CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter presents literature and studies of experts, both foreign

and local, reviewed by the researcher and that have bearing on the present study.

Related Literature Regulation of professionals by the state dates back to the 19 th century. As

introduced in an earlier section, the demand for government regulation comes from the professionals themselves. They perceive state regulation a means to protect the market and their scope of practice, a limited entry to their practice and to protect their titles and credentials. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as opportunity hoarding or opportunities sought by professionals in an attempt to limit access to expertise and entry to practice through advanced education, training, credentials and licenses, in order to strengthen their status and market position. However, as state regulation evolved, this phenomenon has been tempered in favor of a balance between protecting professionals and protecting the public (Adams, 2001). Apart from the benefits to the professional, the regulation of professions and professionals also helps the government achieve its own objectives. Regulations

objectives are two-fold. It is normally restrictive of some things and permissive of other things at the same time. Through professional regulation, the state is able to signal that it values the role of the profession and professional to the state. By giving exams and granting titles, the state, through professional boards, are able to give legitimacy to the

practice of profession in recognition of the crucial role of these professionals in guiding social behavior. On the other hand, the state also regulates professions to ensure public protection, especially for professions where their unregulated practice may cause harm to people. For instance, the practice of health-related professions has the ability to

influence the general health of the public, and is thus heavily regulated by professional boards and supported by its corresponding professional associations. In summary, by regulating professions, the government is able to limit entry and set appropriate levels of expertise to ensure that professionals are competent. By granting titles to professionals, the government is able to help people identify who the experts are. This range of control over regulation may take the form of but is not limited to registration, licensure, and certification. The most minimal is registration, which can be as undemanding as having oneself recorded into an official list or database of professionals. Licensure, on the other hand, is more stringent in evaluating who are qualified to practice. Licenses are usually given to those who have attained a certain level of education and have passed a form of entrance examination. Those who have obtained a license have a monopoly on the practice of their profession. Certification is the process of guaranteeing that an individual passes a level of competence and other perquisites. While they do not have a monopoly on their practice, those certified have a monopoly on titles and credentials. It is a way of informing the public of an individuals qualification in order that they may decide accordingly whom to receive their services from (Tremblay, 1998). Philippines Professional Regulation Commission (PRC), the government agency responsible for the promotion of the development of a corps of competent Filipino

professionals; and the pursuance of regulatory measures, programs and activities that enhance professional growth and development towards fostering internationally recognized and world-class professional service and practice. The PRC or Commission is responsible for the licensing and regulation of certain types of professionals in order to ensure the maintenance of competency, conscientiousness, and integrity in the practice of the various professions under its jurisdiction. In order to promote objectivity and fairness in the administration of test examinations, the PRBs draft examination questions with test consultants of the PRC. They work hand in hand with various academic organizations that provide a table of specifications in order to ensure that questions given during board exams are in alignment with theories and practices taught in the classrooms. Republic Act No. 7836 is an act to strengthen the regulation and supervision of the practice of teaching in the Philippines and prescribing a licensure examination for teachers and for other purposes. The promulgation of Presidential Decree No. 1006 on September 22, 1976 formally organized the National Board for Teachers (NBT). Directly under the

supervision of the Civil Service Commission, the NBT was the first board to exercise regulatory exercise over the teaching profession. On December 16, 1994, the regulation and licensing of teachers was transferred to the PRC through the enactment of Republic Act No. 7836, otherwise known as The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994. professionalization of teaching under the aegis of the PRC. The law provided for the

Pursuant to the law,

the first Board for Professional Teachers (BPT) was

constituted on September 19, 1995 with the appointment of Dr. Nilo L. Rosas as Chairman, Dr. Aurelio O. Elevazo as Vice-Chairman and Dr. Lucila F. Tibigar,

Dr. Fe A. Hidalgo and Dr. Martha A. Mogol as Members. On August 1996, the Board and the PRC administered the Licensure In 1997,

Examination for Teachers (LET) for the first time to 97,560 examinees.

101,348 examinees took the LET, a record in the history of professional regulation. In 1998, a total of 115,499 took the LET, and in 1999, 123,025. In 1996, the Board also administered the first licensure examination for school superintendents, the results of which were released five (5) days after the examination date. Today, teachers constitute more than half a million, comprising one of the largest occupational groups in the country.

Related Studies According to (Phye, 2004) learner assessment represents a particular type of educational assessment normally conducted by teachers and designed to serve several related purposes. Learner assessment is best conceived as a form of two-way communication in which feedback on the educational process of product is provided to its key stake holders (Cronbach, 1988) specifically, learning assessment involves communication to teachers (feedback on teaching); students (feedback on learning), curriculum designers (feedback on curriculum; and administration (feedback on use of resources).

Assessment as learning is based in research about how learning happens, and is characterized by students reflecting on their own learning and making adjustments so that they achieve deeper understanding. P. Afflerbach (2002) noted (in the context of reading assessment): too many students have reading assessment done to them, or for them. Only reading assessment is done with students and eventually by students can foster true independence and success in reading. Accomplished readers are flexible in their routines of metacognition and comprehension monitoring, as demanded by the particular act of reading. The ability to self-assess is multifaceted and good readers apply their self-assessment strategies on demand. Although Afflerbachs comment is specifically about reading, it is applicable to many other areas of learning as well. Students become productive learners when they see that the results of their work are part of critical and constructive decision-making. If young people are to engage in continuous learning in environments where knowledge is always changing, they need to internalize the needing-to know and challenging-ofassumptions as habits of mind. The ultimate goal in assessment as learning is for

students to acquire the skills and the habits of mind to be metacognitively aware with increasing independence. Assessment as learning focuses on the explicit fostering of students capacity over time to be their own best assessors, but teachers need to start by presenting and modeling external, themselves. Independence learners are able to engage in self-reflection and to identify the next steps in their learning. Teachers should equip learners with the desire and the capacity to take charge of their learning through developing the skills of self-assessment of students structured opportunities for students to assess

capacity over to be their own best assessors, but teachers need to start by presenting and modeling external, structured opportunities for students assess themselves.