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November 2012 | Vol. 4 | No.

14 | Pages 32333376
Date of Publication 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
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Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov.

Manju Siliwal
EDITORS
FOunDER & ChIEF EDITOR
Dr. Sanjay Molur, Coimbatore, India
ManagIng EDITOR
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aSSOCIaTE EDITORS
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Dr. Manju Siliwal, Dehra Dun, India
Dr. Meena Venkataraman, Mumbai, India
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jOuRnal OF ThREaTEnED Taxa
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JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 32333254
A new genus of the family Theraphosidae (Araneae:
Mygalomorphae) with description of three new species from the
Western Ghats of Karnataka, India
Manju Siliwal
1
, Neha Gupta
2
& Robert Raven
3
1
Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society, 96 Kumudham Nagar, Vilankuruchi Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641035, India
2
University School of Environmental Management, Guru Gobind Indraprastha University, Sector 16-C, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075,
India
3
Queensland Museum, Grey Street, PO Box 3300, South Brisbane, 4101, Queensland, Australia
Email:
1
manjusiliwal@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
neha_11taurian@rediff.com,
3
robert.raven@qm.qld.gov.au
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Anonymity requested
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3065
Received 20 January 2012
Final received 09 July 2012
Finally accepted 08 November 2012
Citation: Siliwal, M., N. Gupta & R. Raven
(2012). A new genus of the family Theraphosidae
(Araneae: Mygalomorphae) with description of
three new species from the Western Ghats of
Karnataka, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa
4(14): 32333254
Copyright: Manju Siliwal, Neha Gupta
& Robert Raven 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium for
non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution
by providing adequate credit to the authors and
the source of publication.
Author Details, Author Contribution and
Acknowledgements: See end of this article
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254 3233
INTRODUCTION
The subfamily Ischnocolinae of the family Theraphosidae is a generic
complex and Raven (1985) considered all genera (including the only
Indian genus Plesiophrictus Pocock, 1899) as incertae sedis. These genera
require re-examination of the type specimens along with examination
of new collections from the type locality to revalidate their taxonomic
position under Ischnocolinae. Recently, Guadanucci (2011) revalidated
the genus Heterophrictus Pocock, 1900 and removed it from the junior
synonym of Plesiophrictus; he also provided distinct generic characters for
Abstract: In this paper, a new genus Neoheterophrictus gen. nov., with three new species,
Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., N. sahyadri sp. nov. and N. uttarakannada sp.
nov., is described from Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka, India. The new genus is close
to Heterophrictus Pocock, 1900 and Plesiophrictus Pocock, 1899 but has multilobed
spermathecae, which was consistent in all the three species and the males possessing
double tibial spur. Natural history information for all the species described is provided.
We transfer Plesiophrictus bhori Gravely, 1915 to Heterophrictus and synonymise P.
mahabaleshwari Tikader, 1977 with Heterophrictus milleti Pocock, 1900.
Keywords: Eumernophorinae, Heterophrictus, new genus, new species, Plesiophrictus,
tarantula, taxonomy, Theraphosidae.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:698FBB17-F014-
4EA8-89C9-C5FF1AAA37A5
Western Ghats
Special Series
This article forms part of a special series on the Western Ghats of India, disseminating the
results of work supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative
of lAgence Franaise de Dveloppement, Conservation International, the Global Environment
Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. A fundamental
goal of CEPF is to ensure civil society is engaged in biodiversity conservation. Implementation
of the CEPF investment program in the Western Ghats is led and coordinated by the Ashoka
Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE).

Abbreviations: ALE = anterior lateral eye; AME = anterior median eye; AT = allotype;
HT = holotype; MOQ = median ocular quadrate; MS = Manju Siliwal; NG= Neha Gupta;
PME = posterior median eye; PLS = posterior lateral spinnerets; PMS = posterior
median spinnerets; PT = paratype; RR = Robert Raven; STC = superior or paired tarsal
claws; WILD = Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society; ZSI = Zoological
Survey of India. Abbreviations used for hair and spines count are d = dorsal; fe = femur;
mt = metatarsus; p = prolateral; pa = patella; r = retrolateral; ta = tarsus; ti = tibia; v =
ventral.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3234
Heterophrictus and Plesiophrictus, which are helpful
in the revision of Indian Plesiophrictus. Though the
taxonomic position of Heterophrictus is still confusing
in the absence of cladistic analysis (R. Raven pers.
comm. 7 February 2012), in this paper, we consider
Heterophrictus a valid genus until further cladistic
analysis (based on more specimens) is published.
During surveys in Uttara Kannada, Western Ghats
of Karnataka, the authors (MS and NG) collected a
theraphosid spider where the females had a distinct
rastellum. As per published literature, none of the
known Indian theraphosids have a cheliceral rastellum.
The spider from Uttara Kannada had a combination
of characters of the two Indian genera Annandaliella
Hirst, 1909 and Plesiophrictus, and the African genus
Euphrictus Hirst, 1908. Male specimens of the spider
from Uttara Kannada resembled morphologically
Annandaliella travancorica Hirst, 1909, but on
examining the specimen there were no stridulatory
setae between the chelicerae, which is an important
generic character for Annandaliella. Furthermore, on
looking at unpublished notes based on the examination
of type specimens in different European museums, RR
had made a special comment for Euphrictus spinosus
Hirst, 1908very like Annandaliella but low spur and
rastellum present. The spider from Uttara Kannada
possesses all these characters including similar palpal
bulb morphology, but differs from Euphrictus by the
absence of stridulatory spines on the prolateral surfaces
of the chelicerae and well-developed double tibial
spur being present in males. It also closely resembles
Plesiophrictus in male spur structure but there were
no spinules or granules between the spurs. After
comparing with all the known genera it was clear that
it represents a new genus, which is phylogenetically
close to Plesiophrictus. The publication of Guadanucci
(2011) has cleared many a doubt regarding the genus
and helped extensively in the preparation of this paper.
The new genus resembles Heterophrictus, but has
distinct multilobed spermathecae and well developed
double tibial spurs; these characters are consistently
found in of all the three different species reported in
this paper. Therefore, the spider is assigned to the
new genus Neoheterophrictus gen. nov. Probably,
Plesiophrictus, Heterophrictus and Neoheterophrictus
gen. nov. belong to the same group and are good
examples of Gondwana relict taxa.
In the present paper, we describe the new genus
Neoheterophrictus gen. nov. with three new species
from the Western Ghats of Karnataka, India.
Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov. (type species)
and N. sahyadri sp. nov. are described here based on
both the sexes, whereas, N. uttarakannada sp. nov.
is based only on female specimens. Although male
and female specimens of N. sahyadri were collected
from different localities, a subadult female was also
collected along with the male specimen, and based on
its morphological and taxonomic characters, which
resembled the mature female, these specimens from
different locations were considered conspecifc.
Natural history notes for all the new species are
provided.
METHODS
All specimens are deposited at Wildlife Information
Liaison Development Society, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India. Measurements of body parts, except
for the eyes, were made with a Mitutoyo
TM
Vernier
Calliper. Eye measurements were done with
calibrated ocular micrometer. All measurements are in
millimetres. Spermathecae were dissected and cleared
in concentrated lactic acid in a 100
0
C water bath for
1520 minutes. Total length excludes chelicerae. All
illustrations were prepared with the help of a camera
lucida attached to a MOTIC
TM
stereomicroscope by
MS and NG. The taxonomic description style follows
Siliwal & Molur (2009). All photographs by Manju
Siliwal.
TAXONOMY
Neoheterophrictus gen. nov. Siliwal & Raven
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:85A3DBB9-5357-45C2-AB75-CB2BB502AE44
Diagnosis
The new genus closely resembles Heterophrictus
in the absence of serrula, procurved fovea, presence
of rastellum on chelicerae, scopulae on tarsi I-IV
divided with setae but differs in spermathecae
structure, two receptacles, with many lobes/termini
at the apex; it also closely resembles Plesiophrictus
by presence of two tibial spurs, each with a pointed
spine and female scopulae on tarsi I-IV divided with
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3235
setae, but differs from Plesiophrictus by serrula being
absent; fovea procurved; presence of rastellum on
chelicerae; spermathecae structure, two receptacles
with many lobes at the apex; tegular keel absent on
male palpal bulb; absence of a row of stout black
granules between primary and secondary spur; male
ta I-III divided by a row of hairs and ta IV divided by
a band of setae; presence of prolateral brush of large
feathery hair (appearing like scopulae from lateral
view) on distal half of coxae, trochanter to patella of
leg I and on retrolateral distal half of trochanter to tibia
and a band on prolateral femorae of palp. The new
genus differs from the genus Ischnocolus and African
genus Heterothele by presence of tibial spur (absent
in Ischnocolus); differs from Afro-European genera
Chaetopelma and Nesiergus by primary tibial spur
with only a single spine at its tip.
Description
Spider covered with a mat of short hair (grey/
brown/pallid), more dense on carapace, chelicerae and
abdomen than on legs, sternum, maxillae, labium and
spinnerets. Cephalic region weakly raised. Eyes on
ocular tubercle. Fovea slightly procurved. Clypeus
very narrow or absent. Rastellum present on anterior
dorsoprolateral edge of chelicerae, distinct in female
and greatly reduced in male. All legs subequal in
thickness; tibiae to tarsi of leg IV covered with many
long hairs; metatarsi and tarsi of leg III and IV heavily
spined. Thorn setae present on prolateral coxae I and
above suture band of setae partially covered with brush
of grey hair. Brush of large feathery hair (appearing
like scopulae from lateral view) on prolateral distal
half of coxae, trochanter to patella of leg I and on
retrolateral distal half of coxae, trochanter to tibia and
band on prolateral femorae of palp. Tarsal scopulae on
all legs divided in females with band of setae, which
gets broader distally, in male tarsi I-III divided with
single row of hair and tarsi IV divided with band of
setae. Male with double tibial spur on ventral side of
tibia I, primary spur, long, gradually narrowing down
towards apex, with prominent spine at tip; secondary
spur rounded at apex with numerous bristles, hairs
and a few tubercles on inner side, long curved spine
emerge at base of secondary spur, covering spur on
its retrolateral aspect. Male palp simple, palpal bulb
simple without any keel or protrusions, embolus long,
gradually tapering towards tip and without keels.
Spermathecae, two receptacles, each with many lobes
at apex (resembling sketch of a tree).
Etymology
The name is a combination of two words neo
and heterophrictus, neo in Latin meaning new and
heterophrictus is a genus name within the family
Theraphosidae to which the new genus resembles.
Type species
Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., based
on female and male specimens deposited at WILD,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
Species included
Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., N. sahyadri
sp. nov., and N. uttarakannada sp. nov.
Distribution
Western Ghats, India.
Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov.
(Images 12, Figs. 1AI, 2AJ, 3AD, Table 12,
Appendix 1)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:F5A6C6B8-A2A6-4C30-BCD1-CEED1ECC3BAE
Type material:
Holotype: female, 5.v.2010, Kulgi, Dandeli
Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India
(15.167028
0
N & 74.617083
0
E, 521m), coll. M. Siliwal,
S. Chauhan, K. Ramesh, WILD-10-ARA-1067.
Allotype: male, 10.xii.2009, same data as holotype,
coll. M. Siliwal, S. Behera, WILD-09-ARA-472.
Paratypes: 4 females, same data as holotype,
WILD-10-ARA-1061, WILD-10-ARA-1065, WILD-
10-ARA-1066, WILD-10-ARA-1088; 1 female,
22.xi.2009, near Nagoda forest guest house, Joida,
Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India (15.19280
0
N,
74.617083
0
E, 584m), coll. M. Siliwal, S. Behera,
WILD-09-ARA-420; 1 male, same data as allotype,
WILD-09-ARA-473; 2 juveniles, 1-5.v.2010, same data
as holotype, coll. M. Siliwal, S. Chauhan, K. Ramesh,
WILD-10-ARA-1081, WILD-10-ARA-1082.
Diagnosis
Female differs from other known species in
spermathecae structure (Fig. 1I), two receptacles,
each long slightly narrowing down at apex, many very
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3236
small or minute lobes at apex resembling inforescence
of fower; legs, chelicerae, margins of carapace and
ventral and lateral sides of abdomen coffee brown, rest
black in life (Image 1).
Male of the new species differs by primary tibial
spur narrowing down gradually towards apex with
pointed spine at the tip; absence of thick spine at the
base of primary tibial spur (Fig. 2J) on retrolateral
aspect; distal two-third of metatarsi and complete tarsi
of all legs is white (Image 2).

Image 1. Female of Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov.


(Paratype, WILD-09-ARA-420)

Image 2. Male of Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov.
(WILD-09-ARA-472)
Figure 1. Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., female (WILD-10-ARA-1067). A - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view;
B - Eye; C - Sternum, maxillae, labium, chelicerae; D - Chelicerae prolateral view; E - Maxillae, retrolateral view; F - Coxa I,
prolateral view; G - Coxa I, retrolateral view; H - Spinnerets; I - Spermathecae. Scale 1.0mm for B-I and scale 0.5mm for A.
Manju Siliwal Manju Siliwal
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3237
Etymology
The species name is a combination of two Latin
words, cruro (for legs or limbs) and fulvus (for
tawny or yellowish-brown). Crurofulvus refers to the
light brown legs of the female spider, which is not seen
in any other known Indian theraphosid.
Description of holotype female (WILD-10-
ARA-1067)
Female: Carapace 11.41 long, 9.51wide, chelicerae
6.64 long. Abdomen 14.25 long, 7.09 wide. Spinnerets:
PMS, 1.14 long, 0.45 wide, 0.56 apart; PLS, 1.98
basal, 1.46 middle, 1.73 apical, mid-width 0.81, 0.76,
0.58 respectively, 5.17 total length. Leg and palp
morphometry in Table 1.
Colour in life (Image 1): Carapace, dorsal base of
chelicerae and dorsal side of abdomen black, refects
greyish shade in light. Legs, chelicerae, margins of
carapace and ventral and lateral sides of abdomen
along with long hairs pale/coffee brown. Leg IV
appears to be incrassate in life because of presence of
long hair (not as dense as seen in Lyrognathus).
Carapace (Fig. 1A): Length to width ratio 1.20;
reddish-brown, lighter towards periphery; covered with
a strong mat of short black hairs, more dense towards
margins and concentrated along striae radiating from
fovea, long, curved, light brown hairs at periphery.
Bristles: 11 long on caput in mid-dorsal line; 5 long
anteromedially; 9 long, 5 short between PME; 11 long,
8 short on clypeus edge. Mat of fne hair on anterior
and posterior ocular area, fne golden hair at base of
PLE. Fovea deep, slightly procurved. Two glabrous
bands emerging from anteriolateral sides of carapace,
on either side of caput, broadens posteriorly and ends
up much before fovea. Caput not much higher than
cephalic and thoracic region.
Eyes (Fig. 1B): Group occupies 0.26 of head-
width; ratio of group width to length 1.89. ALE clearly
larger than rest, PME clearly smaller than rest. Eyes
on ocular tubercle. Eye diameter: ALE, 0.42; AME,
0.36; PLE, 0.33; PME, 0.19. Distance between eyes:
AME-AME, 0.17; PME-PLE, adjacent; AME-ALE,
0.08; PME-PME, 0.69. Ocular Quadrate, 0.89 long,
1.68 wide. MOQ: length, 0.71; front width, 0.89; back
width, 1.05. Clypeus absent.
Maxillae (Fig. 1C,E): 3.46 long in front, 4.56 long
in back, 2.18 wide. Posterior edge near heel concave;
anterior lobe distinct, serrula absent, long bristles
present; posterior ventral edge straight. Cuspules: ca.
200 sparsely arranged in anterior corner in triangle
region. Prolateral face, scattered short and long hair
present, a few short setae above maxillary suture, setae
and bristles absent. Retrolateral face reddish-orange,
glabrous in centre with thin short (stiff black bristles)
spines on distal quarter, posterior and retroventral
edge.
Labium (Fig. 1C): 1.55 long, 1.94 wide; ca. 100
cuspules in band for one-fourth of length anteriorly;
cuspules similar in size to those on maxillae. Basal
groove shallow, distinct. Labiosternal groove convex.
One pair of large sigilla present in labiosternal groove
but not meeting in centre.
Chelicerae (Fig. 1D): Intercheliceral spines
absent. Chelicerae lyra absent. Prolateral, not smooth,
band with sparsely covered hairs running on curved
chelicerae shape just below dorso-prolateral face with
34 stiff bristles at base; retrolateral faces glabrous,
reddish-brown; 12 promarginal teeth, 42 basomesal
teeth. Rastellum present, 33 short thick curved
spines in 23 rows present on dorsoprolateral edge of
chelicerae.
Sternum (Fig. 1C): 5.20 long, 4.80 wide. Almost
round, high in centre, sloping gradually, covered with
long and short brown hair. Posterior angle short, blunt
and not separating coxae IV. Posterior edge clearly
seen. Prostrate hair mat strong, dense, of pallid hairs.
Single row of long black bristles like hair present on
margins. Pedicel pallid, not seen properly.
Sigilla (Fig. 1C): 3 pairs, posterior, oval,
0.31diameter, ca. 2.16 apart, 1.01 from margin; middle,
oval, 0.25 diameter, 3.58 apart, 0.39 from margin;
anterior, very small, round, marginal.
Legs: Formula 4123. Leg I clearly thicker than
IV, II subequal to IV. Basifemoral thorns absent on
all. Mat of short feathery hair (Image 1, resembling
scopulae hair) present on prolateral side of distal half
of coxae, trochanter to basal half of patella of leg I and
on retrolateral side of distal half of coxae, trochanter to
tibia of palp (not as dense as on leg I). Metatarsus III
1.5 times longer than tarsus, metatarsus IV 2.00 times
longer than tarsus, rest slightly longer (1.30 times)
than tarsi.
Spines: I: ti, v=2; mt, v=1. II: ti, p=1, v=3; mt, p=1,
v=4. III: pa, p=1, ti, p=1, v=3, r=1; mt, p=2, v=6, r=2.
IV: ti, p=1, v=4, r=4; mt, p=3, v=9, r=3. Palp: ti: v=2.
Spines on distal metatarsi: I, 1 distal ventral; II-III-IV,
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3238
1 distal ventral, 2 distal ventrolateral.
Trichobothria: Tarsi: I, 30 clavate, 16 long and short
fliform; II, 30 clavate, 24 long and short fliform; III,
24 clavate, 24 long and short fliform; IV, 14 clavate,
20 long and short fliform; palp, 23 clavate, 12 long
and short fliform. Clavate on I-IV in distal three-
quarters in two rows; fliforms only in basal three-
quarters. Short epitrichobothrial hair feld on tarsi as
wide as clavates and uniform height for length.
Coxae (Figs. 1F-G): Coxal bases dorsally easily
seen from above (Image 1). I longest, about 1.33
times length of II; IV clearly widest and basally with
anterior corner distinct, edge curves dorsally, rounded
at interface. Coxae ventrally with short golden brown
hair, weak thorns present on prolateral faces of I-II
and very much reduced on III-IV, sparsely distributed
in basal one half portion on coxae I, one fourth basal
on coxae II, very few on proventral basal edge; above
suture thick blackish-brown long thick stiff setae
along with brush of fne grey hair on leg I-II, on III-
IV reduced to a few setae. I-IV ventrally covered
with golden brown mat of small hairs at base of coxa,
long and short black and pallid hair, all coxae sloping
backward. Retrolateral setation: I-III with median
narrow light thin brush of pallid hair, IV glabrous.
Leg pilosity: Leg III-IV, tibia to tarsi covered with
long hairs, leg IV appears incrassate. Femorae of all
legs have pallid brush like long hair ventrally. All
legs covered with mat of greenish-brown short hair.
Number of long hairs extending well above base layer,
I: pa, v=4; ti, d=4, p=3, v=8, r=2; mt, d=5, p=4, v=3,
r-2; ta, d=2. II: pa, d=2, v=4; ti, d=7, p=4, v=8, r=3;
mt, d=9, p=2, v=5, r=3; ta, d=2. III: pa, d=5, p=6, v=3,
r=6; ti, d=7, p=12, v=26, r=16; mt, d=18, p=7, v=21,
r=14; ta, d=2, p=2, r=2. IV: pa, d=8, p=10, v=4, r=17;
ti, d=28, p=32, v=24, r=48; mt, d=38, p=40, v=34,
r=80; ta, d=24, p=14, r=36.
Scopulae: Entire on all tarsi, divided with setae,
division broader distally; ta I, divided centrally with
23 setae (distally with band of 68 setae), ta II-III,
divided with band of 34 (distally 1216) setae, ta IV,
divided with band of 56 (distally 1620) setae; mt I,
distal three-quarters; mt II, distal half; mt III-IV, distal
quarter, scanty. Metatarsi scopulae intermixed with
long black hair and bristles. No scopula on proventral
tibiae.
Tarsal weakness: Not prominent.
Claws: Paired claws on leg I-IV without dentition
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Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3239
and single bare claw on palp. Claw tufts well developed
but not obscuring claws.
Abdomen pilosity (Image 1): cuticle not exposed
dorsally and ventrally; dorsally covered with a thick
mat of black hair, a fne layer of brown long and
short hair, many pallid; ventrally and ventrolateral
uniformly greenish-brown, thick mat of fne pallid
hair, intermixed uniformly with long pallid and golden
hair. Abdomen slightly broader posteriorly.
Spinnerets (Fig. 1H): Two pairs, digitiform,
yellowish with brown hairs.
Spermathecae (Fig. 1I): Two receptacles with
multiple minute lobes (like inforescence of fower) at
apex. Each receptacle, long, broader at base, slightly
tapering towards apex (like a tree trunk).
Variations in female paratypes (n=5):
Total length: 20.3325.78 (23.812.23). Carapace:
10.1411.58 (10.810.54) long, 7.929.65 (9.180.71)
wide. Ocular group: 0.580.65 (0.620.03) long,
1.501.64 (1.590.06) wide. MOQ: 0.500.73
(0.640.10) long, front width 0.610.95 (0.770.15),
back width 0.961.19 (1.050.10). Labium: 1.121.55
(1.260.17) long, 1.271.94 (1.460.28) wide; 55
100 cuspules. Sternum: 4.655.43 (5.070.31) long,
3.875.24 (4.740.52) wide. Maxillae: 1.733.46
(2.500.63) long in front, 2.624.56 (3.380.74) long
in back, 2.184.35 (3.330.95) wide; cuspules 150
280. Abdomen: 10.1914.25 (13.021.70) long, 6.01
7.63 (6.860.59) wide. Leg and palp morphometry in
Table 1.
Description of allotype male (WILD-09-ARA-472):
Total length 20.64. Carapace 10.28 long, 8.84
wide, chelicerae 5.53 long. Abdomen 10.36 long, 5.26
wide. Spinnerets: PMS, 1.40 long, 0.27 wide, 0.52
apart; PLS, 1.43 basal, 0.92 middle, 1.09 apical, mid-
width 0.69, 0.41, 0.32 respectively, 3.44 total length.
Leg and palp morphometry in Table 2.
Colour in life (Image 2): Carapace, chelicerae and
dorsal side of abdomen greenish-black. Carapace
margin lighter. Legs greyish-black except for distal
two-third of metatarsi of legs and tarsi of legs and
palp white (brighter on anterior legs than posterior
legs and palp). Chelicerae and dorsal side of coxae
and trochanter creamish/pallid. Legs and abdomen
covered with long pallid hairs and black bristles with
orange tips.
Carapace (Fig. 2A): Length to width ratio 1.16;
reddish-brown, lighter at periphery; covered with a
strong mat of short golden brown hairs intermixed with
short black hairs, more dense towards margins and
concentrated along interstitial ridges radiating from
fovea, long curved light brown bristles with pallid tips
at periphery on posterior half of carapace. Bristles: 4
long, 9 short anteromedially; 4 long, 7 short between
PME; 12 long, 11 short on clypeus edge. Mat of fne
hair on anterior and posterior ocular area, fne golden
hair at base of PLE. Fovea deep, slightly procurved.
Two glabrous bands emerging from anteriorlateral
sides of carapace, on either side of caput, broadens
posteriorly and ends before fovea. Caput not much
higher than cephalic and thoracic region.
Eyes (Fig. 2B): Group occupies 0.29 of head-
width; ratio of group width to length 1.81. ALE clearly
Leg I Leg II Leg III Leg IV Palp
AT PT AT PT AT PT AT PT AT PT
Femur 9.45 8.05 8.12 7.19 7.33 6.28 10.2 8.71 5.46 5.08
Patella 4.83 4.65 4.57 3.61 4.06 3.45 4.79 4.11 2.79 2.86
Tibia 7.22 6.45 5.27 4.76 4.43 4.100 7.8 7.04 4.33 3.74
Metatarsus 6.34 5.34 5.27 4.76 6.34 5.25 10.92 9.23
Tarsus 2.60 2.77 2.78 2.76 3.04 3.06 3.66 3.36 1.03 1.11
Total 30.44 27.26 26.01 23.08 25.2 22.14 37.37 32.45 13.61 12.79
Midwidth
Femur 1.86 1.5 2.08 1.78 2.38 1.85 2.23 1.7 1.42 1.26
Tibia 1.89 1.41 1.52 1.21 1.64 1.39 1.72 1.27 1.41 1.33
Table 2. Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., measurements of legs and palp of male specimens, allotype (WILD09
ARA472) and paratype (WILD09ARA473)
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3240
larger than rest, PME smaller than anterior eyes. Eyes
on ocular tubercle. Eye diameter: ALE, 0.35; AME,
0.29; PLE, 0.27; PME, 0.25. Distance between eyes:
AME-AME, 0.12; PME-PLE, adjacent; AME-ALE,
0.05; PME-PME, 0.58. Ocular Quadrate, 0.66 long,
1.20 wide. MOQ: length, 0.58; front width, 0.80; back
width, 0.95; difference between back and front width,
0.15. Clypeus very narrow.
Maxillae (Fig. 2C,E): 2.64 long in front, 3.72 long
in back, 1.83 wide. Posterior edge near heel concave,
anterior lobe distinct, serrula absent, long bristles
present; posterior ventral edge straight. Cuspules: ca.
190 in anterior corner in triangle region. Prolateral
face, scattered short and long hair present, few short
stiff hair above maxillary suture, setae and bristles
absent. Retrolateral face reddish-orange, glabrous in
centre with thin short (stiff black bristles) spines on
distal quarter, posterior and retroventral edge.
Labium (Fig. 2C): 0.89 long, 1.34 wide; ca. 80
cuspules in band for one-fourth of length anteriorly;
cuspules similar in size to those on maxillae. Basal
groove shallow, distinct. Labiosternal groove convex.
One pair of large sigilla present in labiosternal
groove.
Chelicerae (Fig. 2D): 5.53 long, intercheliceral
spines absent. Chelicerae lyra absent. Prolateral, not
smooth, band with faint ridges (at the half way point
of band), sparsely covered with hairs running on
curved chelicerae shape in just below dorso-prolateral
face with 3-4 stiff bristles at base; retrolateral faces
glabrous, reddish-brown; 16 promarginal and 39
basomesal teeth in 2-4 rows. Rastellum present, not as
prominent as in female, 18 short and long thick, curved
bristle-like spines in 2-3 rows on dorsoprolateral edge
of chelicerae.
Sternum (Fig. 2C): 4.62 long, 4.39 wide. Slightly
oval (more roundish), broader posteriorly, high in
centre, sloping gradually, covered with long and short
brown hair. Posterior angle short and blunt and not
separating coxae IV. Posterior edge clearly seen. A
few scattered small pallid hair covering base of sternum
like mat but not dense and not covering sternum. 2-3
Figure 2. Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., male (WILD-09-ARA-472).
A - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view; B - Eye; C - Sternum, maxillae, labium, chelicerae; D - Chelicerae prolateral view; E
- Maxillae, retrolateral view; F - Coxa I, prolateral view; G - Coxa I, retrolateral view; H - Spinnerets; I - Tibial spur, prolateral
view; J - Tibial spur, retrolateral view. Scale 1.0mm for BJ and scale 0.5mm for A.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3241
rows of long black bristle-like hair present on margins
posteriorly. Pedicle pallid, not seen properly.
Sigilla (Fig. 2C): Three pairs, posterior sigilla,
oval, 0.37 diameter, ca. 1.41 apart, 0.60 from margin;
median sigilla, oval, 0.29 diameter, 3.24 apart, 0.12
from margin; anterior, very small, round, marginal.
Legs (Figs. 2I-J): Formula 4123. All legs almost
subequal in thickness. Basifemoral thorns absent on
all. Mat of short feather hair (Image 2, resembling
scopulae hair) present on prolateral side of distal half
of coxae, trochanter to basal half of patella of leg I and
on retrolateral side of distal half of coxae, trochanter
to tibia of palp (not as dense as on leg I). Mt IV 2.98
times longer than ta IV, rest 2.00-2.40 times longer
than ta. Tibial apophysis consists of two spurs
ventrally, primary spur on ventro-retrolateral surface,
long, gradually narrowing down slightly towards apex,
with prominent spine at tip; secondary spur on ventro-
prolateral aspect of primary spur, rounded at apex with
numerous bristles, hairs and a few tubercles on the
inner side of it, long curved spine emerge at base of
secondary spur, covering spur on its retrolateral aspect.
No granules or spines present between two spurs.
Spines: I: ti, v=2 spur, each with pointed spine;
mt, v=1. II: ti, p=1, v=3; mt, p=1, v=3. III: ti, p=r=1,
v=4; mt, p=r=2, v=5. IV: ti, p=3, r=1, v=4; mt, p=r=3,
v=5. Spines on distal metatarsi: I, 1 ventral; II, 2
ventrolateral; III-IV, 1 ventral, 2 ventrolateral.
Trichobothria: ta I, 25 clavate, 10 long and 10 short
fliform; ta II, 23 clavate, 10 long and 20 short fliform
in 2 rows for length; ta III, 22 clavate, 12 long and 13
short fliform; ta IV, 22 clavate, 14 long and 20 short
fliform and 15 clavate, 8 long and 6 short fliform on
palp. Clavate on I-IV in distal three-quarters in two
bands; fliforms for length. Short epitrichobothrial
feld on all legs as wide as clavates and uniform height
for length.
Coxae (Fig. 2F-G): Coxal bases dorsally easily seen
from above. I longest, about 1.30 times longer than
II; IV clearly widest and basally with anterior corner
distinct, edge curves dorsally, rounded at interface.
I-IV ventrally covered with short golden brown hair at
base accompanied by long and short black and pallid
hair, weak thorns present on prolateral faces of I-II
but not as dense as in female and very much reduced
on III, absent on IV, sparsely distributed in basal one
half portion on coxae I, one fourth basal on coxae II,
very few on proventral basal edge; above suture thick
Figure 3. Neoheterophrictus crurofulvus sp. nov., male (WILD-09-ARA-472).
A - Tibia to Palp, retrolateral view; B - Palp, Prolateral view; C - Palp, retroventral view; D - Palp, retrolateral view. Scale
1.0mm for A-D.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3242
blackish-brown long thick stiff setae along with brush
of fne grey hair on I, reduced on II, only few setae
on III-IV. I-II slopping forward and III-IV backward.
Retrolateral setation: I-III with median narrow light
brush of pallid hair, IV glabrous.
Leg pilosity: All legs not very hairy, III-IV
relatively more hairy than I-II. Femorae of all legs
ventrally have pallid brush like long hairs. All legs
covered with mat of greenish-brown short hairs along
with black bristles and pallid hairs. Number of long
hairs extending well above base layer, I: fe p=d=r=10
, v=50; pa, p=r=2, d=5, v=7; ti, p=5, d=15, r=7, v=20;
mt, d=v=10, p=r=7; ta, d=6, p=3, r=3. II: fe d=12, p=4,
r=10, v=30; pa, d=4, p=2, r=6, v=5; ti, d=12, p=r=6,
v=20; mt, d=15, p=4, r=6, v=14; ta, d=10, p=4, r=2.
III: fe, d=10, p=7, r=20, v=30; pa, d=r=4, p=v=2; ti,
d=r=10, p=4, v=20; mt, d=12, p=4, v=10, r=7; ta, d=3,
p=5, r=6. IV: fe, d=p=10, v=25, r=20; pa, d=6, p=r=5,
v=4; ti, d=8, p=16, v=30, r=10; mt, d=30, p=20, v=25,
r=50; ta, d=15, p=10, v=2, r=15.
Scopulae: Entire on all tarsi, intermixed with hair
and divided with hair on I-III and divided by setae on
IV, division broader distally, dividing setae brown with
pallid tips and hair pallid; ta I-III, only one setae (distal
with band of 3-4 setae), ta IV, divided with band of 4-5
(distally 8-9) setae. Mt I, distal three-quarters; met II,
distal half; mt III-IV, distal quarter, scanty. Metatarsi
scopulae intermixed with long black hair and bristles.
No scopula on proventral tibiae.
Tarsal weakness: Not prominent.
Claws: Paired claws on leg I-IV without dentition
and single bare claw on palp. Claw tufts well developed
but not obscuring claws.
Abdomen pilosity (Image 2): Cuticle not exposed
dorsally and ventrally; dorsally covered with a thick
mat of brown hair, a fne layer of black, brown long
and short hair, many pallid; ventrally and ventrolateral
uniformly greenish-brown, thick mat of fne pallid
hair, intermixed uniformly with long pallid hair.
Spinnerets (Fig. 2H): Two pairs, digitiform,
yellowish covered with brown hairs.
Palp (Figs. 3AD): Tarsi divided distally but not
deep. Bulb large and twisted on cymbium with long
embolus. Embolus emerges from posterioventral area
of the tegulum, takes 180
0
bend and gradually tapers
towards the tip, diverting away from the bulb.
Variations in male paratype
Total length: 18.79. Carapace: 8.73 long, 7.53
wide. Ocular group: 0.65 long, 1.26 wide. MOQ:
0.50 long, front width 0.68, back width 0.84. Labium
damaged. Sternum: 3.98 long, 3.59 wide. Maxillae:
2.97 long in front, 3.59 long in back, 1.99 wide;
cuspules 155. Abdomen: 10.06 long, 6.36 wide. Leg
and palp morphometry in Table 2.
Natural History
Males of the species were found in mixed forest and
semievergreen patch of forest under decaying logs or
rocks with 6070% of canopy cover, 3080% ground
cover (based on season) and 020% rock cover. No
male was found in the burrow. Females were found in
burrows constructed vertically on sloping ground (15
40
0
), burrows were facing sloping direction and were
mostly found around the base of large trees or decaying
logs. Burrows of female resembled those of Arctosa
spp. (Lycosidae) with minimal silk (few strands) at
the entrance and inside the burrow. The frst female
was found wandering on a katchcha (unmetalled,
country) road, near a fresh landslide by the roadside
bund because of the previous nights rain. Probably,
the burrow had been destroyed by the landslide and,
when spotted, the female was in search of a new site
to construct her burrow. Searching for other females
was hampered by the lack of a thick layer of silk at
the burrow entrance (confused for a lycosid spider
burrow), which is characteristic of a theraphosid
burrow. The burrows were 1525 mm in diameter and
0.150.25 m deep. In May 2010, one empty eggsac
was found in the burrow with the female; probably the
eggsac was from the previous season. No eggsac was
found in AprilMay. Mature males were observed
from September to March.
Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov.
(Image 34, Figs. 4AI, 5AH, 6AF, Table 3)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:3742F690-386A-4C3E-BA7C-97378673A96D
Type specimens
Holotype: Female, 19.iv.2010, mixed forest,
Between Nagoda and Joida, Uttara Kannada, Karnataka,
India (15.188028
0
N & 74.490056
0
E, 584m), coll. M.
Siliwal, N. Gupta, S. Chauhan, WILD-10-ARA-1008.
Allotype: Male, 24.i.2010, Kadra, Uttara Kannada,
Karnataka, India (14.91897
0
N & 74.36071
0
E, 29m),
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3243
coll. S. Behara, M. Siliwal, Neha Gupta, WILD-10-
ARA-579.
Paratype: 1 female, 26.ix.2009, data same as
allotype, coll. M. Siliwal, S. Behera, WILD-09-
ARA-418.
Diagnosis
Females of N. sahyadri sp. nov. differ from other
species in spermathecae structure (Fig. 4I), two
receptacles, each receptacle not very long and broad,
constricted at apex, where 67 large contiguous lobes
present (in N. crurofulvus sp. nov., receptacles relatively
longer and gradually narrowing down towards apex
and many, very small lobes); cephalothorax, chelicerae,
legs and abdomen greenish-black in life (Image 3)
(in N. crurofulvus sp. nov., legs, chelicerae, margins
of carapace and ventral and lateral sides of abdomen
coffee brown, rest black in life); tarsi of same colour
as legs, blackish-brown (in N. crurofulvus sp. nov.,
legs uniformly coloured, coffee-brown).
Male of N. sahyadri sp. nov. differs by the
presence of thick spine at base of primary tibial spur
on retrolateral aspect (Fig. 6B); palp embolus gently
curving retrolaterally towards tip; metatarsi and tarsi
of all legs completely white (whereas in N. crurofulvus
sp. nov. distal two-thirds of metatarsi and complete
tarsi white), more brighter on anterior legs than
posterior legs (Image 4); spider lighter in colour than
male of N. crurofulvus sp. nov.
Etymology
The species name is a noun in apposition for
Sahyadri, vernacular name for the Western Ghats.
Description of female holotype (WILD-10-
ARA-1008)
Total length 22.78. Carapace 10.51 long, 7.91 wide,
chelicerae 6.08 long. Abdomen 12.27 long, 6.80 wide.
Spinnerets: PMS, 1.13 long, 0.29 wide, 0.46 apart;
PLS, 1.45 basal, 1.08 middle, 1.10 apical, mid-width
0.78, 0.71, 0.51 respectively, 3.63 total length.
Colour in life (Image 3): Carapace, chelicerae, legs
and abdomen greenish-black, refects greyish shade
in light. Periphery of carapace, legs and abdomen
covered with pallid long hairs with black bristles with
orange red tips.
Carapace (Fig. 4A): Length to width ratio 1.30;
reddish-brown; covered with strong mat of short
greyish-brown hairs, more dense towards margins and
concentrated along striae radiating from fovea, long
curved light brown hairs with pallid tips at periphery.
Bristles: 17 long on caput in anteromedially; 7 long
and 14-16 short between anterior eyes; 9 long, 6 short
between PME; 9 long, 8 short on clypeus edge. Mat
of fne hair on anterior and posterior ocular area, fne
grey hair between ALE-PLE. Fovea deep, slightly
procurved. Two glabrous bands emerging from
anteriorlateral sides of carapace on either side of caput
broadens posteriorly and ends up before fovea. Caput
not much higher than cephalic and thoracic region.
Eyes (Fig. 4B): Group occupies 0.30 of head-
width; ratio of group width to length 1.98. ALE clearly
larger than rest, PME clearly smaller than PLE. Eye
diameter: ALE, 0.41; AME, 0.26; PLE, 0.23; PME,
0.20. Distance between eyes: AME-AME, 0.13; PME-

Image 3. Female of Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov.


(Holotype, WILD-10-ARA-1008)

Image 4. Male of Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov.
(Allotype, WILD-10-ARA-579)
Manju Siliwal Manju Siliwal
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3244
PLE, adjacent; AME-ALE, 0.02; PME-PME, 0.65.
Ocular Quadrate, 0.74 long, 1.47 wide. MOQ: length,
0.63; front width, 0.66; back width, 1.09. Clypeus
narrow.
Maxillae (Fig. 4C,E): 3.11 long in front, 4.47 long
in back, 2.22 wide. Posterior edge near heel concave,
anterior lobe distinct, serrula absent, long bristles
present; posterior ventral edge straight. Cuspules: ca.
160 sparsely arranged in anterior corner in triangle
region. Prolateral face, scattered short and long hair
Table 3. Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov., measurements of legs and palp of holotype (WILD10ARA1008), paratype
(WILD10ARA579)
Leg I Leg II Leg III Leg IV Palp
HT PT HT PT HT PT HT PT HT PT
Femur 6.56 9.1 5.31 8.27 5.22 7.38 6.75 10.49 4.92 5.40
Patella 4.36 5.05 3.88 4.25 3.68 3.71 3.84 4.40 3.38 3.34
Tibia 4.98 7.79 3.83 5.62 3.39 5.01 5.41 8.10 3.35 4.36
Metatarsus 2.48 6.37 3.23 6.03 4.38 6.74 6.28 10.5
Tarsus 1.92 2.61 2.14 3.23 2.13 3.28 2.94 3.99 2.83 0.97
Total 20.3 30.92 18.39 27.4 18.8 26.12 25.22 37.48 14.48 14.07
Midwidth
Femur 1.79 2.03 1.55 2.10 1.96 2.15 1.63 1.84 1.47 1.19
Tibia 1.92 1.52 1.38 1.34 1.54 1.45 1.74 1.45 1.54 1.29
Figure 4. Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov., female (WILD-10-ARA-1008).
A - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view; B - Eye; C - Sternum, maxillae, labium, chelicerae; D - Chelicerae prolateral view; E
- Maxillae, retrolateral view; F - Coxa I, prolateral view; G - Coxa I, retrolateral view; H - Spinnerets; I - Spermathecae. Scale
1.0mm for BI and scale 0.5mm for A.
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A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3245
present, few short stiff hair above maxillary suture,
setae and bristles absent. Retrolateral face reddish-
orange, glabrous in centre with thin short (stiff
black bristles) spines on distal quarter, posterior and
retroventral edge.
Labium (Fig. 4C): 1.27 long, 1.49 wide; ca 24
cuspules in band (in two groups) for one-fourth of
length anteriorly; cuspules similar in size to those on
maxillae. Basal groove shallow, distinct. Labiosternal
groove convex. One pair of large sigilla present in
labiosternal groove but not meeting in centre.
Chelicerae (Fig. 4D): Intercheliceral spines absent.
Chelicerae lyra absent. Prolateral, not smooth, band
with ridges sparsely covered with hairs running on
curved chelicerae shape in just below dorso-prolateral
face with 4-5 stiff bristles at base, a few scattered
small hairs present on prolateral face; retrolateral
faces glabrous, reddish-brown; 16 promarginal teeth ,
28 basomesal teeth in 1-4 rows. Rastellum present, 21
short thick curved spines in 1-2 rows present on dorso-
prolateral edge of chelicerae.
Sternum (Fig. 4C): 4.40 long, 4.08 wide. Almost
round, high in centre, sloping gradually, covered
with long and short black hair. Posterior angle short
and blunt and not separating coxae IV. Posterior
edge clearly seen. A few scattered small pallid hair
covering base of sternum like mat, but not dense. 1-2
rows of long black bristles like hair present on margins
posteriorly. Pedicle pallid, not seen properly.
Sigilla (Fig. 4C): three pairs, posterior sigilla,
oval, 0.29 diameter, ca. 1.47 apart, 0.64 from margin;
middle, oval, 0.18 diameter, 3.12 apart, 0.20 from
margin; anterior, very small, round, marginal.
Legs: Formula 4132. All legs almost subequal in
thickness, reddish-brown. Basifemoral thorns absent
on all. Mat of short feathery hair (Image 3, resembling
scopulae hair) present on prolateral side of distal half of
coxae, trochanter to patella of leg I and on retrolateral
side of distal half of coxae, trochanter to tibia of palp
(not as dense as on leg I); also narrow band of feather
hair present on prolateral side of femorae of palp. Mt
III-IV 2.06 to 2.14 times longer than ta.
Spines: I: mt, v=1. II: ti, v=2; mt, v=4. III: pa,
p=1, ti, p=1, r=1, v=4; mt, p=r=2, v=6. IV: ti, p=r=2,
v=4; mt, p=r=2, v=6. Palp: ti: p=1. Spines on distal
metatarsi: I, 1 ventral; II, 1ventral, 2 ventrolateral; III-
IV, 1ventral, 2 ventrolateral.
Trichobothria: Tarsi: I, 28 clavate, 11 long and
8 short fliform; II, 29 clavate, 10 long and 7 short
fliform; III, 29 clavate, 8 long and 6 short fliform;
IV, 24 clavate, 11 long and 6 short fliform; palp, 27
clavate, 6 long and 4 short fliform. Clavate on I-IV
in distal three-quarters in two rows; fliforms only in
basal three-quarters. Short epitrichobothrial hair feld
on tarsi as wide as clavates and uniform height for
length but not very dense as seen in theraphosids.
Coxae (Figs. 4F-G): Coxal bases dorsally easily
seen from above. I longest, about 1.33 times length of
II; IV clearly widest, edge curves dorsally, rounded at
interface. Coxae ventrally with short and long black
hair, weak thorns present on prolateral faces of I-II
and very much reduced on III-IV, sparsely distributed
in basal one half portion on coxae I, one fourth basal
on coxae II, very few on proventral basal edge; above
suture thick blackish-brown long thick stiff setae
along with brush of fne grey hair on leg I-II, on III-IV
reduced to a few setae. I-IV ventrally covered with a
mat of small grey hairs at base of coxae, intermixed
with long and short black and pallid hair, all coxa
sloping forward. Retrolateral setation: I-III with
median narrow light thin brush of pallid hair in centre,
IV glabrous.
Leg pilosity: Posterior legs more hairy than anterior
legs. Femorae of all legs ventrally have pallid brush
like long hair but not very dense. All legs covered
with a mat of greyish-brown short hair. A number of
long hairs extending well above base layer, I: fe, p=10,
d=15, v=50; pa, d=8, p=2, v=10, r=12; ti, d=12, p=15,
v=14, r=13; mt, d=6, p=15, v=8, r=12; ta, d=p=5, r=4.
II: fe, d=15, p=5, v=25, r=15; pa, d=r=4, p=2, v=7; ti,
d=12, p=10, v=21, r=7; mt, d=10, p=12, v=16, r=6; ta,
d=6, p=18, r=12. III: fe, d=20, p=14, v=40, r=12; pa,
d=8, p=5, v=4, r=3; ti, d=10, p=15, v=25, r=15; mt,
d=p=20, v=30, r=20; ta, d=7, p=9, r=7. IV: fe, d=p=20,
v=35; pa, d=18, p=10, v=15, r=25; ti, d=p=20, v=15,
r=25; mt, d=p=25, v=20, r=30; ta, d=6, p=25, r=20.
Palp: fe, d=, v=25; pa, d=, v=4; ti, d=, p=4, v=14, r=5;
ta, d=, p= r=8.
Scopulae: Entire on all tarsi, divided with setae,
division broader distally; ta I, divided centrally with
band of 3-4 setae (distally 5-6 setae), ta II, divided
with band of 5-6 setae (distally 8-9 setae), ta III,
divided with band of 5-6 setae (distally 8-10 setae), ta
IV, divided with band of 5-6 setae (distally 9-10 setae);
palp ta divided with band of 4-5 setae (distally 6-8
setae). Metatarsi scopulae undivided and intermixed
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3246
with long black hair and bristles. No scopula on
proventral tibiae.
Tarsal weakness: Not prominent.
Claws: Paired claws on leg I-IV without dentition
and single bare claw on palp. Claw tufts well developed
but not obscuring claws.
Abdomen pilosity (Image 3): Oval; cuticle not
exposed dorsally and ventrally, covered with a thick
mat of black-brown hair intermixed with long and
short black hair, many pallid hairs.
Spinnerets (Fig. 4H): Two pairs, digitiform,
yellowish with brown hairs.
Spermathecae (Fig. 4I): Two receptacles with
multiple large lobes at apex. Each receptacle stout,
broader (almost as wide as width of the cluster of lobes
at apex) with constriction at apex, where a cluster of
67 large contiguous lobes (of different size) present;
spermatheca appears like a tree with a stout trunk.
Description of allotype male (WILD-10-ARA-579)
Total length 19.27. Carapace 10.04 long, 8.78 wide,
chelicerae 5.36 long. Abdomen 9.23 long, 4.51 wide.
Spinnerets: PMS, 0.54 long, 0.33 wide, 0.21 apart;
PLS, 1.05 basal, 1.37 middle, 1.30 apical, mid-width
0.35, 0.49, 0.35 respectively, 3.72 total length.
Colour in life (Image 4): Carapace, greenish-brown
with lighter margins. Legs and palp greenish-brown
except for metatarsi of legs and tarsi of legs and palp
white (brighter on anterior legs than posterior legs and
palp); margins of carapace lighter. Chelicerae and
dorsal side of coxae and trochanter creamish/pallid.
Abdomen dorsal and ventral light brown.
Carapace (Fig. 5A): Length to width ratio 1.14;
reddish-brown, lighter towards periphery; covered
with a strong mat of short golden/pallid hairs, more
dense towards margins and concentrated along striae
radiating from fovea, long, curved brown with pallid
tips hairs at periphery. Bristles: 6 long, many short
anteromedially; 8 long, many short like brush of pallid
Figure 5. Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov., male (WILD-10-ARA-579).
A - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view; B - Eye; C - Sternum, maxillae, labium, chelicerae; D - Chelicerae prolateral view;
E - Maxillae, retrolateral view; F - Coxa I, prolateral view; G - Coxa I, retrolateral view; H - Spinnerets. Scale 1.0mm for B,
DH and scale 0.5mm for A, C.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3247
hairs between PME; 12 long, 11 short on clypeus edge.
A mat of fne hair on anterior and posterior ocular area,
fne golden hair between PLE-ALE, PME-PME, ALE-
ALE. Fovea deep, slightly procurved. Two glabrous
bands emerging from anteriorlateral sides of carapace,
on either side of caput, broadens posteriorly and ends
before fovea. Caput is not higher than cephalic and
thoracic region.
Eyes (Fig. 5B): Group occupies 0.47 of head-
width; ratio of group width to length 2.09. ALE
clearly larger than rest, PME smaller than rest. Eyes
on ocular tubercle. Eye diameter: ALE, 0.31; AME,
0.29; PLE, 0.27; PME, 0.26. Distance between eyes:
AME-AME, 0.06; PME-PLE, adjacent; AME-ALE,
0.04; PME-PME, 0.47. Ocular Quadrate, 0.65 long,
1.36 wide. MOQ: length, 0.54; front width, 0.59; back
width, 0.98; difference between back and front width,
0.39. Clypeus very narrow.
Maxillae (Fig. 5C,E): 2.67 long in front, 3.59 long
in back, 1.73 wide. Posterior edge near heel concave,
anterior lobe distinct, serrula absent, long bristles
present; posterior ventral edge straight. Cuspules:
ca.140 in anterior corner in triangle region. Prolateral
face, scattered short and long hair present, a few short
stiff hair above maxillary suture with setae and bristles
absent. Retrolateral face reddish-orange, glabrous in
centre with thin short (stiff black bristles) spines on
distal quarter, posterior and retroventral edge.
Labium (Fig. 5C): 1.19 long, 1.51 wide; ca. 70
cuspules in band for quarter of length anteriorly;
cuspules similar in size to those on maxillae. Basal
groove shallow, distinct. Labiosternal groove convex.
One pair of large sigilla present in labiosternal groove,
not touching at the centre.
Chelicerae (Fig. 5D): 5.53 long, intercheliceral
spines absent. Chelicerae lyra absent. Prolateral, not
smooth, band with strong ridges (more prominent on
mid band), sparsely covered with hairs running in
curved chelicerae shape just below dorso-prolateral
face with 34 stiff bristles at base, and a few scattered
small hairs present on prolateral face; retrolateral
faces glabrous, reddish-brown; 17 promarginal, 41
basomesal teeth in 14 rows. Rastellum not very
prominent, covered with 17 stiff bristle-like spines
in 23 rows on anterior dorsoprolateral edge of
chelicerae.
Sternum (Fig. 5C): 4.63 long, 3.80 wide. Oval,
high in centre, sloping gradually, covered with long
Figure 6. Neoheterophrictus sahyadri sp. nov., male (WILD-10-ARA-579).
A - Tibial spur, prolateral view; B - Tibial spur, retrolateral view; C - Tibia to Palp, retrolateral view; D - Palp, Prolateral view;
E - Palp, ventral view; F - Palp, retrolateral view. Scale 1.0mm for AF.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3248
and short brown hair. Posterior angle short and blunt
and not separating coxae IV. Posterior edge clearly
seen. A few small pallid hair covering base of sternum
like a mat but not dense. A single row of long brown
bristle-like hair present on margins in posterior half.
Pedicle pallid, not seen properly.
Sigilla (Fig. 5C): three pairs, posterior sigilla,
oval, 0.39 diameter, ca. 1.92 apart, 0.42 distance from
margin; median sigilla, oval, 0.23 diameter, 2.40
apart, 0.13 from margin; anterior, very small, round,
marginal.
Legs (Figs. 6A-B): Formula 4123. Reddish-brown,
covered with a mat of grey hair intermixed with hairs
and bristles. All legs almost subequal in thickness.
Basifemoral thorns absent on all. A mat of short feather
hair (Image 4, resembling scopulae hair) present on
prolateral side of distal half of coxae, trochanter to
basal half of patella of leg I and on retrolateral side
of distal half of coxae, trochanter to tibia of palp (not
as dense as on leg I). Mt IV 2.60 times longer than
ta IV, rest 1.90 to 2.40 times longer than ta. Tibial
apophysis consists of two spurs ventrally, primary spur
on ventro-retrolateral, long, slightly swollen at apex
with prominent spine at tip, at base of primary spur on
retrolateral face long thick straight spine; secondary
spur on ventro-prolateral aspect of primary spur,
rounded at apex with numerous bristles, hairs and a
few tubercles on the inner side of it, long curved spine
emerge at base of secondary spur, covering spur on
its retrolateral aspect. No granules or spines present
between two spurs.
Spines: I: ti, v=2 spurs, each with pointed spine,
r=1; mt, v=1. II: ti, v=3, r=1; mt, p=1, v=2. III: ti, p=1,
r=2, v=4; mt, p=r=2, v=7. IV: ti, p=1, r=2, v=4; mt,
p=3, r=2, v=9. Spines on distal metatarsi: I, 1 ventral;
II, 2 ventrolateral; III, 1 ventral, 2 ventrolateral, IV, 1
ventral, 2 ventrolateral.
Trichobothria: ta I, 34 clavate, 10 long and 6 short
fliform; ta II, 30+broken clavate, 12 long and 8 short
fliform in 2 rows for length; ta III, 22+broken clavate,
8 long and 6 short fliform; ta IV, 18+broken clavate,
10 long and 7 short fliform; palp, 26 clavate, 5 long
and 4 short fliform. Clavate on I-IV in distal three-
quarters in two bands; fliforms for length. Short
epitrichobothrial hair feld on all legs as wide as
clavates and uniform height for length.
Coxae (Fig. 5F-G): Coxal bases dorsally easily seen
from above. I longest, about 1.30 times longer than
II; IV clearly widest and basally with anterior corner
distinct, edge curves dorsally, rounded at interface.
I-IV ventrally covered with a mat of small pallid hairs
intermixed with long and short black and pallid hair.
Weak thorns present on prolateral faces of I-II but not
as dense as in female and very much reduced on III,
absent on IV, sparsely distributed in basal half of coxae
I, basal quarter of coxae II, very few on proventral
basal edge; above suture thick blackish-brown long
thick stiff setae along with brush of fne grey hair on I,
reduced on II, only a few setae on III-IV. I-III sloping
forward and IV backward. Retrolateral setation: I-III
with median narrow light brush of pallid hair, IV
glabrous.
Leg pilosity: All legs not very hairy, III-IV
relatively more hairy than I-II. All legs covered with
a thick mat of pallid short hairs. Number of long hairs
extending well above base layer, I: fe d=10 , v=30; pa,
p=2, d=6; ti, p=7, d=15, r=10, v=12; mt, p=2+broken,
d=15, v=12, r=4+broken; ta, d=10, p=8, r=10, v=4. II:
fe d=10, r=5, v=50; pa, d=r=8, p=3, v=5; ti, d=15, p=5,
r=12, v=25; mt, d=20, p=9, r=12, v=16; ta, d=12, p=9,
r=12, v=4. III: fe, d=8, p=10, r=25, v=30; pa, d=r=4,
p=7, v=10; ti, d=9, r=6, p=8, v=20; mt, d=35, p=17,
v=25, r=15; ta, d=10, p=12, r=15. IV: fe, d=8, p=10,
v=30, r=5; pa, p=8, r=4, v=5; ti, d=12, p=15, v=25,
r=20; mt, d=45, p=25, r=v=35; ta, d=7, p=16, r=20.
Scopulae: Entire on all tarsi, intermixed with hair
and divided with hair on tarsi I-III and tarsi IV divided
with brown pale-tipped setae, division broader distally;
ta I-II, divided with single row of hairs (distal bunch of
setae like hairs at base of claw tufts; III, divided with a
band of 3-4 setae (distal with a bunch of setae), ta IV,
divided with band of 4-5 setae (distally 10-12 setae).
Mt I, distal three-quarters; met II, distal half; mt III-IV,
distal quarter, scanty. Metatarsi scopulae intermixed
with long black hair, bristles and spines. No scopula
on proventral tibiae.
Tarsal weakness: not prominent.
Claws: Paired claws on leg I-IV without dentition
and single bare claw on palp. Claw tufts well developed
but not obscuring claws.
Abdomen pilosity (Image 4): Dorsally, coffee-
brown with greyish shade posteriorly, ventrally,
greenish-brown. Cuticle not exposed dorsally and
ventrally; dorsally covered with a thick mat of pallid
hair intermixed with brown pale-tipped bristles;
ventrally and ventrolateral uniformly greenish-brown,
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3249
a thick mat of fne pallid hair, intermixed uniformly
with long pallid hair.
Spinnerets (Fig. 5H): Two pairs, digitiform,
yellowish covered with pallid hairs.
Palp (Figs. 6CF): Tarsi divided distally but not
deep. Bulb large and twisted on cymbium with long
embolus. Embolus emerges from posterioventral area
of the tegulum, takes a 180
0
bend and gradually tapers
towards tip, diverting the retrolateral side of the bulb.
Natural History
Male and females of the species were found in
mixed forest and semievergreen patches or moist
areas of forest under decaying log or rocks with 60
70 % of canopy cover, 3080 % ground cover (based
on season) and 020 % rock cover. No male was
found in the burrow. Females were found in shallow
holes/burrows (maximum 30cm deep) below rock or
decaying log. Females were found using burrows
for hiding when log or rock was disturbed, otherwise
found resting below the substrate. In the resting place
they had prepared a small border with mud. Habitat
information is similar to N. crurofulvus sp. nov.
Neoheterophrictus uttarakannada sp. nov.
(Image 5, Figs. 7AH, Table 4)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:745FA172-9CDB-4873-895C-30F20E1EFF4D
Type specimens
Holotype: Female, 14.iv.2010, Anshi National
Park, Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India (15.008
0
N &
74.384472
0
E, 538m), coll. M. Siliwal, N. Gupta and S.
Chauhan, WILD-10-ARA-923.
Paratype: 1 female, 13.iii.2010, mixed forest,
between Nagoda and Joida, behind agriculture felds,
Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India (15.191972
0
N &
74.488611
0
E, 581m), coll. M. Siliwal, N. Gupta, S.
Behera, K. Ramesh, WILD-10-ARA-672.
Diagnosis
Female of the new species differs from other species
in spermathecae structure (Fig. 7H), two receptacles,
each receptacle relatively short and broader at base,
gradually narrows towards apex, where 67 large
contiguous lobes (of varying size) present (in N.
crurofulvus sp. nov., receptacles relatively longer and
gradually narrowing down towards apex with many
very small lobes at apex; in N. sahyadri sp. nov.,
receptacles relatively short, broad, uniform width
with constriction at apex, where 67 large contiguous
lobes present); mt and ta I-II paler colour (yellowish-
orange) and less hair than rest of the legs parts (in N.
crurofulvus sp. nov. and N. sahyadri sp. nov. all legs of
uniform colour). Male unknown.
Etymology
The species name is noun in apposition for the
district name Uttara Kannada (North Canara District),
from where the type specimens were collected.
Description of holotype female (WILD-10-
ARA-923)
Total length 18.30. Carapace 8.56 long, 6.72
wide, chelicerae 5.20 long. Abdomen 9.74 long, 5.40
wide. Spinnerets: PMS, 0.83 long, 0.24 wide, 0.32
apart; PLS, 1.52 basal, 1.08 middle, 1.27 apical, mid-
width 0.67, 0.65, 0.52 respectively, 3.87 total length.
Morphometry of legs and palp in Table 4.
Colour in life (Image 5): Carapace, chelicerae, legs
and abdomen greenish-brown, refects brownish shade
in light. The periphery of carapace, legs and abdomen
covered with pallid long hairs and black bristles with
orange red tips.
Carapace (Fig. 7A): Length to width ratio
1.30; reddish-brown; covered with a strong mat of
short black hairs, more dense towards margins and
concentrated along striae radiating from fovea, with
long curved light brown hairs at periphery. Bristles:
14 long on caput in mid-dorsal line; 7 long and 1416
short anteromedially; 9 long, 5 short between PME;

Image 5. Female of Neoheterophrictus uttarakannada sp.


nov. (Holotype, WILD-10-ARA-923)
Manju Siliwal
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3250
Figure 7. Neoheterophrictus uttarakannada sp. nov., female (WILD-10-ARA-923).
A - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view; B - Eye; C - Sternum, maxillae, labium, chelicerae; D - Chelicerae prolateral view;
E - Maxillae, retrolateral view; F - Coxa I, prolateral view; G - Spinnerets; H - Spermathecae. Scale 1.0mm for BH and scale
0.5mm for A.
1 long, 7 short on clypeus edge. A mat of fne hair on
anterior and posterior ocular area, fne golden hair at
base of PLE. Fovea deep, slightly procurved. Two
glabrous bands emerging from anteriorlateral sides of
carapace, on either side of caput, broadens posteriorly
and ends up much before fovea. Caput is not much
higher than cephalic and thoracic region.
Eyes (Fig. 7B): Group occupies 0.29 of head-width;
ratio of group width to length 1.79. ALE clearly larger
than rest, PME clearly slightly smaller than PLE. Eye
diameter: ALE, 0.36; AME, 0.26; PLE, 0.25; PME,
0.23. Distance between eyes: AME-AME, 0.14;
PME-PLE, adjacent; AME-ALE, 0.03; PME-PME,
0.44. Ocular Quadrate, 0.69 long, 1.24 wide. MOQ:
length, 0.57; front width, 0.58; back width, 0.76.
Clypeus narrow.
Maxillae (Fig. 7C,E): 2.48 long in front, 3.36 long
in back, 1.75 wide. Posterior edge near heel concave,
anterior lobe distinct, serrula absent, long bristles
present; posterior ventral edge straight. Cuspules:
ca. 200 arranged in anterior corner in triangle region.
Prolateral face, scattered short and long hairs present,
a few short stiff hairs above maxillary suture, setae
and bristles absent. Retrolateral face reddish-orange,
glabrous in centre with thin short (stiff black bristles)
spines on distal quarter, posterior and retroventral
edge.
Labium (Fig. 7C): 0.94 long, 1.14 wide; ca 37 +
broken cuspules in band for quarter of length anteriorly;
cuspules similar in size to those on maxillae. Basal
groove shallow, distinct. Labiosternal groove convex.
One pair of large sternal sigilla present in labiosternal
groove but not meeting in centre.
Chelicerae (Fig. 7D): Intercheliceral spines absent.
Chelicerae lyra absent. Prolateral surface, not smooth,
band with ridges sparsely covered with hairs running
on curved chelicerae shape just below dorso-prolateral
face with 3-4 stiff bristles at base, a few scattered
small hairs present on prolateral face; retrolateral
faces glabrous, reddish-brown; 15 promarginal teeth,
38 basomesal teeth in 1-4 rows. Rastellum present,
22 short thick curved spines in 2 rows present on
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3251
dorsoprolateral edge of chelicerae.
Sternum (Fig. 7C): 3.81 long, 3.28 wide. Almost
round, high in centre, sloping gradually, covered with
long and short black hair. Posterior angle short and blunt
and not separating coxae IV. Posterior edge clearly
seen. A few scattered small pallid hairs covering base
of sternum like a mat but not dense and not covering
sternum. A single row of long black bristle-like hairs
present on margins posteriorly. Pedicle pallid, not
seen properly.
Sigilla (Fig. 7A): three pairs, posterior sigilla,
oval, 0.33 diameter, ca. 1.39 apart, 0.42 from margin;
middle, oval, 0.11 diameter, 2.95 apart, 0.06 from
margin; anterior, very small, round, marginal.
Legs: Formula 4132. All legs almost subequal
in thickness, reddish-brown. Basifemoral thorns
absent on all. A mat of short feather hair (Image 5,
resembling scopulae hair) present on prolateral side of
distal half of coxae, trochanter to patella of leg I and
on retrolateral side of distal half of coxae, trochanter
to tibia of palp (not as dense as on leg I). Mt IV 2.23
times longer than ta IV; mt III 1.75 times longer than
ta III; rest 1.40-1.50 times longer than ta.
Spines: I: ti, p=1; mt, v=1. II: ti, p=2, r=1; mt, p=1,
r=1, v=2. III: pa, p=1, ti, p=r=2, v=1; mt, p=4, r=3,
v=2. IV: ti, p=3, r=4, v=1; mt, p=5, r=3, v=2. Palp:
ti: p=1, r=1. Spines on distal metatarsi: I, 1 ventral, 1
ventrolateral; II, 1ventral, 2ventrolateral; III, 1ventral,
2ventrolateral; IV, 1ventral, 2ventrolateral.
Trichobothria: Tarsi: I, 26 clavate, 10 long and
8 short fliform; II, 24 clavate, 10 long and 6 short
fliform; III, 23 clavate, 10 long and 6 short fliform;
IV, 22-26 clavate, 10 long and 6 short fliform; palp,
26 clavate, 6 long and 4 short fliform. Clavate on I-IV
in distal three-quarters in two rows; fliforms only in
basal three-quarters. Short epitrichobothrial hair feld
on tarsi as wide as clavates and uniform height for
length but not very dense.
Coxae (Fig. 7F): Coxal bases dorsally easily seen
from above. I longest, about 1.33 times length of II;
IV clearly widest and basally with anterior corner
indistinct, edge curves dorsally, rounded at interface.
Coxae ventrally with short and long black hair, weak
thorns present on prolateral faces of I-II and very much
reduced on III, absent on IV, sparsely distributed in
basal half of coxae I, basal quarter on coxae II, very few
on proventral basal edge; above suture thick blackish-
brown long thick stiff setae along with a brush of fne
grey hair on I, reduced on II, only few setae on III-IV.
I-IV ventrally covered with golden brown mat of small
hairs at base of coxae, long and short black and pallid
hair, all coxa sloping forward. Retrolateral setation:
I-III with median narrow light thin brush of pallid hair
in centre, IV glabrous.
Leg pilosity (Image 5): Leg III-IV, tibia to tarsi
covered with long hairs. Femorae of all legs ventrally
have pallid brush like long hair. All legs covered with
a mat of greenish-brown short hairs. A number of long
hairs extending well above base layer, I: fe, d=7, v=24;
pa, d=10, p=2, v=10, r=8; ti, d=14, p=r=6 v=20; mt,
d=12, p=4, v=7, r=2; ta, d=10, p=5, r=5. II: fe, d=8,
p=2, v=16, r=18; pa, d=9, p=4, v=8, r=7; ti, d=15, p=7,
v=15, r=7; mt, d=10, p=7, v=14, r=6; ta, d=12, p=r=6.
III: fe, d=17, p=7, v=24, r=5; pa, d=p=5, v=4, r=9; ti,
d=6, p=8, v=12, r=13; mt, d=13, p=20, v=10, r=13; ta,
d=8, p=9, r=12. IV: fe, d=8, p=4, v=30, r=2; pa, d=7,
Table 4. Neoheterophrictus uttarakannada sp. nov., measurements of legs and palp of holotype (WILD10ARA923),
paratype (WILD10ARA672)
Leg I Leg II Leg III Leg IV Palp
HT PT HT PT HT PT HT PT HT PT
Femur 5.74 5.66 4.73 4.47 4.45 4.36 6.4 5.64 4.34 3.83
Patella 3.84 3.62 3.11 2.78 2.82 2.89 3.43 3.34 2.86 2.53
Tibia 4.42 4.09 2.53 3.27 2.38 3.37 4.44 4.95 2.70 2.58
Metatarsus 2.82 2.31 2.70 2.62 3.85 3.28 5.59 5.22
Tarsus 1.83 2.09 1.87 2.19 2.19 2.43 2.51 3.22 2.23 2.51
Total 18.65 17.77 14.94 15.33 15.69 16.33 22.37 22.37 12.13 11.45
Midwidth
Femur 1.79 1.38 1.58 1.11 1.75 1.33 1.46 1.22 1.15 0.84
Tibia 1.43 1.29 1.30 1.06 1.35 1.19 1.38 1.30 1.25 0.99
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3252
p=v=6, r=10; ti, d=10, p=r=v=12; mt, d=13, p=v=20,
r=25; ta, d=7, p=10, r=14. Palp: fe, d=7, v=14; pa,
d=10, v=4; ti, d=10, p=5, v=10, r=2; ta, d=12, p=4,
r=2.
Scopulae: Entire on all tarsi, intermixed with hair
and divided with setae, division broader distally; ta I,
divided centrally with band of 4-5 setae (distally 8-9
setae), ta II, divided with band of 4-5 setae (distally
12-14 setae), ta III, divided with band of 4-5 setae
(distally 14-16 setae), ta IV, divided with band of 4-5
setae (distally 16-18 setae); palp ta divided with band
of 4-5 setae (distally 6-8 setae). Metatarsi scopulae
undivided, intermixed with long black hair and bristles.
No scopula on proventral tibiae.
Tarsal weakness: Not prominent.
Claws: Paired claws on leg I-IV without dentition
and single bare claw on palp. Claw tufts well developed
but not obscuring claws.
Abdomen pilosity (Image 5): Oval; cuticle not
exposed dorsally and ventrally; dorsally covered with
a thick mat of greyish-black hair intermixed with long
and short black hairs, many pallid hairs; ventrally and
ventrolateral a uniformly greyish-brown, thick mat of
fne greyish-brown hair, intermixed uniformly with
long pallid hairs.
Spinnerets (Fig. 7G): Two pairs, digitiform,
yellowish with brown hairs.
Spermathecae (Fig. 7H): Two receptacles with
multiple large lobes at apex, appears like sketch of
tree. Each receptacle relatively short and broader at
base, gradually narrows towards apex (like tree trunk),
where 67 large contiguous lobes (of varying sizes)
present.
Variations in paratype
Total length: 18.79. Carapace: 7.28 long, 5.96
wide. Ocular group: 0.52 long, 1.09 wide. MOQ: 0.47
long, front width 0.60, back width 0.77. Labium 1.24
long, 1.48 wide, 27 cuspules. Sternum: 3.97 long,
3.07 wide. Maxillae: 2.68 long in front, 3.34 long
in back, 1.95 wide; cuspules ca.200. Abdomen: 8.37
long, 4.35 wide.
Natural History
It is similar to N. sahyadri sp. nov., females were
found below small rocks and had shallow burrows for
temporary hideouts.
DISCUSSION
Guadanucci (2011) transferred Heterophrictus to
the subfamily Eumenophorinae based on presence
of plumose stridulatory setae above suture of coxae
I. However, it is not stated whether this character is
present only on coxae I or coxae I and II or all coxae.
As per characters of Eumenophorinae, paddle and
spike setae or just spike setae are present on coxae
I-II (Smith 1990). Moreover, none of the members
of the Eumenophorinae have been reported to have a
rastellum on the chelicerae. Rastellum is only reported
in Euphrictus Hirst, 1908 (Selenogyrinae). It is very
likely that a rastellum is present in many described
theraphosid genera and which would have been missed
out by pioneer arachnologists. A complete revision
for theraphosid genera is urgently needed. As the new
genus is phylogenetically related to Heterophrictus,
we also place Neoheterophrictus gen. nov. in the
subfamily Eumernophorinae.
An interesting character observed in all the
specimens (both sexes) of Neoheterophrictus gen. nov.
is the presence of large feathery hair (appearing like
scopulae from lateral view) on prolateral of distal half
of coxae, trochanter to patella of leg I and on retrolateral
of distal half of coxae, trochanter to tibia and a band
on prolateral femorae of palp. It is very prominent
from the dorsal view in preserved and spider in life.
This character has been previously reported in the
Australian genus Xamiatus Raven, 1981 of the family
Nemesiidae; African theraphosid genera Encyocratella
Strand, 1907 (Stromatopelminae) and Pelinobius
Karsch, 1885 (Eumenophorinae) (Raven 1981; Gallon
2003, 2005, 2010). According to Gallon (2003), these
hairs are used with a stridulatory function.
With the additional information on Plesiophrictus
and Heterophrictus by Guadanucci (2011), the
photographs of type specimens of Plesiophrictus
deposited at Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata were
re-examined and comments on a few Plesiophrictus
sp. are provided here. However, the validation for
all Indian Plesiophrictus is not provided here due to
lack of information on important generic characters
and it will be done after re-examination of the type
specimens in different museums.
The type specimen of Plesiophrictus bhori Gravely,
1915 (Type, ZSIK 2218/17) from Parambikulam,
Cochin State (now Kerala) and P. mahabaleshwari
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3253

Image 6. Plesiophrictus bhori, chelicerae, prolateral view

Image 7. Plesiophrictus mahabaleshwari, chelicerae,


prolateral view

Image 8. Plesiophrictus mahabaleshwari, maxillae, ventral


view

Image 9. Plesiophrictus mahabaleshwari, spermathecae,


dorsal view
Tikader, 1977 (ZSIK, Type, number not designated)
from Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra. These spider
specimens possess rastellum (Images 67), serrula
absent (Image 8) and procurved fovea. Based on these
characters, we transfer P. bhori and P. mahabaleshwari
to the genus Heterophrictus. Further, the spermathecae
of P. mahabaleshwari (Image 9) resemble that of
Heterophrictus milleti Pocock, 1900 and based on it, we
synonymise H. mahabaleshwari with Heterophrictus
milleti.
The type specimen of Plesiophrictus nilagiriensis
Siliwal et al., 2007 was also re-examined and was
found that the species has transverse fovea, serrula
present and absence of rastellum on maxillae. These
characters validate the placement of P. nilagiriensis in
the genus Plesiophrictus.
REFERENCES
Gallon, R.C. (2003). A new African arboreal genus and
species of theraphosid spider (Araneae, Theraphosidae,
Stromatopelminae) which lacks spermathecae. Bulletin of
the British Arachnological Society 12(9): 405411.
Gallon, R.C. (2005). Encyocratella olivacea Strand, 1907,
a senior synonym of Xenodendrophila gabrieli Gallon,
2003 (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Stromatopelminae) with a
description of the male. Zootaxa 1003: 4556.
Gallon, R.C. (2010). On some Southern African Harpactirinae,
with notes on the eumenophorines Pelinobius muticus
Karsch, 1885 and Monocentropella Strand, 1907 (Araneae,
Theraphosidae). Bulletin of the British Arachnological
Society 15(2): 2948.
Guadanucci, J.P.L. (2011). The genus Plesiophrictus Pocock
Manju Siliwal
Manju Siliwal
Manju Siliwal
Manju Siliwal
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32333254
A new theraphosid genus M. Siliwal et al.
3254
and revalidation of Heterophrictus Pocock (Araneae:
Theraphosidae). The Journal of Arachnology 39(3): 523
527.
Raven, R. (1981). A Review of the Australian Genra of the
Mygalomorph Spider Subfamily Diplurinae (Dipluridae:
Chelicerata). Australian Journal of Zoology 29(3): 321
363.
Raven, R.J. (1985). The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae
(Araneae): cladistics and systematics. Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History (USA): 1180.
Siliwal, M. & S. Molur (2009). Redescription, distribution and
status of the Karwar Large Burrowing Spider Thrigmopoeus
truculentus Pocock, 1899 (Araneae: Theraphosidae), a
Western Ghats endemic ground mygalomorph. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 1(6): 331339.
Smith, A. M., Ed. (1990). Baboon Spiders - The Theraphosidae
of Africa and the Middle East. London, Fitzgerald
Publishing, 141pp.
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Acknowledgment: Authors (MS and NG) are grateful to the following
personnel and institutions: PCCF, Karnataka Forest Department for giving
permission and logistic help during the surveys; Mr. Sunil Kumar, Deputy
Conservator of Forest, Dandeli WLS, and Mr. R. Gokul, Conservator of
Forests, Karwar Division for the logistic support and help during the surveys;
Mr. Ramesh and Mr. Suraj Chauhan for assisting in feld during the surveys;
CEPF (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund)-ATREE (Ashoka Trust For
Research In Ecology And The Environment) Western Ghats Small Grants
Program for funding the tarantula project during which the new genus was
found; Dr. Peter Jger, Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt, for providing
valuable old reprints on this group of spiders; Dr. Sanjay Molur and Ms.
Sally Walker, Zoo Outreach Organization, for initiating, and their support
and encouragement of the Indian tarantula project; Dr. Bhaskar Acharya,
ATREE and Dr. Jack Tordoff, CEPF for their interest and encouragement
to the Western Ghats tarantula project; Dr. Bilal Habib, Wildlife Institute
of India for helping in scanning drawings. RR and MS wish to thank the
Australian Biological Resources Study grant research funds for partially
funding a trip to Australia for MS and so, some of the information used in
this paper was obtained by MS during her visit to Queensland Museum,
Brisbane. NG wishes to deeply thank Dr. Sanjay Keshari Das, Assistant
Professor, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi for all the
encouragement and support he provided as a supervisor for the Masters
dissertation during which this spider was found.
Author Details and Author Contribution:
Manju Siliwal has been working on spiders since 1997. She has specialized
on taxonomy of primitive spiders (mygalomorphs including tarantulas) and
has described many new species from India. Her main interest lies in
taxonomy, ecology and conservation of Indian spiders. Her contribution to
this paper is in collecting specimens, identifying the species and preparing
the manuscript including taxonomy.
neha Gupta is MSc in biodiversity and conser vation and is very much
interested in ecology and conservation of Indian spiders. For her M.Sc.
dissertation, she worked on the ecology of trapdoor spiders of the family
Idiopidae in Ut tara Kannada, Karnataka. She was involved in the spider
surveys when some of the new species listed in this paper were collected.
She also assisted in taking morphometry information for most of the
specimens and fnalizing illustrations.
RobeRt Raven is world renowned expert on primitive spiders
(mygalomorphs) and has ex perience of about 40 years in spider taxonomy.
He has described 42 genera and 351 species till date from different parts
of the world, pre dominantly from Australia. His contribution to this paper
was in fnalizing the text, working on language of the paper, reviewing the
taxonomy of the species and providing critical inputs on various genera of
Theraphosidae.
JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 32553268
Additional records of Tettigoniidae from Arunachal
Pradesh, India
G. Srinivasan
1
& D. Prabakar
2
1,2
Zoological Survey of India, 535, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata, West Bengal 700053, India
Email:
1
zsisamy@rediffmail.com (corresponding author),
2
dprabakar14@gmail.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: R.K. Avasthi
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2927
Received 25 August 2011
Final received 03 October2012
Finally accepted 17 October 2012
Citation: G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar (2012).
Additional records of Tettigoniidae from Arunachal
Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa
4(14): 32553268.
Copyright: G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar 2012.
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this
article in any medium for non-proft purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing
adequate credit to the authors and the source
of publication.
Author Details: Dr. G. SrinivaSan is working
as Scientist-C in Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata. His area of research interest are in the
Bio-systematic studies of short horned and long
horned grasshoppers (Orthoptera), Phasmids
and Vespidae (Hymenoptera).
Shri. D. Prabakar working as Assistant Zoologist
at Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional
Centre, Chennai. His area of research interest
is in the bio-systematic studies of grasshoppers
(Orthoptera).
Author Contribution: See end of this article.
Acknowledgements: We are grateful to Dr.
K. Venkataraman, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata for providing facilities to carry
out the work. We are also thankful to Dr. G.
Maheswaran, Officer-in-Charge, Arunachal
Pradesh Field Centre, Zoological Survey of
India, Itanagar for providing the specimens on
loan for our studies.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268 3255
Abstract: Ten species of Tettigoniids under 10 genera belonging to fve subfamilies of
the family Tettigoniidae from Arunachal Pradesh are discussed of which fve species are
new records to India and nine species are new records to Arunachal Pradesh.
Keywords: Arunachal Pradesh, Chloracris, Khaoyaiana, Phyllozelus, Pseudophyllus,
Onomarchus, Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae, Trachyzulpha,
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FFB58E61-6537-
4F34-BC8A-8453F8C2F05E
Abbreviations: BMNH - Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom; LSUK
- Linnean Society, United Kingdom, London; MZPW - Museum Ziemi PAN, Warsaw,
Poland; MHNG - Museum dhistoire Naturelle in Geneva, Switzerland; MNHN - Museum
National dhistoire Naturelle, Paris, France; NHMV - Naturhistorisches Museum Vienna;
SMFD - Naturmuseum Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; ZMUM - Zoological
Museum University of Moscow; ZSI - Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, West Bengal,
India.
The state of Arunachal Pradesh is located in northeastern India, situated
between 26
0
2829
0
30N and 91
0
3097
0
30E and borders the states of
Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with
Bhutan in the west, Myanmar in the east and the Peoples Republic of
China (PRC) in the north. Arunachal Pradesh is covered by the Himalaya.
However, parts of Lohit, Changlang and Tirap are covered by the Patkai
Hills. Kangto, Nyegi Kangsang, the main Gorichen Peak and the eastern
Gorichen Peak are some of the highest peaks in this region of the Himalaya.
At the lowest elevations, essentially at Arunachal Pradeshs border with
Assam, is Brahmaputra Valley with its semievergreen forests. Much of
the state, including the Himalayan foothills and the Patkai Hills, are home
to eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests. Toward the northern border,
with increasing elevation, comes a mixture of eastern and northeastern
Himalayan subalpine conifer forests followed by the eastern Himalayan
alpine shrub and meadows and ultimately rock and ice on the highest
peaks.
Species of the family Tettigoniidae, known in American English as
katydids and in British English as bush crickets, are very attractive in
appearance. They are part of the suborder Ensifera and the only family
in the superfamily Tettigonioidea. They are also known as long horned
grasshoppers although they are more closely related to crickets than to
grasshoppers. They are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical parts
of the world (Heller 1995). Tettigoniidae is a widely distributed family
that includes about 6000 species in 1070 genera (Otte 1997). Out of these
Bengali Abstract: - . - - . -
- - - -- . - --- --
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3256
only 159 species of 72 genera are reported from India
(Shishodia et al. 2010). The adults are small to large
(15120 mm) and poorly known from India.
Some important works on the taxonomy and
distribution of Tettigoniidae of northeastern India
include: Barman & Srivastava (1976), Shishodia
(2000), Shishodia & Tandon (2000), Barman (2003),
Shishodia et al. (2003, 2010), Kulkarni & Shishodia
(2005), Senthilkumar et al. (2006), and Senthilkumar
(2010). The present paper deals with 10 species. The
classifcation is after Rentz (1979).
Material and Methods
All the specimens were handpicked during night
from the street lights and in the early morning from
the vegetation. The collected specimens were killed
by using ethyl acetate and preserved as dry specimens.
The pinned specimens were subjected to taxonomic
studies by using Olympus SZX10 microscope.
All the studied specimens are deposited at the
Arunachal Pradesh Regional Centre, Zoological
Survey of India, Itanagar (APRC/ZSI).
Systematic account
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Superfamily: Tettigonioidea
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Phaneropterinae
Genus Khaoyaiana Ingrisch, 1990
1. Khaoyaiana nitens Ingrisch, 1990
Genus Trachyzulpha Dohrn, 1892
2. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi Dohrn, 1892
Subfamily: Pseudophyllinae
Genus Chloracris Pictet & Saussure, 1892
3. Chloracris brullei, Pictet & Saussure, 1892
Genus Pseudophyllus Serville, 1831
4. Pseudophyllus neriifolius (Lichtenstein, 1796)
Genus Onomarchus Stl, 1874
5. Onomarchus uninotatus (Serville, 1838)
Genus Phyllozelus Redtenbacher, 1892
6. Phyllozelus (Phyllozelus) siccus siccus (Walker,
1869)
Subfamily: Conocephalinae
Genus Euconocephalus Karny, 1907
7. Euconocephalus indicus (Redtenbacher, 1891)
Genus Pyrgocorypha Stl, 1873
8. Pyrgocorypha subulata (Thunberg, 1815)
Subfamily: Mecopodinae
Genus Mecopoda Serville, 1831
9. Mecopoda elongata elongata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Subfamily: Listroscelidinae
Genus Hexacentrus Serville, 1831
10. Hexacentrus unicolor Serville, 1831

Subfamily: Phaneropterinae
Genus Khaoyaiana Ingrisch, 1990
1. Khaoyaiana nitens Ingrisch, 1990 (Image 1)
1990. Khaoyaiana nitens, Ingrisch,
Senckenbergiana Biologica, 70(13): 107. Holotype,
Male,
Type locality: Thailand; SMFD Frankfurt.
1994. Khaoyaiana nitens, Jin, Xingbao & K. L.
Xia, Jour. Orth. Res., 3: 22.
1998. Khaoyaiana nitens, Ingrisch & Shishodia,
Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Gesellsch., 71(34): 365.
2000. Khaoyaiana nitens, Ingrisch & Shishodia,
Mitt. Mnch. Ent. Ges., 90: 20.
2002. Khaoyaiana nitens, Ingrisch, Entomologica
Basiliensia, 24: 127.
2004. Khaoyaiana nitens, Shishodia & Barman,
Zool. Surv. India, State Fauna Series, Fauna of
Manipur, 10 (2): 141.
Material examined: One female, 15.xi.2006,
Ganga Lake, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh,
India, 26
0
3029
0
30N & 91
0
30 97
0
30E, coll. G.
Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2299/APRC/ZSI.
Image 1. Khaoyaiana nitens Ingrisch, 1990
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3257
Diagnosis: Fastigium conical, apex blunt, furrowed
dorsally; fastigium verticis slightly surpassing the rim
of the antennal scrobae. Rounded eyes, little strongly
accentuated. Antenna not surpassing the elytra. Disc
of pronotum smooth, more or less straight in front,
with hind end convex. Sulcus short before the middle.
Pronotum higher than long, hind end almost straight,
lower rim wide rounded off with coarse. Prosternum
unarmed. The wing hyaline, protruding part chitinous
and glossy green. Legs with the following number of
spines on dorsal margins: profemur, mesofemur and
postfemur smooth; protibia smooth. The mesotibia
is smooth on dorso-external and with two spines on
dorso-internal side. The posttibia with 30 minute,
distinct, black tipped external and 28 minute, distinct,
black tipped internal spines. Legs with the following
number of spines on ventral margins: profemur and
mesofemur smooth but the postfemur with four
minute, distinct, black tipped external and seven
minute, distinct, black tipped internal spines and with
an apical spine; protibia with one external and two
internal, mesotibia with four minute, distinct, black
tipped external and four minute, distinct, black tipped
internal, posttibia with fve distantly placed minute,
distinct, black tipped ventro-external and 11 minute,
distinct, black tipped ventro-internal and with a pair
of apical spines on each side. Post tibiae on sides
compressed and spread out on all four sides. Supra
anal plate long and triangular or tongue shaped; cerci
long, lean gradually against the apex rejuvenated
and acuminate and symmetrical. Ovipositor broad.
Dorsal valvula somewhat shorter than the ventral
valvula. On the dorsal part of the valvula are toothed,
starting from middle part to apex at the ventral side
of the valvula. Subgenital plate long and wide baso-
laterally; basal triangular indented, lateral far raised
and apical supported. The tibial tympana open on both
the sides.
Colouration: Green, glossy, ovipositor dark
brown.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 55; Body 22;
Fastigium 3.5; Pronotum 9; Tegmen 43; Profemur 10;
Mesofemur 7; Postfemur 28; Protibia 9; Mesotibia 6;
Posttibia 30; Ovipositor 5.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya and Mizoram; Bhutan; Central Thailand;
China.
Remarks: New record for Arunachal Pradesh.
Genus Trachyzulpha Dohrn, 1892
2. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi Dohrn, 1892 (Image 2)
1892. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Dohrn, Stett.
Entomol. Z., 53: 68. Holotype, female, Type locality:
Asia-Tropical, Malaysia, Jawa; (MZPW) Warsaw.
1906. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Kirby, W.F. A
synonymic catalogue of Orthoptera (Orthoptera,
saltatoria, Locustidae Vel Acrididae) 2: 408.
1926. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Karny, Jour. Fed.
Malay States mus. 13(23): 81.
1936. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Heller, K.M. &
K. Gnther, Tijdschr. v. Entomologie 79: 74.
1962. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Bei-Bienko,
Trudy Zool. Inst. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Leningrad. 30:
124.
1994. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi, Jin, Xinghao &
Hsia, Jour. Orth. Res. 3: 24.
Material examined: One male, 03.vi.2008, DFO
Quarters, Jengging, East Siang District, Arunachal
Pradesh, India, 28
0
3414.0N & 95
0
0337.6E, coll.
G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2300/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium sulcated, laterally compressed
and conically produced with blunt apex, fastigium
verticis distinctly surpassing the rim of the antennal
scrobae. Eyes are protruded. The anterior margin of
pronotum concave and posterior margin convex. The
pronotal margins expands like armour with the lateral
carinae denticulated. There is a clearly marked black
colour W-shaped band attached with an inverted
V-shaped structure on the dorsal side of the pronotal
constriction. The posterior margin of the pronotum
appears black because it is dotted with black. The lower
half of the lateral sides of the pronotum is pale green
Image 2. Trachyzulpha fruhstorferi Dohrn, 1892
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3258
and the upper half is black. The prosternum unarmed.
A pale coloured band runs on the ventral side of the
abdomen. The radius sector two of the tegmina arises
before the middle. The hind femur with 10 spines
on its external margin of the ventral side. The basal
three are small and the remaining spines are gradually
increasing in their size with the space in between
them. No spines on the inner margin. A long apical
spine present on the external side and a short spine on
the internal side of the hind femur. The dorsal side of
the hind femur is smooth. The dorsal side of hind tibia
bearing six sickle-shaped spines on its external margin
and 10 on its internal margin. The ventral side of the
hind tibia has 11 normal shaped spines. The base of
the spines is dark brown and the tips are red. The fore
tibia has three spines on the external margin, eight
spines on the middle and 10 on the internal margin of
the dorsal side. The subgenital plate broadest at the
base and then narrowed posteriorly. The lobes of the
united styli curved inward with a blunt end at the apex.
The circus gradually narrowed, covered with spinules,
bristles and curved at apex. The tibial tympana open
on both the sides.
Colouration: Body is green. The tegmina are green
with fve white-centered discontinuous transverse
black bands. The femur and tibia of the three pair of
legs are transversed with black and white coloured
bands.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 58; Body
23; Fastigium 2; Pronotum 8; Tegmen 45; Profemur
9; Mesofemur; Postfemur 20; Protibia 7; Mesotibia;
Posttibia 22.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh; Indonesia:
Java; Malaysia; Thailand.
Remarks: New record for India.
Subfamily: Pseudophyllinae
Genus Chloracris Pictet & Saussure, 1892.
3. Chloracris brullei Pictet & Saussure, 1892 (Image
3)
1892. Chloracris brullei, Pictet & Saussure,
Iconographie des quelques sauterelles vertes, p. 22.
Syntype, Male & female, Type locality: Asia-Tropical,
Malaysia, Java, (MHNG) Geneva Museum.
1895. Pseudophyllus brullei, Brunner Von
Wattenwyl, Verh. Der. Zoologish Botanischen.
Gesellsch. Wien, 45: 37.
1906. Chloracris brullei, Kirby, A synonymic
catalogue of orthoptera, 2: 294.
1938. Chloracris brullei, De Jong, Zoologische
Mededeelingen XXI: 9.
1945. Chloracris brullei, De Jong, C. Zool.
Mededelingen. (Leiden) 25: 5.
1954. Chloracris brullei, Beier, Revision der
Pseudophyllinen 66.
1995. Chloracris brullei Heller, K.G. Jour. Zool.,
London, 237: 480.
Material examined: One female, 15.xi.2006,
Ganga Lake, Papumpare District, Itanagar, Arunachal
Pradesh, India, 26
0
3029
0
30N & 91
0
3097
0
30E,
coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2301/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium, shortened apically, verticis
conical, apex blunt, dorsally furrowed, slightly
surpassing the rim of the crowded antennal scrobae.
The dorsal surface of pronotum smooth, bears two
distinct sutures. The lower margin of the lateral
pronotum is undulated. Prosternum unarmed. The
chief specifc characters of the species are those of the
form of the tegmina and their venation. Absence of
ocelli on the tegmen. This species should be identifed
after the spines on their hind legs. The dorsal side of
the hind femora is smooth. The number of spines on
the ventro-external margin of the hind femora is 13 and
as a rule these spines are a little longer than the spines
of the internal margin. The number of smaller spines
on the ventro-internal margin of the hind femora is 10.
There are four spines on the dorso-internal margin of
the hind tibia. The dorso-external margin of the hind
tibia is smooth. The number of spines on the ventro-
external margin of the hind tibia is eight. The number
of spines on the ventro-internal margin of the hind tibia
Image 3. Chloracris brullei, Pictet & Saussure, 1892
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3259
is seven and as a rule these spines are a little smaller.
The number of spines on the ventro-external margin
of the mid leg femur is seven whereas fve long spines
on the internal margin and they are in equal distance.
There are fve very short spines on the ventrointernal
margin of the mid leg femur. There are only two
spines on the dorsal side of the mid leg tibia. There
are eight spines on the ventroexternal margin and six
on the ventrointernal margin of the mid leg tibia. The
dorsal side of the fore femur smooth. There are fve
spines on the ventrointernal margin of the hind femur
and four spines on the ventro-external margin. The
ventro-internal margin of the fore tibia has fve spines
and six on the ventro-external margin. Tibial tympana
closed on both the sides.
Colouration: The general colour of the specimen
is green.
Measurements (in mm): Total length 116; Body 55;
Fastigium 4; Pronotum 12; Tegmen 97; Profemur 14;
Mesofemur 15; Postfemur 28; Protibia 11; Mesotibia
14; Posttibia 26; Ovipositor 27.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh; Indonesia:
Borneo, Sumatra, Java; China; Malaysia.
Remarks: New record for India.
Genus Pseudophyllus Serville, 1831.
4. Pseudophyllus neriifolius (Lichtenstein, 1796)
(Image 4)
1796. Locusta neriifolia, Lichtenstein, Cat. Mus.
Zool. Hamburg 3: 82. Syntype, Female, Type locality:
Asia-Tropical, Malaysia, Jawa, (ZMUM). Hamburg.
1813. Gryllus Tettigonia neriifolius, Stl,
Representation exactement colore daprs nature des
spectres ou phasmes, des mantes, des sauterelles, des
grillons, des criquets et des blattes: 11.
1831. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Serville, Ann. Sci.
nat., 22(86): 143.
1835. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Brull, In Audouin
& Brull. Histoire naturelle des insectes, 9[1](5):
137.
1838. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Serville, Histoire
naturelle des insectes, Orthoptres, 466.
1842. Locusta (Pseudophyllus) granigera, De Haan,
In Temminck. Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke
geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche
bezittingen Zoologie: 203.
1862. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Brunner von
Wattenwyl, Abh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 12: 93.
1892. Cleandrus neriifolius, Pictet & Saussure,
Iconographie des quelques sauterelles vertes: 12.
1895. Chloracris neriifolius, Brunner Von
Wattenwyl, Verh. Der Zoologischbotanischen
Gesellsch. Wien 45: 36.
1906. Cleandrus neriifolius, Kirby, A Synonymic
Catalogue of Orthoptera (Orthoptera Saltatoria,
Locustidae vel Acridiidae) 2: 295.
1919. Cleandrus neriifolius, Dammerman,
Landbouwdierkunde: 100.
1924. Cleandrus neriifolius, Karny, Treubia 5(1
3): 173.
1927. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Caudell, Proc. U.
S. Nation. Mus.71 (3), p. 32.
1927. Cleandrus neriifolius, Karny, Ark. Zool.,
19A(12): 7.
1927. Cleandrus neriifolius, Ebner, Misc. Zool.
Sumatrana, 20: 6.
1938. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, De Jong,
Zoologische Mededeelingen XXI: 14.
1939. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, De Jong, C. Zool.
Mededelingen (Leiden) 21: 14.
1945. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, De Jong, C. Zool.
Mededelingen (Leiden) 25: 6.
1960. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, De Jong, C.
Zoologische Verhandelingen 45: 7.
1963. Pseudophyllus neriifolius, Beier, Orthopterum
catalogus 5: 15.
Material examined: One male, 14.vi.2005,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; ZSI
Quarters Main gate, Itanagar, 27
0
535
0
72N &
93
0
3730
0
72E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2302/
APRC/ZSI.
Image 4. Pseudophyllus neriifolius (Lichtenstein,1796)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3260
Diagnosis: Fastigium verticis conical, dorsally
furrowed, extends well beyond the rim of antennal
scrobae. The species is easily known by the rather
infated general shape, the granulated pronotum with
an angulated hind border, granulated margins of
pronotum, the unicolourous vertex and the ocellate
elytra. Prosternum unarmed. Meso and metasternum
broader than long; lobes angulated; metasternum
narrowing posteriorly. In the males the anterior
branch of medial vein is bent anterior near the base
and the ocelliform markings are found between the two
branches of medial vein just behind this curved part of
the anterior branch. The chief specifc characters of the
species are those of the form of the tegmina and their
venation. This species should be identifed after the
spines on their hind legs. There are 13 spines on the
dorsal side of the hind femora. The number of spines
on the ventro-external margin of the hind femora is
13 and as a rule these spines are a little longer. The
number of spines on the ventro-internal margin of the
hind femora is 12. There are six spines on the dorsal
side of the hind tibia among them the 1
st
one is small
and the distance between the 1
st
and 2
nd
spine is very
less when compared to the distance between the rest of
the spines i.e. from 26. The number of spines on the
ventro-external margin of the hind tibia is nine. The
number of spines on the ventro-internal margin of the
hind tibia is nine and as a rule these spines are a little
smaller. The number of spines on the ventro-external
margin of the fore femur is seven whereas four long
spines on the internal margin and they are in equal
distance. There are eight small spines on the ventro-
internal margin of the fore tibia and the basal three
are less in interspine distance when compare to the
interspine distance of 4
th
8
th
spines. There are seven
spines on the ventro-external margin of the fore tibia.
Tibial tympana closed on both the sides.
Colouration: The general colour of the specimen
is green.
Measurements (in mm): Total length 123; Body 60;
Fastigium 4; Pronotum 19; Tegmen 103; Profemur 15;
Mesofemur 16; Postfemur 30; Protibia 15; Mesotibia
14; Posttibia 28.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh; Indonesia:
Java and Sumatra.
Remarks: New record for India.
Genus Onomarchus Stl, 1874
5. Onomarchus uninotatus (Serville, 1838)
(Image 5)
1838. Pseudophyllus uninotatus, Serville, Histoire
naturelle des insectes. Orthoptres, p. 468. Holotype,
Female, Type locality: MHNG, Geneva Museum.
1842. Locusta (Pseudophyllus) leuconota var.
b. leuconota, uninotata, De Haan, In Temminck.
Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der
Nederlandsche overzeesche bezittingen Zoologie: (nec
leuconotus Serv.), p. 204, pl.20, fgs. 9 and 10.
1862. Pseudophyllus uninotatus, Brunner von
Wattenwyl, Abh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 12: 93.
1906. Cleandrus uninotatus, Kirby, A Synonymic
Catalogue of Orthoptera (Orthoptera Saltatoria,
Locustidae vel Acridiidae) 2: 295.
1920. Pseudophyllus uninotatus Karny, Zool.
Mededelingen (Leiden) 5(4): 208.
1924. Cleandrus neriifolius uninotatus, Karny,
Treubia 5(13): 174.
1938. Onomarchus uninotatus, De Jong,
Zoologische Mededeelingen, XXI: 26.
1939. Pseudophyllus uninotatus, De Jong, Zool.
Mededelingen (Leiden) 21: 26.
1945. Onomarchus uninotatus, De Jong, Zool.
Mededelingen (Leiden) 25: 6.
1954. Onomarchus uninotatus, Beier, Revision der
Pseudophyllinen 60, 61.
1960. Onomarchus uninotatus, De Jong, C.
Zoologische Verhandelingen 45: 8.
1962. Onomarchus uninotatus, Beier, Tierreich,73:
45.
1965. Onomarchus uninotatus, Weidner, Ent. Mitt.
Image 5. Onomarchus uninotatus (Serville, 1838)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3261
Zool. Museum Hamburg 3(53): 88.
1990. Onomarchus uninotatus, Ingrisch,
Senckenbergiana Biologica, 70(13): 133.
1994. Onomarchus uninotatus, Jin, Xingbao & K.-
L. Xia, Jour. Orth. Res. 3: 25.
1995. Onomarchus uninotatus, Heller, K.-G., Jour.
Zool., London, 237: 479.
Material examined: Two females, 08.x.2004,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; ZSI
Quarters main gate, Itanagar, 27
0
535
0
72N & 93
0
37
30
0
72E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2304/APRC/
ZSI & IV/2305/APRC/ZSI. 1 Female, 09.xi.2005, East
Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; Seijosa I.
B, Pakke Tiger Reserve, 92
0
3593
0
10N & 26
0
55
27
0
15E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2306/APRC/
ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium verticis triangular, apex
obtuse, dorsally furrowed, slightly surpassing rim of
antennal scrobae. No minute pits are found in the
area below the eyes. Pronotum smooth with very
few isolated tubercles; with one transverse furrow in
the anterior half of the disc; anterior margin broadly
rounded, posterior margin angular; paranota acute-
triangular in general outline but ventral margin
truncate, latero-anterior margin faintly convex with
very faint sinuosities in ventral half, latero-posterior
margin concave. Tegmen broad, semitransparent,
oval and of a pale green but rather narrow for the
genus; subcosta running distant from radius to behind
branching of radius sector, and after a short approach
deviating again; media with a sinuate curvature in basal
area. Prosternum unarmed. Meso and metasternum
transverse, mesosternum with a minute tubercle
at anterior-lateral angle, metasternum narrowing
posteriorly. The meso and metasternum together are
about as long as broad. Legs with the following number
of spines on ventral margins: profemur six indistinct
external and seven indistinct internal, mesofemur
six minute external and seven internal, postfemur
fve indistinct, one minute and fve large external, 13
minute internal; protibia six minute external and seven
minute internal, mesotibia fve minute external and
fve indistinct internal, posttibia nine small external
and seven minute internal. All tibiae with two ventro-
apical spurs, without dorsal spurs. Posttibia on dorsal
margins with six minute external and seven large and
broad internal spines. The hind tibiae bear a row of
strong broadly based thorns on its dorsal margins,
which are situated at equal distances. Tibial tympana
closed on both the sides.
Colouration: The general colour is green. In the
females the tegmina has a distinct white spot near
the base, situated between the radial and the medial
vein. The pronotum is green. The head is yellowish-
green, the forehead is dark green, broadly bordered
with white along the genae. The clypeus, labrum and
the mandibulate are of a whitish-green. The general
colour of the legs is of a greenish-grey shade, but the
middle femora and tibiae are white below.
Measurements (in mm): Total length 90; Body 40;
Fastigium 4; Pronotum 8; Tegmen 70; Profemur 9;
Mesofemur 10; Postfemur 20; Protibia 9; Mesotibia
10; Posttibia 20; Ovipositor 26.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh; Australia;
Indoensia: Java and Sumatra; Malaysia; Ambonia;
Banka; Batoe Islands.
Remarks: New record for India.
Genus Phyllozelus Redtenbacher, 1892
Subgenus Phyllozelus (Redtenbacher, 1892)
6. Phyllozelus (Phyllozelus) siccus siccus (Walker,
1869). (Image 6)
1869. Pseudophyllus siccus, Walker, Cat. Derm.
Salt. Brit. Mus., 2: 403. Holotype, female, Type
locality: Asia-Tropical, Indian Subcontinent, India
(Chennai), (BMNH). London.
1869. Pseudophyllus signatus, Walker, Cat. Derm.
Salt. Brit. Mus., 2: 407.
1893. Phyllozelus infumatus, Brunner Von
Wattenwyl, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Giacomo Doria
Genova, Ser 2, 13(33): 174.
Image 6. Phyllozelus (Phyllozelus) siccus siccus (Walker,
1869)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3262
1962. Phyllozelus siccus, Beier, Das Tierreich, 73:
102.
2003. Phyllozelus siccus, Barman, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series: Fauna of Sikkim, 9(2): 200.
Material examined: One female, 15.xi.2006,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; Ganga
Lake, Itanagar, 26
0
30N29
0
30N & 91
0
30E97
0
30E,
coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/ 2307/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Robust species. Fastigium verticis
narrow conical, dorsally furrowed, apex blunt, not
surpassing the rim of antennal scrobae. Pronotum
not roofshaped, carinated and granulated with a
transverse sulcus distinct on the disc and paranota,
obsolete on lateral angles; margins of pronotum not
granulated; anterior margin sinuate, convex in middle,
posterior margin broadly rounded but convex in
the middle; paranota about as high as long, anterior
and posterior angle almost rectangular. Prosternum
armed; meso and metasternum strongly transverse, all
of them as long as wide, lobes blunt; Tegmen broad
and leaf like, surpassing hind knees; radius sector
branching slightly before the middle of tegmen length,
forked. The cubitus of Tegmina pedunculate basally.
This species is easily known by the curious rugose
erosion path in the anal area of the tegmina and by the
peculiar venal pattern. The subcostal and radial veins
diverge about the same place, where the branch of the
radial vein fnds its origin namely a little before the
middle of the tegmina. Hind wing caudate. Anterior
femora compressed. Knee lobes of all legs bispinose.
Legs with the following number of spines on ventral
margins: profemur no external and three indistinct
internal, mesofemur fve minute external and seven
internal, postfemur one indistinct, 11 large, broad
based external and 11 large internal, mesotibia fve
minute indistinct external and seven minute internal,
posttibia nine small external and seven minute internal.
All tibiae with two ventro-apical spurs, without dorsal
apical spurs. No spines on femur and tibia on the dorsal
margins. Tibial tympana closed on both the sides.
Colouration: The species when at rest on leaves
camoufage like a leaf and leafy green in colour. The
dorsal sides of meso and postfemur are blue in colour
with skyblue dots in between and the ventral side is
light yellow. The protibia and femur are green in colour.
The meso tibia is green. The tip of the ovipositor is
dark brown to black.
Measurements (in mm): Total length 55; Body 35;
Fastigium 4; Pronotum 9; Tegmen 60; Profemur 10;
Mesofemur 10; Postfemur 20; Protibia 9; Mesotibia
10; Posttibia 19; Ovipositor 15.
Distribution: India: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim and Tamil Nadu; Indonesia: Sumatra.
Remarks: New record for Arunachal Pradesh.
Subfamily: Conocephalinae
Genus Euconocephalus Karny, 1907
7. Euconocephalus indicus (Redtenbacher, 1891)
(Image 7)
1891. Conocephalus indicus, Redtenbacher, Verh.
Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 41: 408, Lectotype, Male, Type
locality: Asia-Tropical, Indian Subcontinent, India,
Himalaya. (NHMV).
1979. Euconocephalus indicus, Winston J. Bailey,
Aust. J. Zool., 27: 1032.
1992. Euconocephalus indicus, Hebard, Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 74: 238.
1998. Euconocephalus indicus, Ingrisch &
Shishodia, Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Ges., 71: 370.
2000. Euconocephalus indicus, Ingrisch &
Shishodia, Mitt. Munch. Ent. Ges., 90: 32.
2004. Euconocephalus indicus, Shishodia &
Barman, Zool. Surv. India, Fauna of Manipur, State
Fauna series, 10(2): 143.
Material examined: One female, 10.x.2005,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; Itanagar
Zoological Park, 26
0
3029
0
30N & 91
0
30E97
0
30E,
coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2308/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium short, as long as broad,
surpassing the antennal sockets; apex of the fastigial
vertex blunt, rounded; ventral notch clearly open,
ventral tubercle small. Antennae not annulated.
Image 7. Euconocephalus indicus (Redtenbacher, 1891)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3263
Pronotum converging towards the posterior margin
from the dorsal aspect, side keels deep and not markedly
elongate. Prosternum armed with a pair of spines.
Anterior lobes of meso and metasternum rounded and
the posterior lobes are angulated. Forewings long,
surpassing hind knees with the tip rounded. Radius
sector two arise beyond the middle of the wing.
Cubitoanal area of forewing not distinctly broadened
or rounded. All legs are long and slender. Post femora
armed both externally and internally on the ventral
aspect. Legs with the following number of spines
on ventral margins: profemur no external and two
indistinct internal, mesofemur four minute external
and no internal, postfemur seven minute external and
14 minute internal, protibia with six external and six
internal, mesotibia with six external and six internal,
posttibia 25 small external and 25 small internal. All
tibiae with two ventroapical spurs and post tibia
with an apical spur on dorsal its margin. Postfemur
smooth. Posttibia with the following number of spines
on dorsal margins: 28 small external and 25 small
internal. Ovipositor longer than the body and straight.
The tibial tympana closed on both the sides.
Colouration: General colouration green. Tip of the
spines in both ventral margins of the post femur are
dark brown in colour. Tip of the spines in both ventral
margins of the protibia, mesotibia and posttibia are
dark brown in colour. Mandibles and hind femur are
pale brown. There are 1215 distinct black spots on
the posterior half of the tegmen.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 62; Body
26; Fastigium 4; Pronotum 8; Tegmen 50; Profemur
8; Mesofemur 10; Postfemur 28; Protibia 7; Mesotibia
9; Posttibia 26; Ovipositor 30.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Odisha; Australia; China;
Myanmar; Thailand; Malaysia: Penang, Peak Dovens;
Indonesia: Java, Borneo and Sumatra.
Remarks: New record to Arunachal Pradesh.
Genus Pyrgocorypha Stl, 1873
8. Pyrgocorypha subulata (Thunberg, 1815)
(Image 8)
1815. Conocephalus subulatus, Thunberg, Mem.
Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg 5: 271.Syntype, Type
locality: Oriental region, (BMNH) London.
1874. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Stal, Recencio
orthopterum. Revue Critique des orthopteres decrits
par Linne, De Geer et. Thunberg, 2 Locustina: 107.
1891. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Redtenbacher, Verh.
der ZoologischBotanischen Gesellsch. Wien 41: 372,
374.
1893. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Brunner Von
Wattenwyl, Ann. Mus.Civ.Stor. Nat. Genova. 213: (33)
179.
1906. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Kirby, A synonymic
catalogue of orthoptera (Orthoptera, saltatoria,
Locustidae Vel Acrididae) 2: 239.
1912. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Karny, Genera
Insectorum. 139: 26.
1926. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Karny, Treubia 9(1
3): 240.
1955. Pyrgocorypha subulata, BeiBienko,
Zoologischeskii. Zhurnal 34: 1263.
1957. Pyrgocorypha subulata, BeiBienko,
Entomologicsheskoe obozrenie 36: 413.
1990. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Ingrisch,
Senckenbergiana Biologica 70(13): 116.
1994. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Jin, Xingbao &
Hsia, Jour. Orth. Res. 3: 1541.
2002. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Ingrisch,
Entomological Basiliensia 24: 113.
2008. Pyrgocorypha subulata, Buzzetti & Devriese,
Bull.Mus. Civ. St. nat. Verona. 32: 162.
Material examined: One female, 15.vi.2005,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India;
Itanagar Zoological Park, 26
0
30N29
0
30N &
91
0
30E97
0
30E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No.
IV/2309/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium long and conical, narrowing
towards the tip; apex of the fastigial vertex acute,
Image 8. Pyrgocorypha subulata (Thunberg, 1815)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3264
with the ventral notch clearly open, ventral tubercle
small. Pronotum diverging towards the posterior
margin from the dorsal aspect, lateral keels shallow
and not markedly elongate. Prosternum armed with a
pair of spines. Forewings long with the tip rounded.
Cubito-anal area of forewing not distinctly broadened
or rounded. The pro femur has a single spine on its
external margin and three spines on the internal margin
on the ventral side. Hind femora armed both internally
and externally on the ventral side. There are 13 spines
on the external margin whereas seven spines on the
internal margin. The distance between the spines on
the external margin is lesser than the internal margin.
There are seven spines on the internal margin of the
pro tibia on the ventral aspect; the distance between
the frst four and the last two are somewhat lesser than
the distance between the 5
th
and 6
th
. The protibia has
fve spines on the internal margin and four spines on
the external margin on the ventral side. The profemur
and the protibia are smooth on the dorsal side. The
tibial tympana closed on both the sides.
Colouration: Body green. A prominent white
coloured band bordered with many black dots runs
along the lower margin of the cubitoanal area of the
tegmina. The fore legs are yellow.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 71; Body 35;
Fastigium 5.5; Pronotum 10; Tegmen 53; Profemur 9;
Mesofemur 11; Postfemur 23; Protibia 7; Mesotibia 9;
Posttibia 21; Ovipositor 28.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh; Bhutan:
Bhamo; China; Malaysia; Myanmar; Indonesia: Java.
Remarks: New record for India.
Subfamily: Mecopodinae
Genus Mecopoda Serville, 1831
9. Mecopoda elongata elongata (Linnaeus, 1758)
(Image 9)
1758. Gryllus (Tettigonia) elongatus, Linnaeus,
Systema Naturae per Regna tria naturae (10
th
ed.) 1:
429. Syntype, Female, Type locality: Asia-Tropical,
Indian subcontinent, India, (LSUK) London Linnean
Society.
1763. Gryllus javanus, Johannson, In Linnaeus,
Amoenitates Academicae seu dissertations variae
Physicae Medicae, Botanicae anthehac seorsum
editae (2
nd
ed.) 6: 398.
1767. Gryllus (Tettigonia) elongatus, Linnaeus,
Systema Naturae per Regna tria naturae (12th ed.) 1,
pt. 2: 696.
1813. Gryllus (Tettigonia) ferruginea, Stoll,
Spectres on Phasues des Mantes, des Sauterelles, 2:
9.
1813. Gryllus (Tettigonia) rufa, Stoll, Spectres on
Phasues des Mantes, des Sauterelles, 2: 13.
1815. Locusta scalaris, Thunberg, Mem. Acad. Sci.
St. Petersb., 5: 282.
1831. Mecopoda maculata, Serville, Ann. Sci. nat.
(Zool.), Paris, 22: 155.
1835. Mecopoda virens, Brulle, In Audauin &
Brulle, Histoire naturelle des Insects, 9(1) (5): 140.
1835. Mecopoda virens, Brulle, Histoire naturelle
des Insects, Paris, 9: 140.
1842. Locusta (Mecopoda) javana, Haan, Gesch.
Ned. Overszee. Bezitt, 2: 187.
1869. Decticus tenebrosus, Walker, Cat. Derm.
Salt. Brit. Mus.,: 262.
1869. Lucera bicoloripes, Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt.
Brit. Mus.,: 265.
1906. Mecopoda elongata, Kirby, Syn. Cat.
Orthopt., 2:364
1922. Mecopoda elongata, Hebard, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philad., 74: 182.
1924. Mecopoda elongata servillei, Karny,
Meconeminen Ttreubia, 5: 159.
1976. Mecopoda elongata, Barman & Srivastava,
Newsl. Zool. Surv. India, 2(3): 93.
1993. Mecopoda elongata, Barman, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series, Fauna of West Bengal, 3
(4): 363.
1995. Mecopoda elongata, Barman, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series, Fauna of Meghalaya 4(3):
288.
2000. Mecopoda elongata, Ingrisch & Shishodia,
Mitt. Munch. Ent. Ges., 90: 21.
2000. Mecopoda elongata, Shishodia, Rec. Zool.
Surv. India, 98(3): 14.
2000. Mecopoda elongata, Barman, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series, Fauna of Tripura, 7(2):
265.
2001. Mecopoda elongata, Shishodia & Kulkarni,
Zool. Surv. India, Fauna of Conservation Area Series,
Fauna of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, 11: 62.
2002. Mecopoda elongata, Ingrisch, Entomologica
Basiliensia, 24: 128.
2003. Mecopoda elongata, Barman, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series, Fauna of Sikkim, 9(2): 195.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3265
2004. Mecopoda elongata, Shishodia & Barman,
Zool. Surv. India, Fauna of Manipur, State Fauna
series, 10(2): 142.
2005. Mecopoda elongata, Kulkarni & Shishodia,
Zool. Surv. India, Conservation Area Series, Fauna of
Melghat Tiger Reserve, 24: 325.
2006. Mecopoda elongata, Shishodia, Zool. Surv.
India, State Fauna series, Fauna of Nagaland, 12: 90.
2007. Mecopoda elongata, Chandra et al., Zoos
Print Journal, 22(5): 2684.
2009. Mecopoda elongata, Gupta & Shishodia,
Zool. Surv. India, Conservation Area Series: Fauna of
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, 39: 62.
Material examined: One female, 03.x.2004,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; ZSI
Quarters main gate, Itanagar, 27
0
535
0
72N & 93
0
37
30
0
72E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2310/APRC/
ZSI. One female, 05.x.2004, Papumpare District,
Arunachal Pradesh, India; ZSI Quarters main gate,
Itanagar, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2311/APRC/
ZSI. One female, 10.x.2005, Papumpare District,
Arunachal Pradesh, India; Itanagar Zoological Park,
Itanagar, 26
0
30 29
0
30N & 91
0
3097
0
30E, coll. G.
Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2312/APRC/ZSI. One female,
09.xi.2005, East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh,
India; Khari I.B, Seijosa, Pakke Tiger Reserve 92
0
35
93
0
10N & 26
0
5527
0
15E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg.
No. IV/2313/APRC/ZSI. One female, 12.xi.2005,
East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, India;
Khari I.B, Seijosa, Pakke Tiger Reserve, Coll. G.
Srinivasan, Reg. No. IV/2314/APRC/ZSI. One female,
12.xi.2005, East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh,
India; Khari I.B, Seijosa, Pakke Tiger Reserve, coll.
G. Srinivasan, Reg. No. IV/2315/APRC/ZSI. One
female, 21.x.2007, Papumpare District, Arunachal
Pradesh, India; ZSI Quarters main gate, Itanagar, coll.
G. Srinivasan, Reg.No. IV/2316/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Body very large; fastigium wide, not
surpassing the antennal sockets; vertex blunt; head
more or less rounded; antennae strongly margined;
Pronotum divided into three parts by two transverse
sulci, narrowed anteriorly, granulated; anterior
margin concave; posterior margin convex; posterior
end of pronotum almost double the width than the
anterior region. Prosternum with a pair of long
spines. The lateral lobes of meso and meta sternum
rounded anteriorly and bifurcated posteriorly in the
middle. Wings fully developed; Tegmen surpassing
hind knees; subcosta sharply sinuate just beyond the
middle; Hind wings caudate. Post femora and tibiae
very long and large; All other legs are long and slender.
Post femora armed both externally and internally on
the ventral side. Legs with the following number of
spines on ventral margins: profemur and mesofemur
smooth, postfemur with six large external and eight
large internal, protibia with 10 small external and 11
small internal, mesotibia with 10 small external and
10 small internal, posttibia with 15 minute external
and 15 minute internal. All tibiae with ventro-apical
spurs and dorsoapical spurs on their margins. Femur
of all the legs smooth on their dorsal side. Femora
of all the legs smooth and indentate. Tibiae of all
Legs with the following number of spines on dorsal
margins: Protibia with eight minute external and fve
minute internal, mesotibia with 11 small external and
nine small internal, posttibia with 23 small external
and 23 small internal spines. Ovipositor long and
straight. Male subgenital plate developed conically
from region of bifurcation; ovipositor straight being
slightly narrowed at apex. Tibial tympana opened on
both the sides.
Colouration: Female: Brown to dry leave colour.
Tegmina with 46 black and white spots in the middle.
Lateral lobes of pronotum dark-brown at least on
upper margin. Male: Green in colour. Tegmina with
46 white spots in the middle. Tip of spines on the
legs are dark brown to black in both the sexes.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 7583; Body
2631; Fastigium 33.5; Pronotum710; Tegmen 66
75; Profemur 1118; Mesofemur 1519; Postfemur
5356; Protibia 1118; Mesotibia 1520; Posttibia
5456; Ovipositor 2635.
Image 9. Mecopoda elongata elongata (Linnaeus, 1758)
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3266
Distribution: India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal; Aru Islands; Australia; Celebes; China;
Indonesia: Borneo, Sunda Islands; Japan, Malaca;
Malaysia; Moluccas; New Guinea; Philippines;
SIngapore; Taiwan; Thailand; Tonkin.
Remarks: Barman & Srivastava (1976) reported
this species from Kameng and Siang districts of
Arunachal Pradesh.
Subfamily: Listroscelidinae
Genus Hexacentrus Serville, 1831
10. Hexacentrus unicolor Serville, 1831 (Image 10)
1831. Hexacentrus unicolor, Serville, Ann. Sci. nat.
22(86): 146. Syntype, Type locality: AsiaTropical,
Malaysia, Jawa; BMNH, London.
1838. Locusta unicolor, Serville, Histoire naturelle
des insects. Orthopteres 531.
1891. Hexacentrus unicolor, Redtenbacher, Verh.
Der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellsch. Wien 41:548,
552.
1893. Hexacentrus unicolor, Brunner Von
Wattenwyl, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova 213(33):
181.
1897. Hexacentrus unicolor, Griffni, Misc. Entom.
5911120: 140.
1906. Hexacentrus unicolor, Kirby, A Synonymic
Catalogue of Orthoptera (Orthoptera, Saltatoria,
Locustidae Vel Acrididae) 2: 287.
1912. Hexacentrus unicolor, Karny, Genera
Insectorum 131: 16.
1915. Hexacentrus unicolor, Karny, Supplementa
Entomologica 4: 74.
1922. Hexacentrus unicolor, Hebard, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philad. 74: 269.
1923. Hexacentrus unicolor, Karny, Jour. Roy.
Asiat. Soc. Malay. Branch 1: 182.
1926. Hexacentrus unicolor, Karny, Jour. Fed.
Malay. States mus. 13(23): 144.
1927. Hexacentrus unicolor, Caudell, Proc. U.S.
Nation. Mus. 71(3): 142.
1929. Hexacentrus unicolor, BeiBienko, Ann.
Mag.nat. Hist. 104: 543.
1931. Hexacentrus unicolor, Karny, Treubia 12
(Suppl.): 95.
1933. Hexacentrus unicolor, Willemse, C, mem.
Mus. r. hist.nat. Belgique 4(8): 17.
1935. Hexacentrus unicolor, Wu, Catalogus
Insectorum Sinensium (Catalogue of Chinese insects)
103.
1936. Hexacentrus unicolor, Tinkham, Lingnan
Sci. J. 15 (2): 213.
1939. Hexacentrus unicolor, Ebner, Lingnan Sci. J.
18: 297.
1941. Hexacentrus unicolour, Furukawa, Zool.
Mag. 53(7): 368.
1943. Hexacentrus unicolor, Tinkham, notes Ent.
Chinoise 10(2): 51.
1986. Hexacentrus unicolor, Heller, J. Exp. Biol.
126: 97109.
1986. Hexacentrus unicolor, Inagaki, Matsuura &
T. Sugimoto, Comptes rendus des sances de la societe
de biologie et de ses fliales 180(5): 589592.
1990. Hexacentrus unicolor, Ingrisch,
Senckenbergiana Biologica 70(13): 128.
1990. Hexacentrus unicolor, Lee, Insecta Koreana
7: 108.
1998. Hexacentrus unicolor, Ingrisch & Shishodia,
Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Gesellsch. 71(34): 370.
1998. Hexacentrus unicolor, Warchalowska: Siwa,
Folia biologica (Krakow) 46: 161.
2000. Hexacentrus unicolor, Ingrisch & Shishodia,
Mitt. Munch. Ent. Ges. 90: 35.
2001. Hexacentrus unicolor, Ingrisch & Garai,
Esperiana 8: 756.
2001. Hexacentrus unicolor, Kim & Kim, Korean
J. Entomol. 31(3): 162.
2004. Hexacentrus unicolor, Shishodia & Barman,
Zool. Surv. India, State Fauna Series, Fauna of
Manipur, 10 (2): 142.
2005. Hexacentrus unicolor, Wang, Jianfeng &
Shi, Acta Entomol. Sin. 48(2): 243.
2006. Hexacentrus unicolor, Shishodia, Zool. Surv.
India , State Fauna Series, Fauna of Nagaland, 12:
92.
2007. Hexacentrus unicolor, Storozhenk & Paik,
Orthoptera of Korea, 60.
2010. Hexacentrus unicolor, Tan, Nature in
Singapore, 3: 73, 79 (photos).
2010. Hexacentrus unicolor, Tan, Nature in
Singapore, 3: 246, 262. (photos).
Material examined: One female, 20.x.2004,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India; ZSI
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3267
Quarters main gate, Itanagar, 27
0
535
0
72N & 93
0
37
30
0
72E, coll. G. Srinivasan, Reg No. IV/2317/APRC/
ZSI. One fmale, 10.x.2005, Papumpare District,
Arunachal Pradesh, India; Itanagar Zoological Park,
Itanagar, 26
0
30N29
0
30N & 91
0
30E97
0
30E, coll.
G. Srinivasan, Reg. No. IV/2318/APRC/ZSI.
Diagnosis: Fastigium verticis narrow, conical, apex
acute. Pronotum longer than broad, disc concave in
anterior and posterior area, anterior margin of paranota
rounded and the posterior margin angulated; there are
three sulci found on the disc; the upper one is U
shaped, the middle one is transverse, straight and the
lower one is in an inverted U shaped. Pro, meso and
meta sternum are each provided with a pair of spike-
like processes. Tegmen surpassing hind knees; radius
sector branching at the hind portion of the tegmen,
forked, stem of radius with three more branches. Hind
wing caudate. Anterior coxa without spine. Anterior
femur slightly compressed. Knee lobes of pro and
meso femur are smooth. Legs with the following
number of opposing spines on ventral margins: pro
and meso femur smooth. Left Protibia with six long,
external and fve long, internal and right protibia with
fve long, external and six long, internal spines on
each margin; mesotibia with six long, external and fve
long, internal spines; hind knee lobes with a spine on
each side; hind femora with widely spaced big spines
and between them lie small spines; hind tibiae with
small spines on dorsal and ventral face externally and
internally. Epiproct triangular, apex obtuse. Cerci
conical, apex pointing. Subgenital plate triangular,
with a slight medial furrow apex obtuse. Ovipositor
falcate, broad at base and pointed at apex, margins
smooth. Tibial tympana closed on both the sides.
Colouration: General colour green. A special
dark brown coloured band covers the pro, meso and
metanotum.
Measurements (in mm): Total Length 48; Body 20;
Fastigium 2.5; Pronotum 6.5; Tegmen 40; Profemur
8.5; Mesofemur 9.5; Postfemur 22; Protibia 8.5;
Mesotibia 10; Posttibia 21; Ovipositor 10.2.
Distribution: India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim; Celebes; China;
Indonesia: Borneo and Sumatra; Japan; Malaysia;
Moluccas; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Taiwan;
Thailand.
Remarks: New record for Arunachal Pradesh.
Summary
Totally 10 species of tettigoniids are discussed in
this paper. Among them nine species are new records
to the state of Arunachal Pradesh and fve species are
reported for the frst time from India.
REFERENCES
Barman, R.S. (2003). Insecta: Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae.
Zoological Survey of India, Fauna of Sikkim, State Fauna
Series 9(2): 193201.
Barman, R.S. & G.K. Srivastava (1976). On a collection
of Tettigoniidae (Insecta) from Arunachal Pradesh, India,
Zoological Survey Newsletter 2(3): 9394.
Heller, K.G. (1995). Acoustic signaling in palaeotropical bush
crickets (Orthoptera, Tettigonioidea, Pseudophyllidae):
does predation pressure by eavesdropping enemies differ in
the palaeotropics and neotropics. Journal of Zoology 237:
469485.
Kulkarni & M.S. Shishodia (2005). Insecta: Orthoptera.
Zoological Survey of India, Fauna of Melghat Tiger
Reserve, Conservation Area Series 24: 324.
Otte, D. (1997). Tettigonioidea. Philadelphia: Academy of
Natural Sciences. Orthoptera Species File. 7.
Rentz, D.C.F. (1979). Comments on the Classifcation of the
Orthoptera Family Tettigoniidae, with a key to Subfamilies
and description of two New Subfamilies. Australian Journal
of Zoology 27: 9911013.
Senthilkumar, N., N.D. Barthakur & N.J. Borah (2006).
Fauna of Protected Areas - 29. Orthopteran fauna of the
Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. Zoos Print Journal
21(8): 23472349.
Senthilkumar (2010). Orthopteroids in Kaziranga National
Park, Assam, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(10):
12271231.
Shishodia, M.S. (2000). Short and Longhorned grasshoppers
Image 10. Hexacentrus unicolor Serville, 1831
G. Srinivasan
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32553268
New tettigoniids of Arunachal G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar
3268
and Crickets of Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh, India. Records of Zoological
Survey of India 8(1): 2780.
Shishodia, M.S., A. Dey & S.K. Tandon (2003). Insecta: Orthoptera: Acridioidea and
Eumastacoidea. Zoological Survey of India, Fauna of Sikkim, State Fauna Series
7(2): 165192.
Shishodia, M.S. & S.K. Tandon (2000). Insecta: Orthoptera: Acridioidea and
Eumastacoidea. Zoological Survey of India, Fauna of Tripura, State Fauna Series
7(2): 197230.
Shishodia, M.S., K. Chandra & S.K. Gupta (2010). An Annotated Checklist of
orthoptera (Insecta) from India. Records of Zoological Survey of India, Occasional
paper No. 314: 283324.
Key to the subfamilies of the family Tettigoniidae of Arunachal Pradesh
1. Male subgenital plate with a pair of styles; frst two tarsi grooved laterally .................................................... 2
Male subgenital plate without style; frst two tarsi without groove laterally.....................Phaneropterinae
2. Fore tibia with short immovable spines on its ventral margins ....................................................................... 3
Fore tibia with long movable spines on its ventral margins .............................................. Listroscelidinae
3. Tibial auditory structure opened on both the sides .............................................................. Mecopodinae
Tibial auditory structure closed on both the sides ............................................................................................ 4
4. The mouth of the tibial auditory structure is slit-like on both the sides .................................... Conocephalinae
The mouth of the tibial auditory structure is wide on both the sides ............................... Pseudophyllinae
Key to the genera of the subfamily Phaneropterinae from Arunachal Pradesh
1. Fastigium verticis slightly surpassing the rim of the antennal scrobae. Disc of pronotum smooth. Post tibia
bears simple spines ......................................................................................................... Khaoyaiana Ingrisch.
2. Fastigium verticis distinctly surpassin the rim of the antennal scrobae. The pronotal disc margins
expands like armour with the lateral carinae denticulated. Post tibia bears sickle-shaped spines
........................................................................................................................................... Trachyzulpha Dohrn.
Key to the genera of the subfamily Pseudophyllinae of Arunachal Pradesh
1. Fastigium verticis not surpassing the rim of antennal scrobae ............................ Phyllozelus Redtenbacher
Fastigium verticis surpassing the rim of antennal scrobae ............................................................................. 2
2. Fastigium verticis surpassing well beyond to the rim of the antennal scrobae ............. Pseudophyllus Serville.
Fastigium verticis surpassing slightly beyond the rim of antennal scrobae .................................................... 3
3. Fastigium verticis blunt, and the apex far to the rim of antennal scrobae................. Chloracris Pictet & Saussure
Fastigium verticis obtuse and the apex near to the rim of antennal scrobae ..................... Onomarchus Stal.
Key to the genera of the subfamily Conocephalinae of Arunachal Pradesh
1. Fastigium short, as long as broad; apex of the fastigial vertex blunt, rounded. Protibia with 6 external and
6 internal spines on its ventral margins ....................................................................... Euconocephalus Karny.
2. Fastigium long and conical, narrowing towards the tip; apex of the fastigial vertex acute. Protibia with 5 external
and 7 internal spines on its ventral margins ....................................................................... Pyrgocorypha Stal.
Author Contribution:
The Study: GS has done the Survey, Field
photography, collection and the preservation
of the specimens. DP has assisted in the
preparation of the manuscript. Current paper:
GS has done identifcation, preparation of
various identifcation keys. DP has also assisted
in preparation of the identifcation keys and the
manuscript.


JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu
Tharmalingam Ramesh
1
, J. Peter Prem Chakravarthi
2
, S. Balachandran
3
& Riddhika Kalle
4
1,4
Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, P.O. Box 18, Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand 248001, India
1,2,3
Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400001, India
4
B-1, Prerana Mandir, S.V. Road, Santacruz(W), Mumbai, Maharashtra 400054, India
Email:
1
ramesh81ngl@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
peterpremcj@gmail.com,
3
bnhsbala@rediffmail.com,
4
riddhikalle@gmail.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Kumaran Sathasivam
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3051
Received 02 January 2012
Final received 14 May 2012
Finally accepted 10 October 2012
Citation: Ramesh, T., J.P.P. Chakravarthi, S.
Balachandran & R. Kalle (2012). Birds of lower
Palni Hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 32693283.
Copyright: Tharmalingam Ramesh, J. Peter
Prem Chakravarthi, S. Balachandran & Riddhika
Kalle 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted
use of this article in any medium for non-proft
purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the
source of publication.
Author Details and Author Contribution: see
end of this article.
Acknowl edgement s: The Mi ni st r y of
Environment and Forest, Government of India
is greatly acknowledged for funding our research
activities in the Palni Hills. We thank the Director,
Bombay Natural History Society and Tamil
Nadu Forest Department for granting us the
permission to carry out our study in the Palni
Hills. We are indebted to our feld assistants
and forest department staff for their help and
logistic support.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283 3269
Abstract: The current altitudinal distribution and breeding observations on birds of lower
Palni Hills, Western Ghats were documented by conducting road transects, opportunistic
surveys including trail walks and mist netting. A total of 196 species belonging to 63
families were recorded during the study. The Accipitridae family was foremost in
species richness, followed by Cuculidae and Muscicapidae, Picidae, Timaliidae and
other families. Altitudinal distribution of birds was higher between 600 and 900 m.
The general patterns of the decreasing species richness with increasing altitude were
observed in mid and upper Palnis. This could be probably because the lower Palnis
have more deciduous and scrub forest which can support high food availability. Resident
and migrant species made up to 87.76% and 12.24% of the community, respectively.
We recorded a species that was threatened, three nearly threatened, and fve endemic
to the Western Ghats. Most of the endemics were confned to the higher altitudes due
to the presence of moist evergreen and high altitude montane forests and grasslands.
In total, 51 breeding bird observations were recorded. Interestingly, the variation in the
breeding season of some birds was noticed with respect to earlier studies. Overall, our
study illustrated useful information on bird community in this region which serves as a
baseline for future monitoring programs.
Keywords: Altitudinal distribution, breeding birds, lower Palni Hills, Western Ghats.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:04D8DDC9-2797-
4E38-BA36-72C91C3F94EE
IntroductIon
Birds are ideal bioindicators and useful models for studying a variety
of environmental problems, hence the condition of local landscape must
be investigated to identify crucial determinants of the bird community
structure for avian conservation (Kattan & Franco 2004). Describing
and explaining spatial patterns in species diversity are crucial steps in
conserving global biodiversity (Lee et al. 2004) as the number of bird
species inhabiting various altitudinal belts or life zones (Ali 1949)
depend on climatic changes accompanied by corresponding changes in
vegetation. Studies on species distribution along elevational gradients are
essential to understand principles of community organisation and species
conservation. The Western Ghats, identifed as one of the biodiversity
hotspots in the world, is a 1600-km long chain of mountain ranges
running parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula (Pascal
1988). Among the three distinct sections of the Western Ghats, the south-
Western Ghats
Special Series
The publication of this article is supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF)
-- a joint initiative of lAgence Franaise de Dveloppement, Conservation International, the
Global Environment Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the
World Bank.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3270
eastern region has one of the richest tropical forests in
the country. The Western Ghats has nearly 508 bird
species of which 3.5% are endemic out of more than
1200 species in India (Rajmohana & Radhakrishnan
2008). Apparently the Indian bird population has been
dwindling due to direct/indirect impact from increasing
human population (Balachandran et al. 2005), habitat
loss, fragmentation, and severe biotic pressure,
necessitating documentation of the current status of
bird species for future monitoring and conservation
(Islam & Rahmani 2004). Bird community evaluation
has become an important tool in biodiversity
conservation and for identifying conservation actions
in areas of high human pressure (Kremen 1992; Shafq
et al. 1997; Chettri et al. 2001; Ramesh et al. 2011).
The avifaunal diversity of Palni Hills has been
documented by various authors (Nichols 1937;
Fairbank 1877; Terry 1887) and specifc ecological
studies were carried out in the higher altitudes
(Balachandran 1998; Robin & Sukumar 2002;
Balachandran et al. 2005; Somasundaram & Vijayan
2008). Apart from anecdotal observations on birds
(Blanford 1867; Foulkes 1904; Navarro 1955, Fuller
1958; Surendran 1973; Ananthasubramaniam 1979;
Narayana 1979; Steele 1990), few studies involve bird
ringing techniques (Balachandran 1992) and a few
have been monitored at low altitudes (Shahabuddin
1997). However, little is known about the avifaunal
status in the lower Palni Hills, from the foothills to
an altitude of 900m above mean sea level. In order to
fll up the lacunae, a short term survey was carried out
to document the avifaunal altitudinal distribution and
breeding observations in the lower Palni Hills.
MaterIals and Methods
study area
Palni Hills is in the south-eastern part of the
Western Ghats Hotspot in Tamil Nadu. It lies between
10.1
0
10.26
0
N and 77.14
0
77.52
0
E covering an area
of c. 2400km
2
(Image 1). It is one of the important
global biodiversity hotspots with high endemism.
The Palni Hills have three well marked topographic
divisions, namely the lower (300900 m), mid (>900
1800 m) and high Palnis (>18002500 m) for research
and administrative purposes (Balachandran et al.
2005). Perennial rivers such as Mulayar and Arunganal
and semiperennial rivers like Thalaiyar (Rat-tail Falls)
(Balachandran et al. 2005) and Iruttar, are important
water sources for the Manjalaar reservoir (situated at the
foothills of 300m elevation) and it is used for irrigation
purposes in the lower Palnis. The minimum recorded
temperature is about 8.3
0
C and the maximum goes
up to 23
0
C. The annual average precipitation ranges
from 8001900 mm in the Palnis (Balachandran et al.
Image 1. Location of intensive study area in lower Palni Hills, Western Ghats.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3271
2005). There are four seasons; Winter (December
March), Summer (AprilJune), southwest monsoon
(JuneSeptember) and northeast monsoon (October
November). The climate is sub-tropical with major
vegetation types broadly classifed into scrub forest,
moist and dry deciduous forest of low and mid
elevations and montane evergreen forest of high
elevations (Champion & Seth 1968). In addition to
birds, important mammals found in Palni are Sambar
Rusa unicolor, Muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, Wild Pig
Sus scrofa, Indian Chevrotain Tragulus meminna,
Gaur Bos gaurus, Four-horned Antelope Tertracerus
quadricornis, Nilgiri Tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius,
Tiger Panthera tigris, Leopard Panthera pardus,
Dhole Cuon alpinus, Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena,
Golden Jackal Canis aureus and Grizzled Giant
Squirrel Ratufa macroura (Prater 1971).
The Manjalaar reservoir forms an important water
body for water birds. Some parts of the river delta
in lower Palnis constituted an endemic eco-region
with very rare and endangered plants and animals of
India but now it has been modifed with cultivation of
Silk Cotton Ceiba pentandra, Teak Tectona grandis,
Mango Mangifera indica, Coffee Coffea arabica and
Coconut Cocos nucifera. Expanding agricultural,
urban, productive and developmental activities
currently threaten to take over Palnis natural habitat
and pose a threat to its preservation due to large-scale
deforestation. With human disturbance, the riparian
forest patch is being converted on the slopes as a
complex mosaic of plantations such as mango groves,
groundnut and pulses, secondary and native forests.
This work is part of a long term research project
Revaluation of bird community structure of Palni
Hills with special reference to endemic and threatened
species (Balachandran et al. 2005).
Field survey
We recorded sightings of birds in the lower Palnis
from December 2004 to July 2005 and documented the
occurrence, altitudinal distribution and breeding. The
highly mountainous terrain made it impossible to lay
line transects. Instead, we conducted road transects
in the lower Palnis from Palni Hill Conservation
Council (PHCC), Kamakapatti to Poolathur road
junction (16.5km). The road was divided into six
segments of 2.5km each, including a segment of
4km where each segment was sampled twice every
month in the mornings (06:0010:00 hr) and evenings
(16:0018:30 hr). In addition, opportunistic road
surveys, trail walks and mist netting were conducted
to record bird species within a 3km radius from the
regular road transect area. The fve mist-nets were
operated opportunistically at dawn from 06:0009:00
hr and in the evenings from 15:0018:00 hr. Mist nets
were visited every hour to check the trapped birds for
collection and identifcation. All nets were made of
black nylon mesh size, 36mm with dimensions 2m
high by 6m long.
results
A total of 196 species belonging to 63 families were
recorded during the study (Table 1). All observations
listed in Table 1 have already been published in the
survey report (Balachandran et al. 2005). Accipitridae
family showed highest species richness (18 species),
followed by Cuculidae and Muscicapidae (10 species
each), Picidae, Timaliidae, (eight species each),
Phasianidae and Pycnonotidae (seven species each),
Ardeidae, Cisticolidae, Columbidae, Dicruridae,
Estrildidae, Motacillidae and Nectariniidae (fve
species each) and other families (less than fve species
each). Of the recorded species, 87.76% were resident
and 12.24% migrants. In terms of frequency of
observations, the majority of species were found to be
common (74.49%), followed by uncommon (19.90%)
and rare (5.61%) species. In terms of altitude, species
and families were seen between >600700 m and
>700900 m respectively. The number of bird species
observed in each altitude zone were 128400m,
122>400 to 500, 121>500 to 600, 139>600
to 700, 131>700 to 800 and 130>800 to 900.
During the study, a threatened species, three nearly
threatened and 192 least concerned species were also
recorded. Among all the species, fve were endemic to
the Western Ghats.
Breeding observations
Breeding observations of 51 bird species are given
as follows:
Shikra Accipiter badius: In the lower Palnis, (c.
350m altitude) a mating pair was sighted on 3 February
2005. On 25 February, its nest was noticed with an egg
on an Ailanthus excelsa tree and was seen with two
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
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Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
Accipitridae
1 Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus R 320-900 C
2 Oriental Honey-Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus R 600-900 UC
3 Black Kite Milvus migrans R 300-900 C
4 Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus R 300-900 C
5 Shikra Accipiter badius R 300-900 C
6 Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus R 300-900 C
7 Besra Sparrowhawk Accipiter virgatus R 650 C
8 White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa R 320 C
9 Mountain Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis R 415-900 UC
10 Changeable Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus R 300-900 C
11 Bonelli's Hawk-Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus R 300-600 C
12 Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus M 300-600 UC
13 Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis R 300-900 C
14 Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus M,NT 320 R
15 Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus M 350 R
16 Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos M 800-900 UC
17 Short-toed Snake-Eagle Circaetus gallicus R 300-600 UC
18 Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela R 400-900 C
Acrocephalidae
19 Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon M 320-500 UC
20 Blyth's Reed-Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum M 300-900 C
21 Paddyfeld Warbler Acrocephalus agricola M 300-500 C
Aegithinidae
22 Common lora Aegithina tiphia R 300-900 C
Alaudidae
23 Jerdon's Bush-Lark Mirafra affnis R 320 C
24 Ashy-crowned Sparrow-Lark Eremopterix grisea R 320 UC
25 Eastern Skylark Alauda gulgula R 320 UC
Alcedinidae
26 Small Blue Kingfsher Alcedo atthis R 320-900 C
Anatidae
27 Northern Pintail Anas acuta M 300 UC
28 Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha R 300 C
Apodidae
29 Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet Collocalia unicolor R 600-900 C
30 White-rumped Needletail Zoonavena sylvatica R 630 UC
31 House Swift Apus affnis R 320-640 C
32 Asian Palm-Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis R 300-500 UC
Ardeidae
33 Indian Pond-Heron Ardeola grayii R 300-900 C
34 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis R 300 C
35 Median Egret Mesophoyx intermedia R 300 C
36 Large Egret Casmerodius albus R 300 UC
Table 1. List of birds observed in lower Palni Hills, Western Ghats
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3273
Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
37 Little Egret Egretta garzetta R 300 C
Bucerotidae
38 Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus R,E 800-900 C
Campephagidae
39 Pied Flycatcher-Shrike Hemipus picatus R 600-900 C
40 Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina melanoptera R 300-900 UC
41 Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus fammeus R 500-900 C
42 Small Minivet
Pericrocotus
cinnamomeus
R 320-680 C
Caprimulgidae
43 Jerdons Nightjar Caprimulgus atripennis R 450-850 UC
44 Common Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus R 320-900 C
Cerylidae
45 Lesser Pied Kingfsher Ceryle rudis R 300-900 C
Charadriidae
46 Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus R 300-900 C
47 Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius R 300 C
Chloropseidae
48 Gold-fronted Chloropsis Chloropsis aurifrons R 450-900 C
49 Jerdon's Chloropsis
Chloropsis
cochinchinensis
R 500-640 UC
Ciconiidae
50 Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala R,NT 300 UC
Cinclosomatidae
51 Spotted Babbler Pellorneum rufcefs R 415-900 C
Cisticolidae
52 Franklin's Prinia Prinia hodgsonii R 550-720 UC
53 Plain Prinia Prinia inornata R 320-900 C
54 Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis R 500-900 C
55 Jungle Prinia Prinia sylvatica R 300-900 C
56 Common Tailor Bird Orthotomus sutorius R 300-900 C
Columbidae
57 Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia R 300-900 C
58 Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto R 320-400 UC
59 Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis R 300-900 C
60 Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegalensis R 300-400 C
61 Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica R 500-900 C
Coraciidae
62 Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis R 300-350 C
Corvidae
63 Indian Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda R 300-900 C
64 House Crow Corvus splendens R 300-900 C
65 Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos R 300-900 C
Cuculidae
66 Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus R 300-450 C
67 Brainfever Bird Hierococcyx varius R 300-900 C
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3274
Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
68 Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus R 640 C
69 Indian Plaintive Cuckoo Cocamantis passerinus R 320 C
70 Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris R 300-900 UC
71 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea R 300-900 C
72 Small Green-billed Malkoha
Phaenicophaeus
viridirostris
R 300-900 C
73 Sirkeer Malkoha
Phaenicophaeus
leschenaultii
R 300-900 C
74 Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis R 300-900 C
75 Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis R 300-900 C
Dicaeidae
76 Thick-billed Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile R 400-600 C
77 Tickell's Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos R 300-600 C
78 Plain Flowerpecker Dicaeum concolor R 800-900 C
Dicruridae
79 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus R 300-500 C
80 Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus M 450-500 C
81 White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens R 320-700 C
82 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus R 900-1300 UC
83 Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus R 750-1100 C
Estrildidae
84 White-throated Munia Lonchura malabarica R 300-600 C
85 White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata R 300-900 C
86 Black-throated Munia Lonchura kelaarti R 650-900 UC
87 Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata R 300-900 C
88 Black-headed Munia Lonchura malacca R 300-600 C
Falconidae
89 Common Kestral Falco tinnunculus R 300-900 C
Halcyonidae
90 Stork-billed Kingfsher Halcyon capensis R 300 UC
91 White-breasted Kingfsher Halcyon smrynensis R 300-900 C
Hemiprocnidae
92 Crested Tree-Swift Hemiprocne coronata R 300-900 C
Hirundinidae
93 Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo concolor R 800-900 C
94 Common Swallow Hirundo rustica M 300-600 C
95 Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica R 320-900 C
Irenidae
96 Asian Fairy Bluebird Irena puella R 600-900 C
Laniidae
97 Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus R 320 C
98 Rufous-backed Shrike Lanius schach R 300-900 C
99 Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus M 300-900 C
Megalaimidae
100 Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima zeylanica R 400-850 C
101 White-cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis R 700-900 C
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3275
Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
102 Crimson-throated Barbet Megalaima rubricapilla R 700-900 C
103 Coppersmith Barbet
Megalaima
haemacephala
R 400-900 C
Meropidae
104 Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti R 400-900 C
105 Small Bee-eater Merops orientalis R 300-450 C
106 Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni R(AM) 750-900 UC
Monarchidae
107 Asian Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi R 300-900 C
108 Black-naped Monarch-Flycatcher Hypothymis azurea R 600-900 C
Motacillidae
109 Paddy feld Pipit Anthus rufulus R 300-900 C
110 Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus indicus M 320-900 C
111 Yellow Wagtail Motacilla fava M 300-600 C
112 Grey Wagtail Moticella cinerea M 500-900 UC
113 Large Pied Wagtail
Moticella
maderaspatensis
R 300-900 UC
Muscicapidae
114 Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica M 450-700 C
115 Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui M 500-900 UC
116 Blue-throated Flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides R(AM) 650 R
117 Tickell's Blue-Flycatcher Cyornis tickelliae R 300-900 C
118 White-rumped Shama Copsycus malabaricus R 700-900 C
119 Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata R 300-900 C
120 Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata R 300-640 C
121 Blue-headed Rock-Thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus M 680 R
122 Indian Blue Robin Luscinia brunnea R 300-900 C
123 Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsycus saularis R 300-900 C
Nectariniidae
124 Purple-rumped Sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica R 300-900 C
125 Small Sunbird Nectarinia minima R,E 900 R
126 Loten's Sunbird Nectarinia lotenia R 500-900 UC
127 Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica R 300-900 C
128 Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra R 650-900 R
Oriolidae
129 Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus M 300-350 C
130 Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis M 640-900 C
131 Black-headed Oriole Oriolus xanthornus R 370-900 C
Paridae
132 Great Tit Parus major R 600-900 C
133 Black-lored Yellow Tit Parus xanthogenys R 700-900 UC
Paroidea
134 Grey-headed Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis R 800-900 UC
Passeridae
135 House Sparrow Passer domesticus R 300-900 C
Phalacrocoracidae
136 Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger R 300-900 C
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3276
Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
137 Darter Anhinga melanogaster R,NT 300-900 C
Phasianidae
138 Grey Francolin
Francolinus
pondicerianus
R 300- 400 C
139 Rain Quail Coturnix coromandelica R 300-900 C
140 Painted Bush-Quail Perdicula erythrorhyncha R 300-900 C
141 Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea R 500-900 C
142 Painted Spurfowl Galloperdix lunulata R 320-650 C
143 Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii R 300-900 C
144 Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus R 300-500 C
Phylloscopidae
145 Large-billed Leaf-Warbler
Phylloscopus
magnirostris
M 500-900 UC
146 Greenish Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides M 320-900 C
Picidae
147 Rufous Woodpecker Celeus brachyurus R 600-640 R
148
Little Scaly-bellied Green
Woodpecker
Picus xanthopygaeus R 350-900 UC
149 Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker Picus chlorolophus R 665 C
150
Lesser Golden-backed
Woodpecker
Dinopium benghalense R 300-900 C
151
Common Golden-backed
Woodpecker
Dinopium javanense R 300-900 C
152 Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker
Dendrocopos
mahrattensis
R 642-900 UC
153
Brown-capped Pygmy
Woodpecker
Dendrocopos nanus R 780-900 UC
154
Greater Golden-backed
Woodpecker
Chrysocolaptes lucidus R 700-900 C
Pittidae
155 Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura M 300-900 C
Ploceidae
156 Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus R 300-350 C
Podicipedidae
157 Little Grebe Tachybaptus rufcollis R 300-900 C
Prionopidae
158 Large Woodshrike Tephrodornis gularis R 550-900 C
159 Common Woodshrike
Tephrodornis
pondicerianus
R 320-700 C
160 Large Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina macei R 550-700 C
Psittacidae
161 Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri R 300-450 C
162 Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala R 400-900 C
163 Blue-winged Parakeet Psittacula colomboides R,E 500-900 C
164 Indian Hanging-Parrot Loriculus vernalis R 500-900 C
Pycnonotidae
165 Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus R,E 700-900 C
166 Ruby-throated Yellow Bulbul*
Pycnonotus melanicterus
gularis
R 700-900 UC
167 Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus R 320-900 C
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3277
Family/Species common name Scientifc name Status
Altitude
(in m)
Frequency
of observation
168 Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer R 300-900 C
169 Yellow-throated Bulbul
Pycnonotus
xantholaemus
R,T 450-715 R
170 White-browed Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus R 300-700 C
171 Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica R 700-900 UC
Rallidae
172 White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus R 300-900 C
Rhipiduridae
173 White-browed Fantail-Flycatcher Rhipidura aureola R 640 C
Scolopacidae
174 Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos M 300-900 C
Sittidae
175 Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Sitta frontalis R 700-900 UC
Strigidae
176 Eurasian Eagle-Owl Bubo bubo R 350 R
177 Spotted Owlet Athene brama R 300-900 C
Sturnidae
178 Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus M 320-400 UC
179 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis R 300-500 C
180 Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus R 450-900 UC
181 Southern Hill-Myna Gracula indica R 750-900 C
Sylviidae
182 Yellow-eyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense R 300-500 C
Timaliidae
183 Indian Scimitar-Babbler Pomatorhinus horsfeldii R 500-900 C
184 Rufous-bellied Babbler Dumetia hyperythra R 300-900 C
185 Black-headed Babbler Rhopocichla atriceps R 700-900 UC
186 Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus R 320-400 C
187 Indian Rufous Babbler Turdoides subrufus R,E 540-900 R
188 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus R 450-900 C
189 White-headed Babbler Turdoides affnis R 300-400 C
190 Quaker Tit-Babbler Alcippe poioicephala R 450-900 R
Trogonidae
191 Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus R 740-900 C
Turdidae
192 Malabar Whistiling-Thrush Myiophonus horsfeldii R 500-900 C
Turnicidae
193 Common Buttonquail Turnix suscitator R 300-320 C
194 Small Buttonquail Turnix sylvatica R 320 C
Upupidae
195 Common Hoopoe Upupa epops R 300-900 C
Zosteropidae
196 Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus R 550-900 C
R - Resident; C - Common; T- Threatened; M - Migrant; UC - Uncommon; NT - Near Threatened; AM - Altitudinal Migrant; X - Rare; E - Endemic
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3278
additional eggs on 8 March. On 25 March the hatched
eggshells were seen under the tree but the hatchlings
were taken away by graziers for consumption. The
nest was noticed again with a single egg on 5 April
2005, which was predated later. The other nest was
located in early March on Acacia catechu near the
arboretum of PHCC. It had two eggs and both fedged
successfully on 2
nd
May 2005.
Changeable Hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus:
During the transect count on 24 March 2005 a nest
was located containing a newly hatched chick with
fuffy white down feathers and black beak on a tree
located in a ravine of the riparian forest at an altitude of
732m. The nestling, being a singleton, was monitored
continuously until fully grown and fedged. The nest
was a large platform of sticks and twigs with a central
depression lined with fresh green leaves constantly
renovated to protect the nestling from direct sunlight.
The nest was located at a height of about 15m from
the ground on a 30m tall tree having a dbh (diameter
at breast height) of 132cm.
Painted Spurfowl Galloperdix lunulata: A male
with a single chick with dark brown down feathers
was seen foraging on a rocky slope interspersed with
grass and bush, near the road at 410m altitude on 14

June 2005. It was speculated that both parents were
involved in parental care.
Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii: Noticed with
three chicks on 25 March 2005, at 781m altitude.
Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus: Three juveniles
were recorded on 11 December 2004 at 350m altitude
and may have possibly hatched in early November.
Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegalensis:
Three nests were observed in the Lower Palnis. At
320m altitude the nest was made up of short grasses
laid on the ground under Dodonaea viscosa bush.
Another nest was located on an Acacia planifrons tree
on 07

April 2005. A pair of eggshells from another
nest was collected near Carissa sp. shrub on 14 June
2005.
Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis: On 2 July
2005, a nest with two eggs was located on the lower
fork of a Teak Tectona grandis tree at about 3m from
the ground at 320m altitude.
Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala:
Two juveniles with an adult were seen at 600m altitude
on 7 April 2005.
Sirkeer Malkoha Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii:
A juvenile was seen perched on a Diospyros montana
tree at 350m altitude in mid April and another juvenile
accompanying an adult was noticed in early June
2005.
Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis: This species
was seen carrying food material in mid June at 320m
altitude.
Spotted Owlet Athene brama: The nest was seen
on a rooftop of a house at 300m altitude. Two broods
were noticed in the same nest, one during February and
another in late April. Both the broods were observed
with eggs, but on the next day, all eggs rolled out of
the nest to the ground.
Common Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus:
Two juveniles accompanying an adult were seen along
the mud path at 320m altitude on 5 May 2005. A
juvenile was caught in a mist net in early December.
White-breasted Kingfsher Halcyon smyrnensis: A
nest was located on the roadside bank at 630m altitude,
during May 2005.
Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni: On
29 April 2005, a nest was located along the roadside
along a gentle downward slope at a height of 850m
altitude. The nest was about 34 cm in diameter and
more than 1.5m deep.
Small Bee-eater Merops orientalis: On 24

April
2005, at 320m altitude a nest was observed in a small
earthen structure constructed for rainwater harvesting.
The nest hole was about two inches in diameter and
both adults were seen hunting insects and feeding their
nestlings. Many insect heads were seen scattered at
the entrance of the nest.
Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti:
In Lower Palnis, more than fve nests were seen
on a roadside sand bank on 17 April 2005 at 650m
altitude. These nests were horizontal tunnels drilled
into the sand bank. An active nest was located and two
eggshells were seen near the nest hole.
Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus: Two
nests were noticed during March 2005 at an altitude
of c. 800m. A nest-hole was found on a horizontal
branch of a large Buchanania axillaris tree at a height
of about 20m from the ground and the other was on the
trunk of a large tree with 10 nesting holes. In both the
nests, the adult male was seen feeding the incarcerated
inmates with black berries and insects. On 23 June
2005, two fedglings few across the road.
Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica: In the
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3279
lower Palnis, three nests were located. Of them, two
were constructed under road culverts, one at 415m
altitude and the other at 552m altitude. The third nest
was seen on the ceiling of an abandoned building at
320m with shells of two eggs found on the ground.
Only a single nest was seen with two nestlings.
Large cuckoo-shrike Coracina macei: A nest was
noticed in the lower Palnis during early May 2005
at 604m altitude. The nest was seen on the fork of a
Tectona grandis tree at a height of about 20m. The nest
was built by peeling the fbres from a Commiphora
caudata tree. The nest was not found after the rains.
Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus:
Although the nest was not seen, both male and female
were seen carrying food in mid April 2005 in the scrub
forests at 320m altitude.
Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus fammeus: On 24
March 2005, a well-camoufaged nest lined with lichen
was observed on Tectona grandis and the female was
seen incubating the eggs. The male fed the incubating
female a moth.
Black-crested Bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus
gularis: On 20 January 2005, a nest was located at
789m altitude. The bird was seen plucking leaves for
nest construction and taking them onto a tree.
Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus:
Although no nests were located, two juveniles were
caught in a mist net, at an altitude of 320m on 1
st

November 2004. As this species is very rare in the
lower altitudes (up to 400m), the juveniles caught
might be undergoing a juvenile dispersal period.
Yellow-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus:
Collection of nest materials by this bird was noticed
on 10 April 2005 and 9 June 2005.
White-browed Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus: A nest
was located on 18 April 2005 on Celtis sp. tree at about
4m from the ground at 630m altitude.
Oriental Magpie-robin Copsychus saularis: On 7
May 2005, a bird was observed in the thick undergrowth
with an insect in its mouth at 591m altitude.
White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus: A
nest was located on a short dead stump of a tree on
an inaccessible slope at 410m altitude. Both the birds
were seen frequenting the site as if they were feeding
young ones.
Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata: The bird was
seen carrying food to an inaccessible bush. Such
sightings were made at various altitudes from 320600
m altitude from mid May till late June.
Rufous-bellied Babbler Dumetia hyperythra: A
nest with four nestlings was located at about 350m on
30 April 2005 and all the nestlings fedged on 2 May
2005.
Yellow-eyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense: A
nest with two nestlings was located on 17 November
2004.
White-headed Babbler Turdoides affnis: A nest
with three eggs was located on a fork of Carissa sp.
bush at about 1.5m from the ground on 19 February
2005 at 320m altitude. The eggs were predated and
the nest was abandoned.
Jungle Prinia Prinia sylvatica: Three nests were
located in the scrub jungle between altitudes 300 and
400 m from late February to May. Out of the three
nests, two had nestlings (two and three) and the other
nests with three eggs were abandoned later. The
breeding season does not correspond with the months
(April to September) as indicated by Ali & Ripley
(1983).
Plain Prinia Prinia inornata: A nest with two
nestlings was located during the frst week of
December 2004 at 320m altitude. Both the chicks
fedged successfully.
Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius: A total
of 23 juveniles were ringed from September to June at
320m altitude.
Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica: A
juvenile was noticed in a mixed foraging fock at 665m
altitude on 7

June 2005. An adult was noticed feeding
a juvenile at 640m altitude on 17 June 2005.
Tickells Blue-fycatcher Cyornis tickelliae: In
the Lower Palnis, two nests with nestlings each, were
located between 564 and 648 m altitudes respectively.
Both the nests were placed in rocky clefts along the
roadside. The frst nest was located in late April 2005
which was well camoufaged with fern leaves and
placed at about 5m from the ground and the next was
located in late June at about 4m from the ground.
Tickells Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorynchos:
A male and female were observed collecting nest
materials on 22 and 29 January 2005 at 550m altitude
in the dry deciduous forests of Lower Palni Hills.
Thick-billed Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile: Two
nests were observed. A nest with two nestlings was
being fed by both adults on an Acacia planifrons tree
at c.3m from the ground on 29 January 2005 at 420m
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Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3280
altitude. The other was located on an Albizzia lebbeck
tree at c.5m from the ground on 12 February 2005 at
580m altitude.
Purple-rumped Sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica: Four
nests were recorded, one each in January and February
and two in March. All nests were abandoned.
Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica: Ten nests were
seen with two eggs each in lower Palnis. Nestlings
in four nests fedged successfully, two nests were
abandoned and the other two nests could not be
monitored. A nest was located with two eggs on 28
April at 320m altitude in Acacia leucophloea tree,
but both the hatchlings succumbed to rain on 3 May
2005.
Lotens Sunbird Nectarinia lotenia: At 462m
altitude a nest was located on 11 April 2005 at c. 6m
from the ground on a tree. Both the adults were seen
frequenting the nest.
Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus: In
lower Palnis, construction of two nests was observed
on 24 March at altitudes 738 and 744 m. One was at
about 3m from the ground on a Celtis sp. tree but was
later damaged by a vehicle passing over. The other was
at a height of about 8m from the ground on a tree.
White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata: Two nests
were recorded on 2 December 2004. One was located
with seven nestlings on a tree about 3m from the
ground. One had an egg but no eggs were found in the
other. Both the nests were abandoned.
White-throated Munia Lonchura malabarica:
A nest with three eggs was located on an Acacia
planifrons tree in late November 2005.
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis: A nest was
constructed on the roof of a building at 320m altitude
during mid June and the the incubating eggs were seen
till early July 2005.
Southern Hill-myna Gracula religiosa indica: A
nest was observed at 800m altitude in Lower Palnis
on Chukrasia tubularis tree at c. 5m from the ground
during late March 2005. Reuse of the nest by the pair
was observed in March and the second brood was seen
in July 2005.
Black-headed Oriole Oriolus xanthornus:
Collection of nest material was seen in late April and a
juvenile was observed being fed by its parents in mid
June 2005 at 619m altitude.
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus: On 24 March
2005, a nest with two eggs was located on Acacia
leucophloea tree and both the eggs hatched on 5 April
2005.
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus:
In the lower Palnis, a nest with an incubating female
was seen during mid April at 762m altitude on a tall
tree c. 20m from the ground.
Indian Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda: A mating
pair was sighted in mid June 2005 at 360m altitude.
A juvenile was seen begging for food from an adult at
630m altitude on 6 July 2005.
Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos: A nest was
located during mid-June on Azadirachta indica tree at
a height of 7m from the ground.
dIscussIon
Species richness generally decreases with increasing
elevation (Begon et al. 1996). Bird distribution and
abundance varies with habitat (Jayapal et al. 2007;
Ramesh et al. 2011), climatic condition, food resource
and evolutionary history of the area (Jayson 1994).
The species richness recorded was lowest in the upper
Palnis (n=99) and mid Palnis (n=130) (Balachandran
et al. 2005) in comparison to lower Palnis. This was
probably because lower Palnis has more deciduous
and scrub jungle which may support high food
availability. Thus, in this heterogeneous matrix of
habitat it is essential to maintain and conserve intact
forests. In Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,
Raman et al. (2005) revealed that bird community
composition signifcantly correlated with elevation
and tree species composition of sites, indicating the
infuence of deterministic factors on bird community
structure. Resource abundance and availability are
described as the most important factor in determining
the community structure (Recher & Davis 2002). The
bird families Accipitridae, Cuculidae, Muscicapidae,
Picidae, Timaliidae, Phasianidae, Pycnonotidae,
Ardeidae, Cisticolidae, Columbidae, Dicruridae,
Estrildidae, Motacillidae and Nectariniidae are
suffciently abundant and thus considered to be
characteristic of resource availability in this region
(Balachandran et al. 2005). Endemic bird species
were less in the lower Palnis than mid and upper
Palnis. Most of the endemics were confned to the
higher altitudes due to the presence of moist evergreen
and high altitude montane forests and grasslands
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3281
(Pramod et al. 1997; Vijayan & Gokula 2006). The
extensive deciduous and scrub forests were not
used much by the endemics though the habitats are
generally richer in bird species than humid evergreen
and montane forests, when equal areas are compared
(Daniels et al. 1991, 1992). Similarly, the common
and resident birds are abundant in lower Palnis. More
bird species and families were found between 600
and 900 m altitude. This is probably related to the
presence of mixed vegetation types at these altitudes.
By comparing the number of species present in lower
Palnis with earlier studies by Balachandran et al.
(2005), and Somasundaram & Vijayan (2008) in mid
and upper Palnis the species richness was higher in the
lower altitude than the higher altitude. Similarly, most
studies have shown a general pattern of decreasing
species richness with increasing altitude believed
to mirror the well-recognised latitudinal gradient in
species richness (MacArthur 1972; Bachman et al.
2004, Raman et al. 2005).
Palni Hills is located in the southeastern Western
Ghats and is well known for its high endemism
(Rajmohana & Radhakrishnan 2008). Though these
hills are highly signifcant for the seven high altitude
endemic species namely Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon,
Grey-breasted Laughing Thrush, Black-and-Orange
Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Broad-tailed Grass-
Warbler, White-bellied Shortwing and Nilgiri Pipit,
they are found above 1500m (Balachandran et al.
2005; Somasundaram & Vijayan 2008) despite the
lower Palnis having a threatened species, three nearly
threatened and fve endemic species. In total, 9 and
11 endemics, 3 and 2 Vulnerable and 5 and 4 Near
Threatened birds were recorded in mid and upper
Palnis, respectively. The Indian Rufous Babbler
Turdoides subrufus and the Small Sunbird Nectarinia
minima are the two endemics seen in all the three
divisions of Palnis. It is evident that Palni hills is
a signifcant site due to the high congregation of
threatened and endemic bird species as referred by the
Important Bird Area (IBA) (Islam & Rahmani 2004).
This site has been selected as an IBA site on the basis
of the presence of globally threatened species with
a signifcant percentage of restricted range species,
and some biome-restricted species (Islam & Rahmani
2004). The presence of endemic and threatened
species indicates the conservation importance of the
study site. All the endemic species observed have
already been recorded in the hill ranges of Palni
Hills (Fairbank 1877; Terry 1887; Nichols 1937)
while some that appeared to be rare like the Indian
Rufous Babbler, Blue-winged Parakeet Psittacula
columboides and Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros
griseus in Lower Palnis may be due to habitat
fragmentation and degradation. Habitat loss due to
anthropogenic pressure is the greatest threat to most
of the Indian birds (Rahmani 2008). Anthropogenic
pressures like illegal encroachment into forest land,
livestock-grazing, and harvesting of fuel wood with
huge quantities of minor forest products must be
put under control in this region (Balachandran et al.
2005). Interestingly, variations in the observation of
breeding season compared to Ali & Ripley (1983)
was noticed in plain Prinia Prinia inornata, known to
breed from March to July, was found breeding in the
frst week of December. Its nest was located with two
nestlings. Both nestlings fedged successfully. Shikra
Accipiter badius breeds from March to June but it
also bred earlier in February. Spotted Owlet Athene
brama breeds in November and March but the second
brood was observed in April. Common Iora Aegithina
tiphia usually breeds from January to August, but it
was noticed breeding in November along with the
observation of a nest with juveniles. Baya Weaver
Ploceus philippinus usually breeds from June to
September but it was seen breeding in October.
Our study illustrated useful breeding observations
of birds in the Palni Hills. The protection of Important
Bird Areas contributes not only to bird conservation
but even the biodiversity of this highly endangered
ecosystem as a whole (Islam & Rahmani 2004). Since
we documented the occurrence, altitudinal distribution
and breeding observations, we felt that eight months
were suffcient to bring out useful information on the
aforementioned aspects. However, we agree that the
short term feld study was a limitation and defnitely a
long term study would bring out robust ornithological
information on Palni Hills. This study generated
baseline data on bird species occurrence along an
altitudinal gradient in the lower Palni Hills. Large
scale habitat changes occurring globally fulfl endless
human needs, habitat destruction, fragmentation and
degradation necessitates further assessment on the
impact of anthropogenic changes on birds (Brash 1987;
Whitten et al. 1987; Khan et al. 1993). To maintain the
bird community structure, further habitat exploitation
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32693283
Birds of lower Palni Hills T. Ramesh et al.
3282
must be minimised by regulating human activities
(Johnsingh & Joshua 1994). The data gathered from
this study serves to be important in developing future
conservation and management programs, which will
identify priority areas for long-term persistence of bird
communities.
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Author Details: Dr. Tharmalingam ramesh is
broadly interested in mammal and bird ecology.
He has conducted research on migratory birds,
water birds, mist-netting, bird-ringing and
birds of tropical forests in India. Presently he
is a research fellow at the Wildlife Institute of
India, studying predator-prey ecology in the
Western Ghats. mr. J.P.P. ChakravarThy is a Sr.
Project Offcer in the Western Ghats Landscape
Program at WWF, studying the population
of tiger, since 2010. Dr. s. BalaChanDran is
a Sr. Scientist at BNHS, studying migratory
water birds and their movements across
India. ms. riDDhika kalle is pursuing her PhD
at the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), on small
carnivore ecology in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.
She worked as a research fellow at WII on
predator-prey ecology in the Western Ghats.
Author Contribution: TR wrote the manuscript,
designed the study, conducted feld surveys,
collected and analysed the data, JPPC and SB,
designed the study, conducted feld surveys
and collected data, RK helped with the writing
and editing of the manuscript.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32843293
JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 32843293
Elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus (Proboscidea:
Elephantidae) migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills, India
in the late 1970s
E.R.C. Davidar
1
, Peter Davidar
2
, Priya Davidar
3
& Jean-Philippe Puyravaud
4
1
Deceased.
2,4
ECOS,

9A Frdric Ozanam St., Colas Nagar, Puducherry 605001, India
3
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India
Email:
2
sigurnaturetrust@gmail.com,
3
pdavidar.ees@pondiuni.edu.in,
4
jp.puyravaud@gmail.com (corresponding author)
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Heidi Riddle
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3008
Received 15 November 2011
Final received 31 August 2012
Finally accepted 15 October 2012
Citation: Davidar, E.R.C., P. Davidar, P. Davidar
& J.-P. Puyravaud (2012). Elephant Elephas
maximus Linnaeus (Proboscidea: Elephantidae)
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills, India in the
late 1970s. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14):
32843293.
Copyright: E.R.C. Davidar, Peter Davidar,
Priya Davidar & Jean-Philippe Puyravaud 2012.
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this
article in any medium for non-proft purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing
adequate credit to the authors and the source
of publication.
Author Details, Author Contribution and
Acknowledgements: see end of this article.
3284
Abstract: The study presented was carried out in 1978 with the support of the Asian
Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG) of the International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC). Its objective was to investigate the
impediments to elephant movement in the Nilgiri Hills, in the Western Ghats of India,
in an attempt to suggest positive steps to encourage movement through the provision
of corridors. The report was left unpublished, but given its importance as a reference
document for the conservation of the Asian elephant in the Nilgiris, in 2011 the last two
authors decided to publish it. The process of habitat fragmentation has been going on
ever since man started agriculture. But this problem has, of late, become much more
acute due to mounting pressure on land. The corridor concept applied to wildlife is
the provision of a free and, as far as possible, unimpeded way for the passage of wild
animals between two wildlife zones. A corridors more important function is to prevent
wild animals from getting isolated in small pocket-like islands. Maintaining elephant
habitat connectivity in and around the Nilgiris rests upon the understanding that elephant
populations of the several protected areas of the now Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve must
remain active. The frst author surveyed the Nilgiris on foot and on elephant back for
several months in 1978. It was concluded that four areas (the Nilgiri north slopes and
Deccan Plateau, the south and southeastern slopes, the Gudalur Plateau, and the upper
plateau) harboured together 10 corridors that needed to be maintained, or restored, or
even partially restored.
Keywords: Asian Elephant, connectivity, conservation, corridors, Elephas maximus
Linnaeus, habitat, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:8DBD3959-3024-
43AE-938E-EA234D2852B0
Preface
The work presented here was undertaken by the late E.R.C. Davidar
for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Asian
Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG) in the second half of the 1970s.
The study was promoted by the late Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Chairman,
IUCN AsESG, and former Vice-President of the Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS).
Forty years ago, naturalists started to be concerned about Asian
Elephant Elephas maximus migrations. Nothing much was known about
it but biologists could see that development in the Nilgiri Mountains
(Western Ghats of India) posed more and more obstacles to the free
movement of elephants. Geographic information systems (GISs) were in
their infancy, the Landsat satellite program had just started, and personal
computers were rare. In order to visualize how elephants migrated, there
was no other way than to go to the feld, observe and produce maps, as
were doing land surveyors.
Only few people were interested in spending months in jungles
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32843293
Elephant migration in the late 1970s E.R.C. Davidar et al.
3285
infested (the term used at that time) by dangerous
wildlife. E.R.C. Davidar was one of them and had
already done extensive feld surveys all over the
Western Ghats and the Nilgiris (e.g. Davidar 1978).
With 25 years of experience in this rough terrain, he
walked or visited on elephant back all habitats he
thought were of importance.
E.R.C. Davidar fnalized the frst version of his
text Investigation of elephant migration paths in the
Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movement of elephants and recommendations for the
provision of corridors for their movement in 1981,
and submitted it to Mr. J.C. Daniel for comments. The
study remained a poorly circulated, unpublished draft.
After seeking permission from the IUCN AsESG and
the BNHS in 2011, the two last authors decided to
publish the report.
Why should we publish an old report as wildlife
science in India has considerably evolved since the
seventies? There were several reasons. Firstly, it was
the frst study of elephant corridors in India. Due to
the amazing feld experience of the lead author E.R.C.
Davidar, a life-time of treks and interaction with
shikaris (guides of hunting parties) who had an intimate
knowledge of the jungle, he came to draw general
patterns of elephant migrations in the Nilgiris. The
report is consequently a historical record of elephant
movements, and an invaluable baseline scenario for
any study on corridors for this region. Secondly, it is
referred to in technical surveys (Menon et al. 2005),
Forest Department master documents (Tamil Nadu
Forest Department, 2009), newspapers
1
, scientifc
articles (i.e. Johnsingh & Williams 1999), and books
(i.e. Santiapillai & Jackson 1990), but available to only
a handful of specialists. Thirdly and most importantly,
E.R.C. Davidar understood that his mission of
recording corridors was a purely negative exercise,
and extended the scope of the study. His reasoning
was that focusing on functional elephants corridors
was biased since it would not take into consideration
corridors that were recently lost at the time of the
study, which has implications for conservation. These
lost corridors needed to be restored to reduce confict
with elephants and to properly manage elephant
populations. Following this rationale, he recorded
functional corridors and also added what he knew to
be recently lost major elephant corridors.
Corridors, in his view, were meant to maintain
connectivity among core habitats and were necessary
(i) outside protected areas, or (ii) within a potentially
threatened protected area. To him, it was obvious that
particular former passages had to be restored because
they were, and still are, potential areas for human /
elephant confict. If restoration was impossible, it was
still of value to note the place of a former corridor,
because future generations might be more sensitive to
the fate of the elephants than ours.
The reader must be warned that the manuscript
and study styles are very much at variance with
present-day scientifc articles. Moreover, the content
of the original draft report has been shortened. The
text has been edited only when minor changes
regarding the expression were absolutely necessary.
Recommendations are unchanged. Location names
have been retained as per the draft. For example,
Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary was kept instead
of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, as it is called today.
No actualized literature has been added except in the
preface. Wherever text has been added in 2011, it is in
between brackets [ ].
InvestIgatIng elePhant Paths In the
nIlgIrIs
The Nilgiri Hills, located between 11
0
1011
0
30N
& 76
0
2577
0
00E, are an off-shoot of the Western
Ghats where the Eastern Ghats terminate. The
geographical area of the Nilgiri District is 2,452km
2
,
and the area covered by this report including forests
in Kerala and the Coimbatore District in Tamil Nadu,
is 3,000km
2
approximately (Image 1). This region
encompasses several forest types, which are mostly
tropical wet evergreen, tropical semievergreen,
tropical moistdeciduous, and montane wet temperate
types of forests (Champion & Seth 1968). This
region is served by both the south-west and north-
east monsoons, but there is considerable variability
in rainfall and temperature in the different areas since
elevation ranges between 200 and 2,600 m.
Elephants are great wanderers. In Africa, elephants
Loxodonta africana have been known to cover great
distances, and their wanderings have been recorded
1
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main49.asp?flename=
Ne3000411Corridor.asp
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32843293
Elephant migration in the late 1970s E.R.C. Davidar et al.
3286
with meticulous care by researchers. There are
few such records for the Asian elephants, although
migrations, though not on a similar scale as in Africa,
do occur. In the Nilgiris, unlike in most places, there
is scope for both lateral as well as vertical movement.
There also appears to be defnite migratory seasons,
although solitary bulls as well as bull parties are on the
move year round.
These migrations are likely to offer elephants a
change of diet and climate. For instance, elephants
move from wetter tracts such as tropical wet evergreen
and tropical semievergreen forests in the west, to
tropical moistdeciduous and dry deciduous scrub in
the east. That way, they may escape insects that swarm
the wet regions during the south-west monsoon. It
also gives sections of the habitat a chance to recover.
Wild elephants had their traditional migration paths
particularly over diffcult hill country. It is believed
that engineers opening up the hills to traffc followed
some of these trek routes to lay roads as they found
that the elephants had done their gradient survey for
them! Elephant depredations and damage to crops are
less concentrated due to such movement. Encouraging
movement of wildlife is a necessary tool in wildlife
management.
As the Nilgiri Hills developed, the migration paths
began to shift. In the course of time many had to be
abandoned due to being cut up by roads, settlements,
cultivation, plantations, hydroelectric projects, and
so on. Most have ceased to exist. On level ground
however, elephants had no set routes, except at river
fords and like. In the Nilgiris, short stretches of well-
beaten elephant trails still exist, especially on the
slopes.
The present project started as an Investigation
of the migration routes of elephants in the Nilgiris.
As the investigation proceeded, it became apparent
that it would be a purely negative exercise [as with
development, some of these routes had already been
severed]. It was, therefore, decided to enlarge the

Image 1. Study area with the 10 reported corridors (see text for details) and the four regions in which ecosystem
connectivity was severed or under threat: (I) the northern slopes and the southern portion of the Deccan Plateau, (II) the
south and south-eastern slopes, (III) the Gudalur plateau, and (IV) the upper plateau
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Elephant migration in the late 1970s E.R.C. Davidar et al.
3287
scope of the project. In addition, we investigated
the impediments to elephant movement in the area to
suggest positive steps to encourage movement through
the provision of corridors.
The corridor concept applied to wildlife is the
provision of a free and, as far as possible, unimpeded
way for the passage of wild animals between two
wildlife zones. A corridors more important function
is to prevent wild animals from getting isolated in
small pocket-like islands. The process of habitat
fragmentation has been going on ever since man
started agriculture. But this problem has, of late,
become much more acute due to mounting pressure
on land.
What should be the optimum size of a corridor?
The length will naturally depend on the distance to
be connected. In doing so, it may become necessary
to take a circuitous route connecting existing jungles.
There cannot be any hard and fast rule on the width.
It may be anything from approximately 100m to
approximately 2km. The wider the better. But
limitations such as the lay of the land, the types of
country, and practical consideration such as causing
least disturbance to people who are likely to be
affected by the provisions of corridors has to be taken
into account in determining the width.
Methods
Wildlife literature relating to the Nilgiris was
exhaustively researched for information [in 1978] on
elephants migration and to identify migration paths.
Unfortunately references on the subject were sketchy
[at the time of this report]. All known elephant habitats
were extensively covered on foot following migration
paths whenever possible.
Four areas seemed of particular importance, so we
divided the Nilgiris into four broad sections: (I) the
northern slopes and the southern portion of the Deccan
Plateau (called Deccan Plateau hereafter), (II) the
south and southeastern slopes, (III) the Gudalur plateau,
and (IV) the upper plateau. [All corridors noted 1 to 10
in the four different areas were represented in Image
1. In the original report, corridors were marked on
photocopied survey of India topographic maps. These
documents would have been adequate forty years ago
when forest offcers knew the area well. These original
maps were used to produce more readable documents.
Reserved forest layers have been redrawn on the basis
of Prabhakar & Pascal (1996) with GRASS-GIS (2011)
and QGIS (2011). The reserved forests approximately
represent the elephant habitat. Most of the reserved
forests could be represented fairly accurately except
the northern Attappadi Reserved Forest, which was
improperly delimited.]
results
I. nilgiri north slopes and deccan Plateau
This region is defned as the section of the Deccan
Plateau north of, and below the main Nilgiri Plateau
towards the east of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
(Image 2). Reserved forests of the Sigur range occupy
most of the land area. Interspersed among these reserved
forests are the populous village of Masinagudi, some
hamlets, tribal settlements, Electricity Board camps,
and cattle pens besides cultivated patta lands. There
are also some revenue forests and revenue lands
belonging to the State Government and private forests.
Some of these non-reserved forests serve as links
between reserved forests.
This region, the slopes of the main Nilgiri range as
well as the slopes leading down to the Moyar River in
the north, supports a fair elephant population. The most
important function of this area is that it serves as the
migration route between Mudumalai and the Wyanad
forests on the west, and the Talamalai/Hasanur Plateau
and Biligirirangan ranges on the east and northeast.
Obstructions to free movement of elephants occur
in the shape of penstocks (huge cylindrical pipes) and
trolley lines leading to the Singara and Moyar power
houses and the fume channel connecting the two, and
patta lands. In spite of these obstructions elephants
trek from one section to the other using interspersed
private forests and revenue forests. It is essential that
these non-reserved forests should be preserved to
facilitate elephants and other animals to trek from one
section to the other avoiding long detours.
1. The Mudumalai-Singara-Sigur connection
Glenmorgan, on the edge of the upper Nilgiri slope,
is where the head works of the Singara power house is
located. Along the entire width of this 1,000m slope, at
the foot of which the Singara power house is installed,
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Elephant migration in the late 1970s E.R.C. Davidar et al.
3288
the movement of elephants is blocked by three rows of
penstocks, the trolley, and communication lines that
run parallel to them. Animals on the slopes that want
to cross over have to make a long detour by coming
right down to the power house level at Singara, and
skirt the Electricity Board camp before doing so. Then
they meet the Singara-Masinagudi road connecting the
two places. Elephants coming from the southern part
of the Mudumalai Sanctuary also use this stretch to
migrate to the Sigur range and the slopes.
On either side of the middle stretch of the
Masinagudi-Singara road is a private forest. This
forms part of the Singara estate. It is reported that
this forest is under litigation [at the time of the study]
and whether the land remains with the present owner
or not, a corridor is necessary here. Land for such a
corridor is more easily set apart and the corridor set up
before the process of development begins.
It is recommended that a 600800 m wide corridor
connecting Kalmalai Reserved Forest and Singara
Reserved Forest across the Masinagudi-Singara road
between 3 and 4 km (from Masinagudi between the
bridge over the channel and the Singara estate fence
marking the new planting) be set up.
2. Mavinhalla Revenue Forests
On either side of the Sigur River there are reserved
forests. On the west is the Mudumalai Sanctuary
and Singara Reserved Forest, and on the east is Sigur
Reserved Forest which connects the Talamalai plateau
and the range of hills beyond. The reserved forests
are contiguous below Chemmanatham and the slope
above the Sigur bridge. However for a distance of 6
km both above and below Mavinhalla lands (cultivated
and fallow), cattle pens and the Mavinhalla hamlet
itself obstruct the passage of elephants, if a stretch of
revenue forests south of Mavinhalla is not taken into
account. This stretch of revenue forests serves as a
corridor between the reserved forests on either side.
It is recommended that the revenue forests
comprising revenue survey nos. 98, 107, 109, 115, and
246/1 of Masinagudi Village be converted to a reserved
forest. Should it be considered very necessary, part of
the survey felds on the northern end of the proposed
corridor (close to Mavinhalla and the highway) may
be excluded to be put to other uses.

Image 2. Map of the reserved forests of the study area according to Prabhakar & Pascal (1996)
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Elephant migration in the late 1970s E.R.C. Davidar et al.
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3. Masinagudi-Thengamarada road
Between Masinagudi and Sirur there is already
a road which is about 20km long. Of this, 5km is a
road of the Highways Department, and the rest is a
metalled road maintained by the Forest Department.
There is a proposal to upgrade this road and connect
it to Thengamarada and take it on from there to
Bhavanisagar and connect it to the Sathyamangalam-
Mettupalayam highway. The road will soon become a
two lane highway. Branch roads are proposed to be laid
to Hallimoyar and Kallampalayam. Work is already in
progress and in 2 years time the road is expected to
be ready for traffc. This is a prime wilderness area
rich in wildlife which has remained undisturbed so
far. This road will traverse and cut across elephant
migration paths in several places.
It is recommended that strict vigil be exercised to
prevent exploitation to the detriment of wildlife.
II. south and southeastern slopes
On the south and south-eastern slopes of the Nilgiri
hills, forests extend from Attapadi in Kerala to the west
to Bhavanisagar in the east. Forests cover the base of the
mountain and extend into the plains, varying in depth.
Forest cover on the Tamil Nadu side is continuous,
except for the ghat roads (mountain roads), a railway
line, forest plantations, and the Kundah hydro-electric
works at the lower levels, tea and coffee plantations,
and villages interspersed among the forests at the
higher elevations. Elephants are confned to the lower
levels except for crop and jackfruit raiding forays
into plantations higher up. The two main ghat roads,
namely the Coonoor and Kotagiri ghat roads, the heavy
traffc that they carry, the steep cuttings that have been
made for laying roads, and the occupation of the land
on either side of the road, are the main obstacles for
movement of elephants.
4. Kunjapanai Corridors
The village of Kunjapanai on the Mettupalayam ghat
road is located about half way between Kotagiri and
Mettupalayam at an elevation of 1,200m. Elephants,
mostly solitary or in small herds, frequent this area
particularly during the jackfruit season. Elephants
come from the forest below, the plantations, and the
forests east of the road. They cross the road above and
below Kunjapanai. This does not happen frequently;
when they do it is usually very late at night. Below
Kunjapanai the steep slope and the road have made
it diffcult for elephants to move from one side of the
road to the other.
It is recommended that either side of Kunjapanai,
particularly the road-side land, is kept free of
obstructions for the movement of elephants.
5. Mettupalayam-Kotagiri ghat road
The road is the second important link to the hills
from the south. It traverses a stretch of scrub jungle
which is part of the reserved forest in the plains. On
the mountain slope steep road cuttings make it diffcult
for the animals to cross. Therefore the bases of the
hills and the forests in the plains have to be kept
clear of obstruction. The scrub east of the road at the
lower (Mettupalayam) end has been cleared, and an
experimental forest research station of the Tamil Nadu
Agricultural Institute has come up. It is fenced in and
acts as a barrier to animals. There is an explosives
store on the west. Other such obstructions might come
up along this road.
It is recommended that a 1km stretch of the
reserved forests on either side of the Mettupalayam-
Kotagiri road between 4.2 and 5.2 km (distance from
Mettupalayam) be left free of obstruction.
6. Mettupalayam-Coonoor ghat road: the Kallar corridor
The Mettupalayam-Coonoor ghat road runs up the
Hullical Valley. The ghat road is the main highway
to the hills and starts its ascent at the 25
th
km from
Mettupalayam. On either side of the road from the
bottom up to Burliar are reserved forests composed
of scrub and mixed jungle. The jungle on the east of
the road extends up to Bhavanisagar and beyond on
the west side up to Mulli on the Tamil Nadu-Kerala
border. No movement is possible at higher elevation
because of road cuttings, revetments, steepness of
the slopes, fruit orchards and plantations. Passage is
possible only at the start of the ascent. But at present,
it is cut off because of the road itself, areca plantations
and felds, not to mention heavy traffc. But traffc
tapers off at night. In spite of these conditions
elephants come as close as 100m to the road, and there
are reports of occasional elephant crossings at the 1
st

hairpin bend (25
th
km stone). The Coonoor River and
the Kallar River, which are only a short distance away,
are frequently used by elephants. If access is to be
provided in the shape of a corridor, elephants and Gaur
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(Bos gaurus) will make use of it.
It is recommended that:
a. A corridor about 100150 m in width at and
immediately below the frst hairpin bend be set up to
connect the reserved forests on either side.
b. For this purpose private land needs to be
acquired. Some land leased by the Government across
the Coonoor River may be resumed (such area to be
acquired may not be more than 10 to12 hectares in
extent).
c. Plantations below the corridor should be fenced
with a sturdy stone wall at Government cost to prevent
migrating elephants from straying into plantations and
causing damage.
d. The fence should be inspected periodically and
maintained.
e. Some gaps should be left in the revetment
supporting the frst hairpin bend and steps/slopes taken
to facilitate easy passage of elephants.
7. PillurMelur slopes and Bhavani River Valley
Until recently, on the southern and southwestern
slopes of the Nilgiri hills and the Bhavani River valley
above and west of Mettupalayam, forests extended
westward until they met the Attapadi Reserved Forest,
which is contiguous to the Silent Valley Reserved
Forest. Now forests remain only on the Tamil
Nadu side. On the Kerala side, the river valley has
been converted into fourishing irrigation felds, and
the lower slopes have been denuded and are being
extensively grazed by domestic cattle. The slopes
below Kinnakorai have been turned into felds even
at the higher levels. The forests were the private
properties of minor rajas who indiscriminately leased
them out to cultivation. Had the Government taken
action and made these into reserved forests this may
not have happened.
The contiguity between the forests on the Tamil
Nadu side and the Kerala side has been lost. Beyond
the Tamil Nadu border, forests remain only in Attapadi
and no movement of elephants between the forests
on the two sides is possible. The few elephant herds
on the Tamil Nadu side can move up to Manar and
Pegumbahalla on the Karamadai-Kundah road (and a
little distance up to the border) and not beyond. Even
on the Tamil Nadu side elephant movement is hindered
by power houses no. 3 and 4 of the Kundah hydro-
electric scheme, the Pillur dam, large residential camps
in three locations, the penstocks, network of roads,
and cultivation. But these are not insurmountable
obstacles and elephants have been moving around, up
to the border and into the forests across the south of the
Bhavani River. The restoration of these lost migration
paths seems rather doubtful.
III. the gudalur Plateau
The Gudalur Plateau is 1,000m on average in
elevation. To the west are the tropical evergreen forests
of Nilambur, New Amarambalam, Silent Valley, and
to the north and east are the moist mixed deciduous
forests thinning into heavy scrub of Mudumalai and
Bandipur. It was covered with forests (Fletcher 1911)
and acted as a link between the forests of Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The plateau became a
center for mining, and tea and coffee planting in the
nineteenth century. These were opened up in the
place of forests. Mines were abandoned when they
failed but the development of tea, coffee, and forest
plantations continued. According to offcial records,
the area occupied by plantations in the Gudalur Taluk
is 1,200ha (approximately). Unoffcially, the area is
much larger due to encroachments. Now forests remain
only within the Mudumalai Sanctuary limits, on the
northwestern slopes (above Ouchterlony Valley), and
in scattered reserves.
In 1969, the Tamil Nadu Tea Plantation Corporation
Ltd. (TANTEA) moved into the area, and cleared the
thickly wooded reserved forests around Cherangode,
Cherambadi, and Nelliyalam, and planted tea to settle
repatriates from Sri Lanka. New areas (some were
grasslands) have been taken up in the past three years
in Devala and Gudalur, and a further extent of 600ha
has been added and expansion is in progress.
A distinct form of land tenure known as the janmum
tenure, which applied to a third of the area, has been
another unsettling factor. The Tamil Nadu Government
sought to abolish the janmum tenure by legalization
which is known as the Gudalur Janmum Estates
(Abolition and Conversion into Riotwari) Act, 1969.
Litigation over the enactment has been dragging on.
Taking advantage of this unsettled situation, large-
scale to forcible occupation of janman [or janmun]
lands has been taking place. It has become a free for
all where profts were high, except for wildlife.
It would be a great advantage to wild elephants if
the old links between Nilambur-New Amarambalam-
3290
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Silent Valley and Mudumalai-Bandipur could be
restored across the Gudalur plateau. But this is not a
possibility. A new link may have to be forged. Even
this is extremely diffcult as there are many obstacles,
the worst being the squatters who have reduced
criminal trespass into a fne art. The squatter problem
has become a political issue, most of the opposition
parties and even the Government of Kerala oppose
evictions.
Besides, getting elephants used to new migration
paths in the form of corridors is not going to be easy.
The slopes overlooking the Ouchterlony valley would
have provided an ideal migration link, but it is cut-off
at the Gudalur end of plantations and settlements. For
a long time there has been no sign of elephants using
these slopes for migration.
[In order to setup corridors], two routes have
been suggested - one cutting right across the Gudalur
plateau, and the other skirting the plateau (and partly
through the Ootacamund Taluk) along its eastern
border. Both start at different points in the Mudumalai
Sanctuary and terminate at about the same area on the
Tamil Nadu-Kerala border. It is desirable that both
are attempted and at least sections are preserved for
the day when public opinion demands a better deal for
elephants.
8. The Benne (Mudumalai)-Needlerock - New
Amarambalam corridor
[The full length of the proposed corridor is
described in Table 1.] A corridor across TANTEAs
new Gudalur and Devala divisions, stretching from
the Kerala border to the Rockwood Reserve, is a long
and vital link. A 200m wide path could be in the form
of a fuel reserve. High priority is accorded to this
corridor because tree planting has just begun here so
it is still possible to preserve this stretch. Even if it
becomes impossible to set up a corridor for its whole
length from New Amarambalam to Mudumalai, this
TANTEA stretch alone would enable elephants to
move at least up to Rockwood Reserve and Needle
Rock as before.
As far as other big tea estates on the path are
concerned, they may be allowed to retain the corridor
land involved on the condition that the corridor land
is developed as fuel reserve and allows the passage of
elephants.
9. The Mudumalai-Ouchterlony valley Nilambur -
New Amarambalam corridor
[The full length of the proposed corridor is
described in Table 2.] Solitary elephants do stray as
far as Burnside Estate from the Kerala side, and the
corridor is traced following their route. From below
Burnside Estate the corridor will be almost wholly
along the bed of the Pandey River and tributaries. The
problem to overcome will be the squatters occupying
the banks on either side. Passage through developed
estates will be most diffcult as there are lines [workers
quarters], buildings, etc. Where passage through estate
Suggested waypoints Distance
Corridor 200 m wide from the Mudumalai Sanctuary on the Benne boundary on either side of the Benne-Mukatti forest road
2km
Passing through two small coffee estates until it reaches the GudalurSultans Battery road at Mukatti
Across the Gudalur-Sultans Battery road at Mukatti into the Gadsbrook Government Reserved Forest (eucalyptus plantation) which
can act as a corridor in itself
Beyond the Government reserve into the adjoining tea estate, across the border of the estate 1.5km
From the tea estate into the small private holdings mainly encroachments about 1-2 acres, each planted with paddy and jackfruit,
owned by 15 to 20 families
3km
Across the Mukatti-Ponari road into a small tea estate the corridor skirting the Sussex division of the Woodbriar Group of tea estates 1km
Across Sussex Division Reserve 2km
Past the Devala-Nilakotai road and skirting the eastern fank of the Needlerock peak 2km
Through Government Cinchona Department where a new plantation from Needlerock is destroying the natural forests 3km
On the eastern side of Needlerock through the Devarshola Estate Reserve of Tea Estate India Ltd. 4km
Across the new divisions (Devala and Gudalur) of TANTEA up to Marapalam on the GudalurDevala road 4km
Across the GudalurDevala road through TANTEA clearings to the Kerala border thus joining Mudumalai and Nilambur-New
Amarambalam Reserved Forests
7km
Table 1. The proposed Benne (Mudumalai)-Needlerock-New Amarambalam corridor
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reserves becomes necessary, estates could develop fuel
reserves.
Iv. the upper plateau
The Nilgiri mountains fatten out into a plateau
roughly 900km
2
in area, above 1,500m in elevation,
with temperate conditions prevailing. Before the 1850s,
the plateau consisted of mostly southern montane
grasslands interspersed with southern subtropical
hill forest (sholas) and scrub. A considerable area of
grasslands and sholas have disappeared yielding place
to plantations. This worsened due to the increasing
size of towns and encroachments on Government land.
Only the southwest parts of the plateau retain some of
the original Nilgiri habitat. In recent years elephants
were recorded with higher frequency, and this may be
because of degradation of their habitats at the lower
elevation.
There are three routes up the slopes to Upper Bhavani
from the Attapadi-Silent Valley-New Amarambalam
forests. One route is up the Galisi-Todiki slope
skirting the Korakundah Estate, the second is up the
Bhavanipuzha-Bison swamp slope, and the third is the
Sispara bridle path through the Sispara pass [corridor
10]. Only small elephant herds are regular visitors.
As more pressure builds up at lower elevations, larger
herds are expected to come to the plateau. This should
be encouraged [because this area might function as a
refuge].
At present there are no impediments to elephants
roaming over this entire area except for the upper
Bhavani dam water spread. However, there is a
proposal to build dams that might be obstacles across
the path of elephants. There is a proposal to mine
bauxite in the range of hills at Lakkidi (eastern end of
upper Bhavani) to feed Malcos aluminium factory at
Mettur. [This mining project has not been implemented
so far.]
It is recommended that:
a. It is important that the Upper Bhavani country
should continue to remain a wilderness area.
b. The proposal of the electricity board to build
further dams in this area should be abandoned.
c. The bauxite mining proposal at Lakkidi should
also be given up.
conclusIon
[It emerges from this work that elephant habitat
in coastal areas of Kerala (Silent Valley, Attapadi) are
isolated from inland habitats ranging from Nagarhole to
Mudumalai to Bhavanisagar. Consequently, rainforest
habitats are now isolated from drier type of forests.
Table 2. The proposed Mudumalai-Ouchterlony Valley Nilambur-New Amarambalam corridor.
Suggested waypoints Distance
A corridor the width of 200 m starting from the south-east corner of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary at the point where it crosses the
Moyar River below Thorapalli into Thodmoyar and along the river up to the southern boundary of Thodmoyar Estate through the
Northern Hay Reserved Forest
3km
Skirting Chikmoyar Estate border through the government cinchona plantation (the Naduvattam Reserved Forest being in possession
of the cinchona plantation) up to the point where it meets the Ooty-Gudalur road on the second hairpin bend from Gudalur, above
Silver Cloud Estate bungalow
3km
Into the reserved forest above the Ooty-Gudalur road through the HasanBava Estate up to the third hairpin bend 1km
Across the road at the 3
rd
hairpin bend across patta lands along the lower HasanBava Estate boundary (between the Manjushree
Estate, GudalurMalai Division new planting and lower Bava Estate new planting). Into the forest in the middle section of the eastern
slopes of GudalurMalai (Nellibetta Rock)
2km
Up the eastern slopes (middle section) of the GudalurMalai then down the slopes 2km
Above the hill slope above the road until the GudalurSeaforth road is reached at a point between 6 and 7 km and below Burnside
Estate. It may be noted that the hill and slopes west of Gudalur are heavily encroached upon and there are estate lines. The passage
may be virtually impossible
4km
Skirting west of Burnside Estate and down the slopes until the Chundi River (Pandey River in maps) is reached 100 m on either
side of Chundi River through Ouchterlony Valley (Manjushrees New Hope) Estate into Seaforth Estate following the river until
Chunnambpallam is reached. It may be noted that the lands on either side of the river are heavily encroached
3km
From Chunambalam along the Chundi River and other streams to the Peria Shola Tea Estate 4km
Through Umbilimalai Estate along streams to Nilambur and New Amarambalam forest 7km
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And elephants can no more circle the Nilgiris, as they probably used to
do, to fnd better feeding grounds. However, this state of affairs should
not prevent the search for solutions. Forging new corridors, reshaping
boundaries between village lands and reserved forests in order to prevent
conficts with elephants, remains a priority.]
The considerations that weighed uppermost when making
recommendations was that they should be pragmatic and capable of
implementation. Care was taken not to propose any grandiose schemes.
The recommendations are modest and should be workable. For the
success of projects of this nature it is essential that local sympathies are
not alienated. The cooperation and support of local people should be
sought and obtained.
Lines of action and priorities have been indicated. Naturally the
recommendations vary to suit the local conditions. While some require
positive action, in the case of others all that is required is a safeguard that
the prevailing conditions are not disturbed. Of course, the most important
requirement is enthusiasm on the part of the concerned authorities, and
the political will to put the recommendations into effect.
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fletcher, f.W.f. (1911). Sport on the Nilgiris and in Wyanad. MacMillan, London,
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grass development team (2010). Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
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Menon, v., v. tiwari, s. easa & r. sukumar (2005). Right of Passage: Elephant
Corridors of India. Wildlife Trust of India, 287pp.
Prabhakar, r. & J.-P. Pascal (1996). Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Area. Vegetation
and land use.Map 1:100,000. Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of
Science and the French Institute of Pondicherry, Pondicherry.
Quantum gIs development team (2011). Quantum GIS Geographic Information
System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. http://qgis.osgeo.org.
santiapillai, c. & P. Jackson (1990). The Asian Elephant: An Action Plan for Its
Conservation. IUCN, 80pp.
tamil nadu forest department (2009). Report of the Expert Committee Formed
in Pursuance of the Direction of the Honble High Court in W.P.N.10098/2008,
2762 & 2839 of 2009. Unpublished. http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/graphics/Expert_
Committee_Report.pdf, 98pp.
Acknowledgements
1981: We thank Mr. A.M. Mahmood Hussain
IFS, Additional Chief Conservator of Forests,
Tamil Nadu Forest Department, and Y.S.
Kadakshamani IFS, DFO Coimbatore for their
formal permission to work in Mudumalai and
Coimbatore Reserved Forests. But for the
enthusiasm of Mr. J.C. Daniel, Chairman, Asian
Elephant Specialist Group, this study would
not have been possible. We also thank him for
meeting the expenditure incurred on the study.
We owe a debt of gratitude to the planting
community who helped and shared information.
We thank Mr. B. Palaniappan, Group Manager,
Woodbriar Estate Ltd., Mr. C. Ramachandra
Rao, Group Manager, Manjushree Plantations,
Ltd., Mr. V.A. Krishnan, Senior Manager,
Kilkotagiri Estates, Mr. K. Madappa, Manager,
Korakundah Estate, Mr. E. Luke, Manager,
Periashola Estate, Mr. D.R.B. Tyman, Managing
Director, Tea Estates India Ltd., and Mr. A.
Arunachalam IFS, Managing Director, TANTEA.
Mr. Jude Michael, Shikari Bokkan, and informant
Mari of Sirur helped on the many treks. To those
who are going to initiate action on this report and
implement the recommendations we wish them
success.
2011: We thank Dr. Ajay Desai (Co-Chair, Asian
Elephant Specialist Group), Dr. Simon Hedges
(Co-Chair, Asian Elephant Specialist Group),
and Dr. Simon Stuart, Chair, IUCN Species
Survival Commission, for their initial interest in
this publication. Dr. Asad Rahmani (Director,
BNHS) and Dr. Ajay Desai kindly granted us
permission to utilise the draft and publish it.
We thank the Journal of Threatened Taxa and
in particular the Founder & Chief Editor, Dr.
Sanjay Molur, for their enlightened editorial
policy, and an anonymous referee of the Journal
of Threatened Taxa for constructive comments.
Dr. S. Jayakumar, Department of Ecology and
Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University,
kindly provided us the elevation map of the
region.
Author Details: The late E.R.C. DaviDaR was a
lawyer by profession and a conservationist. He
pioneered studies on the Nilgiri tahr, elephant
corridors, the dhole and the striped hyena. He
established what may be the frst ever private
reserve in India and has authored a book on the
recent ecological history of the Nilgiris.
PEtER DaviDaR holds a MPhil in Wildlife Biology.
He has undertaken surveys on elephant corridors
and is presently a trustee of the Sigur Nature
Trust, a private wildlife corridor. He is interested
in wildlife photography.
PRiya DaviDaR is a professor of ecology at the
Pondicherry University. She teaches conservation
biology and behavior. Her research interests
span over the felds of biogeography, biodiversity,
pollination ecology and conservation.
JEan-PhiliPPE PuyRavauD is an ecologist associated
with ECOS, a trust for the conservation of
nature. His main interest is habitat management
for endangered species. He advises MSc and
PhD students of the Pondicherry University in
research methodology and landscape ecology.
Author Contribution: ERCD was the principal
investigator of this project. He designed the
study, conducted the feld surveys and wrote a
longer unpublished version of this paper for the
Asian Elephant Specialist Group of the IUCN.
PeD assisted in the feld survey. PrD assisted
with editorial work of the frst version and helped
revise the abridged version of the paper. J-PP
revised and edited this abridged version of the
paper, and prepared the maps.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32943301
JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 32943301
Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve,
Nepal: status, population and conservation importance
Top Bahadur Khatri
1
, Deep Narayan Shah
2
& Nilamber Mishra
3
1,2
Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN), Training Section Building, Second foor, Forestry Complex,
Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Paschim Kusaha, Sunsari, Nepal
Email:
1
tbkhatri@wetlands.org.np,
2
shahdeepnarayan@yahoo.com (corresponding author),
3
nmishra@yahoo.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: L.A.K. Singh
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2990
Received 06 November 2011
Final received 09 July 2012
Finally accepted 29 September 2012
Citation: Khatri, T.B., D.N. Shah & N. Mishra
(2012). Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee in
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal: status,
population and conservation importance. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 32943301.
Copyright: Top Bahadur Khatri, Deep Narayan
Shah & Nilamber Mishra 2012. Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any
medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction
and distribution by providing adequate credit to
the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: Top Bahadur KhaTris research
interests are in resource management, park-
people interface, community stewardship and
wetland conservation in Asia. He has been
implementing various integrated conservation
and development projects in and around the
protected areas of Nepal for over two decades.
deep NarayaN Shahs research interests are in
biodiversity, community ecology, biogeography,
population genetics and conservation biology.
In particular, he focuses on the infuence of
global climate and human land-use change
on animal population and communities. He
has been conducting research in the Hindu
Kush Himalayan region and is associated with
several national and international scientifc
organizations.
NilamBer miShras research interests are in the
ecology and conservation of the large mammals
of South Asia. He has been working as
Conservation Offcer (Warden) in the protected
areas of Nepal for over two decades.
Author Contribution: DNS conceived, designed
and performed the study and wrote up the paper.
TBK planned the study and NM contributed in the
study design and performed feld study.
Acknowledgements: See end of this article.
3294
IntroductIon
The genus Bubalus was widely distributed in Europe and southern Asia
in the Pleistocene age, but was later restricted to the Indian subcontinent
and Southeast Asia (Mason 1974). Today, the Asiatic Wild Water Buffalo
Bubalus arnee (Bubalus bubalis Groves 1981) occurs in India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia. They are associated with
wet grasslands, swamps and densely vegetated river valleys. They have
been extirpated in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Laos and Vietnam. Nepals only
population thrives in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) which is
located on the foodplain of a snow-fed perennial river, Koshi, a tributary
of Ganga. The KTWR was gazetted in 1976 to preserve the habitat for the
only remaining population of Bubalus arnee here as Arna in Nepal. This
species is categorized as Endangered (Hedges et al. 2008) on the IUCN
Red List.
The wild water buffalo is highly endangered, with a world population
considered by FAO to be certainly fewer than 4000 animals (Scherf
2000). Scherf (2000) indicated that small isolated populations may
remain in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (Nepal), Bastar and Raipur
districts of Madhya Pradesh and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary/Project Tiger
Reserve (India), Royal Manas National Park (Bhutan), and Huai Kha
Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), as these populations are believed
to have been least affected by interbreeding with domestic and/or feral
buffalo. Flamand et al. (2003) confrmed eight out of 10 wild buffalo
samples to be of pure wild variety genetically at KTWR. The census of
Abstract: The Asiatic Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee is an endangered species
restricted to South and Southeast Asia. Nepals only population survives in the Koshi
Tappu Wildlife Reserve which is located on the foodplain of the Koshi River, a tributary
of Ganga. This species is under threat due to high anthropogenic pressure ranging
from habitat deterioration to hybridization with domestic buffalo. Yet, the population has
grown from 63 in 1976 to 219 in 2009, despite the decline in the calf/cow ratio. The
present study conducted in 2009 used the block count method. The count showed the
presence of a backcrossed population of 74 in addition to the total of 219 individuals. At
present, a number of conservation and livelihood interventions have been undertaken
to safeguard the biodiversity, particularly the wild buffalo population in the Koshi Tappu
Wildlife Reserve. The community-based sustainable management approach benefting
both conservation and livelihood of local people is necessary to ensure the long term
conservation of the species.
Keywords: Bubalus arnee, Critically Endangered, Koshi food, population census.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:263B7577-CE69-
44F2-9A96-13A775791AF5
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Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3295
Arna in KTWR has been carried out since 1976 and
till now fve censuses have been conducted at four
uneven intervals over a 34-year period. The most
recent census was in 2004 that estimated a population
of 159 wild buffalo, and a highly backcrossed, semi-
feral population of 49 animals (Heinen & Kandel
2006). The global and national status of this species as
documented by IUCNs Asian Wild Cattle and Buffalo
Specialist Group and the American Zoo Association
suggested that appropriate management is of the
highest conservation priority.
The KTWR has faced Reserve-people conficts
since its establishment. The effect of human
disturbance varies greatly, depending on the nature
and its intensity. Therefore, realizing the above
situation, the Government of Nepal in 2004, declared
a surrounding area of 173.5km
2
as a buffer zone.
This is one of the countrys innovative strategies for
participatory conservation, emphasizing a buffer
zone mechanism designed to reduce the adverse
impact of protected areas on the livelihoods of
local communities and vice versa. The total human
population of the buffer zone in 2009 was 93,323 from
16,280 households. As mandated by the Buffer Zone
Management Regulations, the buffer zone is entitled
to receive a 50% share of the revenue generated by the
KTWR for community development activities. The
money received is channeled through the user groups.
These user groups are formed at the settlement level
and are responsible for the planning, management and
supervision of the activities implemented.
The Koshi River meanders and passes through the
KTWR. The river not only shapes the physical features
of the region, but also modifes the ecosystem of the
area and has profound impact on the socio-economic
characteristics of the local communities of the buffer
zone residents. The Koshi River, which changes its
course quite rapidly across years, changed its main
course dramatically during the monsoon of 2008
and breached a 2km stretch and entered the human
settlements through Kushaha Village (Khatri et al.
2010a). This sudden shift in the course of Koshi River
has had a profound effect in the physical landscape
and subsequent impacts towards human settlement
and their agricultural felds. Large tracts of forest near
Prakashpur Village and grasslands in the eastern part
of the region were totally washed away. The Koshi
breach brought untold misery and loss to the lives of
people, not only of Nepal but also of India. After the
breach of the eastern embankment, efforts were made
to revert the main channel back to its original course
by employing over hundreds of heavy machines and
equipments backed by a strong feet of over 1000
personnel for a period of over one year. The Reserve
had to cope with all the externalities like temporary
settlements within the reserve, supply of fuel wood
and fodder, excessive use of local resources by both
local people as well as by the construction company
that was engaged in the repair and maintenance work
of the breached embankment. During the course of
repair and maintenance, six male Arna were moved
5km south of the barrage (in Gobargarha Village)
from their habitat due to the high level of disturbance.
During this period, the reserve had to bear the brunt of
this natural disaster.
During the period of political instability and
confict, all the security posts were damaged and
the security personnel were withdrawn and merged
within the reserve headquarters, Kushaha. As a result,
law enforcement became very weak due to which
encroachment, illegal grazing, harvesting of resources
became rampant.
The main threat to the wild buffalo is the continued
mixing and mingling of the wild and the domestic
stocks resulting in hybridization. In addition, as a result
of the Koshi food of 2008, there were speculations
of a wide scale loss of this species. Therefore, to
ascertain the status, a census was conducted jointly
by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation (DNPWC) and the Conservation and
Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN).
Here we report the current fndings and compare it
with earlier censuses. Furthermore, we have assessed
the current management practices to provide future
management guidance.
MaterIals and Methods
study area
KTWR (86
0
5587
0
05E & 26
0
3426
0
45N)
lies in the alluvial food plains of the Koshi River of
eastern Nepal (Fig. 1). The food plain is a complex
mosaic of lotic and lentic ecosystems, characterized by
grassy marshes, oxbow lakes, swamp lakes and many
depressions which retain water throughout the year.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32943301
Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3296
The KTWR has subtropical climate and its topography
ranges from 75100 m. It covers a 175km
2
core area
and a 173.5km
2
buffer zone consisting of 16 VDCs
(Village Development Committees) that spread across
three districts of Sunsari, Saptari and Udayapur.
The KTWR was established in 1976 and designated
as the frst Ramsar site of Nepal in 1987 because of
its extensive wetlands which accommodate wintering
waterfowl of international importance. It is subject to
extreme fooding from June to September. Over 80%
of the area is dominated by grasses (e.g. Typha sp.,
Vetivera sp., Phragmites sp., Saccharum sp., etc.) and
beaches, with forests of Bombax sp., Dalbergia sp.
and Acacia sp. elsewhere (Sah 1997).
Methods
The study area in general was assessed and
explored to get an overview to design the strategies
and methodologies for the count. Additionally, local
consultations, information from the reserve staff and
from past population surveys was gathered. Based
on these exercises, the block count method (Skinner
& Smithers 1990) was employed. The count was
carried out both by foot and with the use of elephants.
The census was conducted in AprilMay 2009, when
visibility was the highest and water discharge was
at the lowest. A repeat count was done for three
consecutive days.
The KTWR is rectangular in shape, where Sapta

Figure 1. Study site showing Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and its Buffer Zone
Bhagalpur (Belha)
Kamalpur
Jagatpur
Badagama
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Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3297
Koshi, Mariya and Trijuga rivers fow from north to
south. The study area was divided into four blocks,
two blocks east and two blocks west of Koshi River
(Fig. 1).
Block A: This block lies east of Koshi River and
south of power line (Haripur/Kushaha area). The area
comprises open grassland (Sacchram sp.) interspersed
with a small patch of riverine forest (Dalbergia/Acacia
sp.).
Block B: This block lies east of Koshi River and
north of power line (Madhuwan area and Prakashpur
Side Island). The major habitat of this block is riverine
i.e. Khair Sisso forest, tall grassland of Sachhram sp.
and Typha sp. (pater). This block has a tributary and a
few constructed pilot channels.
Block C: This block lies west of Koshi River and
north to power line (Pathariside Island, Bhagalpur
and Kamalpur area). It has open grassland and small
patches of Khair/Sisso forest. This block had heavy
grazing pressure.
Block D: This block lies west of Koshi River
and south of power line (Badgama/Jagatpur area). It
has open grassland and small patches of Khair/Sisso
forest. This block also has heavy grazing pressure. At
least 1km stretch along the western boundary has been
encroached on for agricultural practices as well.
A complete sweep through the direct count method
was employed in each block. A total of 60 surveyors
were spread across different blocks with the distance
kept visible to each other during the movement.
Binoculars, camera and global positioning system
(GPS) were used as and when required during the
survey.
The wild buffalo was recognized by the behavioural
and phenotypic traits such as white chevron, socks and
tip of tail, and larger, relatively straight, pale-coloured
horns (similar to swamp buffalo). These criteria for
identifying wild buffalo from feral backcrosses were
also used in earlier studies (Dahmer 1978; Heinen
1993a; Heinen & Singh 2001; Heinen 2002; Heinen
& Kandel 2006).
The population growth rate was calculated per
capita per time period by the exponential growth
formula r
i
= ln(N
j
/N
k
)t (Heinen & Kandel 2006), where
r
i
= growth rate calculated for that time interval, ln =
natural logarithm, N
j
= population size at the end of
the interval, N
k
= population size at the beginning of
the interval, and t = number of years in the interval.
Focus group discussion: In order to identify
the existing threats and challenges to the existing
population, a focus group discussion was conducted
in addition to feld observation. The group discussed
different issues and their opinions towards measures
to minimize local threats were documented.
results
The current study recorded a total of 219 wild water
buffaloes (Table 1 and 2). Block A area comprised of
a large herd of Arna with a single dominant male, its
offspring including a subadult male group of seven
and some isolated single males. The largest number of
Arna was recorded from this block (Table 1). In Block
B, the second largest herd of Arna was recorded. A
small herd of subadult males and some isolated single
males were also recorded. Only small herds of Arna
were present in block C and block D. The population
growth (r
i
) over a 34-year time period is 0.037 (Table
3). The population structure of Arna in KTWR from
1976 to 2009 (Table 2) shows that the calf to cow ratio
is on a continuous decreasing trend. The ratio is a
function of calve birth and survival in the frst year.
Therefore, the trend raises conservation concerns.
The feral and domesticated livestock were found
to be in high numbers during this study, especially in
block C and D (Table 4). The number of backcrossed
buffalo was high in 2000 it sharply decreased in 2004
but again increased in 2009 (Table 5).
Table 1. Block wise population status of wild buffalo at
KTWR
Block Male Female
1st year
calf
2nd year
calf
Total
A 31 49 12 7 99
B 15 51 9 12 87
C 2 6 1 0 9
D 7 13 1 3 24
Total 55 119 23 22 219
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Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3298
dIscussIon
The two large herds of block A and B that were
recorded in this census were also recorded by the
previous surveys (Heinen 1993b; Heinen & Singh
2001; Heinen 2002; Heinen & Kandel 2006). These
herds of blocks A & B which consist of females and
calves were considered to be pure wild stock (Heinen
& Kandel 2006). These herds have remained in
their original form since decades; this could be due
to better protection afforded through the presence of
range posts and security posts in the vicinity. There is
regular patrolling in these blocks. In contrast, blocks
C and D have high disturbance due to grazing and
other human activities. As a result, a low number of
Arna was recorded from these blocks.
The population growth (r
i
) over a 34-year time
period was high overall but variable for blocks of 912
years. The adult sex ratio was female-biased in 1976,
2004 (Heinen & Kandel 2006) and again in 2009, but
male-biased in the three intervening censuses. Most
large mammal populations have female-biased adult
sex ratios (Bronson 1989; Heinen & Kandel 2006).
The calf/cow ratio has reduced signifcantly over
the whole time period. The calf/cow ratio reported
for Arna in KTWR in all cases are consistent with
the known range of natural inter birth intervals for
domestic buffalo recorded in various studies and
this census also shows the trend going down in calf/
cows ratio (<2 to >3 years; Cockrill 1974). Thus, the
Table 2. The population structure of wild buffalo in KTWR from 1976 to 2009, with the calf to cow ratio
Year
Adults Calves
Total Calves/cows Source
Male Female 2nd year 1st year
1976 12 18 22 11 63 0.61 Dahmer (1978)
1987 32 29 14 16 91 0.55 Heinen (1993b)
1988 37 33 8 15 93 0.45 Heinen (1993b)
2000 56 53 17 19 145 0.36 Heinen & Singh (2001)
2004 54 63 24 18 159 0.29 Heinen & Kandel (2006)
2009 55 119 22 23 219 0.19 Present study
Time interval ri
1976 to 2009 (R tot) 0.037
1976 to 1987 (r1) 0.033
1987 to 1988 (r2) 0.022
1988 to 2000 (r3) 0.037
2000 to 2004 (r4) 0.023
2004 to 2009 (r5) 0.064
Table 3. Population growth rate of water buffalo over the
time period at KTWR
Table 4. The number of feral and domestic livestock inside
KTWR counted in 2009
Block
Feral animal
Domesticated animal
(cattle)
Buffaloes (back
crossed)
Cows Buffaloes Cows
A 35 129 120 805
B 7 0 0 0
C 15 567 355 1623
D 17 255 819 725
Total 74 951 1394 3353
Table 5. The number of backcrossed buffalo counted in KTWR. The number greatly decreased in 2004 compared to 2000 as
a result of a shooting campaign. The Army began shooting buffalo of domestic origin in 2001. By March 2004, 167 buffalo
had been shot inside the reserve (source: Reserve records 2005). However, this policy was controversial because some
illegally grazed domestic animals were killed and the Army has since halted the culling. As a consequence, the number is
gradually increasing.
Year Females 2nd year calves 1st year calves Totals Source
2000 80 29 22 131 Heinen & Singh 2001
2004 32 7 10 49 Heinen & Kandel 2006
2009 44 17 13 74 Present study
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32943301
Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3299
apparent decline in calf/cow ratio, is possibly attributed
either due to the decline in birth rate or decline of the
breeding populations; or increase in poaching or theft
of Arna calf or death due to other reasons.
The population of feral cattle was found to be
higher than the estimated population in 2000 (Heinen
& Singh 2001) which could be attributed to the lack
of law enforcement/proper management. Mostly feral
cattle were concentrated in blocks C and D, i.e., in the
west of Koshi River as there was no law enforcement
due to the absence of Range Posts and Security Posts.
In these blocks, a large number of livestock are
competing for food with Arna at the same time there
is a high risk of disease transmission. Mortality from
fooding, road accidents, poisoning and retaliatory
killing and the transmission of diseases from domestic
and feral livestock are some of the major threats for
wild buffaloes. The practice of cross breeding with
wild males is still a common practice.
The KTWR has had conficts with local communities
since its establishment (Heinen 1993b). The people
living closer to KTWR are more likely to reveal
negative attitudes towards conservation. Educated
people and farmers have a positive conservation
attitude to some extent while the households with
poor socio-economic status and greater dependence
on the KTWR for frewood, fodder and raw materials
possess a more negative attitude towards conservation
(Shrestha & Alavalapati 2006). Poor households are
less concerned about conservation, and institutional
settings and abject poverty near protected areas appear
to affect their attitudes. Therefore, for the sustainable
management of KTWR and local support for natural
resource conservation, socio-economic development
has been initiated since the mid-1990s. The Park
People Project (PPP), and Buffer Zone Policy, under
implementation, has been effective in several ways
(Heinen & Mehta 2000; Budhathoki 2004; Heinen &
Kandel 2006) and many villages have benefted from
the programs. This was continued by Participatory
Conservation Project (PCP) and recently by CSUWN
project to improve reserve-people discords by working
together to realize the twin objective of conservation
and development.
The political instability due to the Maoist confict
had affected conservation programmes nationwide
especially since 2000 (Baral & Heinen 2006; Heinen &
Shrestha 2006). The political instability was probably
a factor in the decline of the population growth rate
(Heinen & Kandel 2006), but the recent survey
showed a positive trend in the growth. The Maoist
confict created a volatile political situation (Thapa
2003) wherein the security units no longer patrolled
the Reserve. Subsequently, the peace process was
established in the country after a decade long political
confict, the management of the Reserve has also been
improving. Recently, the KTWR management has
restored a security post at Pathri, Saptari side, which has
bolstered the law enforcement regime on the western
side. Necessary process is underway to reinstate other
security posts in other locations as well.
With the support of CSUWN project, a number of
conservation and livelihood interventions have been
undertaken to safeguard the biodiversity, particularly
the wild buffalo population in the KTWR. The
management plan of KTWR was fnally approved in
2010 after a long period. This approval has entitled
the buffer zone communities to receive 50% of
the revenue earned by the KTWR for community
development. Table 6 shows the fow of visitors
and revenue earned. There is a progressive fow of
tourists both locals and foreigners into the reserve
area. By 2011, the Reserve has been able to earn a
total of NPR 11,75,933 compared to the year 2006,
where only NPR 395,891 was generated. After the
approval of the management plan the revenue has shot
up to NPR 671,097; double the fgure earned in the
year 2006. The decrease in the revenue in the year
2009 is attributed to the aftermath of the foods that
occurred in September 2008, after a 2-km stretch of
the Koshi River embankment was washed away by
the food resulting in the vast inundation of the eastern
stretch of the reserve including human settlements and
agricultural lands. The revenue generation is largely
dependent on the fow of tourism therefore different
protected areas have different amounts of revenue
collection. The challenge exists for the protected
areas that are resource poor, even though they are
as important for conservation as the highly visited
areas. One way to address the resource gap would
be to create a basket fund in which revenue generated
from resource-rich protected areas could be used to
support neighbouring areas that are resource poor
(Khatri 2010b). But it remains to be seen whether
the stakeholders of the resource-rich protected areas
would be willing to share their revenue with others in
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32943301
Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
the long term.
In order to reduce crop depredation by wild animals,
a solar powered electric fence has been erected in the
high impact zone of the eastern sector of the KTWR.
This initiative has signifcantly reduced the existing
local discord among the local communities and the
reserve management. Similarly, with the erection of
the electric fence, no reports of crop depredation have
been reported in that area particularly by wild buffaloes
and elephants. Similarly, sustained management
interventions including a community based anti-
poaching drive by mobilizing local youths, buffer
zone communities, local teachers and eco-clubs has
brought a positive impact towards the evacuation of
feral cattle (cows and buffaloes) from the reserve. The
reserve management with the active support of local
communities has been able to collect a total of NPR
128,000 from the penalties by confscating a total of
426 cattle (both buffaloes and cows) from the Reserve.
This was the frst evacuation drive ever conducted by
the reserve as it is still a highly contested political
issue. As a result, Table 7 shows the reduction in the
number of feral and domesticated cattle recorded in
the reserve. Since, no forest resources exist outside
of the reserve there is a high level of grazing pressure
from both feral as well as domestic stock.
A multipronged approach towards reducing the
herd size of the dometic livestock by replacing it with
a more productive one together with the promotion
of stall feeding practice would eventually reduce the
pressure on the reserve. To address the above situation,
KTWR has been promoting block plantation along the
western boundary of the reserve in order to create a
green belt to allow local people to collect fodder for
their livestock, thus discouraging illegal grazing.
With the mix of alternative options of creating a
utility zone for rotational cattle grazing and fodder
collection backed by a strong law enforcement regime
will ultimately offset the current pressure exerted on
the reserve.
Under the aegis of CSUWN project, a tourism
development strategy has been explored to look into
the possibilities of how to develop tourism products
that could beneft local people and to develop local
stewardship towards conservation. Likewise, various
livelihood improvement activities for wetland
dependent communities such as fsheries, poultries,
and wetland based green enterprise, vegetable farming,
have been supported to improve the socio-economic
condition of the people.
The current increase in the population doesnt
provide solace, as there are a number of challenges to
the long term survival of this species. A multipronged
approach of conservation and development by
mobilizing the buffer zone communities backed by a
strong law enforcement regime would create an ideal
environment to address the current management issues
and concerns related to protection and conservation.
The frst priority should be towards enhancing
conservation and harnessing the byproducts of
conservation for local beneft.
Table 6. Flow of visitors and revenue collection in KTWR from 2006-2011
Year Nepali Foreigners Revenue in NPR Equivalent US$@73
2011 452 3203 11,75,933 16108.67
2010 438 1904 671,097 9193.10
2009 159 145 224,980 3081.91
2008 333 1594 591,832 8107.28
2007 244 1271 424,394 5813.61
2006 84 881 395,891 5423.16
Source: KTWR
Source: KTWR
Table 7. Number of feral cattle recorded in 2011
Name of
block
Feral cattle
Domesticated
livestock (cattle)
Buffaloes
(backcrossed)
Cows Buffaloes Cows
A 8 0 0 300
B 5 0 0 0
C 5 105 195 1025
D 0 355 215 305
Total 18 455 410 1630
3300
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 32943301
Arna in Koshi Tappu T.B. Khatri et al.
3301
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Acknowledgement: We thank the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN) project, a joint undertaking of the Ministry
of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), Global Environmental Facility
(GEF), and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) for the
fnancial support. We thank offcers and staff, especially Ramchandra
Kandel and Ashok Ram for serving as members of the technical team.
We also thank CSUWN staff, KTWR staff, Raj Kumar Singh, and all other
assistants who were involved in the census.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
JoTT CommuniCation 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of morphology and historical distribution
as factors in conservation efforts for the Endangered
Patagonian Huemul Deer Hippocamelus bisulcus (Molina
1782)

Huemul Task Force
*
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Species Survival Commission (SSC), C\o Chair, C.C. 592, 8400 Bariloche,
Argentina,
Email: HTF@deerlab.org
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Norma Chapman
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3088
Received 30 January 2011
Final received 22 October 2012
Finally accepted 24 October 2012
Ci t at i on: Huemul Task For ce ( 2012) .
Reassessment of morphology and historical
distribution as factors in conservation efforts
for the Endangered Patagonian Huemul Deer
Hippocamelus bisulcus (Molina 1782). Journal
of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33023311.
Copyright: Huemul Task Force 2012. Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any
medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction
and distribution by providing adequate credit to
the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The Huemul Task Force
would like to thank the non-author group
members: Paulo Corti, Robin Gill, William
McShea, and Cristian Saucedo.
* Individual authors: Eduardo G. Aisen, Fernando
Vidal, Gladys Garay, Jaime E. Jimnez, Jo Anne
Smith-Flueck, Norberto Tomas, Patricia Black de
Decima, Valerius Geist, Werner Flueck, Zygmunt
Gizejewski.
3302
Abstract: To assist with conservation of Endangered Patagonian Huemul Deer
(Hippocamelus bisulcus), the Huemul Task Force (HTF) reassessed information on
appendicular morphology, paleobiogeography, and historical distribution as potential
factors in recovery efforts. Traditional claims of being a mountain specialist of the
Andes were refuted by empirical evidence showing huemul morphology to coincide with
other cervids rather than the commonly implied homology to rock-climbing ungulates.
It thus supports historical evidence of huemul in treeless habitat and reaching the
Atlantic coast, which cannot be dismissed as past erroneous observations. Instead,
pre- and post-Columbian anthropogenic impacts resulted in huemul displacement from
productive sites and in survival mainly in remote and marginal refuge areas. The process
of range contraction was facilitated by easy hunting of huemul, energetic incentives from
seasonal fat cycles and huemul concentrations, the change from hunting-gathering to
a mobile equestrian economy, and colonization with livestock. However, areas used
presently by huemul, as supposed mountain specialists, are also used by wild and
domestic ungulates that clearly are not considered mountain specialists, whereas the
only other Hippocamelus successfully uses areas homologous to tree-less Patagonia.
Rigid application of modern habitat usage to infer past habitat use and ignoring historic
extra-Andean accounts is unwarranted; these conclusions reached by the HTF indicate
new opportunities for recovery efforts by considering morphological and historical
evidence. For instance, reintroductions to other portions of the landscape used formerly
by huemul, which tend to be more productive sites than those currently occupied by
many huemul groups, would present a promising avenue.
Keywords: Adaptation, Andes mountains, appendicular morphology, biogeography,
Hippocamelus bisulcus, historical condition, human infuence, range contractions,
skeletal ratios.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:06EA2E12-F321-
40B3-BE88-86B86A2CE2BB
IntroductIon
In recognition of the urgency of the crisis regarding the Endangered
Patagonian Huemul Deer Hippocamelus bisulcus, the Huemul Task Force
(HTF) was formed within the IUCN-SSC to create another tool to provide
recommendations and guidelines based on sound scientifc information
through which the recovery of Huemul can be achieved. Aside from
assisting to determine the current status of Huemul and review the
existing knowledge base, the aim is to identify scientifcally acceptable
methodology appropriate for the species recovery.
Although Diaz (1993) showed already then how history erroneously
led to the assumption that the Huemul was a deer of the mountains and
that it had always inhabited areas in proximity to rugged topography, the
importance of this fact has remained largely unrecognized, and remnant
Abbreviations: HTF - Huemul Task Force; IUCN - International Union for Conservation
of Nature; SSC - Species Survival Commission
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Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
3303
populations in mountain sites are commonly interpreted
to be due to Huemul being particularly adapted to such
sites, which thus supposedly represent prime habitat
for the species. Moreover, Huemul being a mountain
deer is often reiterated and supported by referencing
key paleontological work, a study which, however,
was erroneous (see below). Main results of these
historic infuences are 3-fold, by fomenting persisting
claims that: (i) Huemul are exclusively a mountain
deer, specialized to rugged terrain; (ii) that their
natural range are the Andes mountains, as evidenced
by the current relict distribution; and (iii) that the few
historic accounts of extra-Andean presence were thus
erroneous, or unimportant outliers. As interpretations
of the biology and ecology of Huemul play a mayor
role in conservation strategies, the HTF worked
systematically through available evidence to evaluate
common depictions of this species.
Methods
Beginning in June of 2008, a diversity of data
from various published and unpublished sources were
analyzed to address the questions if Huemul specifcally
is a mountain deer, and if historic reports of extra-
Andean Huemul can legitimately and universally be
dismissed as erroneous observations of past naturalists.
The HTF formulated several conclusions below.
results and dIscussIon
1. huemul as mountain deer
Early European explorers and naturalists described
Huemul as stocky, massive and short-legged deer of
mountains, comparing them to Ibex Capra ibex and
Chamois Rupicapra rupicapra in their homeland (e.g.,
Krieg 1925; Kurten 1979). They assumed Huemul to
be a mountain deer, just as was the interpretation for
Ibex and Chamois at that time, ungulates which by then
were mainly surviving in remote alpine areas. Similarly,
early North American workers compared Huemul to
Mountain Sheep Ovis canadensis and Mountain Goats
Oreamnos americanus (e.g., Krieg 1925; Frers 1969).
More recent authors, often referring to these early
writings, make similar statements. However, early
writings about Huemul generally already reported
their rareness, disappearance or near extinction (e.g.,
Philippi 1857; Gigoux 1929), and references to stocky
and short-legged Huemul were casual remarks made
about deer found mainly in refuge areas. Moreover,
behavior like the aggressive horseshoe stance (Cowan
& Geist 1961) and thick long hair (Image 1) dissimulate
stockiness by distorting body shape (reviewed in
Flueck & Smith-Flueck 2011).
A new fossil of North American cervid Navahoceros
was described by Kurten (1975) as having highly
unusual adaptive characters among cervids,
interpreted as extreme adaptations to mountains, and
resulting in its common name mountain deer. He
explicitly compared it to alpine Chamois and Ibex, and
considered Hippocamelus as related to his fossil. Even
though his fossil species has since been shown to be a
construct and declared a nomen nudum (Morejohn &
Dailey 2004), this relationship is still cited in arguing
that Huemul is a mountain deer. The only comparative
osteological analysis on leg morphology of Huemul
and 12 other ungulates revealed that Huemul cannot
be associated with rock climbing species. Although
intraspecifc proportional leg length is infuenced
by ecogeography, nutrition, physiology and factors
affecting exercise, with variances of up to 70% in better
studied cervids, Huemul morphology does not overlap
with rock climbing species previously considered
analogous, but falls within the range of other cervids
(Flueck & Smith-Flueck 2011).
Position about Huemul not being a mountain deer,
adopted by the HTF in 2011:
1. Early historical descriptions of Huemul
as short-legged mountain deer comparable to Ibex,
Chamois, Bighorn Sheep, or Mountain Goats were
only casual comments. The descriptions likely
resulted from thick hair coats (79 cm hair length) and
the behavior of using the horseshoe posture.
2. Kurtens technical paleontological paper
(1975) established Navahoceros as a mountain deer
comparable to Ibex and Chamois: Navahoceros has
been shown to be a nomen nudum (as was concluded
earlier for Kurtens Stilt-legged Deer, Sangamona).
Kurtens referring to Hippocamelus as related to the
ancestral Navahoceros (only differing by having two
[erroneous], instead of three antler tines), has been
rejected based on revising all bones and assembled
skeletons labeled as Navahoceros, which were
confrmed to be Odocoileus (Morejohn & Dailey
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
3304
2004).
3. The morphometric analysis of complete
leg assemblies from Huemul, then compared to
several other species, shows that Huemul completely
differ from ungulates considered rock climbers.
Furthermore, intraspecifc variation in proportional
leg lengthlargely due to ecogeographical rules and
nutritional and physiological limitationsis up to
70% and results in populations of Rangifer and even
O. virginianus having much shorter legs (by 14%)
than the Huemul sample.
4. The nutritional ecology and climatic and
topographic features of localities where Huemul
currently remain indicate that leg proportions from
these sites would be at the low end of the range of
variations for Huemul: irrespectively, these proportions
clearly fall within the range of other cervids (Image
2). Taruca (H. antisensis)the only sister species to
Huemulutilizes some forest types, but is currently
mainly found in treeless grasslands with high affnity
to Patagonian grasslands, coexisting with several
camelid species.
2. Past distribution of huemul
The pre-Columbian distribution of Huemul has its
roots in founding stock, likely of the Odocoileus line
(Morejohn & Dailey 2004), which dispersed through
the Panama land bridge during the Great American
Interchange. Having to pass this equatorial flter of
continuous savanna habitat, succeeding species were
generalists and predominantly savanna-adapted (Webb
1978). As reviewed in Flueck & Smith-Flueck (2012),
Hippocamelus were established by the Pleistocene,
having dispersed south on the eastern side of the Andes
through continuous savanna habitat. Several periods
of glaciation kept ancestral Hippocamelus repeatedly
away from the Andes, and fossils are even known as far
northeast as 8
0
9S & 36
0
22W in the most eastern tip
of Brazil, and from the plains of Argentina, Uruguay
and southeastern Brasil.

Image 1. (a) The 79-cm-thick hair coat is best appreciated when being shed. Note in the upper and lower left photos that
the diameter of the upper neck is substantially less than further down in the unshed portion. (b) The aggressive stance of
huemul at close range, known as the horseshoe posture.
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During glacial periods, the Andes were covered
with ice even to near the equator, and a continuous
sheet covered the mountains from 3356
0
S during
the last glacial maximum. Glaciers south of 42
0
S
dipped into the Pacifc, overlaid the Andes 16001800
m thick, and reached hundreds of kilometers into
eastern Patagonian plains where only treeless habitat
existed, with Patagonia-like grasslands reaching way
into Brazil, and much of South America covered by
savannah and grasslands. Moreover, the sea level was
about 120m lower and the Atlantic coastline located
300km or more to the east of the present coastline
in some latitudes, which greatly extended the fat
paleosteppe region eastwards (e.g., Marshall 1988;
Clapperton 1993; Markgraf & Kenny 1997).
During glaciations, Hippocamelus thus persisted
in eastern treeless lowlands reaching the plains of
Uruguay, northern Argentina and Brazil. As mixed
feeders, Huemul can incorporate notable amounts of
grass in the diet. Furthermore, besides Graminae,
Patagonian steppes contain large components of
shrubs, maintain important green grass production
throughout winter, and deer are known to make much
use of seed heads, which further corroborates past and
even historic distributions of Huemul in non-forested
habitats. Once eastern foothill regions became glacier-
free, Huemul were able to reach Andean habitat and
when deglaciation allowed for it, eventually to cross
the Andes. Faunal exchanges from the east were
foremost across low Andean passes and explain the
occurrence of late Pleistocene Huemul in Chile as far
northwest as 30
0
S by the Pacifc coast (e.g., Ochsenius
1985; Moreno et al. 1994). With the last glacial
retreat, forests spread from few western refuges, and
eventually covered the southern Andes again, reaching
their current extent only 23000 ya.
Nomadic hunter-gatherers arriving in the southern
Andes with the last interglacial period would have
had some infuence on local distribution of Huemul.
However, in northern and central Chile, human
adopted sessile and agricultural lifestyles long before
arrival of the Spanish, reaching very high densities,
completely changing habitat through slash and burn,
and regionally extirpating several species including
Huemul and Pudu Deer Pudu puda. Further south,
humans became established mainly along the Pacifc
coast and focused on marine resources. Consequently,
early explorers still found coastal areas abundant
with Huemul. East of the Andes, Huemul then also
existed in zones between the Andean foothills and
the Patagonian mesas, still regularly occurring in fat
grasslands about 120km east of the Andes, and already
more rarely, up to another 140km further east. Several
reports show this species to have reached the Atlantic
coast (e.g., MacDouall 1833; Moreno 1899).
The Spanish arrival resulted in highly signifcant

Image 2. Body shapes of several extant Huemul that are not in an alert stance and with summer coat.
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Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
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changes brought about by the introduction of horses,
which created an equestrian lifestyle for native people
and profoundly changed their economies. Liberated
in Buenos Aires, feral horses already reached the
Strait of Magellan by 1580. Livestock also became
feral immediately and soon roamed by the millions.
Darwin (1839) found that native people knew how
to use knives, forks, spoons and relished sugar, and
most of the men spoke some English and Spanish. He
further noted that these natives travelled up to 750km
inland during summer to hunt in the foothills, each
man having 67 horses. Native tribes dominated the
region for some 300 years until displaced by wars,
followed by the colonization of Patagonia with fencing
and ranching occurring rapidly throughout the region,
and with over 47% of Patagonian forests burnt before
1914 (e.g., Willis 1914).
As a result of the above-mentioned history, the
frst early writings were posterior to signifcant
anthropogenic changes in the distribution of Huemul,
with explorers therefore largely unaware of previous
history. Their descriptions of Huemul often were from
remnant populations living in remote and inaccessible
places. Subsequent naturalists found an even more
reduced distribution, but as locations coincided with
the few early accounts, it led to dogmatic descriptions.
Thus, decades have gone by further ingraining the
notion that Huemul are exclusively of Andean forests
and not part of lowland central Chile; specially adapted
to precipitous rocky terrain, and forest habitats of
the Andes; a Mountain Deer living above tree line;
only living between 13001700 m or high elevation
mountains; or as preferring steep, rocky, north-facing
slopes. Preference to the high Andes, principally near
the international border along the continental divide,
was considered explicitly to be due to the conditions
in that area being the most favorable to Huemul (e.g.,
Osgood 1943).
The fact that native people may have infuenced
Huemul distribution, including after the increase in
mobility due to horses, has been discounted based
on the argument that Huemul were energetically
uninteresting. However, dissectable fat of deer
contains up to 47% of total energy content, whereas
marrow fat adds only 1% more, explaining why hunter-
gatherers focus on deer during the autumn/winter peak
of fat (e.g., Thomas & Toweill 1982; Lipo 2007). This
has been ignored when claiming that hunter-gatherers
would not have used an animal so lean as the Huemul,
this reasoning being based only on marrow fat. In
contrast, while butchering, natives of northern North
America consumed dissectable fat and transported
remaining bones for marrow and tallow extraction
at camp, just as documented for Patagonian hunter-
gatherers: but the few bone remains found in old
shelters only provide a partial picture. It is erroneous
to ignore that professional hunter-gatherers would
certainly have taken advantage of easy accessible
fat which presents >1200% more energy content
than that obtained from bones. Hunter-gatherers,
commonly moving according to seasonal movements
of prey, covering distances up to 150km for hunting
particularly in autumn and early winter, best explained
logistical mobility in low-density hunter-gatherers in
northern environments. From hunting camps, groups
of young men would make roundtrips of >100km in
about three days, being able to portray detailed maps
covering 240,000km
2
and animal movements within.
Deer being preferred, a temporary camp would remain
if there were animals within 50km. Taking this in
account when considering historic reports of winter
concentrations of Huemul, foraging conditions in the
pre-Colombian era were likely even superior to historic
times in terms of signifcance to hunter-gatherers.
Borrero (2008) acknowledged that so far surveys in
Patagonia had been biased, being focused on caves
that represent permanent sites. Transient hunting
camps and movements are thus under-represented and
diffcult to document anyway.
Position about the past distribution of Huemul, adopted
by the HTF in 2011:
1. Likely it was Odocoileus lucasi (viz.,
Navahocerus nomen nudum) dispersing through the
Panama land bridge, savanna-adapted by necessity via
that equatorial flter, and giving rise to Hippocamelus.
2. Glaciations prevented the continuous use
of Andean highlands and the Pacifc side: during
glaciations, Patagonia-type habitat, and fossil
Hippocamelus reached into northeastern Brazil;
Patagonia was twice the current size, as the Atlantic
coast line was hundreds of kilometers further east due
to much lower sea levels.
3. Dispersal and colonization likely occurred
along the eastern fringe of the cordillera and a coastal
route (e.g., Marshall 1988). Similarly, bighorn
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
3307
sheep remained in grassland and steppe areas during
glaciation, then followed as glaciers retreated;
colonization is considered to have likely occurred
along cordillera going south, along glacial margins in
habitats like tundra and taiga (Geist 1985).
4. After the last glaciation, forests spread from
Pacifc refuges and covered the southern Andes again,
reaching their current extent only 23000 ya. Once
ice-free, low passes allowed Huemul to enter from
the east and to populate landscapes also west of the
Andes.
5. Humans arrived with the last interglacial period,
about 10-12000 ya in the southern Andes. Pre-
Columbian hunter-gatherers likely had local impacts
on Huemul distribution based on optimal foraging
among studied hunter-gatherers (including behavior
of Patagonian natives regarding Guanaco Lama
guanicoe), seasonal fat cycle in Huemul, easiness
to hunt Huemul in autumn/winter. Pre-Columbian
sessile natives in central Chile exterminated local
fauna including cervids like pudu and Huemul.
6. Post-Columbian natives became equestrian,
focusing on feral domestic livestock and native
ungulates. Patagonians traveled up to 750km to hunt
in eastern ecotone and foothills, burning extensive
landscapes. Similarly on the Chilean side, large
numbers of livestock and equestrian people displaced
Huemul such that early on Huemul were considered
rare and restricted to steep remote mountain areas
(except in southern distant Fiord areas).
7. After 300 years of dominance, the natives on
the eastern side of Andes were subdued and a wave
of fencing and ranching went through Patagonia, with
heavy impact on the few Huemul remaining on those
lands.
8. Due to pre- and post-Columbian events, the frst
writings were posterior to signifcant anthropogenic
changes in Huemul distribution, with descriptions
from remnant Huemul populations living mainly in
remote and inaccessible places. Similarly for desert
bighorn sheep, rather than becoming a relict species
created by post-pleistocene ecological changes, they
have become secondary relicts with small, isolated
populations created by the impact of European
settlement as early as 1540. The overall result was
the extirpation of many populations of bighorn and the
creation of smaller, isolated herds, prone to extinction
(McCutchen 1982).
9. As a result of pre- and post-Columbian events,
there are few historic documents of Huemul still
existing in extra-Andean landscapes, however:
- there were still several reports about large groups
in traditional wintering areas, i.e. groups of 100 or
more
- today mainly forked antlers occur, yet there
are several reports of 4 and 5 point antlers, i.e. prior
habitat sites were superior to extant sites (the newest
rediscovery of this fact: de la Croix 1937)
- besides thorough reviews by Diaz (1993, 2000)
there are several newly discovered sources including
photos of hunted Huemul, with distances from the
Andes at 120km, 200km, 260km, 270km, and all the
way to the Atlantic coast (Image 3).
Note: there are several lines of evidence that Huemul
also occurred in Tierra del Fuego (see Flueck & Smith-
Flueck 2012).
conclusIons
The few historic accounts still documenting
presence of Huemul in the eastern treeless lowlands,
indicate that Huemul were well suited to exploit
those areas. This information cannot be dismissed
due to its relevance, similarly as had been shown
for Chamois and Ibex. By avoiding the application
of analogies based only on the present situation, but
beginning to use comparative morphometry and the
past to understand the presence, the repeated fallacy
of simply imposing the present on the past will be
omitted. The empirical comparisons showed Huemul
leg morphology to fall well within that of other cervids
and can be expected to vary substantially if they were to
live in habitats formerly used. It supports the evidence
that Huemul existed in treeless habitat and colonized
Andean forests and higher altitudes secondarily, and
habitat breadth of Huemul is thus more like that found
in other closely related Odocoilines, and moreover,
coincides with habitat use by the only congeneric, the
taruca. Although Huemul can use forests exclusively,
they can also thrive in ecotone, and (previously) in
grasslands, steppe, and deserts (like Odocoilines, Ibex,
Bighorn Sheep, Red Deer Cervus elaphus, Guanaco).
Additionally, unspotted Hippocamelus fawns also
point to an origin in non-forested areas, which still
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
presents the principal habitat use by H. antisensis.
Moreover, even small cervids thrive exclusively in
treeless grasslands, like Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros
bezoarticus Perez et al., 2008) or Roe Deer (Capreolus
capreolus Abbas et al., 2012), which show extensive
digestive plasticity via behavioral and morphological
adaptations.
The seasonal fat cycle and congregations likely
made Huemul a prime candidate for hunter-gatherers,
who would have therefore infuenced their distribution
and density. The subsequent equestrian mobility of
natives and later colonists further displaced Huemul
Image 3. Huemul habitat far from forests and in fat or rolling landscapes. (a) Huemul in steppe, approached by gaucho,
from Onelli 1904. (b) Huemul photographed in the 1920s by A. Grosse. (c,d) Princeton expeditions, late 1800s, hunting
huemul as far as 200km from forests, from Hatcher 1903. (e) Extant Huemul in periglacial Pacifc coast, old moraines, and
fat wide valley bottoms. (note: open areas used during midday hours)
a
c
b
d
e
3308
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
3309
from traditional valleys and winter ranges. Several
other ungulates had mainly lost their low elevation
habitats from anthropogenic pressures and range
contraction allowed them to persist only in marginal
peripherical habitat, concentrated at high elevations
or otherwise inaccessible sites (Channell & Lomolino
2000; Laliberte & Ripple 2004). Thus, paleoecology,
zoogeography, and history of land use in southern Latin
America indicate that Huemul exclusively remaining
in high mountains are secondary relicts created by
post-Columbian anthropogenic impacts. The presence
of Huemul right into historic times in grasslands and
steppe areas is likely of more importance to Huemul
conservation than hitherto acknowledged.
Although Huemul presently still use fat areas,
they did more so in the past (like Odocoilines,
Bighorn Sheep, Guanaco, but unlike Mountain Goat,
Ibex). The habitat types used by Huemul in recent
times and resulting in the colloquial description as
mountain deer, are not preventing the use of these
areas by species not considered mountain specialists,
like Guanaco, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Red Deer, Fallow
Deer Dama dama, cattle (specially feral ones), goats,
sheep, and horses. The habitat types used by Huemul
historically are also used by these same species above.
Taruca, considered by several authors osteologically
indistinguishable from Huemul and suggested to
represent two subspecies, occur in areas used by
camelids (vicua, guanaco, llamas, alpacas), White-
Tailed Deer Odocoileus virginianus, domestic sheep,
cattle, horses, and mules. Taruca occur in the cold
desert puna, which includes large tracks of plains
(altiplano): nearly every one of its plant genera also
occurs in the Patagonia steppe (Fernndez & Busso
1997). Lastly, taruca also occur in ecotone and forests
(still now, but more so in the past).
The rigid application of modern Huemul habitat
usage to infer past habitat use and ignoring historic
extra-Andean accounts as erroneous or abnormal
outliers is unwarranted. The conclusions reached by
the HTF indicate new opportunities for recovery efforts
by considering morphological and historical evidence.
For instance, reintroductions to other portions of the
landscape used formerly by Huemul, which tend to be
more productive sites than those currently occupied
by many Huemul groups, would present a promising
avenue (see IUCN 2012 in prep.: Guidelines for
Reintroductions and other Conservation Translocations.
IUCN/SSC Reintroduction and Invasive Species
Specialist Groups. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland).
Although adopting a uniform conservation program
over a large geographical area is attractive to policy-
makers and conservation planners, the large range of
past geographical and ecological sites used by Huemul
indicate that conservation programs could beneft from
broadening strategies accordingly.
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Spanish Abstract: Con el objeto de contribuir a la conservacin del huemul Patagnico (Hippocamelus bisulcus) el grupo de trabajo,
Huemul Task Force (HTF), realiz una revisin de la informacin sobre la morfologa apendicular, paleobiogeografa y distribucin
histrica del huemul como factores potencialmente relevantes en los esfuerzos de recuperacin de la especie. La creencia tradicional
de que el huemul es un especialista de los hbitats de montaa andinos fue refutada por la evidencia emprica de los anlisis
morfolgicos. La anatoma apendicular del huemul es similar a la de otros crvidos y difere de las especializaciones implicadas
para la escalada en roca de otros ungulados. Por lo tanto, se apoya la evidencia histrica del huemul en un hbitat sin rboles como
la estepa Patagnica. Su presencia histrica en la costa atlntica no puede ser considerada como observaciones errneas. En su
lugar, hay que entender que impactos antropognicos pre y post colombinos dieron como resultado el desplazamiento de huemul
desde los sitios ms productivos a sitios de supervivencia, sobre todo en las reas de refugio remotas y marginales. El proceso de
contraccin de su rango geogrfco se vi facilitado por la caza fcil, por los incentivos energticos de los ciclos estacionales de
las reservas corporales de grasa, por las concentraciones numricas de huemul, por el cambio de la economa cazador-recolector
a una economa ecuestre mvil, y por la colonizacin con introduccin de ganado domstico. Las reas de montaa actualmente
utilizadas por el huemul, supuesto especialista de estos hbitats, tambin son ocupadas por ungulados domsticos, que claramente
no son especialistas en montaa. Adems, el nico otro miembro de Hippocamelus utiliza con xito las reas homlogos a la regin.
La aplicacin rgida del uso del hbitat moderno para inferir el uso del hbitat pasado, ignorando el hbitat histrico extra-andino
es injustifcada. Estas conclusiones alcanzadas por el HTF indican nuevas oportunidades para los esfuerzos de recuperacin del
huemul, apoyadas por la combinacin de elementos morfolgicos e histricos. Por ejemplo, la reintroduccin a otros sectores del
paisaje utilizado anteriormente por el huemul, que tienden a ser sitios ms productivos que los actualmente ocupados por muchos
grupos de huemules, presentara una va prometedora.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33023311
Reassessment of Huemul Huemul Task Force
3311
* Individual authors: contact details
Eduardo G. Aisen
Lab. Theriogenology, Universidad Nacional del
Comahue, IDEPA (CONICET-UNCo), c.c. 85
8303 Cinco Saltos, Rio Negro
Email: eduardoaisen@hotmail.com
Patricia Black de Decima
Instituto Miguel Lillo, Miguel Lillo 205, 4000
San Miguel de Tucuman, Argentina
Email: patriciablack_decima@hotmail.com,
pblack@csnat.unt.edu.ar
Werner Flueck
National Council of Scientifc and Technological
Research (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Swiss
Tropical and Public Health Institute, University
Basel, C.C. 592, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina
Email: werner.fueck@unibas.ch
Jo Anne Smith-Flueck
Institute of Natural Resources Analysis -
Patagonia, Universidad Atlantida Argentina,
C.C. 592, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina
Email: j.smith@deerlab.org (corresponding
author)
Norberto Tomas
Parque Nacional Calilegua, San Lorenzo s/n
4514 Calilegua, Jujuy, Argentina
Email: jnorbertotomas@yahoo.com.ar,
ntomas@apn.gov.ar
Gladys Garay
Paraguaya 126, Barrio San Miguel, Punta
Arenas, Chile
Email: gladysenviaje@yahoo.com
Jaime E. Jimnez
University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle
Denton, Texas 76203-5017, USA
Omora Ethnobotanical Park, Universidad de
Magallanes, Puerto Williams, Chile
Email: jaime.jimenez@unt.edu
Fernando Vidal
Fundacin Huilo-Huilo, Vitacura 2909 Of. 1112
Las Condes, Santiago, Chile
Email: fauna.andina@gmail.com
Valerius Geist
PO Box 1294, Station A, Port Alberni, BC, V9Y
7M2, Canada
Email: kendulf@shaw.ca
Zygmunt Gizejewski
Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of
Animal Reproduction and Food Research,
Pl-10-747 Olsztyn, Poland
Email: z.gizejewski@pan.olsztyn.pl
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33123318
Metazoan community composition in tree hole aquatic
habitats of Silent Valley National Park and New Amarambalam
Reserve Forest of the Western Ghats, India
K.A. Nishadh
1,2,3
& K.S. Anoop Das
1,2

1
Centre for Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, M.E.S. Mampad College, Malappuram, Kerala 676542, India
2
Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, Anupallavi, Chungathara P.O., Malappuram, Kerala 679334, India
3
Environmental Impact Assessment Division,Slim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty P.O, Coimbatore Tamil
Nadu 641108, India
Email:
1
nishadhka@gmail.com,
2
dasksa@gmail.com (corresponding author)
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: K.G. Sivaramakrishnan
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3197
Received 11 May 2011
Final received 13 August 2012
Finally accepted 03 October 2012
Citation: Nishadh, K.A. & K.S.A. Das (2012). Metazoan community
composition in tree hole aquatic habitats of Silent Valley National Park and
New Amarambalam Reserve Forest of the Western Ghats, India. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33123318.
Copyright: K.A. Nishadh & K.S. Anoop Das 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors extend gratitude to Drs. V.S. Vijayan,
L. Vijayan, R. Sankaran, P.A. Azeez, T.V. Sajeev, G. Mathew, J.K Hill,
P. Balakrishnan, P. Pramod, B. Acharya and P.R. Arun for their inspiring
discussions during the project. Thanks to O.P. Abdurahiman, K.
Seedikkoya, K.K. Abida and R. Dhanya for their support. We are indebted
to the comments of the anonymous reviewers, which have enriched the
manuscript. We thank the Department of Forests and Wildlife, Kerala, for
permissions and support to conduct this study. We thank Idea Wild, USA,
for equipment grant. Funding was provided by the Critical Ecosystem
Partnership Fund under the Western Ghats Small Grant through ATREE.
3312
Phytotelmata, plant held aquatic habitats in tree
holes are one of the important classes of aquatic
ecosystems (Kitching 2000). These habitats are
formed by the stagnation of rain water in cavities or
depression of trees which make them one of the widely
distributed and most abundant fresh water hanging
aquaria in forested woodlands (Kitching 1971). Well
Abstract: In a study of the metazoan community composition
in tree hole aquatic habitat of a tropical rainforest, Silent Valley
National Park, and the adjacent moist deciduous forest, New
Amarambalam Reserve Forest, of the Western Ghats, 28
different species were recorded from 150 tree hole aquatic
habitats with an average of 35 species per tree hole. Most of
the recorded organisms (96.8%) belong to Odonata (dragonfies
and damselfies), Heteroptera (bugs), Diptera (fies), Coleoptera
(beetles) and Trichoptera (caddisfies). The study reports the frst
record of toe-winged beetle larvae (Ptilodactylidae) in a tree hole
aquatic habitat. The most signifcant observation is the prolifc
occurrence of trichopteran larvae as the second most abundant
taxa in tree holes of Silent Valley National Park, and this stands
as the frst comprehensive record of the entire order in the habitat
studied. The study upholds the importance of less explored
microhabitats in the Western Ghats region in terms of sustaining
unique community composition in the most delicate and extreme
habitat conditions. It also puts forward important ecological
research questions on biodiversity ecosystem functionality which
could impart important lessons for managing and conserving the
diminishing tropical evergreen forests which are signifcant for
these unique habitats.
Keywords: Ecosystem experimental tool, microcosm,
phytotelmata, Scritidae, tree cavities, Trichoptera.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:F117E9D6-97EC-4A27-8F2F-F1E27B9E4C9F
Western Ghats
Special Series
This article forms part of a special series on the Western Ghats of India,
disseminating the results of work supported by the Critical Ecosystem
Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative of lAgence Franaise de
Dveloppement, Conservation International, the Global Environment
Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the
World Bank. A fundamental goal of CEPF is to ensure civil society
is engaged in biodiversity conservation. Implementation of the CEPF
investment program in the Western Ghats is led and coordinated
by the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
(ATREE).
defned boundaries, confned size and extreme physio-
chemical conditions make these habitats colonized
by specialized communities starting from autotrophic
fungi to predaceous amphibians (Yanoviak 1999). It
has attracted immense fascination from naturalists
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
3313
and community ecologists due to its canopy aquatic
community, wide spatial and replicable distribution
and extension of experimental studies on it (Kitching
2001). The physical barriers of a tree hole aquatic
habitat sustains discrete communities in it that are
mostly subsets of the larger forest ecosystems. Together
with those features and methodological advantage
for experimental studies makes them important
experimental tools in ecology for studying processes
and patterns occurring at the level of the community
(Srivastava et al. 2004). Epidemiological importance
of these habitats as major breeding grounds for disease
spreading organisms such as mosquitos has further
attracted the attention of these habitats to medical
entomologists (Jenkins & Carpenter 1946; Maguire
1971).
Extensive studies were carried out on these habitats
in various parts of the world. But, the knowledge on
the Indian tree hole aquatic habitat and its community
composition is meager. In India, apart from the species
listing and the natural history observations, only a
few research efforts have addressed the ecological
functionality and the responses of aquatic insects to
specifc ecosystems (Subramanian & Sivaramakrishnan
2005). All other studies were of epidemiological
concern (Rao et al. 1970; Nagpal & Sharma 1985). The
present study, the frst of its kind in India, was carried
out to assess the community composition in tree hole
aquatic habitats.
Materials and Methods
The study was carried out in the Silent Valley
National Park (SVNP) and New Amaramblam Reserve
Forest (NARF) of the Western Ghats, Kerala from
December 2009 to September 2010. This region is
classifed as west coast tropical wet evergreen forest,
(Champion & Seth 1968; 11
0
0311
0
13N & 76
0
21
76
0
35E) and forms a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve (Image 1). The forests of SVNP fall under the
category of Malabar rainforest realm and the vegetation
comprises mainly of the westcoast tropical evergreen
and semievergreen forests (Udvardy 1975; Champion
& Seth 1968). The annual mean temperature in the
SVNP ranges between 18
0
C and 23
0
C and mean annual
precipitation ranges from 32005000 mm between the
sections (Table 1). NARF (11
0
2611
0
9N & 75
0
45
76
0
33E) is a west coast tropical moist deciduous
forest bordering northwest of SVNP. The annual mean
temperature in this forest ranges from 2138
0
C and
mean annual precipitation is 2397mm (Das 2008).
Survey Methods
In SVNP tree holes were sampled from three regions
of the park, namely, Sairandhri (n=68), Poochipara
(n=34) and Walakkad (n=35) whereas in NARF tree
holes were mostly sampled from Panapuzha (n=13).
Image 1. The sampling locations in Silent Valley National Park and New Amarambalam Reserve Forest
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
3314
For every tree hole sampled, structural characteristics of
the tree hole such as diameter were measured by taking
two longest hole opening measurements perpendicular
to each other (Sota 1998).
The variables such as depth, water volume and
height of the tree hole from the ground, girth at breast
height (GBH) of the tree were also measured. Water
from the tree hole was extracted by siphoning and the
volume measured using a measuring cylinder. The
content of the tree hole such as leaf litter and detritus
were transferred to a tray and thoroughly checked
for the presence of life forms (Image 2). Thorough
checks were made with the aid of a fashlight for
elusive organisms in cervices present in the tree hole.
The water contents were then sieved with successive
sieves from coarse to fner sieves (cc-500m sieve
size) by holding in a plastic tray. The organisms were
counted and morpho-species preserved in 5% formalin
(Yanoviak & Fincke 2005). The collected specimens
were sorted out and identifed to possible taxonomic
level of family/genus following Edmondson (1959),
and Subramanian & Sivaramkrishnan (2007).
Results and Discussion
The vegetation patterns in SVNP (Manilal 1988;
Vajravelu 1990; Das 2008) and NARF (Sharma et
al. 2002) are well documented. Most of the tree
holes sampled in SVNP were from the tree species,
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus, Syzygium cumini, Mesua
ferrea, Holigarna arnottiana, Artocarpus heterophyllus,
Dysoxylum malabaricum, Hopea parvifora, Myristica
dactyloides and Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, whereas in
NARF, the tree holes sampled belonged to Mangifera
indica, Stereospermum chelnoids, Homonoia riparia,
Tetramales nudifora and Albizia lebbeck. A majority
of the tree holes were of the pan type (80.4%) which
appeared as a depression in the trunk. The remaining
tree holes were rot type (19.6%) wherein the tree holes
were formed by wreckage in the tree. Altogether, 7505
individuals of metazoans were recorded from 150 tree
hole aquatic habitats. Aquatic insects belonging to the
orders Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (fies), Trichoptera
(caddisfies), Heteroptera (bugs), and Odonata
(dragonfies and damselfies) together comprised
96.8% of the entire collection (Table 2; Image 3). The
remaining 3.2% were the representatives of the taxa
from Dermaptera, Annelida, Collembola, Gastropoda,
Diplopoda, Geckonidae (Reptilia) and Anura
(Amphibia). Larvae of marsh beetles (Scritidae) were
the most abundant taxa, which occurred in 83.3% of
all the tree holes sampled with an average abundance
of 28.556.6 individuals per tree hole at Sairandhri,
27.942.6 at Poochipara, 20.0820 at Walakkad and
10.8413.13 at Panapuzha. It was followed by larvae
of Trichoptera (62.6%) with the highest abundance
Table 1. Details of sampling locations in Silent Valley National Park and New Amarambalam Reserve Forest
Place Location Altitude (m) Habitat matrix
Sairandhri 11
0
533.58N & 76
0
2644.61E 10111056 West coast tropical wet evergreen Forest (logged)
Poochipara 11
0
640.81N & 762520.81E 09620998 West coast tropical wet evergreen Forest (undisturbed)
Walakkad 11
0
1089N & 76
0
2544E 11601175 West coast tropical wet evergreen Forest (undisturbed)
Panapuzha 11
0
2611
0
9N & 75
0
4576
0
33E 06000675 West coast tropical moist deciduous forest

Image 2. Tree hole aquatic habitat and the typical


communities residing in it, such as larvae of Trichoptera,
Scritidae, Culicidae and a Hemiptera adult. K.S.A. Das
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
3315
of 17.342.6 individuals at Sairandhri, 7.915.3
individuals at Poochipara, 2.13.7 individuals in
Walakkad. Trichoptera was completely absent in
the tree holes sampled at Panapuzha. With regard to
richness of taxa, a typical tree hole in SVNP harbors
41.7 taxa with a range of one to 11 different taxa
per tree hole whereas Panapuzha of NARF harbored
3.61.3 taxa with a range of 16 different taxa per tree
hole. Out of 16 aquatic insect taxa recorded, nine were
Diptera, four Coleoptera and one each of Trichoptera,
Heteroptera, and Odonata. About 13 taxa of aquatic
insects present in the tree holes were in the larval stage
while three taxa belonging to Hydrophilidae, Dytiscidae
of Coleoptera and Heteroptera were in the adult stage.
The structural characteristics, community structure,
number of taxa and their abundance as well as the
number of predators and saprophages present in the
tree holes are given in Table 3. The saprophages
include Scirtidae and Tipulidae. Scirtidae which are
commonly called marsh beetles is the most abundant
and highly characteristic group of tree hole aquatic
habitat in the study area. It uses its specialized
mouth parts to shred the leaf litters and in turn largely
facilitate the conversion of coarse particulate organic
Table 2. Macro fauna in the tree hole aquatic habitat of Silent Valley National Park and New Amaramblam Reserve Forest. Values
are mean number of individual taxa per tree hole. Percentage tree hole occupied by particular taxon is in parenthesis.
Sno Phylum
SVNP NARF
Sairandhri
(n=68)
Poochipara
(n=34)
Walakkad
(n=35)
Panapuzha
(n=13)
1 Nematoda - - 0.06 (2.86) -
2 Annelida: Oligochaeta 0.07 (7.35) 0.79 (11.76) 0.74 (20.00) -
3 Arthropoda: Malacostraca: Oniscidea - - 0.24 (11.43) -
4 Decapoda: Gecarcinucidae 0.03 (2.94) - - -
5 Arachnida: Araneae 0.09 (8.82) - 0.41 (17.14) -
6 Entognatha: Collembola - - 0.26 (14.29) -
7 Insecta: Odonata: Anisoptera: Libellulidae 0.12 (8.82) 0.12 (11.76) - 23.07 (0.23)
8 Hemiptera 1.76 (16.18) 0.18 (8.82) 0.06 (2.86) 15.38 (0.46)
9 Diptera: Tipulidae: Tipulinae 1.13 (41.18) 1.59 (35.29) 1.50 (45.71) 46.15 (1.23)
10 Tipulidae sp. 0.43 (22.06) 1.12 (17.65) 0.24 (14.29) 23.07 (0.46)
11 Culicidae: Toxoyrinchites sp. 0.15 (8.82) 0.06 (2.94) 0.09 (8.57) 30.76 (0.61)
12 Culex sp. 6.85 (33.82) 1.65 (23.53) 0.97 (28.57) 23.07 (1.46)
13 Aedes sp. 1.94 (11.76) 1.50 (17.65) 3.12 (20.00) 23.07 (1)
14 Chironomidae 0.60 (20.59) 3.06 (41.18) 0.18 (5.71) 23.07 (0.38)
15 Ceratopogonidae 0.07 (2.94) 0.24 (11.76) 0.09 (8.57) -
16 Syrphidae: Eristalis sp. 0.03 (2.94) - 0.29 (11.43) -
17 Coleoptera: Dytiscidae: Agabus sp. 0.04 (1.47) 0.03 (2.94) 0.27 (5.71) 15.38 (0.38)
18 Hydrophilidae: Helochares sp. 4.18 (50.00) 2.65 (47.06) 4.85 (80.00) -
19 Scritidae 28.51 (80.88) 27.94 (94.12) 20.88 (88.57) 84.61 (10.84)
20 Ptilodactylidae: Anchytarsus sp. - - - 23.07 (1.3)
21 Trichoptera 17.32 (79.41) 7.97 (64.71) 2.09 (60.00) -
22 Dermaptera 0.01 (1.47) - 0.03 (2.86) -
23 Hymenoptera - 0.26 (5.88) - 0.15 (2.86)
24 Blattaria - 0.03 (2.94) - -
25 Thysanoptera 0.03 (1.47) 0.03 (2.94) - -
26 Mollusca: Gastropoda - - 0.15 (14.29) 7.69 (0.07)
27
Chordata: Amphibia: Anura: Microhylidae:
Ramanella sp.
0.99 (16.18) 0.09 (2.94) 0.03 (2.86) 15.38 (3.07)
28
Reptilia: Squamata: Gekkonidae:
Cnemaspis sp.
0.03 (2.94) 0.12 (11.76) - -
Total taxa 21 19 21 14
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
3316
matter (CPOM) into fne particulate organic matter
(FPOM). This species is considered to be an important
community structure determining factor in tree hole
aquatic habitats (Paradise & Dunson 1997). There
were about four prominent genera namely Cyphon,
Princocyphon, Elodes, and Scrites observed in tree hole
aquatic habitats, in which Scrites and Cyphon were the
most speciose genera with about 50 species overall
described from scritidae family from India (Ruta 2007).
Tipulids (Diptera) act as large scale shredders and
decomposers of leaf litter in tree hole aquatic habitats.
The primitive structural characteristic and need to keep
the respiratory plastron constantly in contact with air
make them stay nearer the upper level of the water
column in the tree hole aquatic habitat preferably in
water-air interfaces. This designates them as one of
the frst processors and decomposers of fresh fallen
leaf litter. Two groups of Tipulidae were observed
from tree holes in the study area, one group with large
structural characteristic larvae belongs to the subfamily
Tipulinae and another relatively small size larval group
which was unidentifed. It was observed that physical
characteristics such as depth, water volume of tree
holes, and GBH of host tree were highly variable within
sites and between sites. The predator aquatic insect
taxa recorded to three taxa namely Toxyrinchites sp.
(Culcidae), Agabus sp. (Dytiscidae), and an anisopteran
nymph of Odonata. Of these Anisoptera act as the top
predator in the tree hole aquatic habitat (Kitching &
Orr 1996). The remaining taxa were saprophages
grouped into macrosparophages, microsparphages
and flter feeders based on feeding relation on coarse
particulate organic matter, fne particulate organic
matter and dissolved organic matter, respectively.

Image 3. Metazon communities in tree hole aquatic habitat. K.A. Nishadh


a - Trichoptera; b - Ptilodactylidae; c - Odonata nymph d - Decapoda; e - Syrphidae; f - Scritida
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
3317
Table 3. Tree hole habitat characteristics and community structure in various sites of Silent Valley National Park and New
Amarambalam Reserve Forest
Characters
Sairandhri
(n=68)
Poochipara
(n=34)
Walakkad
(n=35)
Panapuzha
(n=13)
Water volume, ml
1,439.293,291.69
(1007200)
752.88953.72 (503250)
528.851,718.75
(2010000)
2,189.232,253.68
(506670)
Depth, cm 10.6910.48 (374) 17.3034.82 (2150) 12.097.53 (334) 19.6919.14 (270)
Height of the hole at rim,
cm
84.1262.32 (16148) 89.6770.80 (5300) 91.15102.29 (5440) 62.4263.90 (5200)
GBH of tree, cm 226.08132.96 (10400) 299.18162.73 (25750) 222.59408.90 (492502) 320.54467.66 (511800)
No. of taxa per tree hole 4.041.71 (19) 4.181.45 (28) 4.591.79 (211) 3.621.39 (16)
Abundance of taxa per
tree hole
64.2895.24 (1501) 49.4158.17 (2281) 36.4431.26 (3152) 21.6920.55 (377)
No. of predatory insects 0.160.37 (01) 0.180.39 (01) 0.120.33 (01) 0.690.75 (02)
No. of saprophage insects 3.881.58 (19) 4.001.41 (27) 4.471.78 (211) 2.921.04 (14)
Values are mean+SD, and ranges in parenthesis.
Community composition was more similar within the
tree hole aquatic habitats of SVNP and highly variable
between SVNP and NARF (Table 3). Interestingly,
aquatic insect taxa such as Trichoptera, Syraphidae and
Ceratopoginidae were completely absent from NARF
and the coleopteran group Ptilodactylidae was absent
from SVNP tree holes. The feeding relationship of
a community is mainly organized based on detritus
food web in which the saprophage group were most
represented in terms of abundance and taxa richness.
A notable record in the present study is the prolifc
occurrence of order Trichoptera (caddisfies) as the
second most abundant group in tree hole aquatic
habitats of the study area. Two former records on this
orders occurrence in tree hole aquatic habitat suggest
its rare colonization in the habitat (Barnard 1978;
Greeney 2001; Taylor & Ewers 2003). They are case
makers and microsaprophages in nature, mostly seen
as browsing on freshly fallen leaf litters. Toe-winged
beetle larvae (Ptilodactylidae) were recorded only from
tree holes of NARF and this record is considered to be
the frst record of this family in tree hole aquatic habitats
studied elsewhere (Kitching 2000; Greeney 2001).
The larval stage Anchytarsus sp. (Ptilodactylidae) was
recorded, their larval stage lasts up to three years. They
are macrosaprophagic in nature (Lesage & Harper
1976).
One family Velidae of Hemiptera was reported from
tree hole aquatic habitats (Yanoviak 1999). In the study
area Hemipetra was represented by the family Gerridae.
These organisms are amphibious in nature, so most of
the time they were seen skating over the water surface
and when disturbed sheltered in the tree bark cervices.
They prefer tree holes with ample light availability
and feed on prey available near the water surface,
such as spiders and small insects. The report on this
family in water-flled bamboo internodes documented
its predacious and territorial behavior compared to
other individuals (Kitching 2000). Dytiscidae and
Hydrophilidae of the order Coleoptera were well
represented in tree holes of SVNP. Genus Agabus
(Dytiscidae) is a voracious predator both in the adult
and larval life stages and is considered as one of the
potential biocontrol agents for mosquito vectors. The
swiftness in mobility and predation makes them one of
the imperative top community structure determinants
in tree hole aquatic habitats (Kitching 2000). In the
adult stage Hydrophilidae act as scavengers and are
mostly seen browsing on leaf litters. These beetles
normally spend their larval stage in damp areas near
water sources and at this stage they are carnivorous and
cannibalistic (Edmondson 1959). Dragonfy (Odonata:
Anisoptera) larvae occurring in tree hole aquatic
habitats act as top predators. The presence of spoon-
shaped extensible labia in libellulid dragonfies makes
them most adaptable predators in aquatic habitats.
The present study lists many species that were not
previously recorded from the region. The interaction of
evolutionary radiation and climate change over a time
scale of a few million years explains why the moist
forests of the world are so highly diverse. Periods
of expansion and contraction of the forest, together
with processes of speciation occurring within isolated
patches, have been described as a species-pump
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33123318
Tree hole metazoans K.A. Nishadh & K.S.A. Das
mechanism (Ananthakrishnan & Sivaramakrishnan
(2008). This is a valid explanation accounting for
the increased speciosity and complexity of organisms
in food webs in tree holes from tropical rainforests
when compared with subtropical or temperate forests
(Kitching 2000). Future studies should be designed
to unravel the intricacies of processing chain
commensalisms in tree holes (Ananthakrishnan &
Sivaramakrishnan 2008). Further research is needed,
both to elucidate the ecology of aquatic insects in
the tree holes, and to evaluate the impact of diverse
predators on tropical populations.

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3318
JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33193326
Recent sightings of two very rare butterfies, Lethe
margaritae Elwes, 1882 and Neptis nycteus de Nicville,
1890, from Sikkim, eastern Himalaya, India

Sanjyog Rai
1,5
, Karma Dorjee Bhutia
2,5
& Krushnamegh Kunte
3,4,5


1
Mickkhola Busti, Namchi, South Sikkim, Sikkim 737126, India
2
C/o Rabzang Lama, Sikaritar Rumtek, P.O. Rumtek Dharma Chakra Centre, East Sikkim, Sikkim 737135, India
3
FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, 52 Oxford St., Northwest Lab Room 458.40-3, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
4
National Center for Biological Sciences, GKVK, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India
5
Indian Foundation for Butterfies, No. 9, Sneha Nagar, Amruthahalli Main Road, Byatarayanapura, Bengaluru, India.
Email:
1
sanjyogvet@gmail.com,
2
kdgyatsov19@gmail.com,
3
krushnamegh@ifoundbutterfies.org (corresponding author),
4
krushnamegh@ncbs.res.in


OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: George Mathew
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2965
Received 10 October 2011
Final received 14 October 2012
Finally accepted 24 October 2012
Citation: Rai, S., K.D. Bhutia & K. Kunte (2012). Recent sightings of two
very rare butterfies, Lethe margaritae Elwes, 1882 and Neptis nycteus de
Nicville, 1890, from Sikkim, eastern Himalaya, India . Journal of Threatened
Taxa 4(14): 33193326.
Copyright: Sanjyog Rai, Karma Dorjee Bhutia & Krushnamegh Kunte
2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-proft purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors
and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: We thank Vijay Barve and Gaurav Agavekar for
coordinating our initial communication that resulted in this paper, and Ganesh
Mani Pradhan and Chandan Jyoti Gogoi for supplying updated information
about the historical localities mentioned in this paper. Motoki Saito provided
details of the recent sighting of L. margaritae from Myanmar. We are grateful
to S.T. Lachungpa (IFS, PCCF-cum-Secretary, Forests), N.T. Bhutia (IFS,
PCCF-cum-CWLW) and Usha Lachungpa (Principal Research Offcer,
Wildlife) of the Department of Forest, Environment & Wildlife Management,
Government of Sikkim, for their continued support in documenting and
monitoring butterfy diversity in Sikkim. The specimen depicted in Image
2 C-D is from the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University;
thanks to Naomi Pierce for permission to photograph this specimen and to
Rod Eastwood for his assistance in locating and photographing it. This work
is part of an ongoing project to survey rare, endemic and legally protected
butterfies in Sikkim Himalaya, which is partly funded by the Ashoka Trust
for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) through an ATREE
Small Grant For Research In Northeast India. This is Publication No. 4 of the
Indian Foundation for Butterfies.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33193326 3319
The eastern Himalaya host a signifcant proportion
of Indias butterfy diversity, where many species are
endemic; some of them are very rare, and some are
legally protected in India under the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 (Anonymous 1997; Gupta &
Mondal 2005). However, little natural history and
ecological information exists on most of these species,
and we know virtually nothing about their current
status and distribution. Some of these species have
either not been seen in India or not reported in the
literature in decades. The lack of recent information
on their habitats, exact elevational distributions and
spot records, fight periods, early stages and larval
host plants is hampering their conservation.
The renewed interest in the biology and conservation
of Indian butterfies is slowly ameliorating this
situation. Two species: Symbrenthia silana and
Papilio elephenor, which had not been reported in
nearly 100 years but protected under Schedule I of the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, were recently
rediscovered from Sikkim and western Assam,
respectively (Choudhury 2010; Kunte 2010). Current
distributions of many other Schedule I and Schedule
II species are being delineated and their populations
assessed with recent sightings and quantitative data
from various parts of the eastern Himalaya and
northeastern India (Kunte et al. 2012).
In this paper, we report the sightings of two
Schedule I species: Lethe margaritae and Neptis
nycteus, from Chungthang and Rabum in the north
Sikkim District of the state of Sikkim in northeastern
India. We will frst review published historical records
and other information on their distributions, including
their type localities because political boundaries
have shifted around the type localities from the time
Abstract: Lethe margaritae Elwes, 1882 and Neptis nycteus
de Nicville, 1890 are very rare butterfies that are endemic to
the Himalaya, and are legally protected in India. However, they
have not been recorded in India in nearly 100 years. Here we
review the available published information on their type localities,
distribution and other natural history, and then report two recent
sightings from Sikkim, northeastern India. Our sightings constitute
rediscoveries of the Indian populations of these species.

Keywords: Endemism, faunal inventory, Lepidoptera,
Limenitidinae, Nymphalidae, Satyrinae, species rediscovery,
type localities, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:23608402-76F9-477C-A6F0-C3E33027B253
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33193326
Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3320
of species descriptions. We will then provide exact
locality details of our two sightings, which appear to
represent the frst published records of these species
from India in nearly 100 years.


Lethe margaritae Elwes, 1882 - Bhutan Treebrown
Review of historical records, and distributional
range of the species: Lethe margaritae Elwes, 1882
(Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Satyrini), also known as the
Bhutan Treebrown, was described from a single male
(Elwes 1882). The female was subsequently described
based on specimens supplied by de Nicville and
Elwes (Moore 18901892). The exact type locality
of L. margaritae is unknown. Elwes (1882) provided
the following details: I made arrangements with
a native plant-collector, a Sikkim Bhotea, who had
accompanied me on two expeditions into the interior,
to visit the Chumbi Valley, on the Tibetan frontier of
Sikkim, to collect seeds and insects. This he did during
the months of August and September last. Though I
cannot be certain of the exact localities in which they
were taken, I have little doubt, from my knowledge
of the country and the plants which came with them,
that a considerable portion of them were taken on
the Tibetan side of the frontier. On two occasions
I have looked down into this valley from passes
15,00016,000 feet high on the Chola range, which
bounds Sikkim on the north-east; and, judging from
what I saw and from the information we have obtained
through native sources, it is a valley of somewhat
different climate and vegetation from the Sikkim
Valley, though the Machu River, which drains it, fows
southwards through Bhotan to the Bay of Bengal.
It is said to be much drier in summer and colder in
winter than Sikkim valleys of similar elevation .
Thus, although the title of Elwess article was On a
collection of butterfies from Sikkim, the type locality
of this species has subsequently been assumed to be
somewhere in Bhutan (Moore 18901892; Bingham
1905; Talbot 1947).
This species has been reported or collected very
rarely since the species was described. An unspecifed
number of specimens of both sexes was collected near
Buxa, in Bhutan (Elwes & Mller 1888; Moore 1890
1892). The species was subsequently reported from
Ta Shian Liang (5,000 ft), July 29 based on a single
male (South 1913). This locality is believed to be in the
Mishmi Hills (Talbot 1947; Gupta & Mondal 2005) in
central to eastern Arunachal Pradesh, but we have been
unable to confrm whether this is the case and fnd out
anything about it. It could prove to be in southeastern
Tibet on the border with Arunachal Pradesh. A female
specimen, currently in the Natural History Museum
(London), was collected from Darjeeling-Tukvar
(dAbrera 1985), although we do not know the date of
collection of this specimen. Tukvar is near Darjeeling
Town, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, at an elevation
of ca 1,2001,500m. Finally, the latest record of the
species was a male collected on 22 July 2000 near
the Tonwang-Dabudam Village in the Kachin State
of Myanmar, in dense evergreen forest (Shizuya et al.
2005).
As far as we know, the above few reports comprise
the entire original historical record for this species.
Several major books merely list the species from
Bhutan, without any new information about the species
or details of any new specimens (Marshall & de
Nicville 1882; Bingham 1905; Antram 1924; Talbot
1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957). Therefore, we assume
that these records were largely taken from published
literature. The National Zoological Collection of the
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) in Kolkata has three
specimens of unspecifed sex from Bhutan (Gupta &
Mondal 2005), although these specimens were part
of the pre-independence British collection that ZSI
inherited. We do not know in what condition the ZSI
specimens are because Gupta and Mondal copied
photographs from dAbrera (dAbrera 1985) instead
of using pictures of the ZSI specimens. The Museum
of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University does
not have any specimens. The species has not been
reported from Nepal (Smith 1989, 2006).
Based on available evidence, the species is known
to occur only in four specifc localities: Buxa in Bhutan,
Tukvar in Darjeeling District of West Bengal, Ta Shian
Liang, which is presumably in the Mishmi Hills of
Arunachal Pradesh, and Tonwang-Dabudam area in
Kachin, Myanmar. Of these, the West Bengal record
had not been recognized as such, so this review adds the
state of West Bengal to the known range of this species.
We also note that the Kachin record has extended the
range of the species eastward by approximately 200km
to Myanmar, and that was a rediscovery of the species.
Despite the mention of this species from Sikkim (see
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Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3321
below), there are no historical records from the state of
Sikkim as currently politically recognized. Within a
few years of describing this species, Elwes included it
in his checklist of Sikkim butterfies but wrote: I am
as yet uncertain whether this beautiful species occurs
in Sikkim or not, as my frst specimen was brought
by native collectors from some place to the eastward
of the Tista River; but Mr. Knyvetts collectors have
lately taken others of both sexes near Buxa, in Bhotan,
and I have no doubt it occurs near to, if not within,
British Bhotan (Elwes & Mller 1888). In his
subsequent checklist of butterfies, de Nicville also
listed the species for Sikkim but noted, A rare species
obtained by the native collectors only near Buxa,
Bhutan (de Nicville 1894). Later, the distribution
was mentioned as SIKKIM to BHUTAN, and in the
MISHMI HILLS (Talbot 1947), Bhutan, Sikkim
(dAbrera 1985), and India: Sikkim; Arunachal
Pradesh (Mishmi Hills). Elsewhere: Bhutan. (Gupta
& Mondal 2005). The species was recently listed
for Sikkim, but without any details (Haribal 1992).
Evidently, all the subsequent Sikkim mentions were
taken from the Elwes-de Nicville butterfy checklists
for Sikkim, in which they had clearly stated that the
species did not occur in Sikkim but listed it there,
anyway. We must conclude that the species had never
actually been collected from Sikkim.

Elevational range and fight period
The only specifc elevation from which this species
has so far been reported is 5,000 ft (South 1913).
The elevational range given by Talbot, from about
5,000 to 16,000 ft (Talbot 1947), is apparently based
on a misunderstanding of Elwess description. As
mentioned above, the only prior mention of 16,000
feet was by Elwes when he described what he had
seen from the mountain pass into the lower valley
from which the male type specimen may have been
collected, On two occasions I have looked down into
this valley from passes 15,000-16,000 feet high on
the Chola range (Elwes 1882). Thus, based on the
single record of South, the species is expected to occur
at mid-elevations around 1,500m. The known fight
period is from the end of July (South 1913; Shizuya
et al. 2005) to August or September when the type
specimen was collected (Elwes 1882).

Status
This species is apparently the largest member of
the genus Lethe, with a wingspan of 8595mm (de
Nicville 1894; Talbot 1947; dAbrera 1985). It has
been reported to be very rare, especially the female
(Antram 1924; Evans 1932; Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth
1957). The species is legally protected in India under
Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972 (Anonymous 1997), and listed as endangered
according to Gupta & Mondal (2005). Its early stages
and larval host plants are unknown.

Our new record
SR sighted L. margaritae at Chungthang (approx.
27
0
36N & 88
0
38E), a small town in the North Sikkim
District. Chungthang, at an altitude of 1,700m, is at
the confuence of Lachen and Lachung rivers, which
are then recognized as Teesta River downstream of the
confuence. The area was originally covered with mid-
elevation mixed forests, but now forests are restricted
to very small fragments mostly on steep slopes. A
large dam is currently being constructed as part of a
hydroelectric project near Chungthang, which will
further decimate forests in this area.
Lethe margaritae was sighted in the town on the
cool, rainy late evening (19:25 hr) of 26 July 2011. It
was resting on a leaf of an ornamental Geranium plant
outside a house. On being disturbed, it few through an
open window into one of the rooms inside the house.
There it perched right next to an electric lamp that had
previously been turned on, its proboscis slowly curling
and uncurling, and wings partly spread. After taking
a few pictures, SR released the butterfy outside the
house, and it was not seen again.
SRs photographs (Image 1) agreed very well with
the previously published illustrations and photographs
of male L. margaritae (Elwes 1882; Moore 1890-
1892; dAbrera 1985). The specimen exactly matched
the identifcation key and other descriptions of Indian
Lethe, mainly: (a) it was exceptionally large for a
Lethe, (b) it had a narrow yellow discal band on upper
forewing, and (c) on the under hindwing, it had a very
prominent pale band passing through the end of cell
but had no discal band (Evans 1932; Talbot 1947). The
elevation (1,700m) at which SR sighted this specimen
and the date (26 July) on which it was seen are similar to
the previously known elevational range (1,500m) and
the fight period (end of July to August or September)
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Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3322
of the species (Elwes 1882; South 1913).


Neptis nycteus nycteus de Nicville, 1890
- Hockeystick Sailer

Review of historical records, and distributional
range of the species: Neptis nycteus de Nicville,
1890 (Nymphalidae: Limenitidinae: Neptini), or
the Hockeystick Sailer, was described from three
specimens: The type male specimen in Mr. G.C.
Dudgeons collection was taken in June; the type female
in my own collection was taken in July; and a second
female specimen in Mr. A.V. Knyvetts collection
were all taken at Tongloo on the Singalelah range at
an elevation of about 12,000 feet (de Nicville 1890).
de Nicville mentioned the HABITAT of his new
species as Sikkim, so the type locality (or habitat)
has subsequently been given as Sikkim (Moore
18991900; Eliot 1969). This needs a comment and
a change. It is clear from de Nicvilles description
that the type specimens were collected from Tonglu
(=Tongloo; approx. 27
0
02N & 88
0
04E according to
Google Earth), which is one of the highest points on the
Singalila Range (or Ridge). Tonglu is at an elevation
of 3,046m, which is 9,993ft and not 12,000ft as
mentioned in the original species description. Tonglu
and the Singalila Range are in the Darjeeling District,
which was loosely included in Sikkim at the time
of the species description, but it now belongs to the
state of West Bengal. Since political boundaries have
shifted in this area and appear quite stable at present,
the type locality of N. nycteus should now be given
as: Tonglu, Singalila Range, Darjeeling District, West
Bengal. It is fanked by Sikkim (as currently politically
recognized) to the north and Nepal to the west.
Very few records of this species have been
published before or since the species description.
Elwes took a single fresh male, in the forest near
the Rangbi jhora, on the road to Serail, at 6000 ft.,
on June 7th (Elwes & Mller 1888). Rangbi has a
small forest river, and it is also close to Senchal. Serail
is a small settlement situated 8km west of Mungpoo,
which is 35km southeast of Darjeeling in West Bengal.
However, N. nycteus had not been described at the
time of his paper, so Elwes had assigned his specimen
to Neptis manasa Moore, 1857. de Nicville wrote
of Elwess record under Neptis nycteus in his own
checklist of Sikkim butterfies: This is No. 131,
Neptis manasa, Moore, of Mr. Elwes list, further
mentioning that the species was Found by Mr.
Dudgeon at 7,000 feet in Daling. (de Nicville 1894).
Dudgeons specimen (sex unknown) from Daling
should be different from the male type from Tonglu
used by de Nicville (1890). Daling, also variously
known as Dalingkote or Dalimkote, was a historic fort
that is now under the Kalimpong subdivision of the
Darjeeling District, West Bengal. There was a male in
Swinhoes collection, taken by a native collector at
Lachin Lachoong, 8000 to 16,000 feet elevation
(Moore 18991900). Lachen and Lachung are in the
North Sikkim District of modern Sikkim (see below).
Bingham did not report any new specimens (Bingham
1905). Eliot mentioned distribution of this species
from Bhutan (Eliot 1969), so the Natural History
Museum (London) appears to have specimen(s) taken

Image 1. Male Lethe margaritae at Chungthang, North Sikkim District, Sikkim, India; 1,700m elevation; 26.vii.2011.
Sanjyog Rai
Sanjyog Rai
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Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3323
from that country, although we do not know the details
of these specimens. Since 1969, the species has been
reported as Very Rare from Manang and Kathmandu
in central Nepal, which has extended the species range
northwestward by approximately 300km (Smith
1989). There are three specimens in the collection of
the ZSI Kolkata (Gupta & Mondal 2005), although we
suspect that these were among the specimens listed by
de Nicville in previous literature (de Nicville 1890,
1894) (de Nicville was curator at the Indian Museum,
where many of his specimens were and still are
deposited, and which is now part of the ZSI Kolkata).
As far as we know, this is the complete compilation of
all the published records for this species.
The species range has so far been variously given
as only in Sikkim (Moore 18991900; Evans 1932),
or Sikkim and Bhutan (Eliot 1969; dAbrera 1985),
or central Nepal to Sikkim and Bhutan (Smith 1989,
2006). From the above discussion regarding the type
locality, northern West Bengal should now be included
in the range of the species, from where most Indian
examples appear to have been taken. On the other
hand, only one historical record, that of the male from
Lachen/Lachung in Swinhoes collection (Moore 1899
1900), can be attributed to the modern state of Sikkim.
The species was mentioned for Sikkim but without
any information in two important books (Wynter-
Blyth 1957; Haribal 1992), so we assume that this was
based on historical records summarized above and
not on any new records. A subspecies, Neptis nycteus
menpae Huang, 1998, has recently been described
from Hamni, Metok, southeastern Tibet (Huang
1998), which is approximately 700km northeast of the
range of the nominotypical subspecies. Evans (1932)
mentioned another subspecies, phesimensis Tytler,
1915, from the Naga Hills, but this taxon is now treated
as a subspecies under Neptis nemorum Oberthr, 1906
based on the similarities of the male genitalia with that
species (Eliot 1969).

Elevational range and fight period
The elevational range of this species is given as
1,767m to 4,875m (Moore 18991900; Smith 1989;
Gupta & Mondal 2005). The higher end of this range
(4,875m) is based on the male taken at Lachen/
Lachung at 8000 to 16,000 feet elevation (Moore
18991900). The Lachen and Lachung areas in the
North Sikkim District indeed cover this elevation
range, but here the tree line is well below 4,800m,
so the 16,000 feet elevation must be wrong. We
must conclude that this specimen was collected at a
lower elevation in the range of 2,4003,500 m near
Lachen or Lachung, where a suitable habitat for this
Neptis exists. The elevational range of this species can
therefore be determined to be approximately 1,800 to
3,500 m. Thus, this is a mid- to high-elevation species,
and it appears to have a single brood per year. The
fight period has been reported to be JuneJuly in the
Singalila Range (de Nicville 1890), and MayJune
in Manang and Kathmandu in central Nepal (Smith
1989).

Status
The species has been reported as very rare (Evans
1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957; Smith 1989). It is legally
protected in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 (Anonymous 1997), and listed
as critically endangered by Gupta & Mondal (2005).
Its early stages and larval host plants are unknown.

Our new records
KDB sighted N. nycteus nycteus twice at Rabum
(approx. 27
0
44N & 88
0
32E), a small village about
18km. from the town of Lachen in the North Sikkim
District. This was at an altitude of 2,990m, and on the
road leading to the Gurudongmar Lake. The region
is mountainous and rugged, with some high-elevation
stunted forests, small human settlements and sparsely
dispersed agricultural and pastoral felds.
The frst sighting was made on 21

June 2011 at
09:23hr, when the butterfy was feeding from fresh cow
dung on the road while slowly opening and closing its
wings. The second sighting, which may or may not be
of the same individual, was made two days later, on 23
June 2011 at 11:54hr, around the same location (Image
2AB). This time the butterfy was perched on a small
Urtica shrub. It had rained the previous night, and the
weather was gloomy when KDB spotted the butterfy.
The butterfy basked in the occasional mild sunshine
with its wings spread fat. It tolerated human presence,
but it would fy off and settle on a nearby weed when
approached too closely. The sex of the specimen(s)
that KDB photographed is unknown.
We would also like to take this opportunity to report
another spot record from Gangtok, the state capital of
Sikkim. This is based on the sole specimen of this
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Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3324
species in the butterfy collection at the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, USA
(Image 2CD). The four labels currently attached to
this specimen read: (1) Gangtok Sikkim Himalaya
mont. 3500 m Juni, (2) A G Weeks Collection, (3)
477 and (4) Shemis v. nycteis. The collection
date of this specimen is unknown, but assumed to be
from the late 1800s to very early 1900s, when most
of the specimens from the A.G. Weeks collection
were presumably acquired (Rod Eastwood, personal
communication).
The photographed individuals (Image 2) agree
well with the previously published illustrations and
photographs of several specimens of this species
(Moore 18991900; dAbrera 1985; Smith 1989;
Gupta & Mondal 2005; Smith 2006). They also closely
follow the identifcation keys and other descriptions of
Indian Neptis, mainly: (a) the upper forewing discal
spot in three joins cell streak, forming a hockey stick-
like curved marking, (b) this spot does not fll the base
of 3, (c) all the markings are white, (d) the underside is
rich ochre brown, and (e) under hindwing basal area,
especially the cell, has white markings (Evans 1932;
Eliot 1969).

Conclusions
Our sighting of Lethe margaritae appears to be
the frst one reported since 1913 in India, therefore it
constitutes a rediscovery of the species in the country.
As far as we know, it is only the second record of the
species in the past 100 years throughout its range,
following the recent sighting in Kachin, Myanmar,
in July 2000. It also confrms the distribution of the
species in Sikkim. Neptis nycteus has recently been
recorded from central Nepal (Smith 1989, 2006) and
it occurs in Bhutan (Eliot 1969), but our sightings

Image 2. Neptis nycteus nycteus in Sikkim, India. AB - At Rabum, near Lachen, on the road to Gurudongmar Lake,
North Sikkim District; 2,990m elevation; 23.vi.2011. CD - Gangtok, East Sikkim District; 3,500m elevation; date unknown,
presumably late 1800s or early 1900s; currently deposited in the butterfy collection at the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard University, USA. Photographs and copyright: A-B: Karma Dorjee Bhutia. C-D: photographs:
Krushnamegh Kunte, copyright: President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33193326
Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3325
appear to be the frst ones to be reported from India in
several decades. These spot records indicate localities,
elevations and habitat types where more intensive
surveying and monitoring efforts are needed with the
hope of accumulating further sightings of these very
rare and endemic butterfies (Image 3).
All the available information on the occurrence of
these two species, reviewed above, along with our new
records, may be briefy summarized as follows:
1. Lethe margaritae: This species was described
from a male specimen collected most likely
somewhere in Bhutan. Only fve specifc localities
are now known for this species: Tukvar (Darjeeling
District, West Bengal), Chungthang (North Sikkim
District, Sikkim), Buxa (Bhutan), Ta Shian Liang
(presumably in the Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh),
and Tonwang-Dabudam (Kachin State, Myanmar).
The species is thus narrowly endemic to the approx.
1,000 km-long strip of mid-elevation evergreen forest
in the eastern Himalaya, from Darjeeling to Kachin.
It occurs at 1,5001,700 m from the end of July up
to September, and appears to be univoltine. It is one
of the rarest eastern Himalayan butterfies, and it is
legally protected in India under Schedule I of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
2. Neptis nycteus: This species was described
from Tongu in the Singalila Range, Darjeeling
District, West Bengal. The nominotypical subspecies
has subsequently been reported from Manang and
Kathmandu (Kathmandu District, central Nepal),
Rangbi jhora near Sarail and Daling (Darjeeling
District, West Bengal), Gangtok (East Sikkim
District), Rabung and Lachen/Lachung (North Sikkim
District), and Bhutan. The nominotypical subspecies
thus occurs from central Nepal to Bhutan. Subspecies
Neptis nycteus menpae Huang, 1998 has so far been
reported only from Hamni, Metok, SE Tibet. The
species on the whole is thus endemic to a strip of
approx. 1,000km in the central and eastern Himalaya.
The elevational range of the species is 1,8003,500 m.
It is univoltine, and fies from May to July. It is a very
rare species that is legally protected in India under
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Additional pictures of these two species are
available online at:
http://ifoundbutterfies.org/441-lethe/lethe-margaritae

Image 3. Distributional maps of Lethe margaritae (A) and Neptis nycteus (B). Krushnamegh Kunte
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Lethe margaritae and Neptis nycteus S. Rai et al.
3326
http://ifoundbutterfies.org/153-neptis/neptis-nycteus
Additional information and pictures will be made
available on the above pages as they accumulate with
further sightings in Sikkim and elsewhere in India.


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JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33273332
Parambassis waikhomi, a new species of glassfsh
(Teleostei: Ambassidae) from Loktak Lake, northeastern
India
K. Geetakumari
1
& C. Basudha
2
1,2
ICAR, Research Complex for NEH Region Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat Imphal, Manipur 795004, India
Email:
1
geetameme@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
devibasu@yahoo.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Neelesh Dahanukar
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3060
Received 09 January 2012
Final received 18 October 2012
Finally accepted 01 November 2012
Citation: Geetakumari, K. & C. Basudha (2012). Parambassis waikhomi,
a new species of glassfsh (Teleostei: Ambassidae) from Loktak Lake,
northeastern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33273332.
Copyright: K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to Prof. W. Vishwanath,
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University for his valuable help. We
are also thankful to P. Musikasinthorn and T. Roberts for providing literature.
The frst author records her thankfulness to Department of Biotechnology
for fnancial assistance for DBT-RA programme.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332 3327
Abstract: Parambassis waikhomi, a new species of glassfsh
from Loktak Lake, Chindwin basin in Manipur, northeastern India
is distinguished from its congeners by the presence of 5860
lateral line scales; two predorsal bones; a vertically elongated
humeral spot; 24 vertebrae; maxilla reaching to of the orbit; 8.2-
10.9 interorbital width; four preorbital ridge, 11 preorbital edge,
six supraorbital ridge, 18 serrae at lower edge of preoperculum,
24 serrae at hind margin of preoperculum. The species differs
from its nearest congener P. ranga by the presence of 910 (vs.
1213) pectoral fn rays and 1920 (vs. 2228) gill rakers.
Keywords: Chindwin basin, Glass-perch, India, new species.
Freshwater glass perches of family Ambassidae are
small to medium-sized semi transparent fshes which
are extensively consumed by larger fshes. Currently,
the family comprises of four genera namely Chanda,
Gymnochanda, Paradoxodacna and Parambassis
(Roberts 1994). Fishes of the genus Parambassis
Bleeker are characterized by 30100 scales in lateral
series, 916 dorsal and anal fn rays, 10+14=24 or
10+15=25 vertebrae, preorbital bone with serrations
on ridge and edge comprising a diverse and possibly
polyphyletic array of strictly freshwater ambassids
widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent mainland
and peninsular Southeast Asia and the Australian region
including New Guinea (Roberts 1994). As many as 12
species of Parambassis of Asia are currently treated
valid (Roberts 1994; Kottelat 2003) of which fve are
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FD88B901-64DE-42AA-91A8-903014706048
from India, viz., P. baculis, P. dayi, P. lala, P. ranga
and P. thomasi, three from Sumatra and Borneo, viz., P.
apogonoides, P. macrolepis, and P. wolff, another three
from Myanmar, viz., P. pulcinella, P. tennaserimensis,
and P. vollmeri, and the last one P. siamensis is from
Malaysia and Chao Phraya namely. Sen (1995) reported
three ambassid fshes from Meghalaya, viz., Chanda
nama, Pseudambassis baculis (now Parambassis: see
Roberts 1989) and P. ranga. Vishwanath et al. (2007)
reported four ambassids from northeastern India, viz.,
Chanda nama, Parambassis baculis, P. lala and P.
ranga. Recently, Geetakumari (2012) also described
Parambassis bistigmata from northeastern India.
The collection of fshes from Chindwin drainage of
Manipur included an undescribed species which is
herein described as Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov.
Materials and Methods
Measurements were made point to point with
dial calipers to the nearest 0.1mm and expressed as
percentages of standard length (SL). Counts and
measurements were made on the left side of specimens
under a PC-based binocular stereozoom microscope
(Olympus SZ40) with transmitted light. Methods
for counts and measurements follow Kottelat (2003).
Terminology for cephalic serration follows Fraser-
Brunner (1955). Clearing and staining of specimens
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332
A new Parambassis species K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha
3328
for osteology followed Hollister (1934). Identifcation
and nomenclature of bones and vertebral counts
followed Greenwood (1976). Materials examined in
this study are deposited in Research Centre Manipur
Museum of Fishes (RCMMF).
Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov.
(Figs. 13, Image 1)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:29454ED6-D57A-403C-9E4E-1791FC8121A1
Type material
Holotype: 19.xi.2011, 33.5mm SL, Chindwin
basin, Loktak Lake, Manipur State, India, 24
0
3329N
& 93
0
4858E; coll. Bimol Singh (RCMMF-1).
Paratypes: 16 ex., 31.539.8 mm SL; same
collection data as holotype (RCMMF-217). 3 ex.,
34.236.3 mm SL; dissected, cleared and stained for
osteology (RCMMF-1820).
Diagnosis
Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov. can be distinguished
from all its congeners by the following combination of
characters: 5860 lateral line scales; 910 pectoral fn
rays; 1920 gill rakers; two predorsal bones; presence
of a vertically elongated humeral spot; maxilla reaches
to of the orbit; 8.210.9 interorbital width; four
preorbital ridge; 11 preorbital edge; six supraorbital
ridge; 18 serrae at lower edge of preoperculum; 24
serrae at hind margin of preoperculum.
Description
Morphometric data and counts are presented
in Table 1. Body laterally compressed, dorsal and
abdominal profles convex rising steeply from occiput
to base of frst dorsal fn, then gently sloping posteriorly.
Eyes large, its margin free. Gill membranes free from
isthmus; six branchiostegal rays. First branchial arch
with 1920 gill rakers. Two predorsal bones.
Nasal spine present. Preorbital ridge with 45
retrorse spine-like serrae and partly hidden in skin;
preorbital edge with 1112 distinct, exposed serrae
projecting ventrally. Suborbital ridge not serrated.
Supraorbital ridge with 56 retrorse serrae, partly
subderminal. Preopercular ridge absent. Lower edge
of preoperculum with 1819 serrae, posteriormost
ones largest; hind margin of preoperculum with 2425
minute denticulations; interoperculum smooth. (Fig.
1).
Body covered by scales, except in predorsal area.
Image 1. Left lateral view of Parambassis waikhomi (RCMMF-16), 31.5mm SL
Lower edge of
preoperculum
Hind margin
of
preoperculum
Preorbital
edge
Preorbital ridge
Supraorbital
ridge
Figure 1. Cephalic serration of Parambassis waikhomi,
36.3mm SL (RCMMF-19)
W. Vishwanath Singh
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332
A new Parambassis species K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha
3329
Head naked, except 34 (4) scale rows on cheek.
Lateral-line scales 5860; 10 rows of scales between
lateral line and base of last dorsal spine; 9/1/9
scale rows in transverse line across caudal peduncle.
First dorsal fn with seven spines, second one longest;
second dorsal fn continuous with frst with one spine
and 1415 (14) branched rays (last two rays inserted
on same pterygiophore counted as one). Anal fn
with three spines, third one longest, with 1415 (14)
branched rays. Pelvic fn with one spine and fve
branched rays. Pectoral fn with 10 rays. Caudal fn
with 11+11 branched rays, vertebrae 24 (3).
Dentition: Many small conical teeth are embedded
in the premaxilla where the teeth in the outer row is
larger. Dentary is also with many small villiform teeth
where 56 canine-like teeth are randomly arranged
medially on each side (Fig. 2).
Coloration: In 10% formalin: head and body
background creamish. A faint blackish axial streak
on body, darker posteriorly. Each scale margins
outlined by indistinct melanophores. A vertically
elongated humeral blotch, more or less continuing a
vertically elongated triangular blotch immediately in
Table 1. Morphological characters of Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov.
Characters Holotype
Paratypes N=19
Mean Min. Max. S.D.
Standard length (mm) 33.5 35.7 31.5 39.8 2.4
In % SL
Head length 34.6 39.3 30.9 47.7 4.6
Predorsal length 42.5 42.6 39.0 46.1 2.1
Preanal length 15.6 19.8 15.3 24.3 2.6
Body depth 37.9 37.9 35.4 40.4 1.6
Depth of caudal peduncle 11.6 11.1 9.9 12.2 0.8
Length of caudal peduncle 11.5 13.9 11.5 16.3 1.4
Body width 13.3 13.4 10.5 16.2 1.6
Snout length 9.4 9.7 7.8 11.5 1.2
Eye diameter 12.3 11.5 10.2 12.7 0.9
Interorbital width 9.5 9.6 8.2 10.9 0.8
Length of dorsal-fn base 43.7 45.1 42.6 47.6 1.7
Length of anal-fn base 32.3 31.3 28.6 34.0 1.6
Length of pelvic-fn spine 18.0 17.7 15.3 20.1 1.3
Length of pectoral fn 25.7 24.6 21.5 27.7 2.1
Length of upper caudal-fn lobe 28.2 29.1 26.2 32.0 2.1
Length of median caudal-fn rays 15.5 15.9 13.2 18.6 1.7
Length of lower caudal-fn lobe 28.3 27.3 23.4 31.1 2.3
Figure 2. Dentition of Parambassis waikhomi, 36.3 mm SL
(RCMMF-19)
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332
A new Parambassis species K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha
3330
front of frst dorsal-fn origin. Second to fourth spine
of frst dorsal with a decorative distinct blackish outer
margin, second dorsal hyaline. Pectoral, pelvic and
anal fns hyaline. Caudal fn with a series of unevenly
distributed dots between each ray.
Live colours: Pattern as in preserved specimens,
general colouration yellowish to silvery, body semi-
transparent with yellowish-chin.
Etymology
This new species is named after Prof. Waikhom
Vishwanath honouring his contributions to the
ichthyology of freshwater fshes of northeastern
India.
Distribution
Presently known from the Loktak Lake, Chindwin
basin, Manipur, northeastern India (Fig. 3).
Discussion
Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov. is distinguished
from its nearest congener Parambassis ranga in
having 1920 (vs. 2228) gill rakers, 910 (vs. 1213)
pectoral fn rays. Presence of six supraorbital spine
(vs. absence), more number of moderately large serrae
in preorbital ridge (1112 vs. 7) and absence of serrae
(vs. presence of 8 large serrae) in preopercular ridge.
Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov. differs from P.
apogonoides, P. dayi, P. macrolepis, P. siamensis, P.
thomasi, and P. wolffi by the presence (vs. absence) of
a humeral spot. It differs from P. apogonoides, P. dayi,
P. macrolepis, P. siamensis, and P. thomasi, P. wolffi
by the absence (vs. presence) of predorsal scales. It
is also distinguished from P. apogonoides, P. dayi,
P. thomasi, P. wolffi and P. vollmeri in having more
scale (5860 vs. 3450) in the lateral series. It differs
from P. vollmeri in having more gill rakers (1920 vs.
1316), and the absence of serrae (vs. presence of 11
serrae) in the preopercular ridge. It also differs from
P. bistigmata in the absence (vs. presence) of two
distinct black spots on either side of the anal fn origin
connected by a narrow black curved line.
Parambassis waikhomi sp. nov. differs from P.
baculis in having more gill rakers (1920 vs. 1215),
Figure 3. Distribution map of Parambassis waikhomi
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332
A new Parambassis species K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha
3331
less scales in lateral series (5860 vs. 80100), less
pectoral fn rays (910 vs. 13). It differs from P. lala
in having less scales in lateral series (5860 vs. 66),
absence of serrae in the preopercular ridge (vs. 9 large
serrae), absence of vertical dark bands (vs. presence of
two broad vertical dark bands) in the fanks.
The new species is distinguished from P.
tennaserimensis in having more scales (5860 vs. 53) in
the lateral series, more serrae in the preorbital edge (11
vs. 5) and more serrae in lower edge of preoperculum
(18 vs. 9). It differs from P. pulcinella in (absence vs.
presence) of a conspicuous compressed hump in front
of frst dorsal-fn origin and in having more number of
scales in lateral series (5860 vs. 5153).
Parambassis baculis and P. ranga were previously
included under the genera Pseudambassis (Talwar &
Jhingran 1991). Later in 1994, Roberts transferred
them as the generic characters ft that of Parambassis.
According to Roberts (1994), Parambassis can be
divided into two species groups; one usually without a
humeral spot and with short dorsal and anal fns (each
with only 911 soft rays) and another usually with a
humeral spot and with long dorsal and anal fns (each
1217 soft rays). He felt, however, that these groups
were not monophyletic. Parambassis waikhomi sp.
nov. apparently belongs to the later group.
Some of the glass fshes are widely distributed in
different basins. Roberts (1994) stated that glassperches
are most numerous in India and Borneo. The widespread
nature of occurrence could be attributed either to the
ornamental trade and widespread introductions or the
widespread species could be species complexes.
However, the populations of various species in many
basins need examination and verifcation.
Comparative materials
Parambassis baculis: MUMF Uncat., 5 ex., 38.5
42.6 mm SL, India: Tripura, Agartala.
Parambassis bistigmata: MUMF/Per-105, 39.3mm
SL; India: Arunachal Pradesh state: Ranga River,
Kimin station, Brahmaputra drainage.
Parambassis lala: MUMF/Per/G-3-7, 5ex., 38.0
38.5 mm SL, India: Assam: Silchar.
Parambassis ranga: RGUMF-0147, 1ex., 40.2mm
SL, India: Arunachal Pradesh: Kimin. MUMF/
Per/G-8-11, 4ex., 38.040.5 mm SL, India: Manipur:
Tamenglong: Leimatak River.
Published informations used for comparison:
Roberts (1994) for P. apogonoides, P. dayi, P.
macrolepis, P. siamensis, P. thomasi, P. vollmeri, P.
wolffi and Kottelat (2003) for P. pulcinella

REfEREnCEs
fraser-Brunner, A. (1955). A synopsis of the centropomid
fshes of the subfamily Chandidae, with description of a
new genus and two new species. Bulletin of Raffes Museum
25 (1954[1955]): 185213.
Geetakumari, K. (2012). Parambassis bistigmata, a new
species of glassperch from north-eastern India (Teleostei:
Ambassidae). Zootaxa 3317: 5964.
Greenwood, P. H. (1976). A review of the family Centropomidae
(Pisces: Perciformes). Bulletin of the British Museum
(Natural History) 29(1): 181.
Hollister, G. (1934). Clearing and dyeing fsh for bone study.
Zoologica 12: 89101.
Kottelat, M. (2003). Parambassis pulcinella, a new species
of glassperch (Teleostei: Ambassidae) from the Ataran
River basin (Myanmar), with comments on the family-
group names Ambassidae, Chandidae and Bogodidae.
Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters 14(1): 918.
Roberts, T. R. (1989). The freshwater fshes of western Borneo
Key to species of the genus Parambassis of India
Presence of humeral spot .............................................................................................................................. 2 1.
Absence of humeral spot ................................................................................................................................ 5
Body with three dusky bars ..................................................................................................................... 2. P. lala
Body without bars ........................................................................................................................................... 3
3. Preopercular ridge with serrae ............................................................................................................ P. ranga
Preopercular ridge with no serrae .................................................................................................................. 4
4. Presence of 2 distinct black spots on either side of the anal fn ................................................... P. bistigmata
Absence of 2 distinct black spots on either side of the anal fn ...................................................................... 5
Gill rakers on lower limb of 1 5.
St
arch 1215 ........................................................................................ P. baculis
Gill rakers on lower limb of 1
st
arch 1920 ..................................................................... P. waikhomi sp. nov.
6. Anal fn scale sheath with only row of scale ........................................................................................... P. dayi
Anal fn scale sheath with two row of scales ................................................................................... P. thomasi
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33273332
A new Parambassis species K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha
3332
(Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Memoirs of the California
Academy of Sciences 14: i-xii+1210.
Roberts, T.R. (1994). Systematic revision of tropical Asian
freshwater glassperches (Ambassidae), with descriptions
of three new species. Natural History Bulletin of Siamese
Society 42(1994 [1995]): 263290.
sen, n. (1995). Pisces, state fauna of Meghalaya. Zoological
Survey of India 1: 483606.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991). Inland Fishes of India
and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd., N. Delhi, 1991, 2 vols, xix+1158.
Vishwanath, W., W.s. Lakra & U.K. sarkar (2007). Fishes
of North East India. National Bureau of Fish Genetic
Resources, Lucknow, India, 264pp.
JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33333341
Current status of Marsh Crocodiles Crocodylus palustris
(Reptilia: Crocodylidae) in Vishwamitri River, Vadodara
City, Gujarat, India
Raju Vyas
505, Krishnadeep Tower, Mission Road, Fatehgunj, Vadodara, Gujarat 390002, India
Email: razoovyas@hotmail.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: S. Bhupathy
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2977
Received 26 October 2011
Final received 05 October 2012
Finally accepted 20 October 2012
Citation: Vyas, R. (2012). Current status of Marsh Crocodiles Crocodylus
palustris (Reptilia: Crocodylidae) in Vishwamitri River, Vadodara City,
Gujarat, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33333341
Copyright: Raju Vyas 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-
proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit
to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: I am thankful to all staff members of NGOs and
government organization listed in Appendix 2, for the help in various
aspects of study and survey. Special thanks to the Conservator of Forest,
Social Forestry, Vadodara for the help in survey. I am especially thankful to
Mrs. Snehal Bhavsar, Rajesh Bhavsar, Manoj Thakar, Vishal Thakor, Viral
Roy, Pritesh Patel and Kartik Upadhayay for providing photographs for the
article and accompanying me during the feld work. Finally, I am grateful to
Khushboo R. Vyas for reviewing the draft manuscript.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341 3333
Abstract: Data presented here is based on a three year study
(20082010) on a population of Mugger Crocodylus palustris
inhabiting Vishwamitri River near Vadodara City, Gujarat State,
India. In total, 155 Muggers were counted in the 25km river
stretch during 2010. In all, 40 burrows were observed along the
river bank, and the same were clumped in certain sections of the
river. Muggers fed eight species of birds, and domestic livestock
in addition to scavenging. Eight instances of human-crocodile
conficts were observed including four human causalities. A total
90 Muggers were rescued from the urban areas and the same
were relocated elsewhere in the river system. Various types
of threats to Mugger were also noticed including habitat loss,
alteration and soil erosion and mortality due to rail traffc. The
present study suggests further research to propose strategies to
conserve this population.
Keywords: Mugger-human conficts, rescue, river system,
translocation, urban area.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:23DA3FAB-C113-4008-A8C4-1CDD4E92EAFB
The Marsh Crocodile or Mugger Crocodylus
palustris is one of the common and wide spread
crocodilian species in India. This species is categorized
as nationally Vulnerable subsequent to an assessment
following IUCN criteria for threatened species (Molur
& Walker 1998) and has the highest legal protection in
India as it is listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972. During the early seventies,
while the Mugger populations in India were reportedly
declining (Whitaker & Andrews 2003), Oza (1975)
reported over 50 individuals of this species in Sayaji
Sarovar (Ajwa Village) in close vicinity to Vadodara
City, Gujarat. This population has reportedly declined
due to hunting and illegal fshing in the down-stream
of River Vishwamitri (Vyas & Vyas 2002; Vyas 2010a).
The present study was carried out between January
2008 and December 2010 to determine its current
status and assess issues related to conservation.
Materials and Methods
Study Area: The present study was conducted in a
25km long and 4060 m wide stretch of Vishwamitri
River (from Vemali Village to Vadsar Bridge Vadodara
City). The river fows through Vadodara City from
north to south (Image 1) and it carries a signifcant
quantum of sewage from the city and effuents from
the Gujarat Industrial Development Corporations of
Kalali and Makarpura. The downstream of the river
is highly polluted (Gujarat Pollution Board 200708)
and the water color varied from dark green-black-pink
to red with a putrefed smell. The river stretch was
divided into four sections based on the development
of the city (Appendix 1) and river bank for easy
approach. The section-wise features of the river and
general information are available in Vyas (2010b).
Mugger count: Muggers were counted (visually)
during December 2008January 2009 and night surveys
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341 3334
were done during January 2010 following Choudhary
& Rao (1982) and De Vos (1982). Basking animals
were counted from vantage points on the river bank
during mid-day using a pair of binoculars (8x40). Size
class of the Muggers, shore and river bank features and
river conditions were assessed visually. Mugger counts

Image 1. Map of the study area: Vishwamitri River stretch and Vadodara City.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3335
during night were done using a search light. These
counts were carried out in the last week of January
2010 involving the staff of Gujarat Forest Department
and volunteers of a few local non governmental
organizations (Appendix 2). Prior to initiating these
counts, an orientation routine was conducted for all
team members briefng them on methodology. Most
of the Muggers were recorded following eye refection.
Data such as size, habitat type, water quality, river
side features, and anthropogenic activities in the area
were recorded visually and man-animal conficts were
recorded opportunistically.
Burrow count: Mugger burrows were located
manually during November 2008January 2009.
Burrows were categorised as active and inactive
(abandoned) based on signs during repeated surveys.
Results
Mugger count 200809: Counts of Muggers
during the day were carried out from the last week of
December 2008 to January 2009. In total, 81 Muggers
were counted within the 25km stretch of the river
studied. This included 14 juveniles, 24 subadults and
43 adults (over two meters). Data on Mugger counts
at each section of the river and size class are given in
Table 1. The highest of 36 Muggers was observed in
river Section-2.
Mugger count 2010: During the night count, a total
of 155 Muggers were observed, which included 78
adults. Section wise counts and size of Muggers are
given in Table 1.
Burrows count: In total, 40 burrows of Muggers
were observed during November 2008January 2009,
including 25 on the left bank and the rest on the right
bank of the river. Among them, 36 burrows were
active (Table 2). The highest of 27 active burrows
were observed in Section-3. Only two burrows were
recorded in Section-4, the down-stream of the river.
A River Front Project was initiated during 2009 by
the Vadodara Municipal Corporation. In the frst phase,
the river banks were cleared and widened to facilitate
the fow of water. Due to this, about 25% of burrows
got blocked with loose soil. However, it was observed
that within a few weeks the Muggers had excavated
new burrows nearby.
Food and feeding: It was found that Muggers
actively foraged nocturnally (dusk to dawn). During
the study, Muggers were observed feeding on eight
Table 1. The Vishwamitri River section and count of Mugger Crocodylus palustris
River
length
(km)
The river
section
Numbers of Animals
Total
%
Population
A

-

s
u
r
v
e
y

r
e
s
u
l
t

D
e
c
e
m
b
e
r


2
0
0
8

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
0
9
Juvenile
<1>m
Sub-adult
<1 to 2>
Adult
<2 to 3>
Big-size
<3m
8.5 Section-1 6 05 02 0 13 16.04
3.5 Section-2 6 15 11 4 36 44.44
7.0 Section-3 1 02 23 3 29 35.80
6.0 Section-4 1 02 00 0 03 03.70
14 24 36 7 81
25km % 17.28 29.62 44.44 08.64
B

-

s
u
r
v
e
y

r
e
s
u
l
t

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
0
8.5 Section-1 03 03 03 02 11 07.09
3.5 Section-2 10 14 20 05 49 31.61
7.0 Section-3 18 24 33 10 85 54.83
6.0 Section-4 01 04 02 03 10 06.45
Sub total 32 45 58 20 155
25km % 20.64 29.03 37.41 12.90
Table 2. Numbers of burrows observed in study area, River
Vishwamitri.
Section no. Number of Burrows
Right Bank Left Bank Total
Used +
Unused = Total
Used +
Unused = Total
Used +
Unused= Total
Section-I 0 + 0 =00 3 + 2= 05 3 + 2 = 05
Section- II 1 + 0 = 01 03 + 0 = 03 04 + 0 = 04
Section- III 13 +1 =14 14 + 1 = 15 27 + 2 = 29
Section- VI 0 + 0 = 00 02 + 0 = 02 02 + 0 = 02
Total 14+ 1= 15 22 + 3= 25 36 + 4 = 40
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3336
species of birds: Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax
niger, Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii, Cattle Egret
Bubulcus ibis, Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax,
Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus, Black-winged
Stilt Himantopus himantopus, White-breasted Water-
hen Amauronis phoenicurus and Blue Rock Pigeon
Columba livia. Juveniles fed on frogs (Indian Skipping
Frog Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Indian Bull Frog
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus) and invertebrates such as
insects and dragon fies.
During this study, Muggers attacking domestic
animals such as goats, dogs and poultry were reported
on numerous occasions, which indicate dependency of
this species on domestic livestock for food. Muggers
also scavenged on materials dumped in the river and
on its banks (Image 2). On two occasions, this species
was found scavenging on human carcasses and human
foetuses thrown in to the river, probably by hospitals
indicating that the river is being used for dumping
medical wastes as well.
Human-Mugger conficts: Muggers attacking
people were observed on eight occasions during
20082010; Five male victims, including a 12-year
old boy and three females of age group of 2040 years
were victims. Two attacks were noted within the city
limits and the rest (6) along the down stream of river
Dhadhar-Vishwamitri. Six attacks happened while
the victims were crossing the river and in the other
two cases it was while washing clothes and operating
a motor for pumping water. Barring one record during
April, all the other conficts were observed during
JuneSeptember.
Rescues: A total of 90 Muggers were rescued
during this study including 25 juveniles, 25 sub-
adults, 27 adults (13 muggers measured over three
meter) (Fig. 1; Images 3 & 4). Monthly data showed
that a higher number of Muggers were rescued during
September, August and November (Fig. 2). The
rescued crocodiles were sent to the Forest Department
for release in suitable habitats. Prior to January 2009,
the rescued crocodiles were released at Sayaji Sarovar,
Ajwa Village and those rescued in subsequent years
were released in the downstream of Vishwamitri
River.
Nest and nesting success: Nine nests were
recorded in Section-3 of the river from 20082010;
of them, fve nests were predated and hatchlings
emerged successfully from the other four. However,
hatchlings and juveniles contributed about 17% and
20% of the sampled population during 2009 and 2010,
respectively. Of the three nests observed during
2009, 22 hatchlings emerged from two nests, found in
Section-3 of the river (Image 5).
Threats: Threats to crocodiles include loss,

Pritesh Patel
Image 2. A large Mugger crocodile feeding on an animal
carcass

Image 3. A rescued Mugger with injury, inset close-up of


injured foot.

Image 4 . An injured juvenile Mugger rescued from the


Vadodara City.
Raju Vyas
Raju Vyas
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3337

Figure 1. Size class of Muggers rescued from Vadodara City during 20082010 by Forest Department (FD)) and Non
Governmental Organizations.
GSPCA - Gujarat Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to the Animals; LRCCT - Let. Rohan Crocodile Charitable Trust;
OI - Others Individuals).

Image 5. Mugger hatchlings.


Vishal Thakur & Viral Roy

Image 6. An adult Mugger killed by rail traffc near


Vishwamitri Railway Station, Vadodara
Manoj Thakar
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3338

Figure 2. Mugger rescue in different months from Vadodara City during 2008 to 2010.
alteration and erosion of habitats, along with new
developments in the river and its close vicinity.
Recently, a few Muggers were killed in road and rail
traffc (Image 6).
Discussion
Muggers in river Vishwamitri is one unique
example of man living in harmony with animals. The
two decades of Mugger count has shown an increasing
trend in its population. Data on the status of Muggers
of river Vishwamitri during January 1987 to December
2007 is summarized in Vyas (2010a). The night count
is relatively a better method to assess the population of
Mugger compared to surveys during day.
A total of 40 burrows were counted in 2009, of which
36 were active. Among them, the highest number of
29 burrows and 26 animals was observed in Section-3
of the river. The number of burrows positively
corresponded with the number of animals counted in
the same river section. This is similar to the report by
Nathalie (2011) on C. niloticus in River Tapoa, Niger.
Prior to 1995, there were only nine burrows along this
river stretch (Vyas 2010b), which increased four fold
during this study. During the riverfront project about
25% burrows were damaged, but new burrows within
a few weeks shows the adaptability of Muggers with
respect to a changing environment.
Nonperennial and polluted rivers in general do
not support rich fsh fauna round the year. Therefore,
crocodiles were forced to feed on various species, both
live and dead animals. Observations of crocodiles
feeding on discarded medical wastes such as human
body parts and foetuses are alarming and this should
be stopped.
Most of the human-crocodile confict was observed
during JuneSeptember, which is the breeding season
of the species (Vijaykumar 1997). Crocodiles are
known to be aggressive during the breeding season and
often attack the intruder. Including the present study,
a total of 22 attacks have been reported from 1985
to 2010 (Vyas 1993, 2005, 2010a; Whitaker 2008).
The trend in Mugger attacking humans has increased
over the years (Fig. 3), which requires attention of the
concerned department, and further study is required to
propose mitigation plans.
Mugger counts during 2010 showed adult
crocodiles over two meters contributed about 50%,
which indicates a healthy population of this species
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3339
in Vishwamitri River. However, continuous increase
of a largely carnivorous species in close proximity to
human habitation is a matter of concern. It is high
time to design an action plan for this species at the
state level and to evaluate the existing conservation
strategy and reformulate the policies (Vyas 2010a),
if required. Every year numerous Muggers are being
rescued from urban areas of the city and translocated
with the involvement of various NGOs and staff of the
State Forest Department. While the interest of locals
in crocodilian conservation is appreciable, lack of
appropriate rescue and release protocols is a matter
of concern. A few translocated animals returned
to the same river stretch from where they had been
rescued earlier (Bhatt 2000; Vyas 2010b). Appropriate
measures should be taken to protect Muggers from
getting killed by vehicular traffc such as rail and road
(Vyas & Bhavsar 2009; Vyas 2011), which are new
threats faced by this species.
This small and dense population of Mugger survives
in the kernel of Vadodara, Gujarat, India is a notable
example of crocodilian conservation and man-mugger
concordance. The preservation of this population now
lies in the hands of the residents of Vadodara City and
various local government agencies, including the State
Forest Department, Urban Development Authority
and Municipal Corporation, Vadodara. Continuous
monitoring of the population of this species is required
as suggested by Vyas (2010a).

REFERENCES
Bhatt, S. (2000). Croc recaptured on Gujarat, CSG Newsletter
19(1): 910.
Choudhary, B.C. & R.J. Rao (1982). Status survey of
Crocodile population, 4446. In: Captive management
of crocodiles in India: A feld Guide. Central Crocodile
Breeding and Management, Training Institute, Hyderabad.
De Vos, A. (1982). A Manual on Crocodile Conservation and
Management in India. Foods and Agricultural Organization
Figure 3. The trend in Mugger attacking humans has increased over the year, Vishvamitri River System, Gujarat, India.
Fatal
Power (Total Attack)
Nonfatal
Total Attack
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3340
Appendix 1. Segment studied in Vishwamitri River and description of the area and characteristics of river banks
River
Segment
Boundary of the
River Segment
Co-ordinates
Segment
length
Features of the river Bank Activities
Section-1
NH-No. 8 Bridge to
VUDA Circle
+ Flood Control
Canal
73
0
1248.67E
22
0
2125.67N
73
0
1142.61E
22
0
1930.23N
8.5km
(+1.0km)
The river bank is undisturbed and covered with
distant agricultural felds, and southwards near
Sama Village and VUDA circle area are the
recently developed urban residential societies,
EME school and training campus and a few
slums.
Fishing, washing and
bathing. Also, river water
is used by farmers for
irrigation and a number
of illegal liquor distilleries
are operated on the
banks
Section-2
VUDA Circle to
Kalaghoda Circle
+ Flood Control
Canal
73
0
1142.61E
22
0
1930.23N
73
0
1120.18E
22
0
1829.66N
3.5km
(+1.0km)
The river banks are covered with slums,
gardens and zoo and urban residential
societies.
One drainage (Bhukhi) empties on the left
banks, which comes from the eastern side
areas of Chhani and Nizampura and the
second drainage drains on the right bank, from
the north-western slopes of city.
Washing, bathing and
some illegal distilleries
are observed in this
segment too. Most of the
banks areas are used
by the slum dwellers for
defecation.
Section-3
Kalaghoda Circle to
Munj Mahuda Bridge
73
0
1120.18E
22
0
1829.66N
73
0
1116.70E
22
0
1708.03N
7.0km
Both the banks are covered with slums, open
scrub lands and a few residential societies.
Left banks open scrub lands and society.
One drainage pours into the right bank, which
comes from Akota area of city and the second
drainage empties into the left bank of the river,
this drainage assembles rain water from the
palace compound and city area.
Washing and a few illegal
distilleries are operated
on the banks
Section-4
Munj Mahuda Bridge
to Vadsar Bridge
73
0
1116.70E
22
0
1708.03N
73
0
1007.72E
22
0
1553.51N
6.0km
The right river bank area is covered with
slums, open scrub lands and few urban
housing societies, whereas on the left banks;
agricultural felds are found.
A rain fed drainage merges into the river on
the left banks, this collects rainwater from
Sursagar, Dandiya Bajar and Manjalpur.
Washing and liquor
distilleries (illegal). Also,
river waters are pumped
by local farmers for the
irrigation purpose.
Appendix 2. List of government, non government organizations and individuals involved in rescuing wild animals in and
around Vadodara, Gujarat.
Name and address of organization Name of the contact person Contact number
1
Social Forestry, Forest Department,
New Anexie Building, Kothi, Vadodara
Conservator of Forest
RFO-Sayajiaug (0265-27839542)
RFO-Padra (02662-24196)
RFO-Amod (02641-45359)
2 Wildlife Circle - Forest Department, Kothi Offce, Vadodara Conservator of Forest RFO-Harni (0265-2484499)
3 Wildlife Circle- Bharuch, Forest Department Conservator of Forest RFO-Jambusar (02644-20294)
4 Sayaji Baug Zoo, Maha Nagar Seva Sadan Vadodara Zoo Curator 0265-2784079
5 Fire Brigade, Maha Nagar Seva Sadan Vadodara. Chief Fire Offcer 0265-2562010; 0256-2432050
6
Vadodara Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to the Animals,
Vadodara City
Secretary 0265-6555552
7
Gujarat Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to the Animals,
60-Kunj Society, Alkapuri, Vadodara
Secretary: Snehal R. Bhavsar
Raj Bhavsar
91-9825011117
8 Let. Rohan Crocodile Charitable Trust, Raopura, Vadodara
President & Project Coordinator
Mr. Ashok Pawar / Rakesh V.
91-9825317472
91-9925058137
9 Wildlife Reused Trust, Vadodara President: Rajesh Kadam 91-9662039281
10 Canine Group, Vadodara City President: Vishal Thakur 91-9825683960
11 Mr. Rohit Vyas and Group, Vadodara City Mr. Rohit Vyas 91-9998954023
12 Mr. Kartik Upadhaya and Group, Vadodara. Mr. Kartik Upadhaya 91-9426270077
13 Mr. Pravin Maharaj, Padra, Vadodara Mr. Pravin Maharaj 91-9327960226
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33333341
Muggers in Vadodara R. Vyas
3341
of the United Nation, Field Document, i-iv+169pp.
Gujarat Pollution Board (2008). River Vishwamitri Water
Analysis Results from Gujarat Pollution Board: 2007-08,
http://gpcb.gov.in/projects.asp
Nathalie, N. (2011). Population of Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus
niloticus) in the northern part of park W. Niger. CSG
Newsletter 30(1): 4-6.
Oza, G.M. (1975). Conservation of the crocodile in the Sayaji
Sarovar lake, Baroda, India. Biology Conservation 7: 235
236.
Vijaykumar, V. (1997). Evaluation of restocked Mugger
crocodiles and its implication in long-term conservation and
management of the species in Gujarat, India. July, 1997.VII
- 65pp. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Patwadi Naka,
Bhuj-Kachchh, Gujarat (Unpublished Report).
Vyas, R. (1993). Recent cases of man-eating by the Mugger
(Crocodylus palustris) in Gujarat State. Hamadryad 18:
4849.
Vyas, R. (2005). Recent notable incidences of confict between
Mugger and humans in Gujarat. CSG Newsletter 24(2):
78.
Vyas, R. (2010a). Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) population
in and around Vadodara City, Gujarat State, India. Russian
Journal of Herpetology 17(1): 4350.
Vyas, R. (2010b). The Muggers (Crocodylus palustris) of
Vishwamitri River: Past and Present. Report. Herpetology
& Environmental Research Project (HERP), Vadodara,
India. 32pp, Figures 5, Tables 11, I-XX.
Vyas, R. (2011). New threat on the Mugger (Crocodylus
palustris) population of Vadodara city, Gujarat, India. CSG
Newsletter 30(3): 1516.
Vyas, R. & S.R. Bhavsar (2009). Movement of an individual
Mugger into urban areas of Vadodara City, Gujarat State,
India. CSG Newsletter 28(3): 57.
Vyas, R. & R. Vyas (2002). Mugger survey in the Vishwamitri
River of Gujarat, India. CSG Newsletter 21(3): 9110.
Whitaker, R. & H. Andrews (2003). Crocodile conservation,
Western Asia region: An update. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 100(2&3): 432445.
Whitaker, N, (2008). Survey of Human-crocodile confict in
Gujarat and Rajasthan: Trial of confict mitigation education
materials and further information on. Madras Crocodile
Bank Trust, 30pp. (Unpublished Report).
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33423348
Rapid assessment of Wreathed Hornbill Aceros
undulatus (Aves: Bucerotidae) populations and
conservation issues in fragmented lowland tropical
forests of Arunachal Pradesh, India
C. Murali Krishna
1
, Kuladip Sarma
2
& Awadhesh Kumar
3
1,2,3
Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed University), Nirjuli, Papumpare
District, Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India
Email:
1
murali7murali@gmail.com,
2
kldpsarma306@gmail.com,
3
tpileatus@gmail.com (corresponding author)
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Shumpei Kitamura
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2969
Received 18 October 2011
Final received 23 July 2012
Finally accepted 14 October 2012
Citation: Krishna, C.M., K. Sarma & A. Kumar (2012). Rapid assessment
of Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus (Aves: Bucerotidae) populations
and conservation issues in fragmented lowland tropical forests of Arunachal
Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33423348.
Copyright: C. Murali Krishna, Kuladip Sarma & Awadhesh Kumar
2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-proft purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors
and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors express their sincere thanks to the
PCCF-Wildlife, Itanagar for giving us necessary permission to carry out our
research, and Mr. Umesh Kumar, Divisional Forest Offcer, Mehao Wildlife
Sanctuary for his valuable logistic support during the feld work. Grateful
thanks are also due to Director, NERIST and Dr. C.L. Sharma, Associate
Professor & Head, Department of Forestry, NERIST, Arunachal Pradesh
for their administrative supports. We also would like to thank Dr. Aparajita
Datta, Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) for clearing the doubts
regarding the species identifcation and distribution. Also, we would like
to thank Mr. Raju Barthakur, Assistant professor, NERIST for keeping the
paper free from grammatical errors. Last but not the least; we would like to
thank the feld assistants Biron J. and Agomena for helping us in the feld
and NRDMS, DST, Government of India for providing fnancial assistant
to carried out this work.
3342
Abstract: A rapid assessment of Wreathed Hornbills, their
distribution and abundance was carried out in fragmented
lowland tropical forests of Lower Dibang Valley District,
Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India from October 2010 to
April 2011 using the total count method. A total of 62km distance
was covered on foot to survey four study sites: Horupahar, Delo,
Koronu and Injunu. Nine focks of 172 hornbills were sighted.
Aceros undulatus fock size ranged from 838 individuals with a
mean of about 19.12.6. Illegal logging, hunting for bushmeat
and other body parts (feathers, beak etc.) for decorating the
head gear and house interiors by the local tribals were observed
as the major threats to the species in the study areas.
Keywords: Aceros undulatus, encounter rate, habitat
encroachment, illegal logging, local hunting.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:956F430A-F3AE-4339-A951-C248C9460EAC
Many species of hornbills are under the threat of
extinction because they are specialised with regard
to habitat, food and nesting sites. They play a very
important role in the forest ecosystem as seed dispersers
(Kinnaird 1998; Whitney & Smith 1998; Kitamura et
al. 2008; Balasubramanian et al. 2011). Nine species
of hornbills have been recorded from India, of which
fve species are recorded from the tropical forests of
Arunachal Pradesh (Datta 1998; Selvan 2010). Among
these fve species, the Wreathed Hornbill Aceros
undulatus, also known as the Bar-pouched Wreathed
Hornbill (Images 1 & 2), is threatened by illegal
selective logging, habitat encroachment and local
hunting pressure in unprotected tropical forestlands in
Lower Dibang Valley District of Arunachal Pradesh
(Kumar et al. 2011).
The distribution of the A. undulatus ranges from
northeastern India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao Peoples
Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand
and Viet Nam (BirdLife International 2009). In general,
hornbills feed mostly on fgs. However, A. undulatus
is more of a generalist frugivore when compared with
the other species of hornbills such as the Great Pied
and Brown Hornbill (Datta & Rawat 2003). Hornbills
are widely hunted by the Adi and Idu Mishmi tribals of
Arunachal Pradesh for bushmeat. Hornbill body parts
such as beak and feathers are also used in traditional
culture as headgear decorations (Solanki et al. 2004;
Riba 2012), and parts are even displayed in the houses
by the tribal population as trophies (Datta 2002). The
local communities of Mehao have a long tradition of
hunting which is a major threat to wildlife in the study
area (Chetry et al. 2010). Aceros undulatus is listed
as Least Concern under IUCN (BirdLife International
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
3343
2012) and as Schedule-I species of the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act (1972) (Anonymous 1994).
The present study tried to assess the current
population status and conservation issues of
A.undulatus in fragmented lowland tropical forest of
Lower Dibang Valley District of Arunachal Pradesh
and also to highlight the importance of species
conservation.
Materials and Methods
Study area: Four sites with fragmented forests
were chosen namely Delo (95
0
54E & 28
0
02N),
Koronu (95
0
55E & 28
0
01N), Horupahar (95
0
53E &
28
0
01N) and Injunu (95
0
51E & 28
0
02N) which lie
adjacent to the Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary of Lower
Dibang Valley District of Arunachal Pradesh (Image
3) with an elevation range between 200275 m. The
study sites do not have fxed boundaries which made it
diffcult for us to calculate the area of each study site
and all the sites are inhabited. The fragmented forests
of the study area consisted of tropical semievergreen
vegetation dominated by tree species such as
Neolamarckia cadamba, Ailantus grandis, Bischofa
javanica, Duabanga grandifora, Dipterocarpus
macrocarpus, Erythrina suberosa, Ficus sp. and do
not fall under any category of protection. Adis and
Idu Mishmis are the major tribes who dominate the
study area and generally cultivate agricultural crops
like Mustard Sinapis alba, Maize Zea mays, Ginger
Zingiber offcinale and Turmeric Curcuma longa
for their livelihood, in open fragmented areas which

Dibang River
Study area
Forest patch
Mehao WLS
Mehao WLS
Image 3. The locations of the study sites.

Image 1. Male Wreathed Hornbills on resting.


Image 2. Female Wreathed Hornbills in fight
Murali Krishna Murali Krishna
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
3344
were created after selective logging and habitat
encroachment.
Population survey and estimation: The study
was conducted from October 2010 to April 2011.
Total count method was employed to conduct rapid
population assessment as it is the best method for
accessing fock forming birds (Colin et al. 1998;
Javed & Rahul 2002). All the birds found roosting on
trees along the trail during the survey were taken into
account and fying birds were ignored. Repeat surveys
were conducted on each survey month (October,
December 2010 and February, April 2011) for three
subsequent days between 05:3011:00 hrs (Appendix
1). An assumption was made before conducting the
survey: That the focks were never recounted on the
same day of the survey. A total of 62km of distance
was covered in all four study sites 14km in Horupahar,
19.5km in Delo, 15km in Koronu and 13.5km in Injunu.
All the individuals of Aceros undulatus sighted along
the trail were recorded for total fock size as well as
tree species on which they were sighted. The focks
sighted were grouped together by placing different
focks of almost same fock size or a same group on
consecutive survey days. In case an area had two or
more focks with the same fock size, then the focks
were placed randomly on the data sheet for population
analysis. The fock size and the number of focks
sighted on each survey were noted and the mean size
of the fock and mean fock numbers were calculated
at the end of the survey.
Estimation of vegetation parameters: Vegetation
analysis was done by counting the number of trees in
the trails followed. A total of nine trails were used
for collecting the data. Trails were laid randomly in
the study area and the length of the each trail was
maintained constant at 1 km with a width of 20m. Girth
at breast height (GBH) was not recorded during the
time of the study as all the focks that we encountered
were observed on the trees having 150cm GBH, also
only large trees above 100cm GBH were left after the
clearing of the area for the purpose of agriculture.
Also, we recorded a number of cut stumps in the trails
in order to evaluate the illegal logging pressure of the
area. Fig trees that had fallen on the trail were also
counted.
Questionnaire survey: A rapid questionnaire survey
was employed and 18 people were interviewed in the
study sites to get their quick response on the methods
of hunting, number of hornbills hunted every season,
preferences of hornbill species for hunting and use
pattern of hornbill such as for cultural, bushmeat or
trade. The survey was conducted mainly during the
evenings when the locals were free from work and
only men were interviewed in the study as females
were never involved in hunting.
Results
Population status: We estimated a minimum of
172 individuals of Aceros undulatus in nine focks
Study area
Average No. of
fock recorded
in study site
Average
fock size
Mostly sighted on
tree species
Delo 02
24 Ficus sp.
12 Bischofa javanica
Horupahar 03
14 Ficus sp.
11 Ficus sp.
20 Ficus sp.
Koronu 03
21 Canarium sp.
34 Ficus sp.
20 Bischofa javanica
Injunu 01 16 Bischofa javanica
Total 09 172
Average 19.1
Table 1. Details of Wreathed Hornbill focks sighted
Area
No. of trees
recorded
per km
No. of fg
plants per
km
No. of cut
stumps per
km
1 Delo 44.0 2.0 1.8
2 Horupahar 40.6 2.3 2.4
3 Koronu 36.6 3.2 1.7
4 Injunu 20.6 3.3 1.5
Table 2. Habitat status of study area
Name of
the Village
No. of
hunters
Inter-
viewed
Approximate
no. of hornbills
hunted during
migratory
season
Local guns
preferred
for hunting
Catapults
preferred
for
hunting
Delo 6 1520 5 1
Horupahar 6 1520 6 Nil
Koronu 3 1015 3 Nil
Injunu 3 1015 2 1
Total 18 5070 16 2
Table 3. Details of hunting of Wreathed Hornbills by locals
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
3345
during the study (Table 1) in particularly logged and
fragmented forest areas. The average fock size was
estimated as 19.12.6, ranging from 8-38 individuals.
Conservation status: Vegetation and logging: Tree
density was highest in Delo (44 trees/km trees followed
by Horupahar (40.6 trees/km), Koronu (36.6 trees/km)
and Injunu (20.6 trees/km) (Table 2). Fig tree density
was highest in Injunu (3.3 individuals/km) and was
lowest in Delo (2 individuals/km). Illegal selective
logging was commonly observed in the study area for
timber, frewood, house construction materials, etc.
Logging was highest in Horupahar (2.4 cut stumps/
km) followed by Delo (1.8 cut stumps/km), Koronu
(1.7 cut stumps/km) and Injunu (1.5 cut stumps/km)
was the least (Table 2; Images 4 & 5).
Hunting: According to the responses drawn from
the local people through rapid interviews, overall
5070 Aceros undulatus are hunted throughout their
migratory period, i.e., in winter in the study sites
(Table 3) which probably could be an over estimate.
The number of hornbills hunted varied in each site
ranging from 1020 individuals. Most of the hornbills
are hunted as a part of sport hunting and the meat of the
bird is consumed as food. The hunted hornbill meat
was never observed for sale in the local markets as
it is usually shared within the family and community.
The gizzard of the hornbill was used in some local
medicines for curing stomach disorders. The feathers
and skulls of the birds are used as decorative items
in the houses by Idu Mishmis and Adis. Guns are
preferred (88%, n=16) over catapults (12%, n=2) by
the local people for hunting hornbills due to the high
success rate (Image 6).
Discussion
Population: We estimated the minimum population
as 172 individuals of 9 focks in the study area. Though
this may not indicate the exact population of the A.
undulatus in the given area, still an estimate can be
made. Finding the exact estimates of such nomadic
fock forming birds is a diffcult task. A. undulatus
usually live in huge focks both in breeding and non-
breeding seasons (Kinnaird & OBrien 2007). Flock
size of upto 1000 individuals of A. undulatus was
also recorded in Thailands Khao Yai National Park
(Poonswad & Kemp 1993). However, the small fock
size in the study area might be due to unavailability of
food resources and hunting.
Effect of logging and fg tree density: The data that
we collected during the study was very limited thus
drawing assumptions based on it might be diffcult to
interpret. Datta (1998) stated that logging does not
affect the distribution pattern of the species as they are
nomadic in nature. Our results have also shown the
same. Logging at a rapid phase in the study area has
created huge gaps in the vegetation thus the hornbills
were easily sighted (Image 7). Rijksen (1978) stated
that fg densities determine the hornbill abundance of
a given area. However, fg densities did not have any
impact on the species as A. undulatus is a nomadic
species and tend to travel large distances between
feeding sites and the roosts during the breeding season
(Leighton 1986). Mostly fg trees in the study area
were used as roosting sites by the species. At times,
observations were made where A. undulatus fed on the
fgs as well.
Conservation issues
Habitat fragmentation leads to accessibility of
forest resources and thus facilitates easy hunting of
wildlife species (Robinson et al. 1999). High degree
of forest fragmentation due to anthropogenic practices
such as selective logging, agricultural practices has
deteriorated the forest quality in the present study areas

Image 4. Illegal logging in study area.


Murali Krishna Awadhesh Kumar
Image 5. Forest cutting for frewood Image 6. Hunting of hornbill for food
Awadhesh Kumar
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
3346
(Image 8). This led to easy sighting of hornbills for
hunters making the species more vulnerable. Hornbill
species are hunted for their casque and feathers (Rohit
2008). Mishmis and Adis usually hunt hornbills for
meat and their body parts (skull, feathers, casque, etc.)
and these are exhibited as trophies in their living room
and also used in decorating their headgear. Buceros
bicornis is the preferred hornbill species over Aceros
undulatus for hunting in Arunachal Pradesh (Datta
2002; Kumar et al. 2011) due to their high demand
in the local market for headgear decoration (Image
9). The beak of B. bicornis is mostly used to decorate
the headgear of the Nyishi tribe. The only reason for
targeting A. undulatus in the study area by the tribals
is that, it is the only hornbill species found in the study
area.
Based on the responses received from the villagers
by comparing the past and present abundance of
species, it was evident that A. undulatus population is
declining in the area. It may be due to high hunting
and habitat loss in the study sites. Habitat loss was
observed due to increasing agricultural practices to
cultivate cash crops such as Sinapis alba, Zea mays,
Zingiber offcinale and Curcuma longa in the study
area (Images 10 & 11). In addition to agricultural
practices, illegal logging of mature trees, which act
as roosting sites for A. undulates, were also observed
during the study period. The poor regeneration of plant
species in Koronu and the absence of regeneration
of the preferred tree species (Ficus sp.) in the other
three sites could be the reason for the declining natural
seed dispersers. Kitamura et al. (2008) stated that
A. undulatus are primarily scatter dispersers during
the day in the moist evergreen forest and act as key
stone species for preserving the forest ecosystem.
Balasubramanian et al. (2011) has supported this
hypothesis by explaining the role of Indian Grey
Hornbill in the regeneration of Santalum album in
Tamil Nadu, India. Similarly, Whitney & Smith
(1998) also stated that hornbill densities in primary
and secondary forests of central Africa suggested that
they are important agents of seed dispersal in both
habitats. Kinnaird (1998) also explained that the Red
Knobbed Hornbills effectively dispersed seeds of
several tropical trees thus infuencing the initial fate of
seeds in the regeneration process of the forests.
Logging and hunting, if continued in the same
phase will defnitely affect the population of A.
undulatus leading to local possible extripation in the
near future from the study area. So, certain measures
have to be taken by the forest department and the
government by bringing awareness among the local
communities explaining to them the importance of
hornbills for conservation and preservation of forest
ecosystem in addition to ensuring a continuous supply
of forest resources to the local inhabitants themselves.
Thus, to conserve the hornbill on a sustainable basis,
keeping the feeding and behavioural ecology of
A. undulatus in mind, large areas of disturbed and
fragmented lowland tropical forests in the study sites
have to be restored with tree species which could fulfl
the basic needs of the local society as well as wildlife
in general and A. undulatus in particular. A. undulatus
are more generalized feeders during the non-breeding
season (Datta 2001; Datta & Rawat 2003) and they
can survive in human dominated landscape as per the
general observations. Thus, the population of hornbills
will stay least affected and will thrive in its migratory
habitats in future.

Murali Krishna Awadhesh Kumar


Image 7. Degraded open forest in
study area
Image 8. Selective logging for timber Image 9. Nyshi Headgear decorated
by beak of Wreathed hornbill.
Murali Krishna
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
3347
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(2011). Avian frugivory and seed dispersal of Indian
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Datta, A. (2001). An ecological study of sympatric hornbills and
fruiting patterns in a tropical forest in Arunachal Pradesh.
PhD Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India.
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communities in Eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Unpublished
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by the Sulawesi Red-Knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix.
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Conservation of Asian Hornbills: Farmers of the Forest.
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Maruhashi, P. Wohandee & P. Poonswad (2008).
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Image 10. Local people polughing his fld after cutting
forest.
Image 11. Ginger crop cultivated in study area.

Chuku Loma Chuku Loma


Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33423348
Wreathed Hornbill M. Krishna et al.
Appendix 1. Showing the list of focks sighted on different days of survey in different areas.
Date
No. of hornbill
groups observed
Observed fock with number
of individuals
25.x.2010 1 12 -
26.x.2010 1 12 -
27.x.2010 2 11 26
02.xii.2010 2 12 22
03.xii.2010 2 16 26
04.xii.2010 2 11 22
06.ii.2011 2 11 23
07.ii.2011 2 10 28
08.ii.2011 1 10 -
02.iv.2011 2 11 24
03.iv.2011 1 12 -
04.iv.2011 1 12 -
Mean 11.6 24.4
Date
No. of hornbill
groups observed
Observed fock with number
of individuals
25.x.2010 2 14 16
26.x.2010 3 12 11 17
27.x.2010 3 14 16 18
02.xii.2010 3 11 14 21
03.xii.2010 3 8 13 20
04.xii.2010 1 23
06.ii.2011 3 10 13 20
07.ii.2011 1 18
08.ii.2011 3 11 14 19
02.iv.2011 2 12 14
03.iv.2011 3 11 16 21
04.iv.2011 0 14 16
Mean 11.4 14.5 19.8
Date
No. of hornbill
groups observed
Observed Flock with number
of individuals
25.x.2010 3 20 32 20
26.x.2010 3 21 33 19
27.x.2010 2 21 38
02.xii.2010 3 22, 34 20
03.xii.2010 2 23 36
04.xii.2010 2 23 20
06.ii.2011 3 20 29 19
07.ii.2011 2 21 22
08.ii.2011 3 21 34 18
02.iv.2011 3 22 36 19
03.iv.2011 1 20
04.iv.2011 1 34
Mean 20.5 34 19.6
Date
No. of hornbill
groups observed
Observed fock with
number of individuals
25.x.2010 1 14
26.x.2010 1 18
27.x.2010 1 18
02.xii.2010 1 16
03.xii.2010 1 15
04.xii.2010 1 17
06.ii.2011 1 16
07.ii.2011 1 14
08.ii.2011 1 16
02.iv.2011 1 17
03.iv.2011 - 14
04.iv.2011 - 18
Mean 16.1
Delo
Horupahar
Koronu Injunu
7(1): 3544.
Whitney, K.D. & T.B. smith (1998). Habitat use and resource
tracking by African Ceratogymna hornbills: implications
for seed dispersal and forest conservation. Animal
Conservation 1: 107117.
3348
JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33493354
Distribution, den characteristics and diet of the Indian
Fox Vulpes bengalensis (Mammalia: Canidae) in
Karnataka, India: preliminary observations
H.N. Kumara
1
& Mewa Singh
2,3
1
Slim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anakatti Post, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641108, India
2
Biopsychology Laboratory, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore, Karnataka 570006, India
3
Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientifc Research, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Email:
1
honnavallik@gmail.com,
2
mewasingh@bsnl.in (corresponding author)
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: A.J.T. Johnsingh
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3046
Received 24 December 2011
Final received 31 October 2012
Finally accepted 02 November 2012
Citation: H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh (2012). Distribution, den
characteristics and diet of the Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis (Mammalia:
Canidae) in Karnataka, India: preliminary observations. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33493354.
Copyright: H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: This study was supported by the Department of
Science and Technology, Government of India (Grant No. SP/SO/C-16/99)
to Dr. Mewa Singh and Karnataka Forest Department to Dr. H.N. Kumara.
We thank the Chief Wildlife Warden and the offcials of the Karnataka Forest
Department for permission to carry out this study and for assistance in
the feld. Special thanks are due to Mr. A.K. Varma. We acknowledge the
support of Raghunath Rao, Shanthala Kumar, Somashaker, H.P. Ashwin
and N. Subhashchandra for helping us in the feld. We thank Shanthala
Kumar for preparing the map.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33493354 3349
Though historic accounts recognized four species
of foxes from the Indian subcontinent (Pocock
1936), more recent accounts indicate the occurrence
of only two species including the Indian Fox Vulpes
bengalensis and the Red Fox V. vulpes with three
distinct subspecies of the Red Fox: the mountain form
Tibetan Fox (V.v. montana), northern desert form
Kashmir Fox (V.v. griffthii) and a western desert
form Desert Fox (V.v. pusilla) (Prater 1980). The
Indian Fox is the most common fox and it is known to
have a wide distribution extending from the foothills
of the Himalaya to the southern tip of peninsular India;
Abstract: The Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis inhabits relatively
dry areas with scrub thorn forests, deciduous forests, short
grasslands and marginal croplands. Since it is a widely distributed
species, especially in the dry tracts, very little attention has been
paid to it by researchers and wildlife managers. We conducted
an extensive survey in the south Indian state of Karnataka to
determine the conservation status of the Indian Fox. We also
carried out a more detailed observation in a small region called
Jayamangali Blackbuck Block (JBB) and surrounding private
lands to study the den site characteristics of the species. Except
for a few districts in the Western Ghats and the west coastal
region, the fox was present throughout Karnataka. Relatively
higher encounter rates were observed in regions with extensive
grasslands. We located 52 dens during the study in JBB which
provide a minimum of 12dens/km
2
with 1.33/km
2
active dens.
Circumference of den sites were smaller in JBB than in the
adjoining private lands indicating that foxes frequently shifted
dens in this area. The number of openings and active openings
increased as the circumference of the den site increased.
Fecal analysis revealed remains of certain species of plants,
vertebrates and invertebrates, with arthropods as the major food
items of the fox.
Keywords: Den characteristics, diet, distribution, Indian Fox,
Karnataka.
from Sindh province of Pakistan on the Western side
to southern Bangladesh on the eastern side (Johnsingh
1978, 1986; Prater 1980).
The Indian Fox is known to inhabit relatively
dry areas, including scrub thorn forests, deciduous
forests, short grasslands and marginal areas of
croplands. The known range of the species falls
within the biogeographical zones of desert (Zone 3),
semi-arid (Zone 4) and the Deccan Peninsula (Zone
6) of India (Rodgers et al. 2002). The Indian Fox has
been accorded the status of Schedule II in the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 in India and classifed globally
as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species (Johnsingh & Jhala 2007).
Since the Indian Fox has a wide distribution and is
considered as a relatively common carnivore in India,
it has received little attention from both researchers
and managers. Despite the few studies on its ecology
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:94053D67-FB8D-4B8D-879C-F999A7EAA6EE
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33493354
Indian Fox in Karnataka H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh
3350
and behavior (Johnsingh 1978), population estimation
in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh
(Manakadan & Rahmani 2002), resource utilization
(Home 2005), distribution in southern India (Vanak
2005) and habitat selection (Bhaskaran 2006), the
biology and conservation status of the Indian Fox
is poorly known. Vanak (2005) in a survey of fox
in southern India included only fve districts of
Karnataka. In this paper, we present preliminary
observations on the distribution of Indian Fox, its den
site characteristics and diet in the state of Karnataka.
Study area
We conducted the present study in the southern
Indian state of Karnataka, which is located between
11
0
3118
0
45N & 74
0
1278
0
40E. Karnataka
covers a total area of 191,791km
2
. Rainfall in this
state gradually declines from west to east resulting in
different forest or habitat types. The state receives a
mean annual rainfall of 1,975mm ranging from 450mm
in the drier plains on the eastern side to 7,500mm in
the Western Ghats on the western side. Karnataka
has been divided into four ecozones including coastal
Karnataka with mangrove forests, hill region (the
Western Ghats) with rainforests and moist deciduous
forests, southern plateau and northern plateau with
deciduous forests, scrub forests and open grasslands
(Prasad et al. 1978; Karanth 1986). We studied the
den site characteristics at Jayamangali Blackbuck
Block (JBB) near Maidanahalli in Madhugiri Taluk,
Tumkur District. The area of this block was about
3km
2
, which lies between 77
0
1877
0
20E & 13
0
44
13
0
16N. The area has mainly grasslands with few
thorny shrubs, and some monoculture plantations of
Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptus grandis. It is an
area meant for the protection of Blackbucks Antelope
cervicapra. The area receives 400500 mm of rainfall
per annum and harbours 400550 blackbucks.
Methods
The study was carried out from January 2002 to
July 2006. During this period, we traveled across
different taluks of all the districts of the state, either
by jeep or by motorcycle. We carried out a vehicular
road survey of 9,853km for direct sightings of foxes.
During this survey, we also informally interviewed
over 1400 people including forest department
offcials, shepherds, local sheepherders, villagers and
others interested in wildlife. We collected secondary
data through interactions with people on the possible
occurrence of the species in each taluk. If more than
50% of the people in a taluk gave a positive response
regarding the occurrence of the fox, we considered
the fox as present in the taluk. We also collected
information on the occurrence of den sites, and if the
den site was close by, we visited it for confrmation and
attempted to sight the fox. We based den classifcation
as per Johnsingh (1978) into three types: simple short
dens, complex cavernous dens, and dens under rocks
and we followed the same classifcation. We conducted
644km of night surveys for foxes that included driving
and walking transects in open scrub forests, grasslands
and marginal cropland areas in 12 districts. During
a driving survey, a researcher spotlighted from atop
a jeep moving at a speed of 510 km/hr, and during
walks we used a handheld fashlight to spot foxes. We
also made walks in many other districts of the western
coast and the Western Ghats. Since there was neither
secondary information nor direct sightings of the fox
in these districts, details on these sampling efforts are
not provided. We also attempted direct sightings by
fushing foxes from some active dens.
We selected Jayamangali Blackbuck Block (JBB)
to investigate specifc details on the characteristics of
den sites and fox abundance. We selected 3km
2
of JBB
and about 10km
2
of private area around this block for
abundance estimates. The entire region was searched
thoroughly for the presence of all abandoned and
active dens of the foxes by a fve member team during
MarchApril 2004. We recorded details on each den
site that included status, distance from cropland, area,
number of openings, number of active openings, and
length and width of each den opening. A total of 81
droppings were collected from the JBB near the active
dens, which were used to identify the food items.
Results
There was no evidence for the occurrence of the
Indian fox from the coastal region and forests of the
Western Ghats. The foxes were found in all the dry
plains of Karnataka in the east, extending up to the
eastern fringes of evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats in the west and northern fringes of deciduous
forests in the south (Fig. 1, Table 1). The population
distribution was continuous with the fox populations
in the states of Maharashtra in the north, Andhra
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33493354
Indian Fox in Karnataka H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh
3351
Pradesh in the east and Tamil Nadu in the south.
The present distributional range covers six protected
areas in Karnataka that include Daroji Bear Sanctuary
and Ranebennur Wildlife Sanctuary in the north,
and Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, Arabithittu
Wildlife Sanctuary, Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary and
Bannerghatta National Park in the south. Local people
revealed the occurrence of Indian Fox at the northern
fringes of Bandipur Tiger Reserve and Nagarahole
Tiger Reserve. Though the foxes occur in the above-
mentioned wildlife protected areas, they are mostly
found near the fringes and close to the croplands.
We sighted a total of 36 foxes at night time during
this study (Table 2). Most foxes were observed
in Chikodi and Raibag of Belgaum District and
Madhugiri in Tumkur District. All the sightings in
both regions were in the grasslands, and 78% (N=28)
of the sightings were associated with the grassland.
We identifed 56 dens, 52 of which were in and
around the JBB in Madhugiri where we had intensively
explored the dens. Among the 52 dens, 36 were located
in JBB and the other 16 were located in nearby private
croplands and marginal areas. During our study, all
three types of dens were found in the study area. One
den was in an abandoned quarry. Most of the dens
in the JBB were simple dens and only a few were
complex dens. The minimum number of dens was 12/
km
2
and 1.6/km
2
in JBB and private areas, respectively.

0
200 km
Indian Fox presence area
Indian Fox absence area
Figure 1. Distribution of Vulpus bengalensis in Karnataka,
India. Numbers inside the fgure indicate revenue districts
(see Table 1)
Table 1. Occurrence of the Indian Fox in different districts
of Karnataka
No.* District
Occurrence
1

(evidence)
2
Remarks
1 Bidar P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
2 Gulbarga P (1) Occur in all taluks
3 Bijapur P (1) Occur in all taluks
4 Bagalkot P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
5 Belgaum P (1)
Occur in all taluks, except
some parts of Khanapur
taluk
6
Uttara
Kannada
P (1)
Occur only in Mundagod
taluk
7 Dharwad P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
8 Gadag P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
9 Koppal P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
10 Raichur P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
11 Bellary P (1) Occur in all taluks
12 Davangere P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
13 Haveri P (1) Occur in all taluks
14 Shimoga P (2,3)
In Bhadravati, Shimoga,
Shikaripur taluks
15 Udupi AB? -
16
Dakshina
Kannada
AB? -
17 Chikmagalur P (1)
In Kadur, Chikmagalur and
Tarikere taluks
18 Chitradurga P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
19 Tumkur P (1) Occur in all taluks
20 Hassan P (2,3)
In Belur, Hassan, Arasikere,
HoleNarasipur and
Chandrayapattana taluks
21 Kodagu AB? -
22 Mysore P (1) Occur in all taluks
23 Chamarajnagar P (2,3) Occur in all taluks
24 Mandya P (1) Occur in all taluks
25 Bangalore P (1) Occur in all taluks
26 Kolar P (1) Occur in all taluks
* No.: Numbers depict the districts in the Figure 1.
1
P - Present; AB - Absent
2
1 - Sighted; 2 - Den site and fecal deposit; 3 - Local information
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33493354
Indian Fox in Karnataka H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh
3352
However, the minimum density of active dens in JBB
was 1.33/km
2
, whereas in the private areas it was 1.3/
km
2
. MeanSE den site area was 10.176.67 SE
m
2
in JBB, which was signifcantly smaller (t=4.35,
df=51, p<0.001) than the mean circumference in the
private area (24.7517.64 SE m
2
). The mean number
of openings per den site in JBB was 4.113.46 SE and
in the private area was 1.6911.77 SE. The mean
SE active openings of active den sites in JBB were
1.00 0.00 SE and in the private area were 6.694.87
SE. The number of openings (Pearson correlation; r=
0.766, N=52, p<0.01) and active openings (Pearson
correlation; r=0.729, N=52, p<0.01) increased as the
circumference of the den site increased.
The average and the maximum distance between
den sites and cropland were about 400 m and 1100 m,
respectively. All the den sites and fox sightings were
in open areas with grassland or scrub forests. Even if
the dens were in scrub forests, they were all located
in large open areas at least 50m from the nearest thick
bushes, except two dens that were located beneath
thick bushes. Fecal analysis identifed remains of
plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. Arthropods
were the major invertebrates found in the scats (95%)
that included different insects, centipedes, land crabs
and termites. However, termites were found only
in three scats. Undigested plant remains, seeds and
fruits occurred in 81%, rodents occurred in 80% and
reptiles occurred in 12% of the scats. Among reptiles,
the worm snake Typhlops spp. was recorded in six
scats. Other mammals, birds, egg shells and frogs
collectively occurred in < 10% of the scats.
Interviews revealed that killing of fox by people
occurs throughout much of Karnataka. In most places,
foxes are hunted for meat (especially by a community
called Nari Kurava). Conversely, fox has been
considered as a symbol of good omen. Hence, people
in rural areas have a tendency to keep a fox skin in
their shops. They also believe that a holy thread, the
skin of a fox tied in a thread prepared by village priests
and astrologers, would solve their problems, and they
tie this thread on their wrists.
Discussion
Historically, the Indian Fox has not been recorded
from the Western Ghats (Johnsingh & Jhala 2004) as
the terrain and vegetation do not favor their occurrence
there. Our study provides the frst distribution estimate
of the Indian Fox in the entire southern Indian state of
Karnataka, which confrmed the absence of the species
in the forests of the Western Ghats, coastal region and
the thick deciduous forests of the Eastern Ghats. The
present study also confrms the presence of fox in the
predicted distribution range (both generic and refned
distribution range) in the state (Vanak et al. 2008).
Since the Indian Fox appears to have a high degree
of tolerance to human disturbance, Bhaskaran (2006)

suggested that the species is a habitat generalist.
However, despite its wide range, the Indian Fox
generally occurs in high densities in grassland habitats.
Vanak (2005) and Manakadan & Rahmani (2002) also
reported the highest density of Indian Fox in grassland
habitats in southern India. Our study also revealed two
major populations in Chikodi and Raibag of Belgaum
District and Madhugiri in Tumkur District, which were
found in grasslands with sparse scrub forest. Further,
though the Indian fox has a high degree of adaptation
to its habitat (Bhaskaran 2006), they have a low level
of tolerance to disturbance. For example, Karanth
& Singh (1986) reported that the Indian Fox was the
most common carnivore and sighted very frequently in
Ranebennur Wildlife Sanctuary. Later, Vanak (2005)
during his survey in the same region did not observe
a single fox in and around the sanctuary, and ascribed
this to conversion of grassland into Eucalyptus
plantations. Since large extents of open grasslands and
scrub forests are available in the Indian subcontinent,
Table 2. Sight records of the Indian fox in different drier
regions of the Karnataka
Area
Km covered
during night
Sightings
Taluks in which
sighted
Gulbarga 45 2 Yadgir
Bijapur 26 1 Basavana Bagevadi
Belgaum 82 10 Chiokkodi and Raibag
Uttara Kannada 30 1 Mundgod
Bellary 45 1 Hospet
Haveri 22 1 Ranebennur
Chikmagalur 35 1 Kadur
Tumkur 105 11 Madhugiri and Sira
Mysore 48 4 Mysore and HD Kote
Mandya 12 1 Pandavapura
Bangalore 102 1 Hoskote
Kolar 92 2 Bagepalli
Total 644 36
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33493354
Indian Fox in Karnataka H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh
3353
the species may have a wider distribution. Since foxes
live in human dominated landscapes, they are also
prone to infection by many diseases. Manakadan &
Rahmani (2002) reported a sharp decline of foxes in
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh and
Johnsingh & Jhala (2007) reported a similar decline in
parts of Gujarat, which were attributed to pathogens
(Gompper & Vanak 2006).
The diet of Indian Fox generally includes a
large variety of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates
(Johnsingh 1978; Home 2005; Gompper & Vanak
2006; Home & Jhala 2009). Though the same food
items were identifed in the present study also, the fecal
samples collected in a short span of 40 continuous days
from a small region in a single season may indicate the
proportion of the diet content to be biased to a few food
items. Our fndings, however, are more similar to those
from Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh
and Ranebennur Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka
where 85% of scats contained remains of invertebrates
with large proportions of arthropods (Gompper &
Vanak 2006). Plant remains and rodents were found
to be the next major food items in Karnataka, which is
of a comparatively higher proportion than in the other
regions in India (Manakadan & Rahmani 2000; Home
2005; Gompper & Vanak 2006). Since rodents form
the major part of its diet, Advani (1987) suggested that
the Indian Fox plays a major role in controlling rodent
populations. Centipedes, land crabs and bird eggs
were also reported as food items in different regions
(Pocock 1941; Prakash 1959; Johnsingh 1978; Prater
1980; Manakadan & Rahmani 2002; Johnsingh &
Jhala 2004).
Johnsingh (1978) reported eight dens per square
kilometer, whereas in our study, the number varied
from 1.6 to 12 dens per square kilometer. The number
of entrances varied from one to 36 in our study area,
which is higher than the number of entrances reported
in Tamil Nadu (Johnsingh 1978). However, the
number of entrances differed between the JBB and
its surrounding area. This may be attributed to the
difference in the response to characteristics of the
habitat. Though the density of active dens did not
differ between the JBB and private areas, the number
of passive dens in JBB was very high. Conversely, den
site area was very high in private areas, which suggests
that foxes frequently shift dens in JBB than in the
private areas. However, Johnsingh (1978) suggested
that the Indian Fox repeatedly uses favorite den sites
such as those among the cluster of large rocks as they
are largely safe from vandalism by humans that has
also been reported for the Red Fox in North America
(Murie 1944; Ables 1975). In private areas with
croplands, villages and regular movement of people,
the denning habitat is probably lesser than in JBB.
This may result in larger den sites with more entrances
in private areas. Several entrances are not uncommon
among foxes (e.g. many entrances were reported for
the Red Fox in North America (Murie 1944; Ables
1975) and Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus) (Chesemore
1969).
It often happens that species considered as common
with a wide range of distribution do not receive the
same attention in management as compared to those
listed as high priority species. We emphasize that
these species also require adequate management.
Vanak & Gompper (2010a,b) reported that though the
free ranging domestic dogs do not have a high food
niche overlap with the fox, they may prevent access to
foxes to the agricultural areas and grassland which are
preferred habitats of the fox; and dogs do kill foxes.
Elimination of free-ranging dogs is a must if we want
to save many of our wildlife. We suggest that killing of
foxes by people should be totally stopped and that the
number of free-ranging dogs in fox habitats should be
controlled. Certain communities have the false belief
that body parts of the fox kept at home bring wealth
and these communities need to be educated. Already
local extirpation of the fox has occurred in several
places and this needs to be arrested before the fox also
gains the dubious status of an endangered species.
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JoTT Short CommuniCation 4(14): 33553361
Survey of the Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus Bennett,
1833 (Carnivora: Felidae) and some aspects impacting its
conservation in India
Shomita Mukherjee
1
, Tiasa Adhya
2
, Prachi Thatte
3
& Uma Ramakrishnan
4
1
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Annaikatty Post, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641108, India
2,3,4
National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India
Email:
1
shomitam@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
tiasaa@ncbs.res.in,
3
prachit@ncbs.res.in,
4
uramakri@ncbs.res.in
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Andreas Wilting
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3199
Received 13 May 2012
Final received 21 September 2012
Finally accepted 29 October 2012
Citation: Mukherjee, S., T. Adhya, P. Thatte & U. Ramakrishnan (2012).
Survey of the Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus Bennett, 1833 (Carnivora:
Felidae) and some aspects impacting its conservation in India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33553361.
Copyright: Shomita Mukherjee, Tiasa Adhya, Prachi Thatte & Uma
Ramakrishnan 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-proft
purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the
authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: We thank Panthera Foundation, New York and WWF
India, for funds to complete this study. We thank the forest departments of
Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
for permits for issuing permits and extending valuable help and hospitality
during the survey. We thank the Director SACON and all staff, students
and faculty for assistance and encouragement in letting this run smoothly.
We thank NCBS and laboratory 3 members for collaborating and helping
with logistics of lab work. We specially thank Mr Jairaj Singh and the Tiger
Haven Society for hosting and helping us during our visit to Dudhwa National
Park, Mr. Joydeep Sarkar for hosting us on our visit to Corbett National
Park and Ms. Shika Singh in Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary. Several
individuals and volunteers contributed towards the survey and without
them this would have been an impossible task. They are Ovee Thorat,
Narayan Mondol, Ushneesh Das, Hindol Ahmed, Navya R, Arjan Basu Roy,
Brikramaditya Roy, Dr. P. Manna, Arjen vant Hof, Dayani Chakravarty, Aditya
Panda, Shekhar Kolipaka, Kalpana. We specially thank Sonia Joseph for
sequencing work.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361 3355
The Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus is one of the
15 felids that inhabit India (Nowell & Jackson 1996).
Like the other small cats in the country, little is known
about its ecology and conservation status. Existing
knowledge on distribution and behaviour is based on
observations mainly done many decades ago (Pocock
1939; Nowell & Jackson 1996; Sunquist & Sunquist
2002), with only a few serious systematic efforts into
Abstract: The Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus is a medium
sized cat that is widely but patchily distributed across Asia and
strongly associated with wetlands. It is among the 15 felid
species that inhabit India and like other smaller cat species it
is very poorly understood. Apart from a few recent surveys in
specifc locations, no concerted effort has been made to assess
its current distribution and threats to its persistence within India.
In this study we collected scats from natural habitats, through
six states including fve protected areas throughout India and
performed informal interviews with locals to get a better overview
of the current distribution and threats for Fishing Cats in India. Of
the 114 scats used for molecular analysis, 37% were assigned
to felids, including 19 Fishing Cats. We confrmed that Fishing
Cat populations persisted in all locations where they were
recorded before, including Keoladeo Ghana, from where it was
reported in recent years that fshing cats are possibly extinct.
Most populations face imminent threats with the worst being in
the Howrah District of West Bengal where 27 dead individuals
were traced during the study period of only one year. The major
threats across populations include ecologically unbalanced land
policies and land uses, direct persecution due to human-Fishing
Cat conficts as well as ritual hunts. To address these threats we
recommend a stronger dialogue among scientists, policy makers,
administrators, locals and other stake holders such as commercial
fsh and prawn cultivators. Further awareness campaigns for
stakeholders, and surveys for monitoring fshing cat populations,
studying their ecology and estimating economic losses to local
people due to the Fishing Cat predation on livestock and poultry,
is needed in order to design effective conservation strategies.
Keywords: Distribution, Felidae, Fishing Cat, India, molecular
tools, survey, threats.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:7EC1D08D-85B7-4A52-BBC4-41BDBE5A1D64
Abbreviations: DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid; PCR - Polymerase
Chain Reaction; NCBI - National Centre for Bioinformatics.
determining their current distribution or status within
the country (Kumara & Singh 2004; Kolipaka 2006;
Datta et al. 2008). The Fishing Cat is included in the
Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act
(Anonymous 1972) and listed as Endangered in the 2010
assessment of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
(Mukherjee et al. 2010a), as throughout its range the
Fishing Cat habitat is severely threatened (Mukherjee
et al. 2010a). Fishing Cats are wetland specialists and
early accounts on their distribution in India suggest
that they occur around major wetlands and mangroves
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361
Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3356
across the country (Pocock 1939; Nowell & Jackson
1996). These ecosystems are highly threatened due to
competition for resources with humans, such as land,
water and fsh. Several wetlands across India are rapidly
being converted into agricultural land, fragmented or
destroyed, to meet the demands of a burgeoning human
population (Prasad et al. 2002). In the 2010 IUCN
assessment it was believed that the westernmost Fishing
Cat population in India (in Keoladeo Ghana National
Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan) was already extinct since
there were no reports for a couple of years (Mukherjee et
al. 2010a; Bholu Abrar Khan pers. comm. 07 February
2011).
The distribution of the Fishing Cat is intriguing since
it is widespread but patchy, from Bharatpur in Rajasthan,
along the Himalayan foothills, through eastern India
into Andhra Pradesh (Pocock 1939; Nowell & Jackson
1996; Sunquist & Sunquist 2002; Kolipaka 2006).
With earlier records of the cat being largely restricted
to protected areas (Nowell & Jackson 1996), it was not
known if viable populations of this species occurred
outside protected areas. Further, details of threats to
the species and the current conservation status remain
largely unknown. Recent surveys (Kumara & Singh
2004; Datta et al. 2008), through camera trapping and
interviews with locals, did not record Fishing Cats, but
it remained unclear if this was a result of the cryptic
lifestyle of the species or if the absence is an indication
of its actual status. In this study we mainly focussed
on the molecular analysis of non-invasively collected
faecal samples to elucidate the presence of Fishing
Cats.
This paper is an overview of the current distribution
and threats for Fishing Cats in India. We focussed on
regions known to have Fishing Cat populations, in
order to update information on presence, persistence
and conservation status and did not aim to survey new
potential sites of presence.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted between April 2010 and
May 2011.
Survey for presence through scat collection and
analysis: Field sampling for scats was done mainly
in the drier winter months from November 2010 to
February 2011, except for a site in Andhra Pradesh
(Coringa mangroves) that was sampled in June 2010.
The monsoon months (June to September) could not be
utilised for sampling since scats exposed to water often
do not give good results due to fungal attacks or because
the outermost layer containing intestinal cells is washed
off (Mukherjee et al. 2010b). The survey was conducted
through the states of Andhra Pradesh (Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary), Odisha (Mangalajodi), West Bengal
(Howrah, Hooghly, Sundarbans, Jhargram), Uttar
Pradesh (Dudhwa National Park, Katarniaghat Wildlife
Sanctuary), Uttarakhand (Corbett Tiger Reserve),
Rajasthan (Keoladeo Ghana National Park) (Fig. 1).
Within each locality sampled, scats were collected
from areas where the probability of locating Fishing
Cat scats was high (areas with large water bodies and
reed beds especially those that had culverts and bridges
close by, since from earlier observations these were
areas marked profusely by Fishing Cats). Since in any
given area several similar sized carnivores coexist,
all potential carnivore scats were collected. Only a
small portion of the scat was collected, dried with a
hair dryer on medium heat and intensity and couriered
to the laboratory at the National Centre for Biological
Sciences where further analysis was conducted.
DNA extraction was done using commercially
available QIAmp (QIAGEN) stool and tissue kits
with minor modifcations in incubation periods of the
manufacturers protocol (see Mukherjee et al. 2007
for details). All extractions were done in a separate
room, free from PCR products and any source of
contamination. Controls were added to every extraction
batch to monitor contamination. We used the 16s rRNA
felid specifc primers for species identifcation. PCR
and sequencing protocols are described in Mukherjee
et al. (2010b). Sequences were aligned with the only
reference sequence from GenBank (accession number:
AF006451.1 GI:2218235) for species identifcation.
Assessment of threats: A semi-structured
questionnaire (Appendix 1) was used to interview
a total of 200 villagers (from Howrah and Hooghly
districts of West Bengal) between 4560 years of age.
Ten people were interviewed from each village for a
total of 20 villages in order to assess potential threats of
Fishing Cats. In Howrah, West Bengal, a more detailed
examination of threats was conducted by one of the
authors (Tiasa Adhya). She interviewed 20 people from
38 villages of different age groups with around 40% of
the interviewees falling in the age category of 3050.
Causes of deaths were collected through a network of
local informers. In some cases the villagers who killed
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361
Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3357
the cats themselves contacted the survey team and in
most cases (barring a couple) the dead Fishing Cats
were photographed as evidence.
Results
Survey for presence: In all, 151 scat samples were
collected from the surveyed regions including a tissue
sample of a Fishing Cat that was killed by villagers in
Aima Village, Howrah District, West Bengal. Since
Fishing Cats defecate in latrines and several scats of
the same individual can occur in a single location, we
used just a single scat that provided results on the frst
instance. Hence, of the 151 scats collected from natural
habitats DNA was extracted from 114. DNA extracts
from 37 scats (32.5%) amplifed with the felid specifc
primers and results are listed in Table 1.
PCR products of four scats failed to produce reliable
sequences and thus were excluded from the analysis. Of
the remaining, 19 were identifed as Fishing Cat scats
and the rest were of Jungle Cat Felis chaus (N = 11) and
Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis (N = 3) (Table
1). Fifteen of the 19 Fishing Cat scats were from West
Bengal and the Terai region of Dudhwa/Katarniaghat.
No Fishing Cat scat was located from Corbett National
Park. The Fishing Cat scat located in Keoladeo Ghana
National Park, Bharatpur proved recent claims of its
potential extinction in this area wrong. Following this
rediscovery a Fishing Cat was observed not far from the
Corbett, Uttarakhand
Dudhwa / Katarniaghat,
Uttar Pradesh
Keoladeo Ghana,
Rajasthan
Howrah / Hooghly /
Medinapur / Sundarbans,
West Bengal
Mangalajodi,
Odisha
Coringa,
Andhra Pradesh
Fishing Cat sampling locations
Figure 1. Locations of sampling for scats
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361
Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3358
place the scat was found (see discussion).
Assessment of threats: Table 2 lists observed threats
faced by Fishing Cats (potentially also other wildlife
species) in the different study regions. Habitat loss
attributed to land use policy and economic developments
(commercial fsheries/aquaculture, brick industries,
agriculture) are a major threat in some areas. In Kolkata
a pair of Fishing Cats was captured in the vicinity of the
International airport and is now housed in the Kolkata
Zoo.
Other threats were very specifc to the region, such
as the red algae covering the wetlands of Keoladeo
Ghana. This is perceived to be a threat since the
algae forms a thick layer over the surface of the water,
especially around the banks and completely obscures
visibility. For the Fishing Cat that most likely requires
clear visibility around banks of water bodies to catch
fsh, this could be a severe problem.
No confict or killing was reported by villagers of
the Terai belt of Dudhwa and Katarniaghat, despite
several reports of Fishing Cats occurring in sugarcane
felds around the Tiger Reserve.
In contrast 27 Fishing Cats were killed due to
various human related causes (Table 3) in West Bengal,
26 from Howrah District and one from Hooghly. The
most common cause of death was from poisoning.
Discussion
Presence and persistence: Despite surveying widely
and specifcally at sites where the probability of Fishing
Cat occurrence would be high, only 19 Fishing Cat scats
were obtained (Table 1). The survey period was short
and very widespread and hence intensive sampling in
each location was not possible. That is perhaps the
reason why Fishing Cat scats were not found in Corbett
National Park. However, their presence in that region
is corroborated by a camera trap picture taken, very
recently, by the Wildlife Institute of India (Dehradun)
team (Abishek Harihar pers. comm. 25 March 2012).
There are also technical reasons for low success
such as some scats having very low amounts of predator
DNA. This is particularly relevant to scats collected
from within mangrove forests that have been exposed
to the tide. This was perhaps the case with some
scats collected in the Coringa mangroves that failed
to produce results (Table 1). Nevertheless, the survey
served as an overview since it established persistence
of the species in areas known to be within the broad
Table 1. Summary of results of scat collection and identifcation
Region
Scats
collected
Extracted
for DNA
16srRNA
amplifcation
(% success)
Fishing
Cat
Jungle
Cat
Leopard
Cat
Sequence
failed
Andhra Pradesh: Coringa mangroves 10 10 2 (20%) 2 0 0 0
West Bengal: Sundarbans, Hooghly,
Howrah
55 49 11 (22.4%) 7 1 0 3
Uttar Pradesh: Dudhwa & Katarniaghat
Tiger Reserve
36 30 12 (40%) 8 1 2 1
Rajasthan: Keoladeo Ghana National Park 32 18 9 (50%) 1 8 0 0
Uttarakhand: Corbett National Park 7 3 1 (33%) 0 0 1 0
Odisha: Mangalajodi 11 4 2 (50%) 1 1 0 0
Total 151 114 37 (32.5%) 19 11 3 4
Table 2. Threats to Fishing Cat populations in various parts of their range (20102011).
Region Current Threats
Andhra Pradesh: Coringa mangroves Commercial aquaculture (prawn farms)
West Bengal: Sundarbans, Hooghly, Howrah,
Medinapur
Land use policy in urban and rural areas, confict around villages (poultry/livestock
depredation), traditional hunting, poaching for meat and skin, agriculture, brick industries,
commercial fsheries/aquaculture.
Uttar Pradesh: Dudhwa & Katarniaghat Tiger Reserve Safe
Rajasthan: Keoladeo Ghana National Park Very small population (only one record), extensive layer of red algae on water surface
Odisha: Mangalajodi Confict around fshing villages
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Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3359
historical distribution range of the Fishing Cat.
In some cases the survey established presence in
areas that were unoffcially known to have Fishing Cats
but were not reported or documented in detail anywhere
e.g. in the villages of Howrah and Hooghly districts of
West Bengal. Hence the survey also helped compile
information that is not available easily in published
literature. This is in some ways reassuring for any
conservation program since it indicates that Fishing Cat
distribution is not as patchy as earlier believed. The
presence of the species in agricultural landscapes bears
great potential for maintaining continuity of populations
across their range in India. This is however, somewhat
speculative since information from Assam and parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are missing for estimating
real physical connectivity in habitat. However, a
phylogeographic study with adequate samples from
different regions of India could reveal how isolated
Fishing Cat populations are currently and also have
been throughout the Holo and Pleistocene.
Assessment of threats
General threats: Rapidly changing land regimes and
policies that do not include ecological aspects seem to
be a general threat for this species across regions within
the country. These land use changes vary among states
and these are outlined below along with other threats.
West Bengal: The population in West Bengal in
human dominated landscapes, outside protected areas
seems to be under the most severe threat from multiple
causes. Land policies that do not consider ecological
and conservation aspects are a major issue especially
in and around Kolkata and suburbs which include the
districts of North and South 24 Paraganas, Hooghly,
Howrah and Nadia. South Kolkata which is now heavily
developed, is part of South 24 Paraganas (which also
includes the Sundarbans, the largest patch of contiguous
mangrove forests in the world) and still has remnants of
wetlands and mangroves (e.g. around the International
Airport). The capture of a pair of Fishing Cats around
the airport a couple of years ago (Kolkata Zoo Director
pers. comm. 08 December 2010), indicates that the
species still persists there but is perhaps under severe
threat from rampant unplanned urbanisation. Sunquist
& Sunquist (2002) report four Fishing Cats being killed
near Kolkata in the late 1980s. They also mention that
a century ago the species was abundant in this region
but are very rare since the past few decades. Although
urbanisation cannot be prevented, planning the spread
of cities by incorporating ecological aspects through
dialogue among scientists, policy makers and the
administration would be a step forward.
In the Sundarbans, locals on Sagar Island talked
about not seeing the Fishing Cat anymore and admitted
to have exterminated the species themselves due to
confict (poultry and livestock depredation). Similarly,
the records of 27 killings in a year, in just the Howrah
and Hooghly districts of West Bengal, are alarming
since these are only a few that were encountered and
many have very likely gone unnoticed and unreported.
Though villagers state that the Fishing Cat causes
losses to them due to livestock and poultry depredation
and also to fshing nets and fsh stock, often the mere
sighting of the cat induces killing due to the cats habit
of preying on livestock and poultry. These losses have
never been assessed or quantifed economically.
However, within the Sundarbans on the whole,
Fishing Cats seem to be doing well and seem to be
relatively common as they are also often trapped in cages
set up by the forest department in cases of livestock
depredation (Rishi Sharma pers. comm. November
Table 3. List of dead Fishing Cats encountered during the
study period
Date
Cause of
death
Number of
individuals
Village
Apr-10 Poisoning 3 Wadipur
Apr-10 Poisoning 1 Kushberia
Apr-10 Strangulation 1 Aima
Apr-10 Trap cage 1 Kashipur
Jun-10 Poisoning 1 Tajpur
Jul-10 Trampling 1 Gorchumuk
Aug-10 Ritual hunt 3 Jamdana
Sep-10 Poisoning 1 Kumargarh
Sep-10 Trap cage 1 Mirzapur
Sep-10 Trap cage 1 Morshal
Oct-10 Ritual hunt 2 Deulpur
Nov-10 Poisoning 1 Delpur
Dec-10 Poisoning 3 Kashipur
Jan-11 Poisoning 2 Deulpur
Feb-11 Poisoning 1 Ulughara
Mar-11 Poisoning 1 Bargram
Mar-11 Train 1 Dankuni
Mar-11 Poisoning 1 Mahishamuri
Mar-11 Poisoning 1 Nuntia
Total 27
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361
Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3360
2010; West Bengal Forest Department pers. comm. 26
December 2010).
Mushrooming brick industries are another threat
in West Bengal and many wetland areas that were
strongholds for Fishing Cats are now being destroyed
to accommodate these industries.
Community level conservation efforts in privately
owned lands are an option and this is being taken up
through awareness campaigns through local NGOs
and interested individuals. However, this needs to be
systematised for continual funding and monitoring for
long term gains.
Andhra Pradesh: Introduction of aquaculture and
prawn farms around the Coringa mangroves in Andhra
Pradesh (Ravishankar et al. 2004) is a potential threat
to the Fishing Cat in the future. Such large aquaculture
projects are bound to attract species that feed on fsh
and prawns. Scats of Fishing Cat were found adjoining
a huge commercial tiger-prawn farm just outside the
mangrove sanctuary and very likely Fishing Cats
feed on tiger-prawns there. So far there are no reports
retaliation, but this could also be due to ignorance of
the presence of the cat that feeds in these commercial
aquaculture farms. It is not known if this will be seen
as confict in the future as observed in villages in the
Howrah District of West Bengal. One way to address
this is to start sensitising locals and policy makers
to the presence and importance of Fishing Cats and
the law protecting it, in the region and enforce strict
implementation of the law if killings are reported. Such
regions need to be regularly monitored by the forest
department to establish the presence of the cat so that
any retaliatory killing does not go unnoticed.
Rajasthan: In the case of the Keoladeo Ghana
population, monitoring and surveys are required
to investigate the possibility of individuals having
dispersed to the satellite wetlands around. Intensive
surveys in and around Keoladeo Ghana through
sampling scats and using molecular tools would provide
valuable information on their presence, distribution
and abundance. After communicating to the forest
department on the possible adverse impact of the red
algae, the management immediately started clearing off
the algae in some places.
Conclusion
Although the Fishing Cat was recorded in all regions
where it occurred earlier, its situation in a large part
of its range is precarious. Especially the population
in West Bengal face numerous threats, which is
particularly concerning as this state, especially the
southern districts, may be a stronghold for this species.
Here a conservation programme should monitor these
populations and assess the impact of the observed
threats. Economic losses to locals have to be quantifed
to gauge their impact to the local economy. If the losses
are substantial urgent measures need to be taken to
resolve it in order to minimise confict. These can be
in the form of insurance/compensatory schemes and/
or changes in the way livestock and poultry are housed
(Bhatnagar et al. 2002) and fsh captures and nets should
be guarded or fenced. Of particular importance are also
surveys in regions connecting known populations to
ensure habitat continuity. Here the satellite wetlands
around Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur, the East coast
wetlands and mangroves in the states of Odisha (e.g.
Mahanadi), Andhra Pradesh (e.g. Krishna, Godavari
basins) and Tamil Nadu (e.g. Pulicat Lake, Pichavaram
and Muthupet) are particularly important. The
occurrence of the species along the Western Ghats is
not clear and needs investigation (Nowell & Jackson
1996; Sunquist & Sunquist 2002) and there have been
no reports of this cat along the southern edge of the
eastern coast of India.
RefeRenCes
Anonymous (1972). The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
Professional Book Publishers, New Delhi.
Bhatnagar, Y.V., V.B. Mathur & T. McCarthy (2002). A regional
per spective for snow leopard conservation in the Indian
Trans Himalaya, pp. 5776. In: Y.V. and S. Sathyakumar
(eds.). Wildlife Institute of India ENVIS Bulletin. Bhatnagar.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India.
Datta, A., M.O. Anand & R. naniwadekar (2008). Empty
forests: Large carnivore and prey abundance in Namdapha
National Park, north-east India. Biological Conservation
141: 1429435.
Kolipaka, s. (2006). Fishing Cat on Indias East Coast. Cat
News 44: 22.
Kumara, H.n. & M. singh (2004). The infuence of differing
hunting practices on the relative abundance of mammals in
two rainforest areas of the Western Ghats, India. Oryx 38:
321327.
Mukherjee, s., J. sanderson, W. Duckworth, R. Melisch, J.
Khan, A. Wilting, s. sunarto & J.G. Howard (2010a).
Prionailurus viverrinus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33553361
Fishing Cat survey S. Mukherjee et al.
3361
Downloaded on 26 April 2012.
Mukherjee, s., C.n. Ashalakshmi, C. Home & U.
Ramakrishnan (2010b). A PCR-RFLP technique to identify
Indian felids and canids from scats. BioMed Central Research
Notes 3: 159 (doi:10.1186/1756-0500-3-159).
Mukherjee, n., s. Mondol, A. Andheria & U. Ramakrishnan
(2007). Rapid multiplex PCR based species identifcation
of wild tigers using non-invasive samples. Conservation
Genetics 8(6): 14651470.
nowell, K. & P. Jackson (eds.). (1996). Wild Cats, Status Survey
and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland Switzerland.
382pp.
Pocock, R.I. (1939). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Mammalia 1: Primates and Carnivora. (In part).
Name
Age
Location
(Show pictures of fshing cat, jungle cat, otter, small Indian civet,
palm civet to help them identify)
Regarding Fishing Cat A)
What do you call Fishing Cat locally? 1.
How many times have you seen Fishing Cats in your lifetime? 2.
Never a.
5-10 times b.
More than that c.
How many times have you seen Fishing Cats within one 3.
year?
Never a.
5-10 times b.
More than that c.
When have you seen them? 4.
Dawn a.
Morning b.
Afternoon c.
Dusk d.
Night e.
Have you seen adults or babies? 5.
Threats B)
Have you ever killed Fishing Cats? 1.
Yes/No
If yes, how many have you killed? 2.
0 a.
1-3 b.
More than that c.
If you have, then what was the reason? 3.
Do you know that it is illegal to kill Tigers? (Yes/No). 4.
In the same way, do you know that Fishing Cats are
protected by law?
Yes/No
Do you know that you can get arrested for killing Fishing 5.
Cats?
Yes/No
Have you ever seen or heard about tribal people killing 6.
Fishing Cats in your area?
Habitat C)
Do you know where Fishing Cats live? 1.
Hogla a.
Boroj b.
Other (specify) c.
Do you know that they live in wetlands? 2.
Yes/No
Was the expanse of wetlands more 20 years ago than it is 3.
now?
Yes/No
Are wetlands shrinking according to you? 4.
Yes/No
What do you think are the reasons behind degradation of 5.
wetlands?
Man-animal Confict D)
Have cats ever killed your poultry? 1.
Yes/No
On an average how many of your animals are killed every 2.
month by Fishing Cat?
0 a.
1-5 b.
More than that c.
Are the chickens kept in coops? 3.
Yes/No
Have the coops/fence protecting your livestock ever been 4.
broken by Fishing Cat?
Yes/No
5. Do Fishing Cats eat fsh from your pond?
Yes/No
How do you know that Fishing Cats have eaten the fsh and 6.
not any other animal like jungle Cat, Civet or Otter?
Were you ever attacked by them when you saw them? 7.
Yes/No
Threat Mitigation E)
Do you have any nature clubs or NGOs related to wildlife 1.
conservation in your area?
Yes/No
Are you a part of such an organization? 2.
Yes/No
If no, then would you like to be? 3.
Yes/No
If we compensate for your livestock killing, would you stop 4.
persecuting the fshing cats?
Yes/No.
2
nd
edition. (Reprint edition, 1985 NewDelhi: Today and
Tomorrows Printers and Publishers,). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Prasad, s.n., T.V. Ramachandra, n. Ahalya, T. sengupta,
A. Alokumar, A.K. Tiwari, V.s. Vijayan & L. Vijayan
(2002). Conservation of wetlands of India-a review. Tropical
Ecology 43: 173186.
sunquist, M.e. & f.C. sunquist (2002). Wild Cats of the World.
University Chicago Press, Chicago, 452pp.
Ravishankar, T., L. Gnanappazham, R. Ramasubramanian,
D. sridhar, M. navamuniyammal & V. selvam (2004).
Atlas of Mangrove Wetlands of India, Part-2Andhra
Pradesh. M.S. Swaminathan Research
Foundation, Chennai, 136pp.
Appendix 1. Questionnaire used for assessing threats
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33623365
JoTT Note 4(14): 33623365
First record of Okenia pellucida Burn,
1967 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia) from
India
Vishal Bhave
1
& Deepak Apte
2
1
Scientist B,
2
Deputy Director (Conservation)
Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House opp. Lion Gate,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra,
India
Email:
1
vishalbhave@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
spiderconch@gmail.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: N. Yonow
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2929
Received 27 August 2011
Final received 19 June 2012
Finally accepted 10 October 2012
Citation: Vishal Bhave & Deepak Apte (2012). First record of Okenia
pellucida Burn, 1967 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia) from India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33623365.
Copyright: Vishal Bhave & Deepak Apte 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The present study would not have been possible
without the constant support of Director and staff of the BNHS. We thank
Dr. Bill Rudman, Dr. Richard Willan and Dr. Terry Gosliner for their support
in the form of personal communications, discussions, species validation and
also for providing literature. Authors would also like to thanks Dr. Dennis
Gordon (NIWA, New Zealand) for confrmation of the bryozoan Zoobotryon
verticillatum from Ratnagiri. Mr. Vishwas Shinde and Rajendra Pawar
provided valuable feld assistance in searching for cryptic opisthobranchs
during the survey. Lastly authors would like to thanks referees for the
constructive comments.
3362
India has a large and diverse coastal area in terms of
biological as well as habitat diversity. India is bracing
for large coastal infrastructure development, which
will impact intertidal biodiversity and the Maharashtra
coast is not an exception. It is therefore essential to
develop baseline information on inter-tidal marine
biodiversity. As part of this effort, scientists are working
on various taxa, and opisthobranchs are one such group
under study. They are beautifully colored with highly
diverse adaptations to compensate for the loss of shell
during the course of evolution. Opisthobranchs are
poorly studied from Indian coasts, and recent work on
opisthobranchs was carried out by
Apte (2009), Apte et al. (2010),
Apte & Salahuddin (2011), Bhave
& Apte (2010) and Ramakrishna
et al. (2010). The present paper deals with a record
of the goniodorid nudibranch Okenia pellucida Burn,
1967. There are very few records of goniodorids
from India (Alder & Hancock 1864; Winckworth
1946; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). Table 1 provides the
checklist of goniodorid species hereto recorded from
the Indian coasts.
Materials and Methods
Direct search method was used to fnd the
opisthobranchs by turning over rocks and boulders in the
intertidal region covering various microhabitats such
as rock pools and rocky areas. These specimens were
collected along with the host bryozoan (Zoobotryon
verticillatum delle Chiaje, 1828) and kept live in aquaria
for a week to study their behavior. Photographs, both
underwater and in the laboratory, were captured using
a Canon G10 camera. The specimens were preserved
directly in 95% ethyl alcohol and deposited in BNHSs
opisthobranch collection. The radula was extracted
by dissolving the buccal mass in sodium hypochlorite
and images were captured using a Leica Microsystem
Microscope (Leica EZ 4D and Leica DM 750). The
series of microscopic images captured at various
depths of feld were then combined using the open
source software package Combine ZP (http://www.
hadleyweb.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/CZP/News.htm).
Descriptions
Okenia pellucida Burn, 1967
(Images 1 - On prey Zoobotryon verticillatum; 2 -
Lateral side; 3 - Dorsal side; 4 - Whole radula, scale
bar 200m; 5 - Innermost radular teeth from new/old
rows 23
rd
, scale bar 200m; 6 - Egg case).
Material: A single specimen was used for radula
preparation from each of the following collections:
(a) Eight specimens collected from the rocky shore
near Lighthouse, Ratnagiri on 22.ii.2010 (Catalog
Id BNHS-Opistho-296 [voucher]) on Zoobotryon
verticillatum; (b) Two specimens from Mirya,
Ratnagiri 06.v.2011 (Catalog Id BNHS-Opistho-627
[voucher]) on Zoobotryon verticillatum.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:14083759-A12C-45CC-A50F-A513EB94FACA
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33623365
Okenia pellucida from India V. Bhave & D. Apte
3363
Size: 620 mm
Geographic Distribution: Rudman (2004a) and
Gosliner (2004) in their reviews have provided the
distribution of this species. The species is known to be
widely distributed in New Zealand, Australia, Hawaii,
Japan, Palmyra Atoll, Oceania, Malaysia and United
Arab Emirates.
Morphology (Images 13): The animal is somewhat
elongated with a long tail which was observed to be
helpful to cling onto the bryozoan host while feeding.
There are 1012 lateral papillae on each side of the
mantle and 56 papillae on the dorsal side of the
notum. The eight gills are large, bi-pinnate and form
a thick rosette. The head can be distinguished easily
and the oral tentacles are triangular. The rhinophores
are long, approximate 2.53 mm, almost 1.5 times the
length of the head when alive. Two small papillae

Image 1. On prey Zoobotryon verticillatum

Image 3. Dorsal side



Image 4. Whole radula (light microscope photograph)
Image 2. Lateral side

Table 1. Goniodorid fauna recorded from India
SNo Name of the species Recorded by Locality
1 Goniodoridella savignyi Pruvot-Fol, 1933 Ramakrishna et al. 2010 Andaman Island
2 Goniodoris aspersa Alder & Hancock, 1864 Alder & Hancock 1864 Vishakhapattanam
3 Goniodoris citrina Alder & Hancock, 1864 Alder & Hancock 1864 Vishakhapattanam
4 Goniodoris modesta Alder & Hancock, 1864 Alder & Hancock 1864 Vishakhapattanam
5 Goniodoris kolabana Winckworth, 1946 Winckworth 1946 Mumbai, Maharashtra
Vishal Bhave Vishal Bhave
Vishal Bhave
Vishal Bhave
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33623365
Okenia pellucida from India V. Bhave & D. Apte
3364
are present on the posterior side of each rhinophore
extending up to half its height. There are two papillae
in front of each rhinophore.
Color: The overall color of the mantle is creamy
white and randomly marked with brown wavy lines.
The rhinophores are creamy white; a subapical band of
brownish-orange is present on rhinophore and is 1/4
th

of rhinophore height. In some specimens, the base
of the rhinophores shows an aggregation of brown
wavy lines. Rhinophore tips are pale followed by
pale brownish band which is one-fourth in size than
that of the rhinophore. Gills are whitish and in some
specimens with brownish pigmentation at the base.
Oral veil is triangular with oral tentacles short with
rounded corners.
Radular morphology (Images 45): The radular
formula of an 18mm animal was 23x1.1.0.1.1. The
frst lateral tooth is an elongated bicuspid blade
and inner margin of inner cusp is denticulate with
approximately 1012 denticles. The size of teeth at its
longest edge is 89.37m. Breadth at blade portion is
around 15.20m.
Egg case and Larvae (Images 67 ): The egg cases
are randomly laid in the form of white tubular strings.
These are loosely attached to the host bryozoans and

Image 5. Lateral view of innermost radular teeth from rows


23- light micrograph processed with Combine ZP

Image 6. Egg case
Image 7. Free swimming veligers (with eye spots and
larval shells)

0.2mm
Vishal Bhave
Vishal Bhave
Vishal Bhave
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33623365
Okenia pellucida from India V. Bhave & D. Apte
3365
thus can be easily detached. It is due to the network
structure of the Zoobotryon verticillatum colony that
the egg cases become entangled and protected. Eggs
are large and can be seen by the naked eye in freshly
laid egg cases. The length of the string varies between
1620 mm and the width is around 11.5 mm (Image
6).
Free swimming larvae were observed in the egg
cases collected from the feld. However, these eggs
were not freshly laid. The larvae were moving in the
egg capsules. The larvae measured around 0.1mm in
diameter, when these were free. Large eyespots and
clear larval vail with cilia and transparent large shell
were easy to spot (Image 7).
Discussion
This is the frst record of Okenia pellucida from the
Indian subcontinental waters. This species is known
to be an oblicate associate of the fouling bryozoans
Zoobotryon verticillatum (Atkinson & Atkinson 2000;
Rudman 2004a,b). During the present study, we also
observed O. pellucida associated with Zoobotryon
verticillatum.
There are a few records of Zoobotryon
verticillatum along the coastal shores of India (Swami
& Udhayakumar 2010; BioSearch 2011) confned
mostly to the east coast of India. This species was
recorded from the Mumbai coast recently (Swami &
Udhayakumar 2010) and it is the only known record
of it on the west coast of India. However, this species
is possibly widespread along other parts of India, thus
the distribution of O. pellucida could be widespread
along the coastline. More intensive surveys can throw
light on its distribution along the Indian coast.
RefeRences
Alder, J. & A. Hancock (1864). Notice on the collection of
Nudibranchiate Mollusca made in India by Walter Eliot
Esq. with descriptions of several new genera and species.
Transaction of Zoological Society of London 5: 117147.
Atkinson, D. & L. Atkinson (2000). Bryozoan food of Okenia
pellucida. [message in] Sea Slug Forum. Australian Museum,
Sydney. <Available from: http://www.seaslugforum.net/
fnd/1987> Online version dated 29 February 2000.
Apte, D. (2009). Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep islands,
India, with 52 new records to Lakshadweep and 40 new
records to India: part 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 106(2): 162175.
Apte, D., V. Bhave & D. Parasharya (2010). An annotated
and illustrated checklist of the opisthobranch fauna of Gulf
of Kutch, Gujarat, India with 21 new records for Gujarat
and 13 new records for India: part 1. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 107(1): 1423.
Apte, D. & V.K. salahuddin (2011). Record of Hexabranchus
sanguineus (Rppell and Leuckart, 1828) from Lakshadweep
Archipelago, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society 107(3): 261262.
Bhave, V. & D. Apte (2010). Opisthobranch fauna from west
coast of India, Abstracts World Congress of Malacology,
Phuket. Tropical Natural History, Supplement 3, p.54.
Burn, R.f. (1967). Descriptions of two new species of Okenia
(Nudibranchia, Doridacea) from south-eastern Australia.
Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of New South
Wales, 1965/1966, pp.5257.
Biosearch (2011). Bioinformatics Centre, National Institute
of Oceanography, Goa, India <http://www.biosearch.in/
publicOrganismPage.php?id=58116> On-line version
dated 12 May 2011
Gosliner, T.M. (2004). Phylogenetic systematics of Okenia,
Sakishimaia, Hopkinsiella and Hopkinsia (Nudibranchia:
Goniodorididae) with descriptions of new species from
the tropical Indo-Pacifc. Proceedings of the California
Academy of Sciences, 55, 125161+29 fgs.
Ramakrishna, c.R. sreeraj, c. Raghunathan, c.
sivaperuman, J.s.Y. Kumar, R. Raghuraman, T.
Iammanuel & P.T. Rajan (2010). Guide to opisthobranchs
of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata, 143pp.
Rudman, W.B. (2004a). Further species of the opisthobranch
genus Okenia (Nudibranchia: Goniodorididae) from the
Indo-West Pacifc. Zootaxa 695: 170.
Rudman, W.B. (2004b). Okenia pellucida Burn, 1967. [In] Sea
Slug Forum. Australian Museum, Sydney. <Available from
http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet/okenpell> On-line
version dated 12 December 2004.
swami, B.s. & M. Udhayakumar (2010). Seasonal infuence
on settlement, distribution and diversity of fouling
organisms at Mumbai harbour. Indian Journal of Marine
Sciences 39(1): 5767.
Winckworth, H.c. (1946). A new Goniodoris from Bombay.
Journal of Molluscan Studies 27(2): 5961.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33663368
JoTT Note 4(14): 33663368
The hitherto undescribed male of
Orthozona quadrilineata (Moore, 1882)
(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)
Peter Smetacek
1
& I.J. Kitching
2
1
Butterfy Research Centre, Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Uttarakhand
263136, India
2
Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum,
Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K.
Email:
1
petersmetacek@rediffmail.com (corresponding author),
2
i.kitching@nhm.ac.uk>
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: George Mathew
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2749
Received 05 April 2011
Final revised received 28 August 2012
Finally accepted 13 October 2012
Citation: Smetacek, P. & I.J. Kitching (2012). The hitherto undescribed
male of Orthozona quadrilineata (Moore, 1882) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae).
Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14): 33663368.
Copyright: Peter Smetacek & I.J. Kitching 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: PS is indebted to the Rufford Small Grant
Foundation, U.K., for fnancial support during the period when this work
was undertaken.
3366
Madopa quadrilineata Moore, 1882 (Lepidoptera:
Erebidae) was originally described from Darjiling
(= Darjeeling, West Bengal, India) from an unstated
number of specimens, which Moore (1882) stated
were both in his own collection and that of Otto
Staudinger. Both sexes were apparently represented
among the syntypes, for Moore (1882) noted that the
moth was pale purplish-brownish-ochreous, brighter
in female
Hampson (1895) later erected the genus Orthozona
with M. quadrilineata as the only included species and
the type species by original designation. However, he
described only the female and diagnosed the genus
on female characters: Female: Palpi with the second
joint porrect, of moderate length, and fringed with hair
above, the third upturned and naked; a short sharp
frontal tuft; antennae minutely
ciliated; thorax and abdomen
smoothly scaled, tibiae not hairy.
Forewing with the apex nearly
rectangular; vein 3 [Cu1a] from before angle of cell.
Hind wing with veins 4 [M3] and 5 [M2] from angle of
cell; 3 [Cu1a] from before angle of cell.
We found only a single female syntype in the
collection of the Natural History Museum, London
(BMNH) (Images 1 & 2) thus it appears that Moore
had only this female in his personal collection, which
was subsequently passed on to the BMNH in 1894.
It may be that this is the sole specimen upon which
Hampson based his diagnosis of the genus Orthozona.
However, there may be male syntype(s) in Staudingers
collection (and which may now be in the Museum
fr Naturkunde, Leibnitz-Institut fr Evolutions-und
Biodiversittsfrschung an der Humboldt-Universitt
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FEE22F4B-2AC3-402E-BBE6-1DBF5BE5785E

Image 1. Orthozona quadrilineata female syntype (BMNH).

Image 2. Orthozona quadrilineata female syntype palpi


(BMNH).
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33663368
Undescribed male Orthozona quadrilineata P. Smetacek & I.J. Kitching
3367
zu Berlin, Germany) but we have not yet been able to
confrm this. A label attached to the BMNH syntype
states, Agrees exactly with type in coll. Stdgr. [in
Tams handwriting] W.H.T. Tams det. [printed]. If
Tams statement that the agreement is exact is correct,
then it would appear that the type in coll. Staudinger
is also a female. It may therefore be that Moore mis-
sexed one of the syntypes. However, there may also be
other, male (and as yet unrecognized) syntypes in coll.
Staudinger, or perhaps Tams did not notice differences
in palpus structure.
In the present paper, we illustrate and describe more
fully the male of Orthozona quadrilineata (Images 3
& 4), add male characters to the generic diagnosis
of Orthozona and extend the range of the genus and
species northwest to Gagar (2400m) in Nainital District
of the Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India.
Material examined
23.vii.2007, 1 male, Gagar, Nainital District,
Uttarakhand, India, 2400m, 29
0
2447N & 79
0
3239E,
leg. & coll. P. Smetacek, Butterfy Research Centre,
Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Uttarakhand, India; det. I.J.
Kitching. Reference no.: PSTYPE 131; Forewing
length: 17mm.
1 female (syntype): Darjeeling, 1864, Moore Coll,
[18] 94106 [BMNH accession number]. Forewing
length: 15.5mm.
Male generic characters: Palpi recurved, third
segment half the length of the second, antennae
minutely ciliated; thorax and abdomen smoothly
scaled; tibiae not hairy; forewing apex as in the female,
nearly square; vein Cu1a from before angle of cell;
hindwing M2 and M3 from angle of cell, vein Cu1a
from before the angle.
Description of male: Head, thorax and abdomen
fuscous brown. Forewing upperside pale reddish grey-
brown, with a rufous speck in the discal cell; a well-
defned reniform stigma present, outlined in rufous;
prominent oblique medial and submarginal rufous
lines. Hindwing upperside pale fuscous, with an
indistinct antemedial line and prominent submarginal
rufous line from below costa to near anal angle.
Forewing underside uniform grey with the costal area
above cell pale cream. Hindwing underside grey, with
dark antemedial and medial lines and crenulated pale
postmedial band edged with fuscous.

Image 3. Orthozona quadrilineata male (coll. P. Smetacek)

Image 4. Orthozona quadrilineata male palpi (coll. P.


Smetacek).
Discussion
Currently, fve species are recognized in Orthozona:
O. quadrilineata, O. bilineata Wileman, 1915, O.
curvilineata Wileman, 1915, O. karapina Strand,
1920 and O. ruflineata (Hampson, 1895) (Beccaloni
et al. 2003). In the original description of Orthozona
curvilineata from Taiwan, Wileman (1915) stated
that The palpi of the sexes differ in structure, but as
regards this character the female agrees exactly with
female O. quadrilineata, Moore, upon which the
genus Orthozona, Hampson, was founded. A male
syntype of O. curvilineata Wileman and its palpi are
shown in Image 5 and a female in Image 6, where the
sexually dimorphic nature of these structures is clearly
visible. A further male and the female syntype in the
BMNH show the same dimorphism. However, as O.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33663368
Undescribed male Orthozona quadrilineata P. Smetacek & I.J. Kitching
3368
quadrilineata is the type species and the condition of
the palpi in the male was undescribed, there was an
element of uncertainty whether sexual dimorphism in
the structure of palpi was indeed a generic feature, rather
than just a species-specifc feature of O. curvilineata.
After examining the present male specimen of O.
quadrilineata, it appears more likely that sexual
dimorphism in palpus structure is indeed a generic
feature of Orthozona. Certainly, the male holotype
of O. bilineata is consistent in having upturned palpi,
but no female of this species is known. There are
no specimens of O. karapina or O. ruflineata in the
BMNH, but a painting of the type of the latter appears
to show a female (the abdomen is rather plump and
has is rounded posteriorly) with porrect palpi, so this
specimen is also consistent although examination of
the specimen itself is required for confrmation.
Orthozona quadrilineata seems to be restricted to
the higher parts of the subtropical evergreen forests of
the Himalaya between Kumaon and Darjeeling. In the
western Himalaya, this forest type consists mainly of

Image 5. Orthozona curvilineata male syntype showing


palpi (BMNH).

Image 6. Orthozona curvilineata female syntype showing


palpi (BMNH).
Quercus leucotrichophora A Camus and Q. foribunda
Lindley ex A. Camus (Fagaceae). The moths range
probably extends further east, through Bhutan and
into Arunachal Pradesh, and possibly even further.
However, it seems to be a rare species; in addition
to the few (maybe only two) syntypes, only a single
further specimen was captured at the mercury vapour
lamp run at Gagar throughout 2007 and part of 2008.

REFERENCES
Beccaloni, G.W., M.J. Scoble, G.S. Robinson & B. Pitkin
(Editors) (2003). The Global Lepidoptera Names Index
(LepIndex). World Wide Web electronic publication. http://
www.nhm.ac.uk/entomology/lepindex [accessed 31 March
2011]
Hampson, G.F. (1895). The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and BurmaMoths Vol. 3. Taylor & Francis,
London, 28+546pp.
Moore, F. (1882). Descriptions of Indian Lepidoptera Heterocera
from the collection of the late Mr. W.S. Atkinson [Part 2].
pp. 89198, in: Hewitson, W.C. & F. Moore (18791888).
Descriptions of New Indian Lepidopterous Insects from the
Collection of the Late Mr. W.S. Atkinson. M.A., F.L.S., &c.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 299pp+8pls.
Wileman, A.E. (1915). New species of Heterocera from
Taiwan. The Entomologist 48: 39.
JoTT Note 4(14): 33693372
First record of two tubuliferan and four
terebrantian species of Thysanoptera
(Insecta) from northeastern India
Kh. Bala
1
, O. Tarunkumar Singh
2
, H. Taptamani

3
& R. Varatharajan
4
1,2,3,4
Centre of Advanced Study in Life Sciences
Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur 795003, India
Email:
1
balakhkm@gmail.com,
2
otsingh2010@gmail.com,
3
tapta18jan@gmail.com,
4
rvrajanramya@rediffmail.com
(corresponding author)
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: K.G. Sivaramakrishnan
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3052
Received 03 January 2012
Final received 12 May 2012
Finally accepted 02 September 2012
Citation: Bala, K., O.T. Singh, H. Taptamani & R. Varatharajan (2012). First
record of two tubuliferan and four terebrantian species of Thysanoptera
(Insecta) from northeastern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14):
33693372.
Copyright: Kh. Bala, O. Tarunkumar Singh, H. Taptamani & R.
Varatharajan 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-proft
purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the
authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors thank the Ministry of Environment and
Forest, New Delhi for the fnancial support and to the Head, Department of
Life Sciences, Manipur University for the laboratory facilities.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33693372 3369
The order Thysanoptera popularly known as thrips
or fringe wings are known to be of considerable
signifcance as they feed on food and horticultural
plants and also due to their ability to act as vectors
of some bacterial, fungal and viral diseases of plants
(David & Ananthakrishnan 2004). In spite of extensive
taxonomic contributions mainly by Ananthakrishnan
& Sen (1980) and Bhatti (1994), there is a paucity
of information on thrips of northeastern India. All
specimens were collected during the present study
from Manipur and Nagaland. Prior to this, their
occurrences were known only from a few Southeast
Asian countries. Specimens collected in the present
study are deposited in the insect museum of the
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University.
The present new records will
hopefully motivate future workers
to engage in indepth survey and
taxonomic explorations of thrips
in the north-east, a biodiversity hotspot.
Suborder: Tubulifera
Family: Phlaeothripidae
1. Baenothrips asper (Bournier, 1963)
Transithrips asper Bournier, 1963, Publ. Cult. Co.
Diam. Angola, 63: 81.
Transithrips asper Bournier-Ananthakrishnan, 1966,
Bull.Ent., 7: 11.
Baenothrips asper (Bournier) - Mound, 1972. Aust. J.
Zool., 20: 92.
Baenothrips asper (Bournier) - Ananthakrishnan &
Sen, 1980, Zool. Surv. India, Handbk. Ser., 1: 82 &
145.
Baenothrips asper (Bournier) - Bhatti, 2002, Oriental
Insects, 36: 128.
Specimen studied: 12 females, 25.ii.2002, 1400m,
ex. mixed leaf litter, Khuzama (Nagaland), (MU/LSD
No. B/Myco/17) (Table 1 and Image 1).
Distribution: India [Eastern Ghat (apterous form),
Nagaland (macropterous form - new record)], Angola,
Luanda, Taiwan.
Comments: As early as 1963, Bournier
described the macropterous form of Baenothrips
asper (= Transithrips asper) from Angola, Africa.
Subsequently, occurrence of B. asper was reported
from India (Ananthakrishnan 1966) and Taiwan
(Kudo 1978) based on the apterous individuals.
However, Bhatti (2002) on examining the Indian
materials felt that there could be two different species
of Baenothrips including that of apterous B. asper, but
the identity of the latter did not match with the winged
form of Angolan species. Recently, during the survey
in Nagaland, a dozen individuals of the macropterous
form of B. asper were collected from mixed leaf
litter. The characters of these specimens were found
identical with that of Angolan materials of B. asper,
that being recharacterized by Bhatti (2002) based on its
paratypes. Further, a comparative account of certain
morphometric data (Table 1) of the materials collected
during the present study also showed similarity with
that of Angolan specimens as provided by Bhatti (2002).
Such comparisons on morphometric measurements
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:B8555A58-0C76-46F0-9EA2-D7906177E907
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33693372
Thysanoptera new records K. Bala et al.
3370
and features of the winged form have clearly indicated
that the specimens collected from Nagaland are B.
asper. Thus, it becomes evident that the macropterous
form of B. asper occurs in India besides the African
continent and the present observation is the frst of
its kind to report its occurrence in the Indo-Myanmar
Biodiversity Hotspot region of northeastern India.
2. Dyothrips pallescens (Hood, 1919)
Zygothrips pallescens Hood, 1919: Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington. 32: 7592.
Dyothrips pallescens (Hood, 1919): Mound & Minaei,
(2007). J. Nat. Hist., 41: 291978.
Morphological features: Antennae 8 segmented;
III with one sense cone; IV with 4 sense cones; Head
longer than wide; body bicolourous; metathorax and
abdominal segment I- yellow; rest brown. Prothoracic
notopleural sutures incomplete. Fore wings without
double fringes; all tarsi yellow, fore tarsi tooth absent.
Post ocular and pronotal setae, and tergite IX setae S1
& S2 expanded (Image 2).
Specimen studied: 1 male and 5 females,
18.vii.2010, Kangla (Manipur - new record); 750m,
ex. Grass (Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf.
(MU/LSD No. G T: 25).
Distribution: Australia, Bangladesh, China, Fiji,
India (this report), Japan, Pakistan, Thailand, Taiwan.
Suborder: Terebrantia
Four species of terebrantians, viz., Dendrothrips
schimae Kudo (1989), Mycterothrips consociatus
(Targioni-Tozzetti, 1887), Panchaetothrips stepheni
Reyes (1994), and Parabaliothrips coluckus (Kudo,
1977) (Thripidae) are collected in the present study.
1. Dendrothrips schimae Kudo, 1989
Dendrothrips schimae Kudo, 1989, Japanese Journal
of Entomology 57(1): 42-45.
Dendrothrips schimae Kudo-Bhatti, 1990, Zoology
1

1

1
Image 1. Baenothrips asper
Image 2. Dyothrips pallescens
Image 3. Dendrothrips schimae
Table 1. Comparative morphometric data pertaining to
Baenothrips asper
Parameters
Nagaland
specimen
Angolan
specimen**
Head- length/width 144-160/152-160 125-134/147-154
Cephalic setae length-
Median/Lateral
64-72/48-56 62-70/56-63
Antennal segment- length/
width
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII

20-24/22-24
32-40/28-32
36-40/22
36-40/24
32/20-23
28-32/16-20
24-32/12-14
20-24/8

20-21/27-28
36/30-32
41-42/22
37-38/25
32-33/23
30-32/20-21
27-28/13-14
23/8-9
Pronotum- length 88-120 92-94
Epimeral setae-length 24-32 27
Tube-length 300-336 278-318
(All measurements are in , ** Bhatti 2002)


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Thysanoptera new records K. Bala et al.
3371
2(4): 225.
Morphological features: Head irregularly
reticulated between eyes, ocellar crescent red, cheeks
with one moderately developed setae just on the lateral
sides below eye. Antenna eight segmented. Forewings
uniformly covered with microtrichia and banded.
Pronotum transversely to slightly anastomosing
striations. Abdominal segments II-VIII with two
median setae, posterior marginal setae on IX strongly
developed (Image 3).
Macropterous (female): Body dark brown with
red pigments; abdominal segments pale at middle,
legs brown except tarsi. Forewings brown with an
incompletely formed light cross band, sub apex pale.
Antennal segments 1, 2, 68 brown, 35 yellow.
Macropterous (male): Head ,thorax and abdominal
segments V-VII brown, II-IV and VIII-X pale yellow.
Forewing with a complete band with paler sub apex.
All femora and tibiae brown, tarsi yellow.
Specimen studied: 5 females, 3 males, 5.ii.2001,
Impur (Nagaland); 1350m, ex. Polygonatum
multiforum Allioni (Liliaceae) (MU/LSD No. B/
Weed/30).
Distribution: India (Nagaland-new record); earlier
known only from Nepal.
2. Mycterothrips consociatus (Targioni-Tozzetti,
1887)
Thrips (Euthrips) consociatus Targioni-Tozzetti, 1887:
Entomologica italiana 18(4): 419431.
Mycterothrips consociatus (Targioni-Tozzetti, 1887):
Masumoto & Okajima (2006): Zootaxa 1261: 190.
Morphological features: Body pale; antennae I-
pale, II-VIII uniformly brown (this character is unique
for the present specimen); Antennae ratio: VI/(I-V)
=1.2-1.45; Microtrichia absent on antennae VI; CPS
absent on Mesonotum; Costal setae- 2426; Upper
vein- (67) +2; Lower vein setae- (910); Median
pair of setae on mesonotum near posterior margin;
Metascutum irregularly reticulate medially; median
pair of setae near anterior margin; Sense cone on III
& IV not reaching the middle of its upper segment
(Image 4).
Specimen studied: 8 males, 10.iv.2011, Moreh
(Manipur - new record), 204m, ex. Bamboo foliage
(small variety) (Poaceae) (MU/LSD No. M-T: 62).
Distribution: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany,
Italy.
3. Panchaetothrips stepheni Reyes, 1994
Panchaetothrips stepheni Reyes, C.P. 1994. The
Raffes Bulletin of Zoology 42: 107507.
Panchaetothrips stepheni Kudo, I. 1995. Insecta
Matsumurana, New Series 52: 81103.
Morphological features: Body brown; Head entirely
reticulate except on occipital collar; small setae present
midway between the eye and hind ocellus. Reticles
on the head posterior to the ocelli with wrinkles or
markings; Sense cones on antennal segment IV forked
while on III both simple and forked. Strong, stout
long setae present on the wings. Antecostal lines on
tergite III-VIII with weak posteriorly directed notches.
Metanotum with an inverted triangle (Image 5).
Specimen studied: 1 female, 5.iv.2008, Moreh
(Manipur - new record); 204m, ex. unidentifed weed
foliage (MU/LSD No. Weed/M-T: 67).
Distribution: Luzon, Philippine Islands.
4. Parabaliothrips coluckus (Kudo, 1977)
Krasibothrips coluckus Kudo, 1977, Kontyu, 45(1):
48. (Japan).
Krasibothrips coluckus Kudo: Ananthakrishnan and
Sen, 1980, Zool. Surv. India. Handbk. Ser., 1: 69 &
138.
Parabaliothrips coluckus (Kudo): Bhatti, 1990,
Zoology 2(4): 244.
Morphological features: Body dark brown. Head
little longer than wide, cheeks weakly serrated with
23 setae, vertex with two pairs of anteocellar setae,
interocellar setae placed just behind ocellar triangle
in line with posterior margin of hind ocelli. Antennal
segments 34 with forked sense cones, 1, 2 brown,
35 yellow, 6 yellow at base, rest brown. Pronotum
shorter than head, nearly rounded with exceptionally
developed postangular setae, anteromarginal longer
than anteroangular. Forewing brown with strongly
developed setae, subbasal pale. All femora, mid and
hind tibiae brown, all tarsi yellow. Comb on abdominal
tergite VIII minute but complete; segments III-VII of
males with transverse glandular areas, setae on IX
exceptionally strong (Image 6).
Specimen studied: 5 females, 2 males, 31.ix.2000,
Kohima (Nagaland), 1400m, ex. Quercus serrata
(Thunb.) (Fagaceae); 8 females, 2 males, 24.viii.2001,
Tengnoupal (Manipur), 1300m, ex. Q. serrata (Thunb.)
(Fagaceae) (MU/LSD No. M-T: 68).
Distribution: Nepal, Taiwan, (India: Manipur &
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33693372
Thysanoptera new records K. Bala et al.
3372
1
1
1
Image 4. Mycterothrips consociatus
Image 5. Panchaetothrips stepheni
Image 6. Parabaliothrips coluckus
Nagaland - new record).
REFERENCES
Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1966). Thysanopterologica indica -
IV. Bulletin of Entomology 7: 1-12.
Ananthakrishnan, T.N. & S. Sen (1980). Taxonomy of Indian
Thysanoptera. Handbook Series No.1. Zoological survey of
India, 234pp
Bhatti, J.S. (1990). Catalogue of insects of the Order Terebrantia
from Indian subregion. Zoology 2(4): 205352.
Bhatti, J.S. (1994). Phylogenetic relationships among
Thysanoptera (Insecta) with particular reference to the
families of the Order Tubulifera. Zoology (Journal of Pure
and Applied Zoology) 4(1993): 93130.
Bhatti, J.S. (2002). Identifcation of the Urothripid Baenothrips
asper (Bournier, 1963) (Tubulifera: Urothripidae). Oriental
Insects 36: 128.
Bournier, A. (1963). Thysanopteres de l Angola, II. Publ. Cult.
Comp. Diam. Angola 63: 75-86. (source: Bhatti, 2002).
David, B.V. & T.N. Ananthakrishnan (2004). General and
Applied Entomology (Second Edition). Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 1184pp.
Hood, J.D. (1919). Two new genera and thirteen new species
of Australian Thysanoptera. Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington 32: 7592. (source: Check list on
World Thysanoptera) <http://anic.ento.csiro.au/worldthrips/
taxon_search.asp>
Kudo, I. (1977). A new genus and two new species of Thripidae
(Thysanoptera) from Nepal. Kontyu 45(1): 18.
Kudo, I. (1978). Some Urothripine Thysanoptera from eastern
Asia. Kontyu 46(2): 169175.
Kudo, I. (1989). Three species of Dendrothrips (Thysanoptera,
Thripidae) from Nepal, with description of a new species.
Japanese Journal of Entomology 57: 3745
Kudo, I. (1995). Some Panchaetothrips from Nepal, Malaysia
and the Philippines (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia: Thripidae).
Insecta Matsumurana (New Series) 52: 81103.
Masumoto, M. & S. Okajima (2006). A revision of and key to
the world species of Mycterothrips Trybom (Thysanoptera,
Thripidae). Zootaxa 1261: 190.
Mound, L.A. & K. Minaei (2007). Australian thrips of the
Haplothrips lineage (Insecta: Thysanoptera). Journal of
Natural History 41: 29192978.
Reyes, C.P. (1994). Thysanoptera (Hexapoda) of the Philippine
Island. The Raffes Bulletin of Zoology 42: 107507.
Targioni-Tozzetti, A. (1887). Notizie sommarie di due specie
di Cecidomidei, una consocociata ad un Phytoptus, ad altri
acari e ad una Thrips in alcune galle del Nocciola (Corylus
avellana L.), una gregaria sotto la scorza dei rami di Olivi,
nello stato larvale. Bollettino della Societa` Entomologica
italiana 18(4): 419431. (source: world check list on thrips:
http://anic.ento.csiro.au/worldthrips/taxon_search.asp).


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JoTT Note 4(14): 33733374
A note on the migration of Dark
Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll)
(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in
Eravikulam National Park,
Idukki District, Kerala, India
Muhamed Jafer Palot
Western Ghat Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India,
Kozhikode, Kerala 673006, India
Email: palot.zsi@gmail.com
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: George Mathew
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3244
Received 30 June 2012
Finally accepted 28 September 2012
Citation: Palot, M.J. (2012). A note on the migration of Dark Cerulean
Jamides bochus (Stoll) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Eravikulam National
Park, Idukki District, Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(14):
33733374.
Copyright: Muhamed Jafer Palot 2012. Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any
medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing
adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The author is grateful Dr. K. Venkatraman, Director,
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata and to Shri. C. Radhakrishnan,
Additional Director, ZSI, Kozhikode for facilities and encouragement.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33733374 3373
During a recent faunal survey from 713 April
2012 at the Eravikulam National Park, Idukki District,
Kerala, the migratory movement of Dark Cerulean
Jamides bochus (Stoll), was observed near Bhimanada
(10.18554N & 77.09081E; 2085m) on 12

April 2012.
They were fying from the high ranges to lower
elevations in a north-east to south-west direction. The
swarm was noticed at around 11:00hr fying through
the trek path along the edges of a shola patch. Initially
the count was about 36 in 5 minutes from 11:00 to 11:05
hr which increased to 65 from 11:15 to 11:20 hr. The
wind direction was supportive for the migration. All
were fying at a height of 23 m from the ground. At
times, the butterfies were found resting on the fowers
of Crofton Weed Ageratina adenophora for nectar
(Image 1). The unmistakable
glistening blue on the forewing
indicated that the majority of them
were male, and the swarm looked
like a series of glistening blue fashes during the fight.
The weather was sunny, and the wind was from east to
west. However, it had been rainy and cloudy during
the previous few days in and around Eravikulam. The
summer rains on the hills probably triggered the mass
movement of the butterfies.
The other butterfies observed along with the
migration of Dark Ceruleans were the Common Blue
Bottle Graphium sarpedon, Common Crow Euploea
core, Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia and the
White-Disc Hedge Blue Celatoxia albidisca. As many
as six Common Blue Bottles, fve Common Crows,
fve Indian Cabbage Whites and four White Disc
Hedge Blues were observed during the count, fying
along with the swarms of Dark Cerulean. The other
butterfy species few along with the migration for a
short while and returning.
While climbing from the foothills of Vaguvarai in
the morning, an unusually large assemblage of Dark
Cerulean butterfies fying around the bushes and tea
plantations was noticed. But the species was totally
absent beyond Bhimanada. On our return trip on 13
April 2012, again the migration of these butterfies
fying in same direction, but in smaller numbers, was
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:04766E59-ADD2-4FBC-9553-02F90560D6D0
Image 1. The Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus nectar
feeding from the fowers of Ageratina adenophora in
Eravikulam National Park.
Md. Jafer Palot
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33733374
Migration of Dark Cerulean M.J. Palot
3374
observed. About eight butterfies could be counted at
around 12:45 to 12:50 hr at the same spot.
Dark Cerulean is a widespread species known to
occur in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh
(Kehimkar 2008). This beautiful little butterfy is found
almost all over India, on the plains and in the hills,
except in the arid northwest. Even though the species is
common and frequently reported from other protected
areas of Kerala, it has not previously been reported at
the Eravikulam NP (Radhakrishnan & Sharma 2002).
It is a known migrant species in the Nilgiris; Larsen
(1987) reported migration of this species in the late
1950s towards the east at Kotagiri. Williams (1938)
on his report on Migration of Butterfies in India did
not mention the migration of Dark Cerulean in India or
elsewhere. A study on the migratory butterfies of the
Western Ghats of Kerala by Palot (2010) also did not
list this species from the region.
Except for the Crotalaria spp., none of the
larval food plants known for the speciesButea
monosperma, Crotalaria spp., Millettia peguensis,
Tephrosia candida, Vigna cylindrica, Pongamia
pinnata, Xylia xylocarpa (Kunte 2000)are reported
from the Eravikulam NP (Unniyal et al. 1998). A small
portion on the eastern periphery of the Park lying close
to Talliar Estate has deciduous forests with trees like
Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Xylia
xylocarpa and Pongamia pinnata including many
larval food plants of the Dark Cerulean. This forest
patch in the eastern side of the Park may be the staging
point for the large scale migration of Dark Cerulean in
the region.
The other butterfy species observed during the trek
from Vaguvarai to Hut on 12 April 2012 were the Palni
Fourring Ypthima ypthimoides (100+), Indian Cabbage
White Pieris canidia (10), Small Orange Tip Colotis
estrida (30), Red-disc Bushbrown Mycalesis oculus
(25), Common Blue Bottle Graphium sarpedon (5),
Indian Fritillary Argynnis hyperbius (5), Indian Red
Admiral Vanessa indica (6), Red Helen Papilio helenus
(2), White-Disc Hedge Blue Celatoxia albidisca (4),
and Tamil Grass Dart Taractrocera ceramas (6).
RefeRences
Kehimkar, I. (2008). The Book of Indian Butterfies. Bombay
Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, Mumbai,
i-xvi+497pp.
Kunte, K. (2000). Butterfies of Peninsular India. University
Press (India) Limited, Hyderabad, i-xviii+254+31plates.
Larsen, T.B. (1978). Butterfy migrations in the Nilgiri Hills of
south India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
74: 546549.
Palot, M.J. (2010). Butterfy migration studies in Kerala part of
Western Ghats - an overview. In: First Indian Biodiversity
Congress 2010: Book of Abstracts. No. 01.29 page: 38.
Thiruvananthapuram
Unniyal, V.K., G.s. Rawat & P.V. Karunakaran (1998).
Ecology and Conservation of the Grasslands of Eravikulam
National Park, Western Ghats. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun, 141pp.
Williams, c.B. (1938). The migration of butterfies in India.
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 40: 439
457.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957). Butterfies of the Indian Region.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 523pp.
Radhakrishnan, c. & R.M. sharma (2002). Insecta:
Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera. In: Fauna of Eravikulam
National Park, Conservation Area Series No. 13: 197.
Published by the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata.
JoTT Note 4(14): 33753376
Sighting record of Bengal Florican
Houbaropsis bengalensis (Gmelin,
1789) (Aves: Gruiformes: Otididae) in
Lower Dibang Valley District, Arunachal
Pradesh, India
Alolika Sinha
1
, Jillol Hoque
2
, Tilak Pradhan
3
,
Manish Kumar Bakshi
4
, Jibi Pulu
5
, Alok Kumar
Singh
6
& M. Firoz Ahmed
7
1,2,3,4,7
Aaranyak, 50 Evergreen, Samanway Path, Beltola Survey,
Guwahati, Assam 781028, India
5
Mishmi Hill Camp, Ezengo, Roing, Lower Dibang Valley
District, Arunachal Pradesh 792110, India
6
Ranger, Dibang Forest Division, Arunachal Forest Department
Lower Dibnag Valley District, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Email:
1
alolika@aaranyak.org (corresponding author),
4
manishkoolbakshi@gmail.com,
5
mishmihillcamp@gmail.com,
7
froz@aaranyak.org
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Rajiv S. Kalsi
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2831
Received 10 June 2011
Final received 03 October 2012
Finally accepted 15 October 2012
Citation: Sinha, A., J. Hoque, T. Pradhan, M.K. Bakshi, J. Pulu, A.K. Singh
& M.F. Ahmed (2012). Sighting record of Bengal Florican Houbaropsis
bengalensis (Gmelin, 1789) (Aves: Gruiformes: Otididae) in Lower Dibang
Valley District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa
4(14): 33753376.
Copyright: Alolika Sinha, Jillol Hoque, Tilak Pradhan, Manish Kumar
Bakshi, Jibi Pulu, Alok Kumar Singh & M. Firoz Ahmed 2012. Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use
of this article in any medium for non-proft purposes, reproduction and
distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of
publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to all the volunteers from
the local community, without their help and cooperation the feld work would
not have been possible. We acknowledge the constant support from the
Arunachal Forest Department.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33753376 3375
The Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
(Gmelin, 1789) is a Critically Endangered species
inhabiting the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia
(BirdLife International 2012). It is a ground nesting
grassland bird (Poudyal et al. 2008), which was once
common in northern India, Nepal and the Brahmaputra
Valley of Assam (Rahmani 2001) in northeastern
India. Bengal Florican is a habitat
specialist and prefers alluvial
grasslands dominated by Imperata
cylindrica, Saccharum munja and
Desmostachya bipinnata. Bengal Florican is a species
with a narrow ecological niche, with a very small and
rapidly declining population, largely as a result of the
widespread loss of its habitat. (BirdLife International
2001; Rahmani 2001).
On 05 March 2011, during a feld visit to Nizam
Ghat area near Roing in Lower Dibang Valley District,
Arunachal Pradesh at 14:25hr (Image 1), we sighted
a male Bengal Florican at New Elopa locality (28
0
12
57.2N & 95
0
4434.9E) (Image 2). When frst
sighted, the bird was in fight. Later it settled on the
ground, took refuge in the grassland and was out of
sight. It was identifed with the presence of entirely
white wings except for black tips in fight and also with
its call (Grimmett et al. 1999). We were able to take a
photograph of the bird while in fight which helped us
in identifying the bird as male. However, we could not
assign the maturity of the individual (adult/subadult)
due to inadequate clarity of the image and our limited
knowledge on the species.
The breeding season of the species starts from
February to July (Ali & Ripley 1987; Narayan 1992).
The mature males establish individual territories in
relatively open and short grasslands. Subadult males
do not usually establish breeding territories and are
seen fying around the breeding sites. However, we
cannot conclude anything for the observed behavior
from the single sighting.

Image 1. Bengal Florican in fight.


M. Firoz Ahmed
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:1AA009A7-E5D7-42AA-96CE-725761AED769
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | November 2012 | 4(14): 33753376
Bengal Florican in Arunachal A. Sinha et al.
3376
We later assessed the habitat that was dominated by
the Imperata cylindrica along with other short grasses.
The local people also reported sighting of the bird in
the area.
Bengal Florican is known to occur in DEring
Wildlife Sanctuary (27
0
5128
0
5N & 95
0
2295
0
29E)
in Arunachal Pradesh (Narayan 1992; Birdlife
International 2001). In India population decline due to
habitat loss and hunting have restricted the distribution
of the species within protected areas only (BirdLife
International 2001). However, the species also occurs
in some unprotected river islands in eastern India (M.
Firoz Ahmed pers. obs. 2003). The signifcance of this
sighting record was that it was outside the protected
area in Lower Dibang Valley District in Arunachal
Pradesh, which in turn signifes the importance of non
protected grasslands in this region.
RefeRences
Ali, s. & s.D. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
xlii+737pp+104 colour plates.
BirdLife International (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia - Part
A. BirdLife International, Cambridge, xxx+1516pp.
BirdLife International (2012). Houbaropsis bengalensis.
In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Version 2012.1. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on
16 October 2012.
Grimmett, R., c. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999). Pocket guide
to the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 384pp.
Poudyal, L.P., P.B. singh & s. Maharjan (2008). The decline
of Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis in Nepal.
Danphe 17(1): 46.
narayan, G. (1992). Ecology, distribution and conservation of
the Bengal Florican Houbaropsis begalensis (Gmelin) in
India. PhD Thesis. University of Bombay, IV+301pp.
Rahmani, A.R. (2001). Status of the Bengal Florican
Houbaropsis bengalensis in Uttar Pradesh, India. Bombay:
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Image 2. Map showing sighting location (solid star) of Bengal Florican in the grassland beside the channels of Dibang
River and Nizamghat, Lower Dibang Valley District, Arunachal Pradesh.

Dr. Ullasa Kodandaramaiah, Cambridge, UK


Dr. Pankaj Kumar, Tai Po, Hong Kong
Dr. Krushnamegh Kunte, Cambridge, USA
Prof. Dr. Adriano Brilhante Kury, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Dr. P. Lakshminarasimhan, Howrah, India
Dr. Carlos Alberto S de Lucena, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Dr. Glauco Machado, So Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Volker Mahnert, Douvaine, France
Dr. Gowri Mallapur, Mamallapuram, India
Dr. George Mathew, Peechi, India
Dr. Rudi Mattoni, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Prof. Richard Kiprono Mibey, Eldoret, Kenya
Dr. Lionel Monod, Genve, Switzerland
Dr. Shomen Mukherjee, Jamshedpur, India
Dr. Shomita Mukherjee, Coimbatore, India
Dr. Fred Naggs, London, UK
Dr. P.O. Nameer, Thrissur, India
Dr. D. Narasimhan, Chennai, India
Dr. T.C. Narendran, Kozhikode, India
Mr. Stephen D. Nash, Stony Brook, USA
Dr. K.S. Negi, Nainital, India
Dr. K.A.I. Nekaris, Oxford, UK
Dr. Tim New, Melbourne, Australia
Dr. Heok Hee Ng, Singapore
Dr. Boris P. Nikolov, Sofa, Bulgaria
Prof. Annemarie Ohler, Paris, France
Dr. Shinsuki Okawara, Kanazawa, Japan
Dr. Albert Orr, Nathan, Australia
Dr. Geeta S. Padate, Vadodara, India
Dr. Larry M. Page, Gainesville, USA
Dr. Arun K. Pandey, Delhi, India
Dr. Prakash Chand Pathania, Ludhiana, India
Dr. Malcolm Pearch, Kent, UK
Dr. Richard S. Peigler, San Antonio, USA
Dr. Rohan Pethiyagoda, Sydney, Australia
Mr. J. Praveen, Bengaluru, India
Dr. Mark R Stanley Price, Tubney, UK
Dr. Robert Michael Pyle, Washington, USA
Dr. Muhammad Ather Raf, Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. H. Raghuram, Bengaluru, India
Dr. Dwi Listyo Rahayu, Pemenang, Indonesia
Dr. Sekar Raju, Suzhou, China
Dr. Vatsavaya S. Raju, Warangal, India
Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, New Delhi, India
Dr (Mrs). R. Ramanibai, Chennai, India
Prof. S.N. Ramanujam, Shillong, India
Dr. Alex Ramsay, LS2 7YU, UK
Dr. M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Pune, India
Dr. Robert Raven, Queensland, Australia
Dr. K. Ravikumar, Bengaluru, India
Dr. Luke Rendell, St. Andrews, UK
Dr. Heidi Riddle, Greenbrier, USA
Dr. Anjum N. Rizvi, Dehra Dun, India
Dr. Leif Ryvarden, Oslo, Norway
Prof. Michael Samways, Matieland, South Africa
Dr. Yves Samyn, Brussels, Belgium
Dr. V. Shantharam, Chittor, India
Prof. S.C. Santra, Kalyani, India
Dr. Asok K. Sanyal, Kolkata, India
Dr. K.R. Sasidharan, Coimbatore, India
Mr. Kumaran Sathasivam, Madurai, India
Dr. S. Sathyakumar, Dehradun, India
Dr. M.M. Saxena, Bikaner, India
Dr. Hendrik Segers, Vautierstraat, Belgium
Dr. R. Siddappa Setty, Bengaluru, India
Dr. Subodh Sharma, Towson, USA
Prof. B.K. Sharma, Shillong, India
Prof. K.K. Sharma, Jammu, India
Dr. R.M. Sharma, Jabalpur, India
Dr. Tan Koh Siang, Kent Ridge Road, Singapore
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Prof. Willem H. De Smet, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Mr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, New Delhi, India
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Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany
Dr. Dave Waldien, Austin, USA
Dr. Ted J. Wassenberg, Cleveland, Australia
Dr. Stephen C. Weeks, Akron, USA
Prof. Yehudah L. Werner, Jerusalem, Israel
Mr. Nikhil Whitaker, Mamallapuram, India
Dr. Andreas Wilting, Berlin, Germany
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Journal of Threatened Taxa is indexed/abstracted
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NAAS rating (India) 4.5
jOuRnal OF ThREaTEnED Taxa
November 2012 | Vol. 4 | No. 14 | Pages 32333376
Date of Publication 26 November 2012 (online & print)
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of articles in any medium
for non-proft purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the
source of publication.
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Communications
CEPF Western Ghats Special Series
A new genus of the family Theraphosidae (Araneae:
Mygalomorphae) with description of three new species from the
Western Ghats of Karnataka, India
-- Manju Siliwal, Neha Gupta & Robert Raven, Pp. 32333254
Additional records of Tettigoniidae from Arunachal Pradesh, India
-- G. Srinivasan & D. Prabakar, Pp. 32553268
CEPF Western Ghats Special Series
Birds of lower Palni Hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India
-- Tharmalingam Ramesh, J. Peter Prem Chakravarthi, S. Balachandran
& Riddhika Kalle, Pp. 32693283
Elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus (Proboscidea: Elephantidae)
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills, India in the late 1970s
-- E.R.C. Davidar, Peter Davidar, Priya Davidar & Jean-Philippe
Puyravaud, Pp. 32843293
Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve,
Nepal: status, population and conservation importance
-- Top Bahadur Khatri, Deep Narayan Shah & Nilamber Mishra, Pp.
32943301
Reassessment of morphology and historical distribution as factors
in conservation efforts for the Endangered Patagonian Huemul Deer
Hippocamelus bisulcus (Molina 1782)
-- Huemul Task Force, Pp. 33023311
Short Communications
CEPF Western Ghats Special Series
Metazoan community composition in tree hole aquatic habitats of
Silent Valley National Park and New Amarambalam Reserve Forest
of the Western Ghats, India
-- K.A. Nishadh & K.S. Anoop Das, Pp. 33123318
Recent sightings of two very rare butterfies, Lethe margaritae
Elwes, 1882 and Neptis nycteus de Nicville, 1890, from Sikkim,
eastern Himalaya, India
-- Sanjyog Rai, Karma Dorjee Bhutia & Krushnamegh Kunte, Pp.
33193326
Parambassis waikhomi, a new species of glassfsh (Teleostei:
Ambassidae) from Loktak Lake, northeastern India
-- K. Geetakumari & C. Basudha, Pp. 33273332
Current status of Marsh Crocodiles Crocodylus palustris (Reptilia:
Crocodylidae) in Vishwamitri River, Vadodara City, Gujarat, India
-- Raju Vyas, Pp. 33333341
Rapid assessment of Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus (Aves:
Bucerotidae) populations and conservation issues in fragmented
lowland tropical forests of Arunachal Pradesh, India
-- Murali Krishna, Kuladip Sarma & Awadhesh Kumar, Pp. 33423348
Distribution, den characteristics and diet of the Indian Fox Vulpes
bengalensis (Mammalia: Canidae) in Karnataka, India: preliminary
observations
-- H.N. Kumara & Mewa Singh, Pp. 33493354
Survey of the Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus Bennett, 1833
(Carnivora: Felidae) and some aspects impacting its conservation
in India
-- Shomita Mukherjee, Tiasa Adhya, Prachi Thatte & Uma Ramakrishnan,
Pp. 33553361
Notes
First record of Okenia pellucida Burn, 1967 (Mollusca:
Nudibranchia) from India
-- Vishal Bhave & Deepak Apte, Pp. 33623365
The hitherto undescribed male of Orthozona quadrilineata (Moore,
1882) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)
-- Peter Smetacek & I.J. Kitching, Pp. 33663368
First record of two tubuliferan and four terebrantian species of
Thysanoptera (Insecta) from northeastern India
-- Kh. Bala, O. Tarunkumar Singh, H. Taptamani & R. Varatharajan, Pp.
33693372
A note on the migration of Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll)
(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Eravikulam National Park,
Idukki District, Kerala, India
-- Muhamed Jafer Palot, Pp. 33733374
Sighting record of Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
(Gmelin, 1789) (Aves: Gruiformes: Otididae) in Lower Dibang Valley
District, Arunachal Pradesh, India
-- Alolika Sinha, Jillol Hoque, Tilak Pradhan, Manish Kumar Bakshi, Jibi
Pulu, Alok Kumar Singh & M. Firoz Ahmed, Pp. 33753376

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