Chapter 12: AC Bridges

0908341 Measurements & Instrumentation

Chapter 12 Bridges II: AC Bridges and the measurement of L&C (Revision 3.0, 4/5/2008) 1. Introduction AC bridges are used for measuring the values of inductors and capacitors or for converting the signals measured from inductive or capacitive into a suitable form such as a voltage. Inductors and capacitors can also be measured using an approximate method of voltage division. These methods are discussed in this Chapter. 2. General condition for balance in AC bridges In an AC bridge in general, at balance conditions, the following is true:

Z X Z4 = Z2 Z3
Where the value of Zx is unknown and the values of the other three impedances are known. The arrangement of this null AC bridge is shown Figure 1.

ZX

Z2

Vi

V Null detector Z4

Z3

Figure 1: General diagram of an AC Bridge.

The null condition equation to be true, it has to satisfy both the magnitude criterion and the phase angle criterion, as follows [2]:
Z X Z4 = Z2 Z3

Z X + Z 4 = Z 2 + Z 3

Note that the capacitive reactance has a negative phase angle, and the inductive reactance has a position phase angle. Resistors have a zero phase angle. Copyright held by the author 2008: Dr. Lutfi R. Al-Sharif Page 1 of 16

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Using the criterion above can help decide whether a bridge can achieve balance conditions or not just by examining the components in the bridge. 2.1 General Rule for a.c. bridges As a general rule in AC bridges in order to achieve balance conditions, similar reactive components should be placed on adjacent limbs of the bridge, and different reactive components should be placed on opposite limbs of the bridge. For example, if only capacitors are to be used in an a.c. bridge, then they should be placed on adjacent limbs (e.g., the Wien Bridge). If a capacitor and an inductor are to be used in a bridge, then they should be placed on opposite limbs of the bridge (e.g., the Maxwell Bridge). 3. Quality Factor for Inductors and Capacitors The Q factor (Quality factor) for an inductor or capacitor is the ratio of the value of its reactance to its resistance. For an inductor:

QL =
For a capacitor:

XL L = R R

QC =

XC 1 = R C R

4. Deflection AC bridges As with DC bridges, AC bridge can be used in two configurations: null and deflection modes. In the null mode, the bridge is used to find the value of an L or C component accurately. In a deflection type bridge, the physical variable to be measured is converted to an output voltage. The deflection bridge is especially necessary in cases where the variable to be measured is changing rapidly (i.e., faster than a human operator can achieve a null condition). The next section will discuss the various types of AC null bridges. This section will provide an overview of the construction of deflection bridges. Deflection AC bridge are usually of the symmetrical type. This is because they consist of two resistors and two identical reactive components (i.e., two capacitors or two inductors). An example AC inductive deflection bridge is shown in Figure 2 where the varying inductor is Lx. In this case the inductor would change its value with the change in the variable that it is measuring. An AC capacitive deflection bridge is shown in Figure 3 where the varying capacitor is Cx. In this case, the capacitor would change its value with the change in the variable that it is measuring (e.g., displacement).

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RX

R2

LX Vi

L2

V Vo R3 R4

Figure 2: AC deflection bridge (inductive).

Cx

C2

Vi

V Vo R3 R4

Figure 3: AC deflection bridge (capacitive).

5. AC Null Type Bridges This section examines the various types of AC null type bridges.

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5.1 Maxwell Bridge The Maxwell Bridge is used to measure inductors with low to medium values of Q1. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 4 below [1].

RX R2 LX Vi

V Vo R3 C4 R4

Figure 4: Maxwell Bridge.

At Balance2,

Z X = Y4 Z 2 Z 3
This gives:

1 RX + j LX = R2 R3 + j C4 R 4 R R RX + j LX = 2 3 + j R2 R3 C4 R4
Equating real parts of both sides gives:

RX =

R2 R3 R4

And equating imaginary parts of both sides gives:

1 2

A low value of Q is considered to be below 10 or below 5. Depending on the setup of the bridge, it might be simpler in some cases to multiply by an admittance rather than divide by an impedance.

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LX = R2 R3 C4
5.2 Hay Bridge The Hay Bridge (shown in Figure 5 below) is used to measure the value of inductors that have a high Q factor [2]. A Q factor is considered high for value of 10 or more (or more than 5). At balance conditions, we have the following:

RX R2 LX Vi

V Vo R3 R4

C4

Figure 5: Hay Bridge.

(R

1 = R2 R3 + j LX ) R4 + X j C4 RX L RX R4 + j LX R4 + + X = R2 R3 j C4 C4

Equating the real parts on both sides gives:

RX R4 + RX =

LX = R2 R3 C4

R2 R3 C4 R R C LX LX = 2 3 4 R4 C4 R4 C4 R4 C4

Equating the imaginary parts on both sides gives:

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LX R4 =
LX =

RX C4

RX 2 R4 C4

The problem in this case is that we have ended up with two equations with two unknowns (as opposed to the previous cases which gave the value of Rx and Lx directly from the real and imaginary part equations). So we have to solve the two simultaneous equations, giving:

LX =

R R C L RX = 2 23 24 2 X 2 R4 C4 R4 C4 R2 R3 C4 ( 2 R42 C42 + 1)

2 R42 C42 L X + LX = R2 R3 C4
LX =

Using this to find the formula for Rx gives:

2 R2 R3 R4 C42 RX = ( 2 R42 C42 + 1)

Note that in this case, the results depend on the value of the frequency (as opposed to the Maxwell Bridge, where the results were independent of the value of the frequency). If we remember that the inductor has a high Q value, then if follows from the phase angle balance equation that capacitor will have a high Q value as well (C4, R4). This is because at balance conditions the phase angle for Z4 should equal the angle for Zx (as Z2 and Z3 are resistors). As the capacitor has a high Q, then it follows that:

QC =

1 >> 1 R4 C4 1 0 Q2
C

2 R42 C42 =

Using this approximation we can now find the values of LX and Rx for high Q as follows:

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RX = 2 R2 R3 R4 C42 LX = R2 R3 C4
5.3 Schering Bridge The Schering Bridge (Figure 6) is used to measure the value of capacitors (especially their insulating properties) [2]. The values of Cx and Rx are unknown.

Rx

R2

Cx Vi V Vo C3 R4 C4

Figure 6: Schering Bridge.

At balance conditions (it is easier in this case to use the admittance Y4 and multiply it by the other side, as it is a parallel combination of a capacitor and resistor, as follows):

Z X = Y4 Z 2 Z 3
which gives:

1 RX + j CX 1 RX + j CX

1 1 = + j C4 R2 R j C 4 3 R C R2 + 2 4 = j C R C 3 4 3

Equating real and imaginary parts in both sides of the equation, gives:

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RX = CX =

R2 C4 C3 C3 R4 R2

Note that the each of the resulting equations solves for one of the unknowns without the need to solve two simultaneous equations. Also note that the result in this case does not depend on the value of the frequency. 5.4 Wien Bridge One of the four methods for measuring the frequency of a signal is the Wien Bridge. The Wien Bridge is named after Max Wien3. The source of unknown frequency is used to excite the a.c. bridge as shown in Figure 7. The variable resistors R3 and R4 are varied until balance conditions are achieved (as indicated by the lack of signal in the null detector). If the frequency is known to be in the audio range, the null detector used could be a pair of headphones.

C3

R1
Unknown frequency source Null Detector

R3

R2

R4

C4

Figure 7: The Wien Bridge.

At balance conditions:

R1 Z 3 = = Z 3 Y4 R2 Z 4
3

Max Wien (1866 1938) a German physicist and the director of the Institute of Physics at the University of Jena. In 1891. Wien invented the Wien Bridge oscillator but did not have a means of developing electronic gain so a workable oscillator could not be achieved.

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Developing this, gives:

R C R1 1 1 1 + jC4 = 3 + 4 + jR3C4 + = R3 + R C R2 jC3 R4 jR4C3 4 3

Equating real parts from both sides gives:

R1 R3 C4 = + R2 R4 C3
Equating imaginary parts from both sides gives:

jR3C4 +

1 =0 jR4C3 1 jR4C3

jR3C4 =

1 1 f = R3 R4C3C4 2 R3 R4C3C4

In practice, R3 is set as equal to R4, and C3 is set as equal to C4. Thus the unknown frequency is found as:

f =
This also results in the following:

1 2R3C3

R1 = 2 R2 In order to make balancing the bridge easier, the variable resistors R3 and R4 are linked by a common shaft (i.e., ganged) such that they are always equal as the arm is rotated to achieve balance conditions. This is shown in Figure 8. The dashed line on electrical diagrams indicates a mechanical connection between electrical components.

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C3

R1
Unknown frequency source Null Detector

R3

R2

R4

C4

Figure 8: The mechanical link between the two resistors (ganged).

5.4.1 The Problem of Harmonics in the Wien Bridge Due to the sensitivity of this bridge, it might be difficult to balance it unless the source waveform is a pure sinusoid. A distorted sinusoid will contain harmonics and these will not be balanced by the bridge at the true balance point. 6. Approximate Methods for Measuring L and C Simpler methods of measuring L and C are also available, although they do not yield the same accuracy as the AC bridge methods. It is possible to measure the value of Lx as shown in Figure 9 below [1]. Rx represents the resistance of the inductor. The value of Rx is first measured by one of the resistance measurement methods discussed earlier. Then using the circuit shown below, the value of R1 is changed until the voltage across it is equal to the voltage across Zx (Rx and Lx).

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R1

VR

Vi RX VX LX

Figure 9: Approximate Method of measuring Inductance.

Once the two voltages are equal, the following equation can be used to find the value of Lx:

Z X = R1
2 RX + 2 L2X = R1 2 R12 RX 2 R12 RX = 2 f

LX =

So the finding the value of Lx depends on the values of R1, Rx as well as the frequency, f. Achieving the balance depends on reading two voltages. For these reasons this method is less accurate than the null type bridge methods, as all the tolerances/errors in these quantities will accumulate in the final reading. A similar method can be used to measure the value of an unknown capacitor, as shown in Figure 10 [1]. The voltages across the known resistor and the capacitor are measured. Their values are then used to find the unknown capacitor as follows:

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R1

VR

Vi

CX VC

Figure 10: Approximate Method of measuring capacitance.

VR VC = R1 X C VC VR = 1 R1 CX CX = VR 2 f VC R1

Note that the capacitor value depends on the frequency, the value of the two voltages and the value of the resistor. This leads to low accuracy with this method, due to the accumulation of the error in these quantities. Another approximate method of measuring the capacitor is measure the time constant of the capacitor with a known resistor. By knowing the time constant and the value of the resistor, the value of the capacitor can be calculated. 7. General guidelines on the use of bridges Having introduced both types of bridges, it is appropriate at this point to introduce a general set of guidelines for selection of bridge for different applications. In order to select a certain type of bridge design, a good understanding is needed of the nature of the application and any constraints. The following is a set of guidelines that can be used in such a selection: a) Type of sensor (R, L or C): The first decision to be made is the type of sensor to use for the application in order to convert the non-electrical variable into an electrical variable. If, for example, a strain gauge is to be used to measure stress or strain, then the Copyright held by the author 2008: Dr. Lutfi R. Al-Sharif Page 12 of 16

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sensor is resistive. If however, we wish to measure displacement by capacitive effects, then the sensor will be a capacitor. In general, a passive sensor could either be resistive, capacitive or inductive. b) Bridge or voltage divider: In certain simple cases, a simple voltage divider could be used instead of a bridge. This consists of the sensor that varies with the variable to be measured connected in series with fixed impedance (usually identical to the type of component of the sensor). This combination is then excited by a voltage source and the output is available between the ground connection and the point of connection of the two impedances. Obviously there are many disadvantages with this setup compared to a bridge. a. It cannot be used in null mode. b. The output has a large voltage component that is present even when the input variable is at its neutral position. This makes it difficult to detect small signal deviations caused by changes in the measured variable as they are mixed with a relatively large voltage. c. The bridge can provide a differential output signal that is immune to noise, while the voltage divider cannot (its signal is relative to ground). c) AC or DC Bridge: Having decided on the type of sensor and the use of a bridge, the next most important decision is to whether a dc bridge or an ac bridge is needed. This depends on the type of components used in the bridge. If any component is reactive (capacitive or inductive), then the bridge must be an AC bridge. If all components are resistive, then the natural choice would be a DC bridge (although an AC bridge could be used in this case if there is a good reason to do so). d) Null or deflection: Depending on whether the signal is changing rapidly or not, the type of bridge mode can be selected. A null type mode is used for situations where the variable is not changing (or is changing very slowly) such that there is enough time to balance the bridge and get a reading. The null type mode is used where an accurate measurement of impedance is needed. On the other hand, if the signal is changing rapidly (e.g., faster than every second), then a deflection type bridge must be used. The fact that variable is changing for example at a frequency of 20 Hz, does not have any effect on whether the bridge is AC or DC. It means that the bridge has to be a deflection bridge, but it could be AC or DC depending on the type of components in it (reactive or resistive). e) When AC deflection bridges are used, it is most appropriate to use the symmetrical arrangements (i.e., 2 adjacent inductors Copyright held by the author 2008: Dr. Lutfi R. Al-Sharif Page 13 of 16

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and 2 adjacent resistors; or 2 adjacent capacitors and 2 adjacent resistors). f) In general higher accuracy will be obtained from a null type bridge, if it is possible to use one. But null type bridges generally require human intervention, while deflection type bridges are automatic. g) 1 arm, 2 arm or 4 arm bridge: If a deflection bridge is to be used, then it is best to try to have a bridge with the highest number of elements, in order to maximise the sensitivity. 4 arm bridges generally require sensors that increase and decrease their values with changes in the variable that is being measured. This is not always possible, and in some cases only a 2 arm bridge is possible. If the cost of the sensor is high, a 1 arm bridge might be the only option in that case. h) Feedback control systems: In certain cases, if the output signal is required to form a feedback signal to a closed loop control system, then a deflection bridge must be used. References & Bibliography [1] Measurement & Instrumentation Principles, Alan S. Morris, Elsevier, 2001. [2] Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper, Prentice Hall International Editions, 1990. Problems 1. The a.c. bridge shown below is called an Owen Bridge and is used to measure inductance. Assuming balance conditions, find the expressions for the values of Rx and Lx. Assume that the frequency of the excitation source is rads-1.

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RX R2 LX Vi

V Null detector C4

R3

C3

Figure 11: Problem 1.

2. The AC bridge that is shown below cannot be balanced. a) Explain why it cannot be balanced. b) If R3 is removed from the bridge, suggest how you can make the bridge balanceable by replacing just one component with an alternative component.

R1

R2

C1 Vi R3 V Vo

L3 C4

R4

Figure 12: Problem 2.

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3. Describe and draw the setup that gives the best accuracy to measure the following variables: a) The level of a non-conducting liquid using two parallel plates. The liquid level is expected to change every 1 second.

b) The force on a cantilevered beam. The force is a sinusoidal function of frequency 20 Hz.

c)

The value of an inductor that has an approximate inductance of 1 mH and an approximate resistance of 10 m and will be used at a frequency of 50 Hz. Page 16 of 16

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