplification77 5.6.1 Resistance77 5.6.2 Relation between the active and the reactive power.80 References81
5.5
5.6
5.7 6
Future work83
Bibliography85
Appendix A B C D E F G H I Street Lighting87 Inaccuracy due to measurement devices and measurement arrangement91 Dynamic voltage tests95 Accuracy analysis103 Wave forms111 Derived static load models115 Evaluation of the equations for up-curves and qu-curves127 Evaluation of the equations for the impact of tap changer on system characteristics133 Exponential load model137
Ryggtext:
K Lind n & I Segerqvist
Modelling of Load Devices and Studying
xi
Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling
Chapter 1
An introduction to load modelling
1.1
Introduction
This chapter deals with basic load modelling definitions recommended by IEEE Task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance [1] and a discussion on some commonly used static and dynamic load models based on the references of this chapter and the bibliography listed at the end of this thesis. The advantages and disadvantages of component based or field measurement based methods are discussed, and some parameters for different load objects are also presented.
1.2
Definitions
Following definitions described in ref. [1] are used in this thesis. Load The term load is a wide conception: 1. A device, connected to a power system, that consumes power. To clarify, the term load device may be used for this type. 2. The total power (active and/or reactive) consumed by all devices connected to a power system. To clarify, the term system load may be used for this type. 3. A portion of the system that is not explicitly represented in a system model, but rather is treated as if it were a single power-consuming device connected to a bus in the system model. This includes tap changers, capacitors, distribution network etc. To clarify, the term bus load may be used for this type. 1
4. The power output of a generator or generating plant. To clarify, the term generator or plant load may be used for this type. In describing the composition of the load, this thesis also uses the recommendations from ref. [1]. Load component A load component is the aggregate equivalent of all devices of a specific or similar type, e.g. fluorescent lighting. A load class is a category of load, such as residential, commercial or industrial. A load composition is the fractional composition of the load by load components. A load class mix is the fractional composition of the bus load by load classes. Load characteristic is determined by a set of parameters that characterise the behaviour of a specified load, such as the variation of the active power P with voltage U. This term may be applied to a specific load device, a load component, a load class or the total bus load.
Load class
Load composition
Load class mix
Load characteristic
1.3
Load models
A load model in this matter is a mathematical representation of the relationship between power and voltage, where the power is either active or reactive and the output from the model. The voltage (magnitude and/or frequency) is the input to the model. The load model could be a static or dynamic load model or a combination of both. Load models are used for analysing power system stability problems, such as steady state stability, transient stability, long term stability and voltage control. It is not said that the same load model is appropriate for different stability analysis. In order to obtain a model which is as simple as possible, it is important to choose a load model structure which is appropriate for the studied problem, for example if tap changers and time dependence should be included. A rough guideline for choosing a load model structure is presented in a CIGR paper [2]. 2
1.3.1
Static load models
A static load model expresses the active and reactive powers as a function of the voltage (magnitude and/or frequency). The load model could be a stationary or quasi-stationary representation of the load. The following models are commonly used Constant power A load model, where the active and reactive powers are independent of variations in the voltage magnitude: U 0 P ----- = ------ = 1 U P0 0 Constant current A load model, where the active and reactive powers vary directly with the voltage magnitude: U P ----- = -----U0 P0 Constant impedance A nonlinear load model, where the active and reactive powers vary with the square of the voltage magnitude: U 2 P ----- = ------ U P0 0 Polynomial A nonlinear load model, where the active and reactive power variations to voltage magnitude are usually a combination of the three mentioned above: U U 2 P ----- = a 0 + a 1 ------ + a 2 ------ U U0 P0 0 U U 2 Q ------ = b 0 + b 1 ------ + b 2 ------ U U0 Q0 0 U 2 Q ------ = ------ U Q0 0 U Q ------ = -----U0 Q0 U 0 Q ------ = ------ = 1 U Q0 0
where a0, a1, a2 and b0, b1, b2 are constants and parameters of the load models. The sum of the parameters equals one, i.e.: a0 + a1 + a2 = 1 b0 + b1 + b2 = 1
as the parameters indicate how nominal power is divided into constant power, constant current and constant impedance loads. 3
Exponential A nonlinear load model which represents the power relationship to voltage as an exponential equation: U P ----- = ------ U P0 0
np
U Q ------ = ------ U Q0 0
nq
where np and nq are constants and the parameters of the load models. Note that constant power, constant current and constant impedance are special cases of the exponential model. Slope values A load model, where the power-voltage dependence is linearised at nominal voltage: P ------U Frequency dependent A static load model which includes frequency dependence. This is usually represented by multiplying either a polynomial or exponential load model by a factor including the frequency deviation and the frequency sensitivity parameter. The factor is usually in the following form: [1 + af (f - f0)] where f is the frequency of the bus voltage, f0 is the rated frequency, and af is the frequency sensitivity parameter of the model. The total static model results for example in: U p P ----- = ------ [ 1 + a f ( f f 0 ) ] U P0 0
n
Q ------U
1.3.2
Dynamic load models
The interest for dynamic load models has increased during the last decade. The dynamic load model describes the time dependence as well as the voltage dependence of the load. Listed below are the most commonly used dynamic load models: Induction motor model A considerable part of the load consists of machines, especially induction motors. Hence a model for an induction motor is commonly used. The model presented here is the one often used [2].
R1
jX1
jX2
jXm
R2
s
Figure 1.1
The inclusion of mechanical dynamics in the model transforms it from static to dynamic. This is the most usual linearized form of the equation: 1 w = --------- ( T a Dw ) 2Hs where w is the per unit speed change Ta = Te - Tm, the accelerating torque Te the electrical torque Tm the mechanical torque D the mechanical damping H the motor and drive inertia 5
s = d/dt T e T m D = -------- + ---------w w where T e -------- is the motor torque/speed relationship w T m ---------- is the load torque/speed relationship w State space model The standard equations in state space form are x = Ax + Bu y = Cx + Du where x is the state vector, u the input vector and y the output vector. The model may be of order n, but minimum order should be n = 2, to account for the dynamics produced by the induction motor swing equation. The state vector x has no physical meaning. The output vector y may be chosen as the active and reactive power PL and QL, or as the active and reactive component of load current IR and II respectively. The model could for instance look like that in ref. [3]: x1 x2 IR II UR 0 1 x1 + 10 a1 a2 x 0 1 UI 2 c1 c2 x1 d + 1 c3 c4 x2 d3 d2 UR d4 UI
Transfer function model The power is represented as a transfer function of the general form P U ( s ) ----------------- = H U ( s ) U ( s ) P F ( s ) ----------------- = H F ( s ) F ( s ) (describes the load-voltage dependence) (1.1)
(describes the load-frequency dependence)(1.2)
The total change in active power is given as PT(t) = PF(t) + PU(t) (1.3)
where PF(t) and PU(t) are obtained by solving Equation (1.1) and Equation (1.2) in the time domain. The reactive power is equally represented. The model and the derivation of parameters are described in ref. [4] and ref. [5]. 1.3.3 How to derive parameters
Once a model structure is chosen, see Section 1.3, there remains the difficult task of deriving the model and its parameters. The characteristic of a bus load depends on the load composition, which means that the aggregated load characteristics for the bus load must be found. These load parameters can be derived with a so-called component based method or by a field measurement based method. The first method is based on the knowledge of the load class mix, the composition of each class and the characteristics of each load component. Where the characteristics of load components are not known, they may be derived either theoretically or by laboratory measurements. The component based approach has been developed in a computer programme, The Load Model Synthesis, LOADSYN by EPRI [6, 7]. The second method is based on direct measurement at a bus, during system disturbances or planned system disturbances, where voltage, frequency, active power and reactive power are measured and then a method, such as the Least Square Method is used to derive parameters to the aggregated load model. Here is a brief comparison of the component based method with the field measurement based method: Component based method + Represents any arbitrary load composition, i.e. adaptable to different bus loads and conditions (time of day, weather, season etc.) Relies heavily on the availability of a large number of data 7
Field measurement based method + Straightforward: simply measure and derive a model Unless the load composition is analysed in some detail and unless buses having loads of fairly different compositions are measured there will be no understanding of the results so that they can be extrapolated to different conditions The model depends on the disturbance, that is the input, applied to the load Spontaneous load variations are included in the load model, especially during long term measurements
Presented below are some parameters for different load devices using the static exponential load model [8]:
np Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Heating Induction motor, half load Induction motor, full load 1.6 1.2 2.0 0.2 0.1
nq 0 3.0 0 1.5 2.8
1.4 [1]
References IEEE Task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance, Load Representation for Dynamic Performance Analysis IEEE/PES 1992 Winter meeting, New York, January 26 - 30, 1992 (92 WM 126-3 PWRS) F. McDyer, F. Byrne, R. W. McGee, G. Rodgers, M. Hayashi, G. Testud, N. Roelefs, Load modelling and dynamics, Electra n 130 May 1990 p. 122 - 141 F. John Meyer, Kwang Y. Lee, Improved Dynamic Load Model for Power System Stability Studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 9, September 1982, 3303 - 3309 S.A.Y Sabir, D.C. Lee, Dynamic load models derived from data aquired during system transients, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 9 September 1982, 3365 - 3372 D. Karlsson, T. Pehrsson, A dynamic power system load model and methods for load model parameter estimation, Technical report No 22L 1985, Dep. of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden. W. W. Price, K. A. Wirgau, A. Murdoch, J. V. Mitsche, E. Vaahedi, M. A. El-Kady, Load modeling for power flow and transient stability computer studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.3, No. 1, February 1988, 180 - 187 E. Vaahedi, H. M. Zein El-Din, W. W. Price, Dynamic load modeling in large scale stability studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.3, No. 3, August 1988, 1039 - 1045 G. J. Berg, Power-system load representation Proceedings IEE Vol. 120, No 3, March 1973, 344 - 348
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
10
Chapter 2: Load composition
Chapter 2
Load composition
2.1
Introduction
In Chapter 1, An introduction to load modelling, two ways of deriving a load model and its parameters are described: the component based method and the field measurement based method. Irrespective of the method used, it is essential to have as good a knowledge as possible of the load composition, in order either to use the knowledge when composing the model or to understand the results of measurements taken to derive the model.
2.2
Identifying a composite load
There are of course differences in load composition depending on the area studied. In a small area, and correspondingly a low voltage level, the load composition is easier to identify but the composition is also more individual than when the area is larger and on a higher voltage level, where it is more appropriate to assume a general composition. When identifying a composite load it is usual to divide the load into load classes or load components and distribute the power need to the groups. Commonly used load classes in Sweden are industrial-, commercial- and residential loads. Load components are heating, lighting, motor load and fridge/freezer. The easiest way of estimating the division of power between the various load classes or load components, is to base it on the division of energy consumption. This information can be obtained from the utilities or from SCB, Statistics Sweden, which collects and compiles data from all energy utilities in Sweden. Table 2.1 shows the division of energy consumption on Gotland [1], in Stockholm [2] and in the whole of Sweden - based on data obtained from SCB [3]. 11
Table 2.1
Division of electrical energy consumption for different areas. In the study on
Gotland [1] electrical heating forms a special load class.
Area Gotland Stockholm Sweden1
electrical heating [%] 30
residential [%] 15 38 25
commercial [%] 15 50 23
industrial [%] 40 12 42
1. In this area the electrical energy consumption for railroad and electricity-, gas-, heating and waterworks are not included.
By comparing this average consumption to the consumption in heavy and light load conditions for the load classes it is possible to obtain a division of power for a specific situation, e.g. in the way described in the Gotland study [1]. With statistics concerning the composition of load components for each load class, the total power divided among load components may be obtained. Several studies have been made of the energy consumption in households, offices, industries etc. during the last years, [4, 5, 6], and it is possible to use the results from these studies to calculate the power division. Table 2.2 shows the division of power consumption for load components on Gotland.
Table 2.2 The electrical power consumption on Gotland [1] in heavy and light load
conditions divided among load components.
Area High-load Light-load
electrical heating [%] 40 20
lighting [%] 10 10
motor [%] 40 60
fridge/freezer [%] 10 10
In the Stockholm-study [2] climate, lighting, process and other were used as load components. Electrical heating is included in the climate group, motor and fridge/freezer in the process-group. Table 2.3 shows the division of energy in Stockholm.
Table 2.3 Electrical energy consumption in Stockholm divided among load components.
Area Stockholm 12
climate [%] 40
lighting [%] 10
process [%] 40
other [%] 10
2.3
Load components
Here follow some statistics concerning the load components that have been tested in laboratory measurements presented in Chapter 3.
2.3.1
Lighting
Lighting adds up to about ten per cent of total active power consumption. It consists mainly of incandescent lamps and discharge lamps. But now also low-energy lamps, introduced in the middle of the eighties, render an increasing interest. According to manufacturers [7], today nearly 600 000 are sold annually with an increase of about 25 to 30 per cent each year. Sales figures for low-energy lamps are still well below those for incandescent lamps, which sells around 7 million per year in Sweden. Discharge lamps are mainly found in street-lighting. A preliminary inventory of Gteborgs street-lighting, by Gteborgs Energi AB, shows how different kinds of discharge lamps and other lamps are distributed on a total load of 12.7 MW, Table 2.4. In Appendix D the size and power consumption of lamps in the Gteborg streetlamp network is presented.
Table 2.4 The table shows how different kinds of discharge lamps and other lamps are distributed on the total load in the street-lamp network in Gteborg.
Mercury lamp1 [%] High pressure sodium lamp1 [%] Low pressure sodium lamp [%] Incandescent-, mixed colour-, metal halogenand uorescent lamps [%]
73 16 8.5 2.5
1. At present, when electric fittings in new areas are installed, high pressure sodium lamps are used instead of mercury lamps.
2.3.2
Electric heating
Households, one- or two-dwelling houses with electrical heating (both direct and indirect electrical heating) account for about 15 per cent of the total electric energy consumption in Sweden. About 40 per cent of these households have direct electrical heating as the only means of heating [8]. In these households about 60 per cent of the total electric energy is consumed by the electric heating equipment [5]. Most of the annual energy consumption for electrical heating is consumed during October to April, with only about 11% in the period May to September. 13
About 50% of the households with direct electrical heating were built during the seventies. For some years in this period, approximately 1 000 000 radiators were sold annually in Sweden, most of them with a bimetallic thermostat, which was the most common thermostat on market. Today about 40 000 radiators are sold each year. A new type of thermostat, an electronic temperature regulator, has been developed but still most of the radiators that are sold have the bimetallic thermostat, which will continue to be the most common thermostat for years ahead [9]. 2.3.3 Refrigerator/Freezer
In an electrically heated household about 20 per cent of the total electric energy consumption is accounted for by refrigerator and freezer [5], with refrigerator and freezer consuming equal amounts. Unlike heating equipment, the energy consumption for refrigerators and freezers is equally distributed throughout the year.
14
2.4 [1]
References T. Adielsson, Analys av elleveransskerheten fr Gotland Modellering av den elektriska belastningen p Gotland, Vattenfall Report S-015 (Oct 1989), in Swedish Lngtidsprognos El 1990 - 2010, Stockholm Energi (1990), in Swedish Electric energy supply and district heating 1989, Statistics Sweden, Statistical Report E11:9101, 1991 Belastningsberkning med typkurvor, Svenska Elverksfreningen (1991), in Swedish Mtning av hushllens elkonsumtion, uppdelad p de viktigaste elapparaterna, Rapport 2, Rationell elanvndning, FUD Vattenfall (1987), in Swedish Industrins energianvndning, Energikonsult, ngpannefreningen, at the request of Dept. SM Vattenfall (1984), in Swedish Ny Teknik - TEKNISK TIDSKRIFT. 1990:14, page 5, in Swedish Energy statistics for one- or two-dwelling houses in 1990, Statistics Sweden, Statistical Report E16:9102, 1991 C. Norberg, Direktverkande elradiatorers reglering och konstruktion, Vattenfall Utveckling AB, Rapport F-90:5 (1990), in Swedish
[2] [3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7] [8]
[9]
15
16
Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads
Chapter 3
Laboratory measurements on various loads
3.1
Introduction
In order to derive the voltage dependence of some individual load objects, measurements were performed in the laboratory of The Department of Electrical Power Systems at Chalmers University of Technology. In the laboratory measurements both static and dynamic voltage tests were carried out on different types of lamps, electrical radiators, and refrigerators. The static voltage tests were performed in order to derive and compare three different static load models - the exponential, the linear and the polynomial load model. The dynamic voltage tests were performed on all test objects in order to ascertain if the static models were applicable for these objects in the time range of seconds to minutes (not accounting for fast transient behaviour), or if they had a longer dynamic performance, so that the time constants could be identified.
3.2
Data acquisition system
In both the static and dynamic tests a data acquisition system, controlled by a computer was used. Measurement test results were collected from two multimeters which measure Urms and Irms respectively and a wattmeter which measures active power P. The measurement results were saved on a mass storage device. The data acquisition system was connected as per Figure 3.1 and the measurement arrangement as in Figure 3.2.
17
Voltage
Current
Active power
Multimeter
Multimeter
Wattmeter
Computer
Printer
Figure 3.1
Data acquisition system.
W A G V Test object
Figure 3.2
Measurement arrangement.
18
3.3
The static measurements
In the static measurements the voltage was varied between 70% and 110% of nominal voltage (230 V). In order to avoid systematic errors in the performance of the measurement (i.e. in the way it is done), each static measurement comprised three test series, the first test series was from nominal voltage down to 150 V, the second from 155 V up to 255 V, and the third from 255 V down to 235 V. The test series were performed in the following manner: Every tenth volt, five datums of voltage, current and active power were recorded and the calculated average values were saved on the mass storage device. Reactive power Q was calculated from the voltage U, current I and active power P for each average value, using the equations: S=UI Q = S P
2 2
(3.1) (3.2)
3.4
The dynamic measurements
In the dynamic measurements voltage changes were applied to the load, and the voltage, current, active power and time were measured approximately every second for about quarter of an hour or half an hour depending on the test object. The voltage changes were created by quickly turning an adjustable transformer which resulted in voltage steps of around 10% or 20% with a rise time of approximately 0.10.2 seconds. The reactive power was calculated in the same manner as for the static measurements.
3.5
Accuracy analysis
The error in the measured values and in the calculated values of the reactive power is dependent on the magnitude of measured values. Since it is the curve form, i.e. the relationship between the measured values, which is of interest in the quasistationary measurement, and since the measured values in the quasi-stationary measurements vary over a wide range, it is of interest to see how the bias (systematic error) of the recorded values varies over the range. The accuracy analysis in Appendix B was carried out on the measurement devices and on the measurement arrangement, and shows that the bias due to the measurement arrangement is negligible. The maximum limit of the absolute error, due to the bias in the measurement devices, is presented for the various loads in each section of the laboratory measurements. 19
3.6
Laboratory measurements on lamps
This section deals with laboratory measurements on the three different main types of lighting: incandescent lamps, low-energy lamps and discharge lamps (where discharge lamp is a generic term for fluorescent lamps, mercury lamps, high pressure sodium lamps and low pressure sodium lamps). Results from static and dynamic voltage tests are presented, including derived static load models, observed switch-off voltage and time-constants for each type of lamp. In the diagrams using per-unit values presented in this section, P0, Q0 and U0 are used as base-values, where P0 and Q0 are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V). The load models should be applicable in the time range of seconds to minutes, not accounting for fast transient behaviour. 3.6.1 Test objects
Six types of lamps were tested: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Mercury vapour discharge lamp (Mercury lamp) High pressure sodium vapour lamp (High pressure sodium lamp) Low pressure sodium vapour lamp (Low pressure sodium lamp) Low-energy lamp (which is an electronically controlled fluorescent lamp)
New lamps, as well as old, with different power ratings were tested. With discharge lamps (25), it is not the lamp as a single object that is of interest, but the whole circuit consisting of lamp, reactor, capacitor and, for sodium lamps and fluorescent lamps, the igniter too. Therefore, in the discharge lamp tests the test objects were circuits, all connected according to the manufacturers. It should be noted that all discharge lamps have a compensating capacitor connected in parallel, except the low pressure sodium lamp, which has a capacitor in series with the lamp. See the circuits (test objects) in Figure 3.3 for mercury lamp and low pressure sodium lamp.
20
Reactor L Lamp Reactor L Capacitor N Mercury lamp N
Igniter Lamp
Capacitor Low pressure sodium lamp
Figure 3.3 Two test objects: Mercury lamp with reactor and capacitor, and low pressure sodium lamp with reactor, capacitor and igniter.
3.6.2
Results from static measurements
Figure 3.4 shows the quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power consumed by an incandescent lamp. The rest of the results can be seen in Appendix F where the recorded values are plotted in the same diagram as the static model derived later on in Section 3.6.5.
Figure 3.4 The quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power of an incandescent lamp.
Discharge lamps are very sensitive to sudden voltage changes, especially when the voltage is low, so in order to obtain the switch-off voltage the adjustable transformer 21
was turned slowly. Table 3.1 shows both the recorded active power, just before the lamp is switched off, and the switch-off voltages. After the switch-off the circuit of the discharge lamp will act as a totally capacitive load due to the compensating capacitor (provided the compensating capacitor is in parallel).
Table 3.1 The switch-off voltage and active power just before the switch-off.
Type Fluorescent lamp (2 x 36 W) Mercury lamp (250 W) High pressure sodium lamp (250 W) Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W) Low-energy lamp (11 W)
Switch-off voltage ~ 160 V ~ 180 V ~ 180 V ~ 80 V ~ 4080 V
Active power before switch-off ~ 30 W ~ 165 W ~ 180 W ~ 60 W ~ 2.6 W
3.6.3
Results from dynamic measurements
The following figures (3.5 3.7) show consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude 10% is applied to an incandescent lamp, a mercury lamp and a high pressure sodium lamp. Note that an incandescent lamp is totally resistive. The results for the other types of lamp can be seen in Appendix C.
Figure 3.5 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude 10% is applied to an incandescent lamp. As can be seen from the diagram, incandescent lamps have no dynamic behaviour at all.
22
Figure 3.6 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude 10% is applied to a mercury lamp. As can be seen from the diagram, mercury lamps have a slight dynamic voltage dependence in reactive power and no dynamic voltage dependence in active power.
Figure 3.7 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude 10% is applied to a high pressure sodium lamp. As can be seen in the diagram, high pressure sodium lamps have a clear dynamic voltage dependence in both active and reactive power.
23
3.6.4
Accuracy analysis
As mentioned before, it is the bias in the measurement devices, which most influences the absolute error. Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10 show the inaccuracy in active power and voltage for a high pressure sodium lamp and a fluorescent lamp respectively. The crosses show the maximum limits of the absolute error for the active power and voltage according to:
Pm+E p Pm UmE u Um Um+ Eu PmEp
Figure 3.8 The maximum limit of the absolute error, where Pm and Um are measured active power and voltage, and Ep, Eu respectively are the calculated maximum limits of the absolute error.
Figure 3.9 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a high pressure sodium lamp. The accuracy in active power is very high, practically no vertical lines in the crosses can be seen. The dominating inaccuracy, which however is small, is in the voltage (the horizontal lines in the crosses).
24
Figure 3.10 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a fluorescent lamp. The accuracy in active power is very high, practically no vertical lines in the crosses can be seen. The dominating inaccuracy, which however is small, is in the voltage (the horizontal lines in the crosses).
There is a very small error in measured active power for discharge lamps and incandescent lamps. This is due to the error in measured active power being dependent on the power factor of the test object, i.e. the accuracy in measured active power increases as the power factor increases1. Therefore, if the lamps are purely resistive or the lamps are totally compensated, the inaccuracy in active power will be minimal. The accuracy in reactive power has an inverse reaction to the power factor - the accuracy in the calculated reactive power increases as the power factor decreases1, which results in an unacceptable accuracy in the calculated reactive power for low pressure and high pressure sodium lamps, as they are almost totally compensated over the entire voltage range (Figure 3.11). If, however, the error in reactive power is compared to apparent power S instead of Q, the error will be less. Mercury and fluorescent lamps have a strong voltage dependence in reactive power, stronger voltage dependence than the active power, i.e. the power factor varies with the voltage. The power factor approaches one at very low voltages, which gives a poor accuracy in reactive power at lower voltages, but a better accuracy at higher voltages where the power factor is less (Figure 3.12).
1. A well-known problem in measurements concerning active and reactive power.
25
Low-energy lamps show a slightly poorer accuracy in both active and reactive power, due to a low current and a bad power factor. See Appendix D which shows the accuracy-variations in active and reactive power for the six various types of lamp.
Figure 3.11 The accuracy-variations in calculated reactive power and measured voltage of a high pressure sodium lamp. The accuracy is unacceptable over the total voltage range.
Figure 3.12 The accuracy-variations in calculated reactive power and measured voltage of a fluorescent lamp. The accuracy is unacceptable for low voltages. The crosses below approximately 0.8 pu on the voltage axis are actually capacitive.
26
3.6.4.1
Harmonics generated by discharge lamps
The bias of the multimeters is only specified for sine waves, but discharge lighting is highly nonlinear and gives rise to considerable odd-ordered harmonic currents. The voltage across the tube itself illustrates clearly the non-linearity. The waveforms in Figure 3.14 show voltage uL across and current iL through a mercury lamp, where uL and iL are defined as follows:
i + u
Reactor iL Capacitor + uL Lamp
Figure 3.13
Measured voltage and current.
Amplitude
Time Figure 3.14 The waveforms for the voltage uL across and the current iL to a mercury lamp (recorded by a sampling Data Acquisition System, DAS).
27
As can be seen in Figure 3.14, the voltage waveform across the discharge lamp resembles a square-wave having sharp leading and trailing edges, which occur repeatedly at the same angles, respectively, in each cycle. The voltage wave form is therefore very rich in odd-order harmonics over a wide frequency spectrum. The current wave form is more sinusoidal and has predominantly low-frequency components. However, when the measurements were carried out on discharge lamps the circuit consisted of a lamp, reactor and capacitor (in some cases the igniter too) and are represented in the wave forms shown in Figure 3.15 (u and i defined as in Figure 3.13).
Amplitude
Time Figure 3.15 The feeding voltage u and current i of the lamp circuit. The feeding voltage contains harmonics of higher orders, which can be seen as a ripple on the current wave form, as the capacitor has a lower reactance for harmonics of higher orders; compare the expression: In = j n C Un; = 2 f, f = fundamental frequency. (Recorded by a sampling Data Acquisition System, DAS)
A spectrum analyser was used to obtain the frequency spectrum for both the feeding voltage and current of a mercury lamp. The result can be seen in a plotted frequency spectrum, Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17 where the different harmonic components are shown as per cent of the fundamental frequency.
28
100
Per cent of the fundamental frequency
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Harmonic order
Figure 3.16
The frequency spectrum of the feeding voltage of a mercury lamp.
100
12.5
Per cent of the fundamental frequency
10
7.5
2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Harmonic order
Figure 3.17
The frequency spectrum of the feeding current of a mercury lamp.
29
3.6.4.2 The inaccuracy due to harmonics As mentioned before, the accuracy for the multimeters is only specified for sinewave inputs. The inaccuracy due to harmonics is determined by the crest factors of the measurement devices, where the crest factor is defined as the peak value divided by the rms-value of the quantity. For example the crest factor for a pure sinewave equals 2 . At full scale the allowable crest factor for the multimeters is 4. This will do for measurements on discharge lamps, as the wave forms of the current to these lamps have a crest factor lesser than four. However, the current to a low-energy lamp has a crest factor which equals 4 (Figure 3.18). During a similar test between the multimeter and a sampling DAS (the Data Acquisition System, which was used in the field measurement) the displayed value on the multimeter for the current and the calculated rms value from the instantaneous values showed a good resemblance. In Figure 3.18 the waveforms for a low-energy lamp are shown and in Appendix E the corresponding waveforms for fluorescent and sodium lamps can be found. There is no specification for the crest factor for the wattmeter, or if the accuracy is specified for only sinewaves. However, during tests with the sampling DAS, the displayed values on the wattmeter and the calculated active power from the instantaneous values concurred. This implies that the accuracy of the wattmeter will suffice for measurements on discharge and low-energy lamps.
Amplitude
Time Figure 3.18 The voltage u and current i waveforms for a low-energy lamp. The crest factor of the current equals 4.
30
3.6.4.3 The definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions As we have now seen, the harmonics influence on the measurement accuracy on voltage, current and active power can be considered as minimal. But in calculating reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions a problem arises concerning the definition. This is briefly discussed in the following. The use of nonlinear loads has increased greatly, as has the interest for the definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions. Two major models dominate todays approach to the definition and components of the reactive power: First is the school of Budeanu, which is sanctioned in the ANSI/IEEE Standard 1001977. Second is the school of Fryze which influenced the International Electrical Commissions position. Articles in journals show the ongoing struggle to recognise and produce a practical model acceptable to the electric utility [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. All supporters of both the schools agree however, that none of the definitions are complete. Here follows a short presentation of the two schools, which are often referred to as the frequency-domain approach and the time-domain approach respectively:
Budeanus definition: Q =
n=1
U n I n sin n
Fryzes definition: The source current is divided into two orthogonal components, ia and ir, called active current and reactive current as follows: i = ia + ir ; P i a = ------ u 2 U
where u = source voltage And with the following relations between rms values I = Ia + Ir
2 2 2
which yields S = P + QF
2 2 2
Q F = UI r =
S P
To give the problem a more practical approach, look at the voltage and current of a low-energy lamp in Figure 3.18. What about the reactive power: is the lamp inductive/capacitive or is it resistive? One can safely ascertain that the power factor, which is universally defined as P/S, where P is the average power and S = Irms Urms, equals approximately 0.5. 31
In the absence of a clear definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal 2 2 conditions, the well-known definition Q = S P , was used in calculating the reactive power. It should be noted though, that when measurements were made without a compensating capacitor and the compensated reactive power was calculated, the reactive power, compared to a measured compensated and calculated reactive power, differed. This might however also depend on the different inaccuracies in the calculated reactive powers. 3.6.5 The static load models
The Least Square Method (LSM) was used to derive parameters for these three models, described in Chapter 1: 1. Exponential: U P ----- = ------ U P0 0 2. Linear: U P ----- = a 0 + a 1 -----U0 P0 3. Polynomial: U U 2 P ----- = a 0 + a 1 ------ + a 2 ------ U U0 P0 0 U U 2 Q ------ = b 0 + b 1 ------ + b 2 ------ U U0 Q0 0 U Q ------ = b 0 + b 1 -----U0 Q0
np
U Q ------ = ------ U Q0 0
nq
The parameters are usually derived from the measured values, which lie between 90% and 110% of the nominal voltage. If it is possible (if the lamp has not switched off), the third model is calculated from the datums which lie between 70% and 110% of the nominal voltage. As mentioned in Section 3.6.4 about inaccuracy, lamps with a power factor close to 1.0, have a high accuracy in measured active power. The models for active power for discharge lamps and incandescent lamps are therefore more or less accurate. As the accuracy in calculated reactive power for the high- and low pressure sodium lamps is unacceptable, it is rather needless to calculate models for the reactive power for those two. The models for active and reactive power for low-energy lamps may be uncertain, since the inaccuracy in the measured and calculated values is slightly high. 32
Table 3.2 shows the calculated parameters np and nq for the exponential models. Table 3.3 shows the calculated parameters a1 and b1 for the linear models, a0 and b0 are easily calculated as 1 a1 and 1 b1 respectively. Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show some calculated parameters for the polynomial load models. Since a0 + a1 + a2 = 1, it is impossible to present the parameters in an interval as in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. Instead Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show some examples of the polynomial models. Appendix F shows recorded quantities together with their models.
Table 3.2 The parameters for the exponential model.
Type Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Mercury lamp High pressure sodium lamp Low pressure sodium lamp Low-energy lamp
np 1.51.55 2.02.2 2.22.4 2.12.5 0.30.5 0.81.2
nq 4.56.5 4.06.0 1.01.5
Table 3.3
The parameters for the linear model.
Type Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Mercury lamp High pressure sodium lamp Low pressure sodium lamp Low-energy lamp
a1 1.51.55 1.92.1 2.22.4 2.12.5 0.40.6 0.81.2
b1 4.56.5 4.06.0 1.01.5
33
Table 3.4
The parameters for the active power for the polynomial model.
Type Incandescent lamp
a0 0.098 0.124
a1 0.669 0.733 4.55 3.48 2.23 3.679 0.437 0.273 0.34 0.19 0.024 0.468
a2 0.429 0.391 1.37 0.765 0.05 0.862 1.439 1.355 0.36 0.28 0.613 0.364
Fluorescent lamp
2.180 1.715
Mercury lamp
1.28 1.817
High pressure sodium lamp
0.002 0.082
Low pressure sodium lamp
0.98 0.91
Low-energy lamp
0.363 0.168
Table 3.5
The parameters for reactive power for the polynomial model.
Type Fluorescent lamp
b0 7.58 7.56
b1 19.34 19.19 9.964 8.47 0.654 0.68
b2 12.76 12.63 7.51 6.69 0.355 0.338
Mercury lamp
3.454 2.78
Low-energy lamp
0.009 0.018
3.6.6
The dynamic behaviour
The following results were obtained from the dynamic measurement test results and include, if the lamp is dynamic voltage dependent, power deviation (i.e. the difference between the stationary value and the momentarily power response after a voltage step), settling time and time constant (if a time constant is well defined): Incandescent, low-energy and fluorescent lamps have no dynamic behaviour at all. 34
Mercury lamps have no dynamic voltage dependence in active power, but a voltage dependence in reactive power, with a reactive power deviation of approximately 5% after a voltage step, and a settling time of approximately 11.5 minutes. Both types of sodium lamps have a dynamic voltage dependence in active and reactive power. High pressure sodium lamps have an active power deviation of approximately 5% after a voltage step with a settling time of approximately 3060 seconds, and the reactive power has a time constant of approximately 1 minute and a settling time of 23 minutes. Low pressure sodium lamps have approximately the same settling time in active and reactive power ~5 minutes, and the active power has a power deviation of approximately 5%. Due to the insufficient accuracy in calculated reactive power for sodium lamps, it is not possible to determine the reactive power deviation.
3.6.7
Discussion
Some conclusions can be drawn from the results concerning active power consumption, reactive power consumption and the switch-off voltage: Active power As can be seen in Table 3.2 to 3.5, discharge lamps have an approximate quadratic voltage dependence, except low pressure sodium lamp which acts as constant power load. The incandescent lamps have a voltage dependence which is between constant current and constant impedance load. Lowenergy lamps act as constant current load. Fluorescent lamps and mercury lamps have a strong voltage dependence. The other lamps have a nearly linear voltage dependence or nearly no voltage dependence at all.
Reactive power
Switch-off voltage The switch-off voltages for the mercury lamps and the high pressure lamps are rather high, which means for example that lamps at the end of a street lighting circuit may switch-off even if the feeding voltage is fairly close to nominal value. Gteborgs Energiverk experienced this, when they connected a balancing transformer at the feeding point in order to depress the voltage and save energy. This resulted in problems with flickering lamps and unlit lamps at the end of the lines. The lamps have no pronounced dynamic behaviour. No differences between old and new lamps were observed. If there was a variation, it seemed to be due to the variations in individual test objects. 35
3.7
Laboratory measurements on electric heating devices
Up to now electric heating devices have been considered as constant impedance loads. However, the device comprises not only a heat generating component (a resistance), but of a thermostat too. In order to investigate the influence of the thermostat, laboratory measurements were performed as a part of masters degree thesis at the Department of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers [6, 7].
3.7.1
Test objects
The measurements for home heating appliances were taken using radiators with two different types of thermostat. 1. 2. Bimetallic regulated heating device Electronic regulated heating device
Type 1 has a bimetallic thermostat and is, in Sweden, the most commonly used temperature regulated radiator. In Figure 3.19 the bimetallic regulated radiator is shown schematically.
230 V
Bimetallic switch
ON OFF
Compensating element Ceramic case
Accelerating element
Heating component
Figure 3.19
A schematic diagram of the bimetallic regulated radiator.
In the bimetallic thermostat there are, apart from the bimetallic switch, an accelerating and a compensating element. The purpose of these elements is to give a constant room temperature that does not change with the working-point of the radiator, i.e. change with the mean power output. The principal of the thermostat is as follows: 36
The accelerating element, which is a resistance, emits heat to the bimetallic switch during the on-period in order to get an earlier switch-off, since the radiator continues to emit the accumulated energy after the switch-off. This inhibits an overshoot in room temperature that otherwise would take place, and results in shorter on/off cycles (the time when the radiator is on, plus the time the radiator is off) and a more steady room temperature. The disadvantage with an accelerating element is that the bimetallic switch switches off at different temperatures, depending on the working-point of the radiator. To counteract this drift, a compensating element, which is a resistance with a ceramic case, is connected to the feeding voltage during the switch-off period. Due to the heat-accumulating ceramic case, the compensating element will emit heat continuously during a whole on/off cycle. The compensating element reaches a higher temperature and emits more heat the longer it is connected, i.e.the shorter the radiator is switched on. The compensating element affects the cycle in an opposite direction to the influence of the accelerating element, and the two components together will give the bimetallic switch a constant over temperature. Bimetallic regulated heating devices have a rather large variation in on/off cycles, from around 50 to 400 seconds. Type 2 has an electronic thermostat and its main components are a thermal sensor, a potentiometer and a control circuit together with a TRIAC power switch, see Figure 3.20:
E
Control circuit Preset temperature
230 V
R + R
Thermal sensor (NTC) Comparator Amplifier Heating component Triac
Figure 3.20
A schematic diagram of the electronic thermostat.
37
The voltage over the potentiometer - which depends on the preset temperature on the radiator, and the voltage over the thermal sensor - which depends on the room temperature, are compared in the control circuit. When the conditions for reaction are reached, the control circuit gives an impulse to the TRIAC in order to switch on/off the radiator. The electronic thermostat has a constant on/off cycle. The two radiators with electronic thermostats which were tested, had on/off cycles of 48 and 52 seconds respectively.
3.7.2
The climate box
A large box was built in order both to control the thermal flow and to achieve experimental reproducibility (not in order to represent an actual room) see Figure 3.21.
Canal ventilator
temp 1
temp 2
1000
Test object, radiator
Perforated plate
2400
Figure 3.21 The climate box seen from above.
L W H: 2400 1000 1200 mm. Framework: 12 mm thick plywood plates. Insulation: 100 mm thick polystyrene. Air flow distributor: Perforated plate with 9.5 mm quadratic holes, 52% air. Fan: Canal ventilator.
The box was built of 12 mm thick plywood sheets and insulated on all six surfaces with 100 mm thick polystyrene, which gives approximately - at a 5 degree deviation between the inside and the outside temperature - an energy loss of 30 W, which may be considered negligible. 38
Holes were made on both the short sides, in order to obtain an airflow through the box. A canal ventilator was mounted over one of the holes whilst the other hole served as the outflow. To prevent the outflow air from influencing the inflow, the ventilated air was blown into an adjacent room. A perforated plate was placed inside the box to distribute the air flow. Thermometers were placed at the inflow, the outflow and inside the box.
3.7.3
Results
The results of the measurements are illustrated in two different graphs for each radiator. One graph shows the on-and-off periods and the other shows the mean power which is calculated as the average power during an on/off cycle according to: P t on P mean = -------------------t on + t off
(3.3)
In Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23, a voltage step of magnitude 20% has been applied to the bimetallic regulated radiator. The on-and-off periods for the radiator can be seen in Figure 3.22 and the mean-power in Figure 3.23.
800
On, before a voltage step On, after a voltage step Off
600
Time (s )
400
200
0 On-and-off periods
Figure 3.22
On-and-off periods for a radiator with a bimetallic thermostat. The disturbance
is a voltage-step of magnitude 20%.
39
500
voltage-step
Mean Power (W)
400
300
200 0 1000 2000 3000 Time (s) 4000 5000
Figure 3.23 The mean-power for a radiator with a bimetallic thermostat. The disturbance is a voltage-step of magnitude 20%.
Figure 3.24 and Figure 3.25 show the on-and-off periods and the mean-power, respectively, after a voltage step of magnitude 20% has been applied to the electronic regulated radiator.
On, after a voltage step
On, before a voltage step
Off
40
30
Time (s )
20
10
0 On-and-off periods
Figure 3.24 The on-and-off periods for a radiator with an electronic thermostat. The disturbance is a voltage-step of magnitude 20%.
40
500 voltage-step
Mean Power (W)
400
300
200 0 500 1000 1500 Time (s) 2000 2500
Figure 3.25 The mean-power for a radiator with an electronic thermostat. The disturbance is a voltage-step of magnitude 20%.
3.7.4
Load model
A load model of the instantaneous value of the power consumption for one single radiator is not useful as the radiator will go on and off in response to the thermostat. It is more appropriate to study the mean power which gives a good indication of the power consumption over a period of time. A group of radiators will have a mean power curve that resembles the one for a single radiator, but due to the various onand-off times for radiators, the time constant will be different.
3.7.5
Discussion
If the radiator is within an on-period and a voltage change is applied to it, the thermostat shows no tendency to switch off momentarily, and the radiator behaves as a constant impedance load during a time period of tens of seconds regardless of the type of thermostat. After this period of time the radiators begin to act dynamically. The two regulated radiators show a difference in dynamic behaviour: The on/off cycles of the bimetallic regulated radiator are altered immediately after the disturbance. The mean power is thus changed in an opposite direction to the voltage, i.e. when the voltage step is negative the mean-power increases and vice 41
versa. The original mean power as it was prior to the disturbance is not regained. This unexpected effect is caused by the accelerating and compensating elements, as both react as a result of the voltage change. The size of the deviation between the mean power before and after the voltage change depends on the working-point of the radiator and the size of the voltage step: For example, after an increase in voltage, the effect could be that the bimetallic element will switch off the radiator and stay that way, as the compensating element will emit too much heat to the bimetallic switch. The inverse may be observed during a decrease in voltage, as the accelerating element will emit too little heat to get a switch-off, and the radiator will stay switched on. This was both observed in the laboratory and at complementary tests at the home of one of the authors (the room temperature was changed accordingly). On the contrary, if a decrease in voltage occurs for example on a cold day during winter when the radiator has a high working-point (the radiators are on during nearly the whole cycle), the reaction to a small decrease in voltage could be that the mean power stays the same, and a larger decrease in voltage, that the mean power decreases, instead of increases. The on/off cycles of the electronic regulated device remain the same directly after a disturbance, and due to the change in supply voltage, the mean power is changed accordingly. Note that for this type of regulator, the time for an on/off cycle is constant. The temperature regulator adjusts the on-and-off times within the constant period and after a damped oscillation the mean power reaches approximately the same value as before the disturbance. On cold winter days, the same applies for the electronic regulator as for the bimetallic regulator, that the mean power may decrease after a negative voltage step, if the working-point of the regulator is high and the voltage step is large enough.
3.8
Laboratory measurements on refrigerators
This section deals with the laboratory measurements on refrigerators. Both static and dynamic voltage tests are presented and parameters for different load models for each refrigerator are also derived. In the per-unit diagrams presented in this section, P0, Q0 and U0 are used as base-values, where P0 and Q0 are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V). The load models should be applicable in the time range of minutes, not accounting for fast transient behaviour. In addition to the static and dynamic tests a critical voltage was observed. 42
3.8.1
Test objects
Two refrigerators were tested: 1. 2. Refrigerator A Refrigerator B 155 litres 154 litres
Both refrigerators were new, and refrigerator A was equipped with a small freezing compartment. As the on/off cycle is very long, more than one hour, the influence of the thermostat was not taken into account. The thermostat was on maximum level so that the compressor would be running during the measurements in each test. The refrigerators were tested in a room with an ambient temperature of 24.5 C.
3.8.2
Results from static measurements
Figure 3.26 shows the quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power consumed by refrigerator A. The results for reactive power and for refrigerator B are shown with the derived models in Section 3.8.5 and in Appendix F. The critical voltage is observed in the results from the static measurements as the voltage for minimum power (Figure 3.26). The results correspond to results from measurements performed by A. Malmquist [8].
Figure 3.26
The quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power of refrigerator A.
43
3.8.3
Results from dynamic measurements
Figure 3.27 shows consumed active and reactive power and voltage as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude 20% is applied to refrigerator A. The rest of the results are shown in Appendix C.
Figure 3.27 The dynamic voltage dependence for the active and reactive power of refrigerator A. As can be seen from the diagram, refrigerators have no dynamic behaviour.
3.8.4
Accuracy analysis
As was previously mentioned, it is the bias in the measurement devices which influences the maximum limit of the absolute error. Figure 3.28 shows the inaccuracy in active power and voltage, and Figure 3.29 the inaccuracy in reactive power and voltage. The crosses show the maximum limits of the absolute error for the active power and voltage according to Figure 3.8 in Section 3.6.4. As can be seen in the two figures for refrigerators, both the errors in active and reactive power can be considered small.
44
Figure 3.28 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a refrigerator. The accuracy in both active power and voltage is high.
Figure 3.29 The accuracy-variations in calculated reactive power and measured voltage of a refrigerator. The accuracy in both reactive power and voltage is high.
3.8.5
The static load models
The active and reactive powers for the refrigerators show a static behaviour after a voltage step. The quasi-stationary measurements are therefore a good representation of the voltage dependence in a range of minutes, and only static models have to be derived. 45
The same static load models are derived for the refrigerators as for the lamps: 1. Exponential: U P ----- = ------ U P0 0 2. Linear: U P ----- = a 0 + a 1 -----U0 P0 3. Polynomial: U U 2 P ----- = a 0 + a 1 ------ + a 2 ------ U U0 P0 0 U U 2 Q ------ = b 0 + b 1 ------ + b 2 ------ U U0 Q0 0 U Q ------ = b 0 + b 1 -----U0 Q0
np
U Q ------ = ------ U Q0 0
nq
The parameters for the exponential and linear load models are derived from the measured values, which lie between 90% and 110% of the nominal voltage, and for the polynomial model the parameters are derived from the datums which lie between 70% and 110% of the nominal voltage. Table 3.6 shows the calculated parameters to the exponential models p = unp and q = unq, the calculated parameters to the linear models p = a0 + a1u and q = b0 + b1u are shown in Table 3.7 (a0 = 1 a1, b0 = 1 b1). The calculated parameters for the polynomial model are divided into two tables, Table 3.8 for the active power p = a0 + a1u + a2u2 and Table 3.9 for the reactive power q = b0 + b1u + b2u2. Appendix F shows recorded quantities together with their models.
Table 3.6 The parameters for the exponential model.
Type Refrigerator A Refrigerator B
np 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.8
nq 3.1 3.3 2.8 3.2
Table 3.7
The parameters for the linear model.
Type Refrigerator A Refrigerator B 46
a1 1.3 1.7 1.1 1.8
b1 3.1 3.3 2.5 3.3
Table 3.8
The parameters for the active power for the polynomial model.
Type Refrigerator A
a0 2.190 2.360
a1 3.955 4.330 4.690 4.318
a2 2.765 2.970 3.237 3.015
Refrigerator B
2.453 2.303
Table 3.9
The parameters for reactive power for the polynomial model.
Type Refrigerator A
b0 2.190 2.190
b1 5.650 5.640 5.307 5.288
b2 4.460 4.450 4.284 4.266
Refrigerator B
2.023 2.022
3.8.6
Discussion
Some conclusions can be drawn from the results concerning active power consumption, reactive consumption and the critical voltages: Active power The refrigerators have a voltage dependence which is between constant current and constant impedance. The refrigerators have a very low power factor and are installed completely uncompensated. The voltage dependency for the reactive power is rather high, nq 3.2 in the exponential load model. The critical voltage is observed in the figure for the quasistationary voltage dependency for the active power, Figure 3.24, approximately 0.6 pu. If the voltage is lower, the power demand increases because the compressor stops running while the current is not broken [8]. If, however, the voltage is increased from a level below the critical voltage the power demand will increase even more until the current is broken.
Reactive power
Critical voltage
There is a negligible difference between the results of the two refrigerators and they have no dynamic voltage dependence. 47
3.9 [1]
References W. Shepherd, P. Zand, Energy flow and power factor in nonsinusoidal circuits, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979 N. L. Kusters, W. J. M. Moore, On the definition of reactive power under nonsinusoidal conditions, IEEE Trans.Power Appl. Syst., vol PAS-99, pp. 1845 - 1854, Sept/Oct. 1980 C. H. Page, Reactive power in nonsinusoidal situations, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol IM-29, pp. 420 - 423, Dec. 1980 P. Filipski, A new approach to reactive current and reactive power measurement in nonsinusoidal systems, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol IM-29, pp. 423 - 426, Dec. 1980 L. S. Czarnecki, Additional discussion to Reactive power under nonsinusoidal conditions, IEEE Trans.Power App. Syst., vol PAS-102, pp. 1023 - 1024, Apr. 1983 J. Nslund. The load-voltage dependence of home heating appliances. Diploma thesis 91-03, Dept. of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 1991, in Swedish D. Karlsson, K. Lindn, I. Segerqvist, B. Stenborg, Temporary loadvoltage characteristics for voltage stability studies - Field and laboratory measurements, CIGR Report 38-204, Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 5 1992 A. Malmquist, Dynamics of load objects - laboratory tests, 1985, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
48
Chapter 4: Field measurements
Chapter 4
Field measurements
4.1
Introduction
It is desirable to compare the results of the laboratory measurements with results from field measurements performed with a load similar to the ones tested in the laboratory. Carrying out tests in co-operation with El och Trafikteknik AB, the former department of street lighting and traffic signals at Gteborg Energi AB, gave the opportunity of doing field measurements on street-lamp networks. This chapter presents the results of these field measurements. Field measurements have been carried out in southern Sweden in order to derive dynamic load models [1, 2]. In these measurements an essential part of the composite load consisted of electrically heated households. This chapter also presents a short discussion on how it is possible to identify the composite load in these field measurements with the results from the laboratory measurements.
4.2
Field measurements on street-lamp networks
The field measurements on street-lamp networks were carried out in order to verify the static and dynamic laboratory measurements on lighting. The behaviour of one lamp, measured in the laboratory, would then be compared to the behaviour of a group of lamps.
4.2.1
Test net
The street lamps are in separate networks and are fed from ordinary sub-stations. The networks are radial but with the possibility of reconnecting in the case of fault. 49
The tests were performed in an area with mercury lamps. Two different groups were tested, ~10 000 W and ~15 000 W rated power respectively. For comparison one single mercury lamp was connected in parallel with the out-going group according to Figure 4.2. The street-lamp networks consist exclusively of underground cables. The networks chosen for the field measurement were fed by a balancing transformer. The purpose of this arrangement is to decrease the voltage feeding the lamps in order to save energy. With the balancing transformer it was possible to decrease and increase the voltage in two steps of together about 10%, with 0.3 seconds between the steps.
4.2.2
Data acquisition system
During the field measurements, a sampling data acquisition system (DAS) was used controlled by a computer. The instantaneous phase-voltages and phase-currents were measured simultaneously through a voltage divider and a current-to-voltage converter respectively. The data acquisition system was connected according to Figure 4.1 and the measurement arrangement as in Figure 4.2.
Current
Voltage
Current-to-voltage converter
Voltage divider
Multiprogrammer including two A/D converters and a high speed memory
Printer
Computer
Mass storage device
Figure 4.1
The data acquisition system.
50
To multiprogrammer
Current-to-voltage converter
From balancing transformer
Voltage divider
single mercury lamp
Street lamp network
Figure 4.2
Measurement arrangement.
4.2.3
Dynamic measurements
In the dynamic tests, the voltage was decreased in two steps to 90 per cent or in one step to 98 per cent of nominal voltage, or was increased from this level back to nominal voltage in one step. The instantaneous voltages and currents were measured during 15 minutes, with 0.1 seconds measuring-time every second, and with a sampling rate of 15.6 kHz. With the instantaneous values the rms values for voltage and current were calculated according to the definition. The active power P was calculated by integrating the instantaneous power u i over every cycle of voltage 1 P = -- u i dt T
0 T
The reactive power was calculated as Q = S P

2 2
where the apparent power S was calculated as Urms Irms. 4.2.4 Accuracy
The inaccuracy in voltage and current for the measuring device is of the same size as for the measuring device used in the laboratory measurement. In active and reactive powers, error due to the integration is added to the error in the measuring device. 51
4.2.5
Results
Figures 4.3 to 4.8 show some results from the field measurements. Figures 4.3 to 4.5 show results from the measurements on the first group (with a rated power of ~10 000 W). In Figure 4.3 to 4.5 the applied voltage step is of magnitude approx. 10% (225 V down to 201 V). In this test, the voltage at the end of the line was observed. While the voltage in the feeding station changed from 225 V to 201 V, the voltage at the end of the line changed from 215 V down to 193 V. Just after the voltage step one lamp at the end of the line went out and one started to flicker. During the test it was also observed that one lamp in the middle of the line went out. From the measurement test results it can be concluded that yet another lamp had gone out. After 10 minutes all these lamps were on again.
Figure 4.3 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when a voltage step of magnitude approx. 10% (225 V down to 201 V) is applied to group one. One lamp has gone out momentarily after the voltage step. After 5 minutes it comes on.
52
Figure 4.4 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when a voltage step of magnitude approx. 10% (225 V down to 201 V) is applied to group one. One lamp has gone out momentarily after the voltage step, and one after ~2.5 minutes. After about 10 minutes both are on again.
Figure 4.5 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when a voltage step of magnitude approx. 10% (225 V down to 201 V) is applied to group one. 3.5 minutes after the voltage step one lamp goes out and after 9 minutes it comes on.
Figure 4.6 shows when the voltage is increased from 90 per cent of nominal voltage to nominal voltage level. 53
Figure 4.6 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when a voltage step of magnitude approx. +10% (201 V up to 227 V) is applied to group one.
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show some results from the tests on the second group (with a rated power of ~15 000 W). Figure 4.7 shows the voltage decrease and Figure 4.8 the voltage increase for one phase.
Figure 4.7 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when a voltage step of magnitude approx. 10% (228 V down to 204 V) is applied to group two.
54
Figure 4.8
Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when
a voltage step of magnitude approx. +10% (204 V up to 228 V) is applied to group two.
4.2.6
Discussion
The results in the field measurements are similar to the results in the laboratory measurements. The dynamic behaviour of a group of lamps resembles the behaviour of one lamp, exhibited in the laboratory measurements. There is a slight dynamic voltage dependence in reactive power and none in active power (c.f. Section 3.6.6). However, the fact that some lamps might go out due to a large voltage step and after some minutes come on again, could be considered as a small power recovery, with an overshoot in reactive power when a lamp comes on (Figure 4.4) In addition, the parameters for the exponential load model, derived in the laboratory measurements are compared to parameters derived from the tests in the field measurements. The parameters derived in the field measurements have a higher value (np = 2.9 3.2, and nq = 4 7), than those derived in the laboratory measurements (np = 2.2 2.4, and nq = 4.0 6.0). Both the power factor (~0.7) and the wave form of the current (not shown) indicate that the lamps in group one are uncompensated. 55
4.3
Field measurements on composite load
Field measurements carried out in Southern Sweden [1, 2] show that the active power recovers after a voltage step. Within five minutes, more than half of the initial active power reduction has been recovered. This power recovery occurs in winter measurements, while in summer measurements there is hardly any recovery at all. The measurements were performed in two areas with different load-composition, but in both areas an essential part of the load consists of electrically heated households. Out of the results of the field measurements it seems reasonable to assume that the composite load consists mainly of two different parts, one static part - the instantaneous power change, and one dynamic part - the power recovery [1]. The results from the laboratory measurements can be used to identify the composite load (Chapter 2). Non regulated radiators together with lighting, refrigerators and other non dynamic voltage-dependent loads will have an instantaneous power change after a step in voltage. A group of thermostat regulated radiators with bimetallic thermostats, will have an inverse reaction to voltage changes in sense of power and due to various on-and-off time have a slow performance (Section 3.7). These two behaviours, the instantaneous power-change and the slow inverse reaction, could result in a power-recovery like the one measured in the performed field measurements in southern Sweden. In order to investigate the load behaviour tests similar to the field measurements performed in Southern Sweden have been carried out by the CEGB [3, 4]. In these tests, the only power recovery that is mentioned is that due to automatic tap changers.
56
4.4 [1]
References D. Karlsson, K. Lindn, I. Segerqvist, B. Stenborg, Temporary loadvoltage characteristics for voltage stability studies - Field and laboratory measurements, CIGR Report 38-204, Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 5 1992 D. Karlsson, Voltage stability simulations using detailed models based on field measurements, Technical Report no. 230, Dep. of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden G. Shackshaft, P. H. Ashmole, The influence of load characteristics on power system performance - A C.E.G.B viewpoint, CIGR Report 31-02, Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 7 1978 G. Shackshaft, C. Eng, O. C. Symons, J. G. Hadwick, General-purpose model of power-system loads PROC. IEE, Vol 124, No 8, August 1977
[2]
[3]
[4]
57
58
Chapter 5: Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics
Chapter 5
Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics
5.1
Introduction
Incidents causing system voltage instability have occurred with increasing frequency throughout the world. This is due to the fact that the average transmission line is more heavily loaded than ever before. When analysing the incidents, the importance of load characteristics and system load level are emphasized [2, 3]. Curves that describe the relationship between the voltage and the transmitted active and reactive power respectively (UP and QUcurves) are widely used as tools for voltage stability analysis, and are also used when planning a system [1, 4]. This part of the thesis will describe how the UP and QUcurves together with the load characteristics can be used to show if a system, due to an incident, approaches a critical situation. The effects of two kinds of incidents are studied: an increase in the load, and a decrease in the feeding voltage. The influence of a tap changer on both the load characteristics and the UP and QUcurves are also studied. These studies are intended to elucidate the processes described rather than to recommend any necessary action.
5.2
System characteristics
The UP and QUcurves for a busbar in an electric power system can be calculated with multiple load flow calculations or, if the system is simple enough, with power flow equations. Figure 5.1 shows a small system of transmission lines and transformers.
59
1 2 3
Figure 5.1 A small system. A load is connected to bus 3 and is of exponential type according to the definitions in Chapter 1.
Simplify the system in Figure 5.1 by regarding bus 2 as an infinite bus. The system is then a single line represented with an impedance ZL according to Figure 5.2.
E 2
ZL= RL+jX L
U 3 P/Q
Figure 5.2 Model of a single line. E and U represent the absolute value of the voltages, and = 2 - 3 is the angle between the voltages. P and Q represent the transmitted active and reactive power.
The power flow equations for the receiving end in this system can be expressed as EU U P = ------ sin + ------- sin ( + ) ZL ZL U EU Q = ------ cos + ------- cos ( + ) ZL ZL RL where the loss-angle = arctan -----XL If the variables in the power flow equations are changed to per unit values with E as base-voltage and ZL as base-impedance giving E2/ZL as base-power, and then rearranged (Appendix G) we get p = u [ 1 u 2 ( p sin + q cos ) ] q 60
2 2 2 2 2 2
(5.1)
(5.2)
(5.3)
For simplification the resistance will be neglected, the loss angle is then zero, which can be an acceptable approximation if the voltage level is 130 kV or higher. Equation (5.3) then becomes p = u (u + q)
2 2 2 2
(5.4)
The equations for the up and qucurves are achieved by isolating u and q, respectively (Appendix G)
2 1 1 -- q -- q p 4 2 2 2 2
u =
(5.5)
q = u u p
(5.6)
In the equations for the upcurve (Equation (5.5)) and qucurve (Equation (5.6)) the active power p or the reactive power q respectively may be treated as a constant or as an expression of the other. A constant p or q gives the opportunity to study control issues. If for instance the reactive power q is drawn as a function of the voltage u with the active power p as a constant it is possible to study how to control the voltage by regulating the reactive power. When studying stability issues it is perhaps more appropriate to have p or q as a function of the other. What is then interesting to study is the transmission possibilities at different load situations. With the up or qucurve in hand it is possible to observe if a working-point, i.e. a solution of a power flow calculation, is voltage stable [1]. The upcurves show the relationship between voltage and active power for a given reactive power or with the reactive power q as a function of the active power p, q = f(p). The most commonly used function is q = p tan with a given tan. Figure 5.3 shows three upcurves for given tan, tan = 0.5, 0 and 0.5. In these curves a working-point is considered to be voltage stable if it is located on the part of the up curve that is above the curve that gives maximum transmitted power [1]. Note that in this context, maximum transmitted power does not imply that the angle between the voltages, , is 90. The dashed curve in Figure 5.3 shows p = u, the transferred power at = 90. As seen in Figure 5.3 there could be a solution of a power flow that is unstable in terms of voltage but at a steady state angle less than 90 degrees [1].
61
u 1.2 1.2 1.0 1 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.5 0 0.5
dp =0 du = 90
p 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 5.3 The figure shows the upcurves for tan = 0.5, 0.0 and 0.5. The dotted curve connects the points for maximum transmitted power pmax, where dp/du = 0. The dashed curve shows p = u, i.e. = 90.
The qucurves show the relationship between the reactive power and voltage for given active power or with the active power p as a function of the reactive power q, p = f(q), where the former alternative is the most commonly used. Figure 5.4 shows three qucurves with p as a constant, p = 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75, and Figure 5.5 shows the qucurve with p = q/tan, tan = 0.5 and 0.5. In the qucurve a working-point is considered voltage stable if it is on the right part of the curve, to the right of the minimum-value when p is constant (Figure 5.4) and to the right of the maximumand the minimum-point when p = q/tan (Figure 5.5).
dq =0 du 0.75 0.5 0.25
q 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0.2 0.2 -0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
= 90
u 1 1.2 1.4
Figure 5.4 The figure shows the qucurves for p = 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75. The dotted curve connects the points where dq/du = 0. The dashed curve shows q when = 90. Note that the qaxis is negative.
62
q 0.4 0.4
= 90
dq =0 du
0.2 0.2 tan = 0.5 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 tan = 0.5 u
Figure 5.5 The figure shows the qucurve for tan = 0.5 and 0.5. The dashed curve shows q when = 90. The dotted curve connects the points where dq/du = 0. Note that the qaxis is negative.
5.3
Load characteristics
To study the impact of various load characteristics on voltage stability, the load characteristics are drawn together with the up- and qucurve. The intersection of the up- or qucurve and the load characteristic will be the working-point of the system, the solution of a power flow calculation. The power demand is described by an exponential load model (see Chapter 1), according to Equation (5.7) and Equation (5.8) u p = p 0 ---- u
0 np
(5.7)
u q = q 0 ---- u
0
nq
(5.8)
where np and nq is the sensibility to voltage, u is the actual voltage feeding the load and p0 and q0 is the rated power at nominal voltage u0, here defined as the voltage at the initial working-point. Note that u, u0, p, p0, q, q0 are in per unit with the same base-values as for the power flow equations. With various np and nq different load characteristics are obtained.
63
5.4
Tap changer influence on load characteristics
The power demand, Equations (5.7) and (5.8), is a function of the voltage feeding the load. It is therefore of interest to study different load characteristics together with the action of a tap changer that regulates the voltage feeding the load. To do this, the system in Figure 5.2 is increased at the receiving end with an ideal transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (Figure 5.6).
e 2
zL
u 3 (1+):1 u 3 p/q
Figure 5.6 An ideal transformer with a tap changer, marked here with an unfilled arrow, added to the small system.
In this study the voltage u will be referred to as the voltage at the feeding side of the transformer and u as the voltage at the load side. The power demand as a function of the voltage u at the feeding side of the transformer and the tap changer position, is expressed as u n ------------ p p0 1 1+ ------------ = ------- ----------------------u n p p = p0 u np np u0 ( 1 + ) 0 u n ------------ q q0 1 1+ ------------ = ------- ----------------------u n q q = q0 u nq nq u0 ( 1 + ) 0
(5.9)
(5.10)
Two kinds of incidents are observed. An increase in load and a decrease in feeding voltage. For both disturbances the influence of a tap changer is studied as the tap changer automatically works to keep the voltage u at a specified value, here the voltage at the initial working-point.
5.4.1
Increase in load
The increase in load is achieved by increasing the rated power p0 and q0 in Equations (5.9) and (5.10). This could illustrate an increase in the amount of connected load devices. 64
Use Equation (5.5) to draw the upcurve. If tan is assumed constant, i.e. q = p tan, Equation (5.5) is changed to
u =
2 1 1 -- p tan -- p tan p 4 2
(5.11)
Figure 5.7 shows the upcurve (Equation (5.11)) and three different load characteristics (Equation (5.9)) with np = 0, 1 and 2, together with a 40% increase in load for the different load characteristics.
np=0 np=1 u 1 0.8
np=2
tan = 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.7 The upcurve for tan = 0.5 is shown together with the three load characteristics, np = 0, 1 and 2, before and after a 40% increase in load. The continuous load characteristics show the situation before the increase in load and the dotted load characteristics show the situation after the increase in load but before any tap changer action.
In this instance, after the increase in load there will be three different workingpoints with positions dependent on the load characteristics (Figure 5.7). A constant load characteristic will give the highest power demand, and the higher voltage dependency the lower power demand. As the voltage in the receiving end of the system decreases due to the increase in load, the tap changer will act to restore the voltage on the load-side of the transformer. The action results in a new in Equation (5.9), where is decided by the tap changer position. On condition that there is a continuous tap changer the voltage at the load-side of the transformer is restored to the specified value. Figure 5.8 shows how the action of the tap changer increases the load when restoring the voltage on the load-side of the transformer. 65
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
np = 2
tan = 0.5
p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.8 The figure shows how the tap changer increases the load with np = 2 seen from the feeding side of the transformer when restoring the voltage at the load side. The continuous load characteristic show the initial stage and the dotted curves show when the load is increased and how it is increased even more by the tap changer action.
However a tap changer is not continuous, the voltage is regulated in discrete steps. A normal step-size is 1.67% and the number of possible steps is usually 9 in each direction from nominal position. The above study can also be made in a qucurve. Equation (5.6) with p = q/tan and tan as a constant, i.e. Equation (5.12), is the expression for the qucurve with constant tan u u u u q = ---------------------- ------------------------------- + ---------------------1 1 1 1 + ------------- 2 1 + ------------1 + ------------2 2 2 tan tan tan
2 4 2 4
(5.12)
However, drawing the qucurve with the active power p as a function of the reactive power q might seem a little strange. It implies that the reactive power can be changed and that the active power will follow according to the function, when in practice it is often the other way round. It might, however, be of interest to study how the reactive power q varies when the active power changes. Showing this in a qucurve with p as a constant together with the load characteristics results in a new qucurve as well as a new load characteristic every time the tap changer acts. In Figure 5.9 the qucurve with tan = 0.5 is drawn together with three load characteristics, nq = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.10), and a 40% increase in load for the different load characteristics. As tan is constant, q0 in Equation (5.10) is equal to p0 tan. Henceforth the studies are concentrated upon upcurves but some qu curves will be presented for the sake of completeness. 66
u 0.2 0.05 -0.05 nq=0 nq=1 nq=2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1 -0.1
0.15 -0.15 q
tan = 0.5
Figure 5.9 QU-curve, tan = 0.5, together with three load characteristics, nq = 0, 1, and 2, with a 40% increase in load. Note that the qaxis is negative.
5.4.2
Decrease in feeding voltage
When changing the feeding voltage E to a new value Enew the equations for the UP and QUcurves change (Appendix G) and, in the case of constant tan, Equations (5.11) and (5.12) change according to Equations (5.13) and (5.14).
2 2 1 2 1 4 -- e new p tan -- e new e new p tan p 2 4 2 2 4
u =
(5.13)
2 4 u e new u u u q = ---------------------- ------------------------------- + ---------------------------1 1 1 1 + ------------- 2 1 + ------------1 + ------------2 2 2 tan tan tan
(5.14)
The decrease in feeding voltage results in a new up- or qucurve (Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11) and together with the load characteristics there is a new working-point.
67
np = 0 u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
enew = 1 enew = 0.8
p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.10 A decrease in feeding voltage results in a new upcurve. The figure shows the original upcurve and the upcurve for a reduced feeding voltage, both with constant tan, together with three load characteristics, np = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.9).
q 0.4 0.4 enew = 1 enew = 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 u nq = 0 1 2
Figure 5.11 The decrease in feeding voltage illustrated with two qucurves together with three load characteristics, nq = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.10).
As the feeding voltage is reduced, so is the load voltage. The tap changer will then operate to restore the voltage on the load side of the transformer as in the case with increase in load. Figure 5.12 shows a decrease in feeding-voltage together with the load characteristics for np = 2 in Equation (5.9). With a continuous and infinite tap changer the voltage on the load side of the transformer will be restored to the specified value.
68
np = 2 u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3 enew = 0.8 enew = 1
Figure 5.12 Two upcurves describing a 20% decrease in feeding voltage together with load characteristics, np = 2. The tap changer increases the load seen from the line-side as it restores the voltage-level on the load side of the transformer.
5.4.3
Discussion
5.4.3.1 Increase in load The use of UP and QUcurves, together with load characteristics, show that if a load is voltage-dependent a tap changer connected as per Figure 5.6 will increase the power demand when restoring the voltage feeding the load. In the cases previously outlined, where the increase in load could be described as an increase in the amount of connected load devices or rather an increase in rated power, the tap changer tends to give a voltage-dependent load a characteristic of a constant power -load. If instead the increase in load is described as an increase in actual power demand, i.e. from a given working-point with an arbitrary load characteristic the loaddemand is increased to a new working-point with a load characteristic that is not necessarily the same as the one in the first working-point (Figure 5.13). Then the tap changer action will increase the power demand in the case of a voltagedependent load when restoring the voltage feeding the load, resulting in a higher power demand than if the load characteristic had been constant power (Figure 5.14). In Figure 5.13 the upcurve for tan = 0.5 is drawn with different load characteristics. The actual power demand is increased by 40% and the load characteristics show the state before any tap changer action. Figure 5.14 shows the upcurve and the load characteristics when the tap changer has restored the voltage 69
on the load-side of the transformer. A high voltage dependency tends to move the operation-point towards a critical situation.
np=0 np=1 np=2 np=3
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
tan = 0.5
p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.13 UPcurve for tan = 0.5 together with four load characteristics and a 40% increase in actual power demand.
np=0 u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
np=1
np=2 np=3
tan = 0.5
p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.14 UPcurve for tan = 0.5 with three load characteristics when the tap changer has restored the load-voltage after an increase in load.
The above results are all valid when tan is positive, or if tan is negative - the working-point is on the upper half and to the right of maximum voltage on the up curve (Figure 5.15). These are the normal working conditions.
70
u 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 tan = 0.5 tan = 0.5
Figure 5.15 The upcurves for tan = 0.5 and 0.5. Note that when tan is negative the maximum voltage is not equal to the voltage for the system in no-load running.
A moderate increase in load however requires a high-load situation for the system to turn into a voltage collapse. 5.4.3.2 Decrease in feeding voltage When there is a decrease in feeding voltage it is of course an advantage if the load is voltage dependent, the more so the better, as a voltage dependent load will decrease as the voltage decreases. The action of a tap changer to restore the loadvoltage will however increase a voltage dependent load, and if the decrease in voltage is not greater than the control-range of the tap changer, the voltage on the load side of the transformer will be restored to its original value and the load could be considered constant (Figure 5.16).
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3 enew = 0.9 enew = 1 np=0 1 2
Figure 5.16 A 10% decrease in feeding voltage. In seven steps the tap changer has restored the voltage on the load side of the transformer, and the working-point of the two voltagedependent load characteristics are moved to the one of the constant-power characteristic.
71
5.5
Tap changer influence on system characteristic
The single line dealt with earlier in this chapter is in reality a part of a large system with the possibilities of regulating system voltages. Recall the system in Figure 5.1, and represent the part to the left of bus 2 by an equivalent infinite voltage behind an impedance and an ideal transformer regulating the voltage feeding the line according to Figure 5.17.
Ei
Zi
(1+i):1
ZL
U P/Q
Figure 5.17 A system with an equivalent voltage Ei behind an impedance Zi both reduced over the nominal ratio of the transformer, and a tap changer regulating the voltage E.
The tap changer is assumed to regulate voltage E to a value equal to the open circuit voltage for the system, with the tap changer in position n = 1:1, here called the initial voltage. Two incidents are studied: an increase in load and a decrease in feeding voltage Ei. In this study only the tap changer regulating the voltage E is taken into consideration, the voltage U is not regulated. The studies in Section 5.4 (regulating voltage U) might, however, just as well be applied to the more general system in this section as to the single-line system in Section 5.4. The load connected to the system is of the exponential model presented in Equation (5.7). The equation for the upcurve for the system in Figure 5.17, with Ei as base-voltage and ZL as base-impedance, can be written as (Appendix H) 1 ---- 2zA 2 ni --------------------- 2 1 2 ---- 2zA n2 2 2 2 i ------------------------------ z ( p + q ) 4
u =
(5.15)
where n i = 1 + i and A = psin + qcos Z and z = ------ , is the total impedance of the system in per unit, i.e. ZL Zi Z = --------------------- + Z L 2 ( 1 + i ) Note that is the loss-angle for the entire system. 72 (5.16)
As voltage E is regulated to the open circuit value of the system, it is possible to draw the upcurves for both the entire system and for the single line to the right of bus 2 in the same chart (Figure 5.18). Henceforth the resistance will be ignored. If the reactance Xi is written as XL where is a constant, the total impedance of the system is written as X = X L --------------------- + 1 2 ( 1 + i )
(5.17)
Assume q = p tan, where tan is constant. The equation for the upcurve for the right part of the system, the single line, is equal to Equation (5.11), and for the entire system the equation is equal to 1 ---- 2 ---- + 1 ptan 2 n2 ni 2 2 1 1 i - -------------------------------------------------- -------- ---- ---- + 1 ptan ---- + 1 p 2 2 4 2 n2 4n i n i n i i (5.18) where n i = 1 + i Equations (5.11) and (5.18) are graphically presented in Figure 5.18 with tan = 0.5, = 1 and i = 0.
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 (5.18) (5.11)
u =
Figure 5.18 The continuous curve in the figure is the upcurve for the entire system. The dotted curve is the upcurve for the single line to the right of bus two.
73
5.5.1
Increase in load
Assume that a load with a constant power characteristic is connected to the system at bus three and that there will be an increase in load. The various upcurves in Figure 5.19 show how the upcurve for the entire system changes in accordance with the tap changer position.
np = 0 u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 Figure 5.19 0.2 0.3 2 1 4 3
a b c d
The figure shows an increase in load and how the upcurve for the entire
system changes as the tap changer restores the voltage at bus two to the initial value. The dotted upcurve is the upcurve for the single line in the right part of the system in Figure 5.17. The dotted upcurve is only valid when the voltage E at bus two is at the initial value.
When the load is connected, working-point 1 is the intersection of the load characteristic and upcurve a (upcurve for the entire system before any tap changer action, Figure 5.19). The tap changer restores the voltage at bus 2 to its initial value and upcurve d (the upcurve for the single line when the voltage E is at the initial value) is valid. As the tap changer action results in a new i there will be a new upcurve for the entire system (upcurve b) and working-point 2 (the intersection of the load characteristic, upcurve b and upcurve d) becomes valid. After the increase in load, the new working-point is at the intersection of the current upcurve for the entire system, upcurve b, and the new load characteristic, i.e. working-point 3. If the tap changer is able to restore the voltage at bus 2 to its initial value, the upcurve for the entire system is upcurve c. Also upcurve d is valid for the single line and the final working-point will be number 4 in Figure 5.19. Note that it is the voltage at bus 3 that is shown in the upcurves in Figure 5.19. 74
The scenario described above, but now with a load characteristic of type constant current for the connected load, is shown in Figure 5.20. The working-points are numbered in order of appearance.
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3 2 1 4 3
a b c d
Figure 5.20 The same scenario as that shown in Figure 5.19 but here with a connected load of constant current -type.
5.5.2
Decrease in feeding voltage
When changing the feeding voltage Ei to a new value Ei(new) Equation (5.18) changes according to Equation (5.19) (Appendix H) e i(new) ----------------- 2A 4 2 ni e i(new) 2 2 1 e i(new) --------------------------------------- -- ----------------- ----------------- A ---- + 1 p 4 ni 2 ni n2
i 2
u =
(5.19) where n i = 1 + i and A = ---- + 1 ptan n2 i Assume a load with a characteristic of type constant power connected to the system at bus three and that there will be a decrease in feeding voltage. Figure 5.21 shows the upcurves for the different stages in the scenario. The initial stage, when the load is connected but before any tap changer action, is shown by upcurve a, and the intersection of this curve and the load characteristic is the current working-point, (number 1 in Figure 5.21). The tap changer restores the voltage at bus 2 and changes the upcurve from curve a to curve b. Moreover, 75
at this stage also upcurve d (the upcurve for the single line) is valid since the voltage at bus 2 is at the initial value, and the working-point is at the intersection of the load characteristic and upcurves b and d (i.e. working-point number 2). When the feeding voltage decreases the upcurve for the entire system changes according to Equation (5.19) from upcurve b to upcurve c. The working-point at this stage is working-point number 3. If the tap changer is able to restore the voltage at bus 2, upcurve e and d are valid and the system is back to working-point 2. However, observe the differences in pmax for upcurve b and e.
np = 0 u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3 2 1 3 a b c d e
Figure 5.21 The figure shows the way in which the upcurve changes for a system according to Figure 5.17. This results after a decrease in feeding voltage when the tap changer action restores the voltage at bus 2 to the open circuit value.
5.5.3
Discussion
The changes of the upcurve due to the tap changer action may be summarized in the equation for pmax, pmax = f(Ei(new),Z,,i) (see Appendix H) e i(new) 1 cos p max = ----------------- -- ----------------------------------------- 1 + i z 2 [ sin ( + ) + 1 ]
2
(5.20)
In other words, apart from the load-factor and possibly a change in feeding voltage, pmax is a function of the tap changer position.
76
Observe that is the loss-angle for the entire system. If the resistance is ignored and the impedance for the system is written according to Equation (5.17), Equation (5.20) may be simplified to
2 cos 1 p max = ( e i(new) ) ------------------------------- --------------------------2 2 ( sin + 1 ) + ( 1 + i )
(5.21)
5.6
Reflections on some simplification
When drawing the UP and QUcurves in the previous part, as well as the reduction of the system to a single line, two major simplifications have been made, viz the neglection of resistance and the assumption of constant tan (i.e. the active and reactive power have the same voltage dependence). The influence of these simplifications are discussed in the following. 5.6.1 Resistance
In theoretical studies of the kind presented in this chapter most authors neglect the resistance, especially if the systems studied are regarded as transmission systems (EHV). However the up and qucurves are valid at any voltage level and it could therefore be of interest to get an overview of the effect the resistance has on the up curves. The size of the resistance per unit of length for a line in a power system is determined by the area of the phase conductors which are roughly determined by the transmitted power, i.e. a function of the voltage level, whereas the reactance per unit of length has almost the same value on every voltage level. Therefore it is possible to estimate an approximate ratio between the resistance and reactance for each voltage levels according to Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 The approximated ratio between the resistance and the reactance for a transmission line at different voltage levels, and the loss angle .
U, [kV] 10 20 40 50 70 130 400
RL/XL 2.5 1.7 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.070.05
~ = arctan(RL/XL), [] 68 59 39 27 22 6 43 77
To derive the equation for the upcurve when is not equal to zero, Equation (5.3) with q = p tan is solved for u (Appendix G), and the expression for the voltage u will be according to
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 -- pB -- + p B pB p ( 1 + tan ) 2 4
u =
(5.22)
where B = sin + tancos Figure 5.22 shows the upcurves for four different with corresponding RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05 and 0.0, and with q = p tan, tan = 0.5.
u 0.8 0.4 0.05 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.22 The upcurves for four different d with corresponding RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05 and 0.0, and with q = p tan, tan = 0.5.
With increasing RL/XL maximum transmittable power, pmax, decreases until it hits a limit and then increases. The maximum transmittable power, pmax, as a function of and , pmax = f(,), is expressed according to Equation (5.23) (Appendix G) cos p max = -----------------------------------------2 ( sin ( + ) + 1 ) (5.23)
For a given , or tan, minimum pmax is obtained for maximum denominator in Equation (5.23) i.e. = 90 , which gives the limit for the different upcurves with a given tan but various RL/XL ratio (Figure 5.22). The influence of increasing RL/XL ratio can also be described by drawing the curve connecting the points with pmax (where dp/du = 0 in the upcurve) for different tan 78
but a given RL/XL ratio. The equations in question in this case are (Appendix G) for the lossless line, RL/XL = 0, according to u ( p=p
max )
2 1 p max + -4
(5.24)
and for RL/XL ratios not equal to zero p max 1 2p max sin 1 1 1 ---------------------------------- --------- --------------- ----------- + p max sin -2 sin 4sin 2 sin 4 2sin (5.25) The equations are graphically presented in Figure 5.23, where four curves with given , corresponding to RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05, and 0.0, (c.f the dotted curve in Figure 5.3).
0.05 u 0.4 1.5 0.8 1
u ( p=p
= max )
0.5
p 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 5.23 Curves connecting the points with pmax for various tan and given with corresponding RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05, and 0.0.
When looking at the curves in Figure 5.23 it is important to have in mind that a working-point at a voltage u greater than one per-unit needs a negative tan, if the loss-angle is large, then tan need to be much less than 1 which is hardly the fact under normal conditions.
79
5.6.2
Relation between the active and the reactive power.
The most common function describing the relationship between the active power p and the reactive power q is, q = p tan, with tan as a constant. This implies that q has the same voltage-dependency as p. With the exponential load-model used in this chapter it is possible to derive an expression for p as a function of q and vice versa with various np and nq (Appendix I) under the conditions that the nominal voltages u0p and u0q are equal and that the rated powers p0 and q0 are known. For the reactive power q the expression will be according to
nq ---p np
q = q 0 ---p 0
(5.26)
Insert the expression in Equation (5.12) to draw the upcurve. Figure 5.24 shows three upcurves for a loss-less line with np = 2 and nq = 1.3, 2, and 2.7.
u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 p 0.1 Figure 5.24 tan = 0.5. 0.2 0.3 nq = 1.3 nq = 2 nq = 2.7
Three upcurves with np = 2 and nq = 1.3, 2, and 2.7. q0 = p0 tan where
80
5.7 [1]
References J. Falck Christensen et al, Planning Against Voltage Collapse CIGRE Report SC 38-01 TF03 (Oct 1986) K. Walve, Modelling of power system components at severe disturbances CIGRE Report 38-18 (1986) A. Kurita, T. Sakurai, The Power System Failure on July 23, 1987 in Tokyo, Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Decision and Control, Austin, Texas, December 1988, pp.2093-2097 K. Clark Harrison, New Challenge: Voltage Stability, IEEE Power Engineering Review, (April 1990)
[2]
[3]
[4]
81
82
Chapter 6: Future work
Chapter 6
Future work
Investigations on load model structures are essential, i.e. what the load model should include in different stability analysis, for example if tap changer action, time dependence, nonlinearities etc. are to be included. Important parts are the various time constants of the load objects and the time range of the studied problem. A part of this investigation could include, for example, a further study of electrical heating in different time ranges. The electric heating viewed as an energy problem (mean power) in transient stability studies and a maximum power problem in voltage stability studies (statistical approach).
83
Chapter 6: Future work
84
Bibliography
Bibliography
J. Bubenko, Belastningens statiska karakteristikor, Rapport Vattenfall nr 1285, 6/10 1961 B. Stenborg, Belastningskarakteristikens inverkan p den dynamiska stabiliteten, Research report 6302, Dept. of Applied Electrical Engineering, CTH 1963, in Swedish T. Johansson, J. Bubenko, . lwegrd, Belastningens representation vid stabilitetsunderskningar, Rapport Vattenfall ( SKN-TJ/MW 8/4 1963 pr 231) Maurice H. Kent, Wayne R. Schmus, Francis A. McCrackin, Luther M. Wheeler, Dynamic Modeling of Loads in Stability Studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-88, No 5, May 1969, 756 - 763 System Load Dynamic - Simulation Effects and Determination of Load Constants, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-92, No 2, MarchApril 1973, 600- 609 Arne Sjstrm, Asynkronmotormodeller av olika belastningsobjekt, Rapport SD5080, Vattenfall, Stockholm, Februari 1981 Roderick J. Frowd, Robin Podmore, Mark Waldron, Synthesis of Dynamic Load Models for Stability Studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 1, January 1982, 127 - 135 C. Concordia, S. Ihara, Load Representation in Power System Stability Studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 4, April 1982, 969 - 977 J. R. Ribeiro, F. J. Lange, A New Aggregation Method for Determining Composite Load Characteristics, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 8, August 1982, 2869 - 2875 S. A. Y. Sabir, D. C. Lee, Dynamic Load Models derived from data acquired during System Transients, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 9, September 1982, 3365 - 3372 85
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A. A. Fouad, Vijay Vittal, Power System Response to a Large Disturbance, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No 11, November 1983, 3534 - 3540 W. J. Wilson, J. D. Aplevich, Dynamic Equivalent Power System Models, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No 12, December 1983, 3753 - 3760 K. P. Wong, W. Derek Humpage, T. T. Nguyen, K. K. K. Ho, Dynamic load model synthesis, IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 132, Pt C, No 4, July 1985, 179 - 188 T. Ohyama, A. Watanabe, K. Nishimura, S. Tsuruta, Voltage dependence of composite loads in power systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No 11, November 1985, 3064 - 3073 Marc Langevin, Philippe Auriol, Load response to voltage variations and dynamic stability, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-1, No. 4, November 1986, 112 - 118 T. Dovan, T. S. Dillon, C. S. Berger, K. E. Forward, A microcomputer based online identification approach to power system dynamic load modelling, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-2, No. 3, August 1987, 529 - 536 E. Vaahedi, M. A. El-Kady, J. A. Libaque-Esaine, V. F. Carvalho, Load models for large-scale stability studies from end-user consumption, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-2, No. 4, November 1987, 864 - 872 Juraj Medanic, Marija Ilic-Spong, John Christensen, Dicrete models of slow voltage dynamics for under load tap-changing transformer coordination, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-2, No. 4, November 1987, 873 - 882 Chu Liu, Qung-Min Zhang, Two reduced-order methods for studies of power system dynamics, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 3, No. 3, August 1988, 894 - 899 Hill, D. J., Nonlinear Dynamic Load Models with Recovery for Voltage Stability Studies, IEEE/PES 1992 Winter Meeting, New York, January 26-30, 1992
86
Appendix A
Appendix A
Street Lighting
Here is a compilation of a preliminary inventory of the street lighting in Gteborg made by Gteborg Energi AB. Total rated load is 12.7 MW.
Table A.1 Incandescent lamp. Total rated power of incandescent lamps: 36 480 W.
Rated power [W] 60 75 100 150 500 1 000
Number 23 34 81 23 20 11
Total rated power [W] 1 380 2 550 8 100 3 450 10 000 11 000
Table A.2 Fluorescent lamp. Total rated power of fluorescent lamps: 77.3 kW.
Rated power [W] 20 30 32 40 65
Number 41 16 27 1 542 207
Total rated power [W] 820 480 864 61 680 13 455
87
Appendix A
Table A.3 Mercury lamp. Total rated power of mercury lamps: 9.3 MW.
Rated power [W] 40 50 80 125 250 400 700 1000
Number 272 465 3 885 46 494 12 082 82 3 76
Total rated power [W] 10 880 23 250 310 800 5 811 750 3 020 500 32 800 2 100 76 000
Table A.4 Low pressure sodium lamp. Total rated power of low pressure sodium lamps: 1 076 kW.
Rated power [W] 55 90 91 135 180
Number 656 3 958 5 477 1 000 281
Total rated power [W] 36 080 356 220 498 407 135 000 50 580
Table A.5 High pressure sodium lamp. Total rated power of high pressure sodium lamps: 2 MW.
Rated power [W] 50 70 100 150 215 250 400 88
Number 158 2 226 596 3 057 82 3 013 1 369
Total rated power [W] 7 900 155 820 59 600 458 550 17 630 753 250 547 600
Appendix A
Table A.6 Mixed colour lamp. Total rated power of mixed colour lamps: 180 380 W.
Rated power [W] 160 250
Number 918 134
Total rated power [W] 146 880 33 500
Table A.7 Metal halogen lamp. Total rated power of metal halogen lamps: 2 kW.
Rated power [W] 400
Number 5
Total rated power [W] 2 000
89
Appendix A
90
Appendix B
Appendix B
Inaccuracy due to measurement devices and measurement arrangement
B.1
The bias in voltage and current
The absolute error in the displayed values of the multimeters is dependent on measuring range and measured value. According to the manufacturer, the maximum limit of the absolute error of the multimeters for sinewave inputs equals: 0.5 E u = -------- U m + 0.102 100 1.5 E i = -------- I m + 0.00163 100 0.81 E i = --------- U m + 0.000163 100 where Um and Im are measured quantities. U = Um Eu I = Im Ei [V] [A] (300V-range) (3A-range) (300 mA-range)
B.2
The bias in active power
The absolute error in the displayed value of the wattmeter is dependent on measuring range and power factor, but not on measured value. According to the manufacturer, the maximum limit of the absolute error of the wattmeter is: 2 0.1 -------------- A u A i 100 E p1.0 = -------------------------------2
at cos = 1.0 91
Appendix B
2 0.15 ----------------- A u A i + 0.2 100 E p0.7 = ------------------------------------------------2 2 0.2 -------------- A u A i + 0.2 100 E p0.5 = ---------------------------------------------2 2 0.5 -------------- A u A i + 0.2 100 E p0.1 = ---------------------------------------------2
at cos = 0.7
at cos = 0.5
at cos = 0.1
where Au and Ai are the voltage and current range of the wattmeter respectively. P = Pm Ep [W]
B.3
The bias in reactive power
The reactive power is calculated from measured values of voltage Um, current Im and active power Pm Qc = ( Um Im ) Pm
2 2
To derive the maximum limit of the absolute error, the following formula was used E q = dQ E u + dQ E i + dQ E ---------------dU max dI max dP max p which results in ( P + E p )E p IE u + UE i + --------------------------------------- 2E i E u ( U Eu ) ( I Ei ) E q = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 ( P + Ep ) 1 -------------------------------------------2 2 ( U Eu ) ( I Ei ) Q = Qc Eq
92
Appendix B
B.4
The inaccuracy due to measurement arrangement
The inaccuracy due to the measurement arrangement is dependent on the resistance in the cords, the input resistance of the different measurement devices and the location of the measuring devices within the circuit. To obtain some idea of how the measurement arrangement affects the relative error in the measured values, an accuracy analysis was performed with a totally resistive load connected to the circuit. The measurement devices were connected according to Figure B.1.
W A G V Test object
Figure B.1
The measurement arrangement.
The input resistance for the voltage and current input terminals of the multimeters are 1.0 M and 0.3 respectively, and the input resistance for the voltage and current input terminals of the wattmeter are 660 k and 0.01 . If the resistance in the cords are included, this will result in the equivalent circuit shown in Figure B.2. Where Ri 1.0 Ruw 660 k // 660 k Riw 1 Ru 1.0 M 93 coupled for double resolution
Appendix B
Ri Im Ruw
Riw + Pm Ru
PL
IL
+ UL Resistive load
Um
Figure B.2
An equivalent circuit for the measurement arrangement.
For a purely resistive load, the quantities UL, IL and PL equal: R uw 1 1 1 1 I L = ------------------------- I m ------------------------- + ----- U m I m --------- + ----- U m R + R R R uw + R iw R u R u uw iw uw UL = Um R uw 2 1 1 P L = U L I L = ------------------------- U L I m ------------------------- + ----- U L R + R R uw + R iw uw iw R u
2 1 1 P L U m I m --------- + ----- U m R uw R u
which give the relative error 4.03 10 U m Im IL ---------------- = ---------------------------------------------6 IL I m 4.03 10 U m Pm PL P m U m I m + 4.03 10 U m ------------------- = --------------------------------------------------------------------6 2 PL U m I m 4.03 10 U m These errors can be considered as negligible. No calculation has been carried out for an inductive/capacitive load.
6 2 6
94
Appendix C
Appendix C
Dynamic voltage tests
This appendix comprises figures that show the consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when voltage steps of a magnitude of approximately 10% and +10% are applied to a test object. Contents: Figure C.1 Figure C.2 Figure C.3 Figure C.4 Figure C.5 Figure C.6 Figure C.7 Figure C.8 Figure C.9 Figure C.10 Figure C.11 Figure C.12 Figure C.13 Figure C.14 Mercury lamp (400 W): voltage step of approx. 10% Mercury lamp (400 W): voltage step of approx. +15% High pressure sodium lamp (250 W): voltage step of approx. 15% High pressure sodium lamp (250 W): voltage step of approx. +10% Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): voltage step of approx. 20% Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): voltage step of approx. +20% Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): voltage step of approx. 15% Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): voltage step of approx. +10% Low-energy lamp (20 W): voltage step of approx. 10% Low-energy lamp (20 W): voltage step of approx. +15% Incandescent lamp (60 W): voltage step of approx. 10% Incandescent lamp (60 W): voltage step of approx. +10% Refrigerator: voltage step of approx. 20% Refrigerator: voltage step of approx. +20% 95
Appendix C
Figure C.1 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 10% (230 V down to 210 V) is applied to a mercury lamp.
Figure C.2 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +15% (200 V up to 233 V) is applied to a mercury lamp.
96
Appendix C
Figure C.3 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 15% (230 V down to 200 V) is applied to a high pressure sodium lamp.
Figure C.4 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +10% (205 V up to 230 V) is applied to a high pressure sodium lamp.
97
Appendix C
Figure C.5 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 20% (230 V down to 190 V) is applied to a low pressure sodium lamp.
Figure C.6 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +20% (190 V up to 225 V) is applied to a low pressure sodium lamp.
98
Appendix C
Figure C.7 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 15% (230 V down to 200 V) is applied to a fluorescent lamp.
Figure C.8 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +10% (200 V up to 220 V) is applied to a fluorescent lamp.
99
Appendix C
Figure C.9 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 10% (230 V down to 208 V) is applied to a low-energy lamp.
Figure C.10 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +15% (208 V up to 235 V) is applied to a low-energy lamp.
100
Appendix C
Figure C.11 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 10% (230 V down to 203 V) is applied to an incandescent lamp.
Figure C.12 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +10% (203 V up to 228 V) is applied to an incandescent lamp.
101
Appendix C
Figure C.13 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. 20% (230 V down to 183 V) is applied to a refrigerator.
Figure C.14 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step of the magnitude of approx. +20% (183 V up to 227 V) is applied to a refrigerator.
102
Appendix D
Appendix D
Accuracy analysis
This appendix comprises figures that show the accuracy-variations in measured active power, reactive power and voltage. The crosses in the figures show maximum limits of the absolute error for active power and voltage, and reactive power and voltage, respectively, according to Figure D.1. The diagrams are presented in perunit values. The base-values are P0, Q0 and U0, where P0 and Q0 are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V). Contents: Figure D.1 Figure D.2 Figure D.3 Figure D.4 Figure D.5 Figure D.6 Figure D.7 Figure D.8 Figure D.9 The absolute error cross Mercury lamp (250 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Mercury lamp (250 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage 103
Appendix D
Figure D.10 Figure D.11 Figure D.12 Figure D.13 Figure D.14
Low-energy lamp (11 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Low-energy lamp (11 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage Incandescent lamp (60 W): accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Refrigerator: accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Refrigerator: accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage Pm+E p Pm
UmE u Um
Um+ Eu
PmEp
Figure D.1 The maximum limit of the absolute error, where Pm and Um are measured active power and voltage, and Ep, Eu respectively are the calculated maximum limits of the absolute error.
Figure D.2 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a mercury lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
104
Appendix D
Figure D.3 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a mercury lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
Figure D.4 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a high pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 510 W.
105
Appendix D
Figure D.5 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a high pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 170 var.
Figure D.6 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a low pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 121 W.
106
Appendix D
Figure D.7 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a low pressure lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 60 var.
Figure D.8 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a fluorescent lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 100 W.
107
Appendix D
Figure D.9 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a fluorescent lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 55 var.
Figure D.10 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a low-energy lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 11 W.
108
Appendix D
Figure D.11 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a lowenergy lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 22 var.
Figure D.12 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of incandescent lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 60 W.
109
Appendix D
Figure D.13 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a refrigerator lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
Figure D.14 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of refrigerator. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
110
Appendix E
Appendix E
Wave forms
This appendix comprises figures that show the wave forms of applied voltage and current to a test object. Contents: Figure E.1 Figure E.2 Figure E.3 Figure E.4 Figure E.5 Figure E.6 Mercury lamp High pressure sodium lamp Low pressure sodium lamp Fluorescent lamp Low-energy lamp Refrigerator
111
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time Figure E.1 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a mercury lamp.
Amplitude
Time Figure E.2 lamp. The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a high pressure sodium
112
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time Figure E.3 lamp. The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a low pressure sodium
Amplitude
Time Figure E.4 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a fluorescent lamp.
113
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time Figure E.5 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a low-energy lamp.
Amplitude
Time Figure E.6 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a refrigerator.
114
Appendix F
Appendix F
Derived static load models
In this appendix the results from the static measurements are presented with the derived static load models. Each figure shows the results from one static measurement and one derived load model. For mercury lamps and refrigerators all models in Section 3.6.5 are presented, (exponential, linear, and polynomial load model) while for the other lamps only the exponential load model is presented. Note that for high- and low pressure sodium lamps the measurements for reactive power are not presented due to the poor accuracy. In the diagrams the datums are presented with a star * if it was taken into account when deriving the model, if not it is presented with a cross +. The diagrams are presented in per-unit values. The base-values are P0, Q0 and U0, where P0 and Q0 are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V). Contents: Figure F.1 Figure F.2 Figure F.3 Figure F.4 Figure F.5 Figure F.6 Figure F.7 Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and exponential load model Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and linear load model Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and polynomial load model Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and exponential load model Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and linear load model Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and polynomial load model High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): active power and exponential load model 115
Appendix F
Figure F.8
Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): active power and exponential load model Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): active power and exponential load model Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): reactive power and exponential load model Low-energy lamp (11 W): active power and exponential load model Low-energy lamp (11 W): reactive power and exponential load model Incandescent lamp (60 W): active power and exponential load model Refrigerator, active power and exponential load model Refrigerator, active power and linear load model Refrigerator lamp: active power and polynomial load model Refrigerator: reactive power and exponential load model Refrigerator: reactive power and linear load model Refrigerator, reactive power and polynomial load model
Figure F.9
Figure F.10
Figure F.11 Figure F.12
Figure F.13 Figure F.14 Figure F.15 Figure F.16 Figure F.17 Figure F.18 Figure F.19
116
Appendix F
Figure F.1 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 2.297. Least square error = 5.9 103, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
Figure F.2 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived linear model, a0 = 1.327, a1 = 2.327. Least square error = 1.6 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
117
Appendix F
Figure F.3 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived polynomial model, a0 = 0.1260, a1 = 0.5480, a2 = 1.422. Least square error = 5.9 103, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
Figure F.4 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived exponential model, nq = 5.577. Least square error = 4.1 103, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
118
Appendix F
Figure F.5 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived linear model, b0 = 4.015, b1 = 5.915. Least square error = 1.1 101, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
Figure F.6 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived polynomial model, b0 = 5.470, b1 = 14.59, b2 = 10.12. Least square error = 2.2 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
119
Appendix F
Figure F.7 Recorded active power for a high pressure sodium lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 2.262. Least square error = 1.5 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 510 W.
Figure F.8 Recorded active power for a low pressure sodium lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 0.41. Least square error = 1.5 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 121 W.
120
Appendix F
Figure F.9 Recorded active power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 2.034. Least square error = 8.7 103, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 100 W.
Figure F.10 Recorded reactive power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential model, nq = 6.21. Least square error = 5.0 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 55 var.
121
Appendix F
Figure F.11 Recorded active power for a low-energy lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 0.803. Least square error = 8.0 103, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 11 W.
Figure F.12 Recorded reactive power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential model, nq = 1.1. Least square error = 1.5 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 22 var.
122
Appendix F
Figure F.13 Recorded active power for an incandescent lamp and the derived exponential model, np = 1.53. Least square error = 6.1 104, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 60 W.
Figure F.14 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived exponential model, np = 1.583. Least square error = 4.8 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
123
Appendix F
Figure F.15 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived linear model, a0 = 0.62, a1 = 1.62. Least square error = 5.3 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
Figure F.16 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived polynomial model, a0 = 2.190, a1 = 3.955, a2 = 2.765. Least square error = 2.8 102, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
124
Appendix F
Figure F.17 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived exponential model, nq = 3.255. Least square error = 3.6 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
Figure F.18 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived linear model, b0 = 2.370, b1 = 3.370. Least square error = 8.2 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
125
Appendix F
Figure F.19 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived polynomial model, b0 = 2.190, b1 = 5.650, b2 = 4.460. Least square error = 4.2 102, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
126
Appendix G
Appendix G
Evaluation of the equations for up-curves and qu-curves
Assume the system of one power line represented according to Figure G.1.
E 2
ZL= RL+jX L
U 3 P/Q
Figure G.1
A single line system.
P and Q are the transmitted power on the line, expressed by the following equations U EU P = ------ sin + ------- sin ( + ) ZL ZL U EU Q = ------ cos + ------- cos ( + ) ZL ZL RL where the loss-angle = arctan -----XL Solving sin2( + ) + cos2( + ) = 1 gives
2 2 U E U U P + Q = ------------- ------ 2 ------ ( Psin + Qcos ) 2 2 ZL ZL ZL 2 2 4 2 2 2
(G.1)
(G.2)
(G.3)
127
Appendix G
with E as base-voltage and ZL as base impedance giving E2/ZL as base-power, Equation (G.3) with per-unit values is p2 + q2 = u2 [1 u2 2(p sin + q cos)] rearranged p2 = u2 [1 u2 2(p sin + q cos)] q2 (G.5) (G.4)
If the line is considered lossless, i.e. R = 0 giving = 0, Equation (G.5) turns to p2 = u2 (u2 + q)2 (G.6)
G.1
UP-curve
Solve Equation (G.3) for U

2
U =
E 2Z L A ( E + 2Z L A ) 2 2 2 -------------------------- ---------------------------------- Z L ( P + Q ) 2 4
(G.7)
where A = Psin + Qcos with per-unit values
u =
2 2 2 1 1 -- A -- + A A ( p + q ) 4 2
(G.8)
A = psin + qcos and for the lossless line
u =
2 1 1 -- q -- q p 4 2
(G.9)
In Equations (G.7), (G.8) and (G.9) the reactive power can be expressed as a constant power or as a function of p, q = f(p), e.g. q = p tan where tan is 128
Appendix G
constant. With q = p tan and the possibility of changing the feeding voltage E to a new value Enew Equations (G.8) and (G.9) become e new e new 2 2 2 2 2 ---------- pA ---------- + p A e new pA p ( 1 + tan ) 2 4
2 4
u =
(G.10)
where A = sin + tancos and e new e new 2 2 ---------- ptan ---------- e new ptan p 2 4
2 4
u =
(G.11)
To find the curve connecting the points with pmax, return to Equation (G.4), but add the possibilities of changing E and q = f(p), i.e. 2 2 2 2 2 p + f ( p ) = u e new u 2 [ psin + f ( p )cos ] by implicit differentiation 2ue new 4u 4upsin 4uf ( p )cos dp ----- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 2 df ( p ) du df ( p ) 2p + 2f ( p ) ------------- + 2u sin + 2u -------------cos dp dp At pmax dp/du = 0 and therefore 2u ( e new 2u 2p max sin 2f ( p )cos ) = 0 and e new 2u 2p max sin f ( p ) = --------------------------------------------------------2cos
2 2 2 2 2 3
(G.12)
(G.13)
(G.14)
(G.15)
129
Appendix G
Inserted in Equation (G.12) this gives ( e new 2u 2p max sin ) 4 ----------------------------------------------------------------- = u 2 4cos
2 2 4 e new 2 ( e new 2p max sin ) + ---------4 2 2 2 2
2 p max +
(G.16)
u ( 1 cos ) u
2 2
e new p max sin+ (G.17)
+p max ( sin + cos ) = 0 For the lossless line, R = 0, Equation (G.17) is reduced to
4 e new 2 2 u e new + ---------4 2
+ p max = 0
(G.18)
and p max e new ----------- + ---------2 4 e new

2 2
up = p
max
(G.19)
or if Enew = E up = p =
2 1 p max + -4
max
(G.20)
When R 0, solve Equation (G.17) for u

4 e new 2 e new A ---------4
up = p
max
2 2 p max e new 2A ( e new 2A ) ------------------------------ --------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------------2 2 2 2 2 ( 1 cos ) 1 cos 4 ( 1 cos )
(G.21) where A = p max sin e new e new 2A e new e new p max ------------------------ ---------- --------------- ----------- + A ---------2 sin 4sin 2 sin 4 2sin
2 2 2 2
up = p
max
(G.22)
where A = p max sin 130
Appendix G
or if Enew = E 1 2p max sin p max 1 1 1 ---------------------------------- --------- --------------- ----------- + p max sin -2 sin 4sin 2 sin 4 2sin (G.23) If q or q = f(p) is known, pmax can be expressed. Assume q = p tan and isolate u in Equation (G.14) e new u = ---------- p max ( sin + tancos ) 2
2 2
up = p
max
(G.24)
Insert Equation (G.24) in Equation (G.12) together with f(p) = p tan e new 2 e new e new = ---------- A e new ---------- A 2 ---------- A A = 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 p max ( 1 + tan ) 4
e new 2 2 = ---------- e new A + A = {for a positive power according to referencesin 4 e new Chapter 5} = ---------- A 2
2 2
p max = ------------2 cos
where A = p max ( sin + tancos ) e new p max ----------- = ---------- p max ( sin + tancos ) cos 2 e new 1 ---------- = p max sin + tancos + ----------- cos 2 e new cos e new cos p max = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = -----------------------------------------2 ( cossin + sincos + 1 ) 2 [ sin ( + ) + 1 ]
2 2 2 2
(G.25)
(G.26)
(G.27)
131
Appendix G
G.2
QU-curves
Solve Equation (G.3) for Q

4 2 2 2 2 2 U U E U cos Q = ----------------- ------ ( cos 1 ) + ------ ------ 2Psin P 2 ZL ZL ZL ZL
(G.28)
with per-unit values q = u cos u ( cos 1 ) + u ( 1 2psin ) p and for a lossless line q = u u p
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2
(G.29)
(G.30)
Henceforth only the lossless line will be dealt with concerning qu-curves. In Equation (G.30) the active power can be expressed as a constant power or as a function of the reactive power, p = f(q), e.g. p = q/tan where tan is constant. With p = q/tan and the possibility of changing the feeding voltage E to Enew Equation (G.30) becomes
2 4 u e new u u u q = ---------------------- ------------------------------ + ---------------------------2 2 2 2 1 + tan 1 + tan ( 1 + tan ) 2 2 4
(G.31)
132
Appendix H
Appendix H
Evaluation of the equations for the impact of tap changer on system characteristics
Recall Figure 5.17 in Chapter 5
Ei
Zi
(1+i):1
ZL
U P/Q
Figure H.1 A system with an equivalent voltage Ei behind a reactance Zi, both reduced over the nominal ratio of the transformer, and a tap changer regulating the voltage E.
Ei and Zi are reduced to the voltage level of the single line to the right of bus two. To write the power flow equations, reduce the voltage Ei and the reactance Zi over the tap changer ratio according to Figure H.2.
E'i (1+)
Z' i (1+i)2 E ZL U P/Q
1
Figure H.2 ratio.
The system in Figure H.1 but with Ei and Zi reduced over the tap changer
133
Appendix H
and the power flow equations will be

2 E i U U P = ------ sin + ---------------------- sin ( + ) Z ( 1 + i )Z 2 E i U U Q = ------ cos + ---------------------- cos ( + ) Z ( 1 + i )Z
(H.1)
(H.2)
where Z i Z = --------------------- + Z L 2 ( 1 + i ) and is the loss-angle for the total system. Solving sin2( + ) + cos2( + ) = 1 and writing the equation with per unit values (Ei as base-voltage and ZL as base-reactance giving (Ei)2/ZL as base-power) and with the possibility of changing the feeding voltage Ei to a new value Ei(new) gives
2 2 4 1 ( e i(new) ) --------------------- u u 2 ( 1 + i ) 2 2 2u ( psin + qcos ) p + q = ----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------2 z z
(H.3)
(H.4)
Z where z = ------ is not constant when i varies. ZL Isolate u to get the equation for the up-curve
2 ( e i(new) ) ( e i(new) ) ------------------------ 2zA ------------------------ 2zA 2 2 ( 1 + i ) ( 1 + i ) 2 2 2 ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- z ( p + q ) 4 2 2 2
u =
(H.5)
where A = psin + pcos For the sake of simplicity the resistance is neglected and the impedance Xi is written as XL giving X = X L --------------------- + 1 2 ( 1 + i ) 134 (H.6)
Appendix H
together with the assumption that q = p tan, and Equation (H.5) becomes 1 ---- 2 ---- + 1 ptan 2 2 n ni 2 2 1 1 i - -------------------------------------------------- -------- ---- ---- + 1 ptan ---- + 1 p 2 2 4 2 n2 4n i n i n i i (H.7) where n i = ( 1 + i )
2 2
u =
To find the expression for pmax, recall Equation (H.4) and add q = p tan. By implicit differentiation
2 2 1 ( e i(new) ) --------------------- 2u 2 ( 1 + i ) 2u ----- -------------------------------------------------------------- 2p ( sin + tancos ) z z
dp ----- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 du 2 2u 2p ( 1 + tan ) + -------- ( sin + tancos ) z at pmax dp/du = 0 and therefore
2 2 1 ( e i(new) ) --------------------- 2u 2 ( 1 + i ) -------------------------------------------------------------- 2p max ( sin + tancos ) = 0 z
(H.8)
(H.9)
Isolate u2/z
2 1 1 u ---- = ----- ( e i(new) ) --------------------- p max ( sin + tancos ) 2 2z z (1 + ) i 2
(H.10)
Insert Equation (H.10) in Equation (H.4) with q = p tan p max = ------------- = 2 cos
2 2
2 2 p max ( 1 + tan )
2 2 1 ( e i(new) ) 1 ( e i(new) ) - = ------- ------------------------ -- ------------------------ p max A + p max A 2 4 z ( 1 + )2 4z ( 1 + i ) i
135
Appendix H
p max 1 ( e i(new) ) ------------- = ----- ------------------------ p max A 2 2z ( 1 + ) 2 cos i Where A = sin + tancos
(H.11)
p max 2 1 1 ----------- = ----- ( e i(new) ) --------------------- p max ( sin + tancos ) 2 2z cos (1 + )

i
(H.12)
e i(new) 1 cos p max = ----------------- -- ----------------------------------------- 1 + i z 2 [ sin ( + ) + 1 ]
(H.13)
If the resistance is neglected and the total impedance is written according to Equation (H.6) then pmax can be written as
2 cos 1 p max = ( e i(new) ) ---------------------------- -------------------------- + ( 1 + i ) 2 ( sin + 1 )
(H.14)
136
Appendix I
Appendix I
Exponential load model
In Chapter 5 an exponential load model is used. The load characteristics for active and reactive power are then u p = p 0 ---- u
0 np
(I.1)
u q = q 0 ---- u
0
nq
(I.2)
where np and nq are the sensibility to voltage, and u is the voltage feeding the load. For nominal voltage u0, the rated power p0 and q0 are given respectively. If np and nq are not equal the relationship between p and q may be derived on condition that p0 and q0 are known, p/p0 > 0 and q/q0 > 0, and given at the same nominal voltage u0. Then
1 ---np 1 ---nq
p u ---- = ---- p u0 0 and
q = ---- q 0
(I.3)
q p = p 0 ---- q 0
np ---nq
(I.4)
p q = q 0 ---- p 0
nq ---np
(I.5)
137
Appendix I
138

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Modelling of Load Devices and Studying Load/System Characteristics

Kerstin Lindn and Inger Segerqvist

Technical Report No. 131L (Revised edition)

Modelling of Load Devices and Studying Load/System Characteristics

Kerstin Lindn and Inger Segerqvist

Department of Electrical Power Systems Gteborg, Augusti 1992

CHALMERS TEKNISKA HGSKOLA Institutionen fr Elkraftsystem S412 96 GTEBORG, Sweden

Chalmers Bibliotek ReproService Gteborg, Oktober 1993

Abstracti Acknowledgementiii Introductionv Contentsvii

K Lind n & I Segerqvist

Modelling of Load Devices and Studying

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Load class mix

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Static load models

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Dynamic load models

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

(describes the load-frequency dependence)(1.2)

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

nq 0 3.0 0 1.5 2.8

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling

Chapter 2: Load composition

Identifying a composite load

Chapter 2: Load composition

Division of electrical energy consumption for different areas. In the study on

Gotland [1] electrical heating forms a special load class.

Area Gotland Stockholm Sweden1

electrical heating [%] 30

conditions divided among load components.

Area High-load Light-load

electrical heating [%] 40 20

Chapter 2: Load composition

Chapter 2: Load composition

Chapter 2: Load composition

Chapter 2: Load composition

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Data acquisition system

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Data acquisition system.

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

The static measurements

The dynamic measurements

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Laboratory measurements on lamps

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Reactor L Lamp Reactor L Capacitor N Mercury lamp N

Capacitor Low pressure sodium lamp

Results from static measurements

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Switch-off voltage ~ 160 V ~ 180 V ~ 180 V ~ 80 V ~ 4080 V

Active power before switch-off ~ 30 W ~ 165 W ~ 180 W ~ 60 W ~ 2.6 W

Results from dynamic measurements

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Pm+E p Pm UmE u Um Um+ Eu PmEp

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads

Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads