SUBCOURSE EDITION

OD0611 B

PRINCIPLES OF
AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICITY
 PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICITY

Subcourse Number OD 0611

EDITION B

United States Army Combined Arms Support Command
Fort Lee, VA  23801­1809

4 Credit Hours

EDITION DATE: October 1991

SUBCOURSE OVERVIEW

This subcourse is designed to teach you the relationship of voltage, current,
resistance and series and parallel circuits of military vehicle electrical
systems.  Practice exercises are provided prior to the examination.

There are no prerequisites for this subcourse.

This subcourse reflects the doctrine which was current at the time the
subcourse was prepared.  In your own work situation, always refer to the latest
publications.

The words "he", "him", and "men", when used in this publication, represents
both the masculine and feminine genders unless otherwise stated.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE

TASK: Identify electrical flow in circuits and maintenance of vehicle
storage batteries.

CONDITIONS:  Given this subcourse with illustrated electrical circuits,
information on battery maintenance, technical publication
extracts, explaining electricity.

STANDARDS:  You must identify the electrical flow in circuits and maintenance
of vehicle storage batteries in accordance with information
provided within this subcourse and applicable publications.

PLEASE NOTE
Proponency for this subcourse has changed
From Armor (AR) to Ordnance (OD).

i OD0611
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

Subcourse Overview ....................................i

Lesson One ­ Electrical Circuits ......................1

Practical Exercise ­ Lesson 1 ........................13

Answer Key and Feedback ­ Lesson 1 ...................16

Lesson Two ­ Battery Maintenance .....................19

Practical Exercise ­ Lesson 2 ........................28

Answer Key and Feedback ..............................30

Appendix:  Publication Extracts ......................37

TM 9­8000 with Change 1, Principles of Automotive
Vehicles, dated 25 Oct 85.

Use the above publication extract to take this
subcourse.  At the time this subcourse was written,
this was the current publication.  Always refer to the
most current publication in a working environment.

ii OD0611
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

MQS Manual Tasks: None

OVERVIEW

TASK DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson, you will learn the definition of electrical terms and identify
symbols and circuits used in the vehicle's electrical systems.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTIONS:  Identify electrical flow circuits.

CONDITIONS:  Given this subcourse with illustrated electrical circuits,
technical publication extract explaining electricity.

STANDARDS:  You must specify the amount of voltage, amperage, or resistance
in a particular circuit.  You must also specify if the circuit is
in series or parallel.

REFERENCES:  The material contained in this lesson was derived from the
following publications:

TM 9­8000
FM 11­60
FM 11­61
TM 9­6140­200­14

1 OD0611
 INTRODUCTION

Electricity has been used for decades and scientists have been experimenting
with it longer.  We know that everything that exists consists of particles
called molecules.  Molecules are further divided into a material called atoms.
Atoms consist of some arrangement of protons, electrons, and neutrons.  The
proton is a positive charged particle; the electron is a negative charged
particle; and the neutron is not charged.  Molecules are a very basic necessity
in the composition of all materials with the exception of hydrogen.  Neutrons
and protons will always be located in the center of an atom.  The electrons
will always be located in the outer shells of the atom.  There are two types of
electrons.  They are the bound electron and the free electron.  The free
electrons are the electrons which will be found in the outermost shell, or
orbit of the atom and can be moved readily from their orbit.  The innermost
shells of the atom contain electrons that are not easily freed and are referred
to as bound electrons.

2 OD0611
 LESSON CONTENT

1. There are many terms and symbols that are particular to the study of
electricity.  As a maintenance supervisor, an understanding of electrical terns
and an ability to interpret schematic wiring diagrams, electrical drawings, and
symbols will enable you to properly supervise maintenance personnel in
diagnosing and locating electrical problems.

a.  Electrical Terms.

(1) AC ­ Alternating current, or current that reverses its direction
at regular intervals.

(2) Ammeter ­ An electric meter that measures current.

(3) Battery ­ A device consisting of two or more cells for converting
chemical energy into electrical energy.

(4) Circuit ­ A closed path or combination of paths through which
passage of the medium, electric current, air, and liquid, is possible.

(5) Circuit Breaker ­ In electrical circuits, a mechanism designed to
break or open the circuit when certain conditions exist; especially the device
in automotive circuits that opens the circuit between the generator and battery
to prevent overcharging of the battery.  One of the three units comprising a
generator regulator.

(6) Conductor ­ A material through which electricity will flow
readily.

(7) Core ­ An iron mass, generally the central portion of a coil,
electromagnet or armature around which wire is coiled.

(8) DC ­ Direct current or current that flows only in one direction.

(9) Electricity ­ A form of energy that involves the movement of
electrons from one place to another or the gathering of electrons in one area.

(10) Electromagnet ­ A temporary magnet constructed by winding a
number of turns of insulated wire into a coil or around an iron core.

(11) Electron ­ A negative particle that is a basic constituent of
matter and electricity.

(12) Flux ­ Lines of magnetic force moving through a ­magnetic field.

(13) Ground ­ Connection of an electrical unit to the engine/frame to
return the current to its source.
3 OD0611
 (14) Induction ­ The action or process of producing voltage by the
relative motion of a magnetic field and a conductor.

(15) Insulation ­ A substance that stops movement of electricity
(electrical insulation) or heat (heat insulation).

(16) Magnet ­ Any body that has the ability to attract iron.

(17) Magnetic Field ­ The space around a magnet that the magnetic
lines of force permeate.

(18) Magnetic Pole ­ Focus of magnetic lines of force entering or
emanating from a magnet.

(19) Magnetism ­ The property exhibited by certain substances and
produced by electron, electric current, and/or motion which results in the
attraction of iron.

(20) Negative ­ A term designating the point of lower potential when
the potential difference between two points is considered.

(21) Ohm ­ A unit of measure of electrical resistance.

(22) Parallel Circuit ­ The electrical circuit formed when two or more
electrical devices have like terminals connected together, positive to positive
or negative to negative, so that each may operate independently of the other.

(23) Positive ­ A term designating the point of higher potential when
the potential difference between two points is considered.

(24) Potential ­ A characteristic of a point in an electric field or
circuit indicated by the work necessary to bring a unit positive charge from
infinity; the degree of electrification as compared to some standard.  For
example: the earth.

(25) Relay ­ In the electrical system, a device that opens or closes a
second circuit in response to voltage or amperage changes in a controlling
circuit.

(26) Resistance ­ The opposition offered by a substance or body to the
passage through it of an electric current.

(27) Series Circuit ­ The electrical circuit formed when two or more
electrical devices have unlike terminals connected together, positive to
negative, so that the same current must flow through all.

(28) Volts ­ A unit of potential, potential difference, or electrical
pressure.

4 OD0611
 b.  Electrical Symbols.  As a maintenance supervisor, you must be able to
interpret schematic wiring diagram.  To read these diagram, you must know
the meaning of the symbols used.  Examples of same electrical symbols are
illustrated in Figure 1­1.

Figure 1­1.  Electrical Symbols (page 1 of 2).

5 OD0611
Figure 1­1.  Electrical Symbols (page 2 of 2).

6 OD0611
2.   While the study of electricity may seem complicated, it can be broken down
into three elements: voltage, current, and resistance.

a.  Voltage.  Electrons are caused to flow by a difference in electron
balance in a circuit; that is, when there are more electrons in one part of a
circuit than in another, the electrons move from the area where they are
concentrated to the area where they are lacking.  This difference is called
potential difference or voltage.  Methods of producing voltage include friction
(static electricity), chemical reaction (battery), and magnetic induction
(generator).

b. Current.  Current flow or electron flow is measured in amperes.  While
it is normally considered that one ampere is a rather small current of
electricity, it is actually a tremendous flow of electrons.  More than six
billion electrons a second are required to make up one ampere.  Personnel in
the maintenance field are concerned with two types of current, alternating
current (AC) and direct current (DC).

(1) Alternating current ­ While alternating current is acceptable for
house or commercial use, it is not acceptable for automotive use.  As its name
implies, AC alternates back and forth in direction of flow at timed intervals
and therefore cannot be stored in a storage battery.

(2) Direct current ­ DC is used in automotive systems because circuits
can be controlled so the current will readily flow to the component where it is
needed and return to its source (storage battery) through a frame return
circuit.

c.  Resistance.  Resistance is defined as the opposition to current flow.
Even though a copper wire will conduct electricity with ease, it still offers
resistance to electron flow.  This resistance is caused by the energy necessary
to break the outer shell electrons free, and the collisions between the atoms
of the conductor and the free electrons.  It takes force (or voltage) to
overcome resistance encountered by the flowing electrons.  This resistance is
expressed in units called ohms.  The resistance of a conductor varies with its
length, cross­section area, composition, and temperature.

d.  Generators.  Generators are a major component of automotive systems as
they supply the electrical power to operate all electrical systems of
automotive vehicles.  Some of the functions of generators are to supply
electrical current to the lighting system, the ignition system, heater motor,
instruments, and radios.  There are two types of generators in use today.  They
are the alternator or AC generator, and the direct current or DC generator.

7 OD0611
 (1) Alternating current.  The AC generator produces alternating
current which is unacceptable for automotive systems.  The alternator rust have
a rectifier installed to convert AC to DC to satisfy the needs of the storage
battery.  In the alternator, the magnetic field is rotated and voltage is
produced in the stationary coils.  One advantage of the AC generator is that it
will produce current at low speeds which make it the more acceptable component.

(2) Direct current.  The DC generator, as its name implies, produces
DC current, but must be run at a much higher speed than the AC generator.  The
DC generator works much the same way as the AC generator, but the magnetic
field is stationary and coils of wire, called an armature, are rotated in the
magnetic field.  A magnetic switch, brushes, and a commutator are provided.

3.   Ohm's Law states that the voltage impressed on a circuit is equal to the
sum of the product of current measured in ohms.  One ohm is the resistance of a
circuit element that permits a steady current of one ampere to flow when a
steady force of one volt is applied to the current.  An easy way to remember
Ohm's Law is to think of a triangle with E at the top and I and R in the lower
angles (Figure 1­2).

E = Volts, I = Current in Amperes, R = Resistance in Ohms

Figure 1­2.  Ohm's Law Triangle.

8 OD0611
The mathematical formula is written in one of the following three ways:

a.  E = I x R.  The voltage in a circuit equals the current multiplied
by the resistance.  An example of Ohm's Law in relation to voltage is an
electric heater which has a known resistance of 20 ohms.  The same heater
requires a current flow of 6 amperes for proper operation.

Figure 1­3.  Determine Voltage.

b.  I = E/R.  The current equals the voltage divided by the resistance.
An example of Ohm's Law in relation to current is an electric horn that
requires a pressure of 12 volts and offers 3 ohms of resistance to the flow of
current.

Figure 1­4.  Determine Current.

c.  R = E/I.  The resistance of the circuit equals the voltage divided by
the current.  An example of Ohm's Law in relation to the resistance is an
electric iron that operates from a 120 volt input and requires a current flow
of 5 amperes.

Figure 1­5.  Determine Resistance.
9 OD0611
4.   A very basic circuit consists of a power source, a unit to be operated,
and a wire to connect the two together.

a.  Series Circuits.

(1) Laws of series circuits.

(a) A series circuit has only one path for current to flow.

(b) Amperage remains the same in all parts of a series circuit.

(c) When resistance is added in series, the total resistance
increases and current decreases.

(d) The sum of all different voltage drops is equal to the applied
voltage.

(2) Figure 1­6 shows a series circuit consisting of one or more units
connected in series (negative to positive) to form a single path for current to
flow.  Most every one is familiar with the old type of Christmas tree lights
where all of the bulbs go out when any one of the bulbs burn out.  These lights
are connected in series (negative to positive).  A break anywhere in the
circuit will cause all of the lights to go out.

Figure 1­6.  Series Circuits.

10 OD0611
 b.  Parallel Circuits.

(1) Laws of parallel circuits.

(a) A parallel circuit has two or more paths for current to flow.

(b) Applied voltage is the same to each branch of the circuit.

(c) When resistance is added in parallel, the total or effective
resistance decreases.

(d) The sum of the amperage in each branch is equal to the total
amperage.

(e) The total or effective resistance will always be less than the
lowest resistance.

(2) Figure 1­7 demonstrates how the voltage source is applied equally
to each of the electrical components in a parallel circuit and how the parallel
circuit has two or more paths for current to flow.  Opening or closing the
circuit of any branch does not affect the other circuits.

Figure 1­7.  Parallel Circuits.

11 OD0611
 LESSON ONE

Practice Exercise

The following items will test your grasp of the materials covered in this
lesson.  There is only one correct answer for each item.  When you have
completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key that follows.
If you answer any item incorrectly, study that part of the lesson which
contains the portion involved.

Situation.  You have been tasked to supervise maintenance personnel in the
testing, repair, and replacement of electrical systems/components.  To become
proficient in that area, you have decided to increase your knowledge in the
area of automotive electricity.

1.  What are the three elements of electricity?

A.  Short, Voltage, and watt.
B.  Current, voltage, and open circuit.
C.  Resistance, amperage, and electron.
D.  Voltage, current, and resistance.

2.  An ohm is

A.  a unit of measure of electrical resistance.
B.  a unit of measure of electrical potential.
C.  a material which electricity will flow through.
D.  the force that causes current to flow.

3.  What is a circuit breaker?

A.  A device for turning lights on or off.
B.  One of the three units comprising a generator regulator.
C.  A warning device for instrument control.
D.  A turn signal control device.

4.  What is measured with an ammeter?

A.  Pressure.
B.  Resistance.
C.  Current.
D.  Potential.

13 OD0611
5.  What is one advantage of an alternator?

A.  It does not need a rectifier.
B.  It produces direct current.
C.  It delivers more current at lower speeds.
D.  It is gear­driven.

6.  If one component burns out in a series circuit,

A.  the rest of the circuit will continue to operate.
B.  the entire circuit is inoperative.
C.  one third of the circuit is inoperative.
D.  two thirds of the circuit is inoperative.

7.  What is alternating current?

A.  Current that restricts voltage.
B.  Current that flows in only direction.
c.  current that flows back and forth in direction.
D.  Current with high amperage.

8.  What is the current in a flashlight that requires 3 volts of pressure and
has 1 ohm of resistance?

A.  1 ampere.
B.  3 amperes.
C.  2 amperes.
D.  6 amperes.

9.  What is the resistance of a blower motor in a heater that operates on a 24
volt circuit and requires 3 amperes of current?

A.  12 ohms.
B.  10 ohms.
C.   8 ohms.
D.   6 ohms.

10.  What is the voltage in a car headlight that has a known resistance of 3
ohms and requires 4 amperes of current?

A.   6 volts.
B.   9 volts.
C.  12 volts.
D.  15 volts.

14 OD0611
11.  What is the current in a stereo speaker that requires 120 volts of
pressure and has 8 ohms of resistance?

A.  10 amperes.
B.  15 amperes.
C.  20 amperes.
D.  25 amperes.

12.  What is the resistance of a vehicle headlight that operates on a 24 volt
circuit and requires 1.8 amperes of current?

A.   2.5 ohms.
B.   5.3 ohms.
C.   9.6 ohms.
D.  13.3 ohms.

13.  What is the voltage of an electric windshield wiper motor with a known
resistance of 6 ohms and requirement of 4 amperes of current for proper
operation?

A.   6 volts.
B.  12 volts.
C.  18 volts.
D.  24 volts.

14.  What constitutes a parallel circuit?

A.  Two or more components connected together positive to positive.
B.  Two or more components that depend upon each other for proper
operation.
C.  Two or more paths for current to flow.
D.  Two or more resisters to control current flow.

15 OD0611
 LESSON ONE

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback.

1. D. Voltage, current, and resistance.

Voltage is the forage or pressure that causes current to flow in
a wire, and resistance is the opposition to current movement.
(Page 7, para 2).

2.   A. Unit of measure of electrical resistance.

An ohm is the amount of resistance that must be overcome for
current to move in an electrical circuit.  (Page 4, para 1.a.
(21)).

3.       B.   One of three units comprising a generator regulator.

In electrical circuits, a mechanism designed to break or open
the circuit when certain conditions exist.  (Page 3, para 1.a.
(5)).

4.    C. Current.

The ammeter is designed specifically for measuring current flow
in an electrical circuit.  (Page 3, para 1.a.(2)).

5.      C. It delivers more current at lower speeds.

When current is induced into the alternator, it will start
charging.  The DC generator does not produce current until it
reaches high speed.  Therefore, the alternator is the preferred
component.  (Page 7, paras d.  and d.(1)).

6.   B. The entire circuit is inoperative.

A series circuit only has one path for current to flow.  Any
component in that circuit that burns out causes the entire
circuit to be inoperative because it now has an open circuit.
(Page 10, para 4.a.(2)).

16 OD0611
7.   C. Current that flows back and forth in direction.

As its name implies, alternating current will flow back and
forth in direction of flow at timed intervals.  (Page 7, para
2.b.(1)).

8.   B. 3 amperes.

Ohm's Law allows you to determine the amount of amperage or
current in a circuit by equation I = E/R or 3 ohms.  (Page 9,
para b.).

9.   C. 8 ohms.

Ohm's Law allows you to determine the amount of resistance in a
circuit by equation R = E/I or 8 ohms.  (Page 9, para c.).

10.   C. 12 volts.

Ohm's Law allows you to determine the amount of voltage in a
circuit by equation E = I x R or 12 volts.  (Page 9, para a.).

11.   B. 15 amperes.

Ohm's Law allows you to determine the amount of amperage in a
circuit by equation I = E/R = 15 amperes.  (Page 9, para b.).

12.   D. 13.3 ohms.

Ohm's Law allows you to determine the amount of resistance in a
circuit by equation R = E/I.  (Page 9, para c.).

13.   D. 24 volts.

Ohm's law allows you to determine the amount of voltage in a
circuit by equation E = I x R or 24 volts.  (Page 9, para a.).

14. C. Two or more paths for current to flow.

A parallel circuit consists of two or more resister units
(electrically operated components in separate branches).  [Page
11, para b.(2) ].

17 OD0611
 LESSON TWO

BATTERY MAINTENANCE

MQS Manual Tasks:  none

OVERVIEW

 
TASK
    
DESCRIPTION
 .

In this lesson you will learn the procedures for inspection and maintenance of
Lead Acid Storage Batteries.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTIONS:  Inspect storage batteries.

CONDITIONS:  Given situations describing storage battery conditions.

STANDARDS:  You must identify all faults and determine battery
serviceability.  Describe the inspection procedures for each
situation.

REFERENCES:  TM 9­6140­200­14.

INTRODUCTION

Lead acid storage batteries are used in automotive application to supply
electricity to vehicle components as required and act as a voltage stabilizer
in vehicle electrical systems.

19 OD0611
 LESSON CONTENT

1.   Inspection and maintenance of lead acid storage batteries is an important
part of ensuring that your vehicles will be able to perform their mission. 
Without proper maintenance, lead acid batteries can fail and then you are
without equipment at a critical time.

a.  Description of Vehicle Storage Batteries.  The lead acid storage
battery is an electro­chemical device for storing energy in the chemical form.
When this energy is needed to operate an electrical component in the system, it
is released as electricity.  Storage batteries perform four functions in
automotive application.

(1) They supply electrical energy for vehicle engine starts.

(2) They supply short term overload demands in excess of generator
electrical output.

(3) They supply limited or emergency power when the generator is not
operating.

(4) They act as a voltage stabilizer in the vehicle electrical system.

b.  Safety Precautions.  Certain safety precautions must be observed when
you are working around storage batteries.

(1) While removing or installing vehicle batteries, remove the ground
cable (negative side of the battery) first and connect it last to eliminate
arcing.

(2) Avoid open flames and arcing of cables near the battery.  One
small spark can cause the battery to explode.

(3) Avoid contact with sulfuric acid; it can cause severe burns.  Keep
a strong solution of soda and water available, as a precaution if contact
occurs.  If soda solution is not available, flush the area of contact with
clear water.

(4) Ventilate the battery room well at all times to avoid explosions
due to the presence of hydrogen gas which is produced by storage batteries.

20 OD0611
 (5) While working with batteries, wear chemical protective splash
goggles (goggles with no vent holes which prevent splashed acid or chemicals
from entering the eyes), rubber gloves, and a rubber gown while filling
batteries with electrolyte.

c.  Battery Construction.  The lead acid battery consists of a number of
cells connected together.  Each cell will produce approximately two volts; the
number of cells needed will depend upon the voltage desired.  For example, one
12­volt battery will have six cells.

(1) A cell consists of a compartment made of hard rubber, plastic, or
other bituminous material into which the cell element is placed.  The cell
element consists of two types of lead plates, known as positive and negative
plates.  These plates (Figure 2­1) are insulated from each other by suitable
separators (usually made of plastic, rubber, or glass) and submerged in a
sulfuric acid solution (electrolyte).

Figure 2­1.  Negative and Positive Plate Group With Separators.

21 OD0611
 (2) Battery cells are filled with a solution of sulfuric acid and
water, known as electrolyte.  This solution contains approximately one­part of
acid, by volume, three­parts water.  The strength of the electrolyte is
measured in terms of specific gravity.  Specific gravity is the ratio of weight
of a given volume of electrolyte to an equal volume of pure water.  The
specific gravity of pure water is 1.000.  Sulfuric acid has a specific gravity
of 1.830.  A mixture of sulfuric acid and water will vary in strength from
1.000 to 1.830.  Normally, electrolyte (water and acid mixture) will have a
strength of 1.280 when the battery is fully charged.  As a storage battery
discharges, the sulfuric acid is depleted and the electrolyte is converted into
water.  This action provides a guide in determining the state of discharge of
the lead acid cell.  If the specific gravity reading is below 1.225, the
battery is in a low state of charge.  Testing and recharging of a lead­acid
battery will be covered later in the subcourse.

CAUTION

Sometimes, pure sulfuric acid will be issued.  This acid must be mixed with
water to produce the desired specific gravity.  When mixing electrolyte, always
pour the acid into the water.  NEVER pour water into the acid.

d.  Battery Classification.  Storage batteries are classified according to
their rate of discharge and ampere­hour capacity.  Most batteries are rated
according to a 20­hour rate of discharge.  If a fully charged battery is
completely discharged during a 20­hour period, it is discharged at the 20­hour
rate.  At the end of the discharge time, the average voltage must be 1.75 volts
or higher.  If a battery can deliver 20 amperes continuously for 20 hours, the
battery has a rating 20 X 20, or 400 ampere­hours.  The batteries used in
military vehicles are the 6TN battery with a capacity of 45 ampere­hours.  When
more capacity is required than can be supplied by one battery, additional
batteries can be connected in parallel to increase total capacity.  If two 100­
amp, 12 volt batteries were connected in parallel, they would have a combined
capacity of 200­amps.  The total voltage would remain the same (12 volts).

e.  Maintenance of Storage Batteries.

(1) Visually inspect the battery to determine if maintenance or
repairs are required.

(a) Inspect the battery case for holes or cracks.  If a hole or
large crack is evident, turn in the battery to intermediate support
maintenance.

22 OD0611
 (b) Inspect the battery for loose posts.  If slight pressure
causes the post to move, turn the battery in to intermediate support
maintenance.

(c) Inspect posts, clamps, and battery holddowns for corrosion.
The posts and terminals should be cleaned and coated lightly with grease.  Turn
in to maintenance if:

o  A post is out­of­round to the extent that it prevents full
contact between the post and a new clamp.

NOTE.  Post and clamps are tapered for a tighter fit.  Also, the positive post
is larger in diameter than the negative post.

o  The post is less than 5/8 inch high.  This condition would
prevent full contact between the post and a good clamp.

(2) Inspect filler caps.  Check to see that the caps are not damaged
or broken and that the gasket is present.  Some filler caps have a built­in
gasket made of the same material as the cap.  The gasket is tapered from the
outside edge toward the center of the cap to provide a tight seal with the
case.  Make sure the vent holes in the caps (Figure 2­2) are open to permit
escape of gases.  Replace all caps that are defective.

Figure 2­2.  Vent Cap (Plug).
23 OD0611
 (3) Check the electrolyte level of each cell.  At a minimum, the
electrolyte level should cover the cell plates (Figure 2­3).  When adding water
to batteries, the electrolyte level should be brought up to the bottom of the
split ring.

Figure 2­3.  Visual Level Fill.

(4) Charge the batteries.  Connect the battery to the charger,
following the equipment manufacturer's recommendations.  Observe the polarity
of the battery (connections are made positive to positive and negative to
negative).  Specific charging rates will vary, depending on the battery (eight
to ten amperes for 6TN and four to five amperes for 2HN batteries).  Leave the
battery caps on and at one hour intervals, check the specific gravity of each
cell.  The temperature should not exceed 130 degrees during the charging.  If
the temperature is too high, reduce the charging rate.  Do not overcharge the
batteries.  Overcharged batteries will be damaged internally, shortening their
life.  Overcharging is indicated by excessive use of water.  Overcharging can
be avoided by removing the battery from the charger when specific gravity
reading remains the same for three successive hourly tests.  Add water to the
battery during charging, if it is needed.

CAUTION

During charging, batteries give off highly explosive hydrogen gas.  The
charging area must be well ventilated and every precaution must be taken to
prevent sparks that could cause an explosion.

24 OD0611
 (5) Measure specific gravity.  Use the optical battery/antifreeze
tester "duo­check" (Figure 2­4), when measuring the specific gravity of a
battery.  This tester is quick, accurate, and reliable.  There is no guesswork
or arithmetic involved and the tester will automatically adjust for
temperature.

Figure 2­4.  Optical/Antifreeze Tester (Duo­deck).

(a) Before using the duo­check tester, clean and dry the plastic
cover and measuring window.  Wipe each piece clean with a soft cloth (Figure 2­
5).  Clean the eyepiece lens.  Clean water can be used to clean any dirty areas
if it is needed.

Figure 2­5.  Cleaning the Tester.

25 OD0611
 (b) Swing the plastic cover down until it rests against the
measuring window.  Using the black dipstick, place a few drops of electrolyte
onto the exposed portion of the measuring window (Figure 2­6).

Figure 2­6.  Electrolyte Sample.

(c) Point the tester toward a bright light source.  When looking
through the eyepiece lens, you will see a rectangle with two calibrated scales.
The battery charge readings will appear on the left scale; antifreeze readings
on the right scale.  The electrolyte sample will divide the rectangle with an
area of light and an area of shadow.  Read the scale where they meet (Figure 2­
7).

Figure 2­7.  Battery State of Charge.

(d) Always perform a separate test for each battery cell.  Test
the battery before adding water to the cells.

f.  Control and Protective Devices.  Electricity, when properly
controlled, is of vital importance to the operation of equipment.  When it is
not properly controlled, it can become very dangerous and destructive.  Such
devices as fuses, circuit breakers, and switches are connected into circuits to
control electrical force.

26 OD0611
 (1) The simplest protective device is a fuse.  All fuses are rated
according to the amount of current that is safely carried by the fuse element
at a rated voltage.  The most important fuse characteristic is its current­
versus­time or "blowing" ability.  Current­versus­time indicates how quickly an
overloaded fuse will blow: fast, medium, and delayed.  Fast may range from five
microseconds through 1/2 second; medium, 1/2 to five seconds; and delayed, five
to 25 seconds.  When a fuse blows, it should be replaced with another of the
same rated voltage and current capacity, including the same current­versus­time
characteristic.  Normally, when the circuit is overloaded, or a fault develops,
the fuse element melts and opens the circuit it is protecting.

(2) A circuit breaker is designed to break the circuit and stop the
current flow when the current exceeds a predetermined value.  It is commonly
used in place of a fuse and may sometimes eliminate the need for a switch.  A
circuit breaker differs from a fuse in that it "trips" to break the circuit,
and it may be reset, while the fuse melts and must be replaced.  Some circuit
breakers must be reset by hand, while others reset themselves automatically.
When the circuit breaker is reset, if the overload condition still exists, the
circuit breaker will trip again to prevent damage to the circuit.

(3) A switch may be described as a device used in an electrical
circuit for making, breaking, or changing connections under conditions for
which the switch is rated.  Switches are rated in amperes and volts; the rating
refers to the maximum voltage and current of the circuit in which the switch is
to be used.  Because it is placed in series, all the circuit current will pass
through the switch.  Switch contacts should be opened and closed quickly to
minimize arcing; therefore, switches normally utilize a snap action.

27 OD0611
 LESSON TWO

Practice Exercise

The following items will test your grasp of the materials covered in this
lesson.  There is only one correct answer for each its.  When you have
completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key that follows.
If you answer any item incorrectly, study that part of the lesson which
contains the portion involved.

1.  When removing the battery cables, the ______________ cable should be
removed first.

A.  positive.
B.  ground.
C.  center.
D.  outside.

2.  Battery cells are filled with a solution of ____________________________
and ________________________ which is known as electrolyte.

A.  water and sulfuric acid.
B.  electrolyte and water.
C.  distilled water and soda.
D.  nitric acid and sulfur.

3.  The ______________ is used to test the specific gravity of a battery state
of charge.

A.  voltmeter.
B.  hydrometer.
C.  ammeter.
D.  duo­check.

4.  A ________________ is defined as a device used in an electrical circuit for
making, breaking, or changing connections.

A.  circuit breaker.
B.  switch.
C.  fuse.
D.  rheostat.

28 OD0611
5.  When adding water to batteries, the electrolyte level in the cells of a
battery should be ______________________________ .

A.  to the top of the filler hole.
B.  just covering the top of the plates.
C.  up to the bottom of the split ring.
D.  halfway between the plates and the vent.

6.  Battery vent caps should be _________________________ .

A.  inspected for damaged or missing gaskets.
B.  painted red for identification.
C.  checked for cleanliness and serviceability.
D.  installed snugly to prevent spillage of electrolyte.

7.  When testing battery state of charge, you test _________ .

A.  the center cells.
B.  before adding water.
C.  after adding water.
D.  any one cell.

8.  When mixing electrolyte, you should ____________________ .

A.  pour water into the acid.
B.  pour water and acid together.
C.  pour acid into the water.
D.  pour acid and water alternately.

9.  The number of cells in a battery is determined by the
_____________________________ .

A.  voltage that is desired.
B.  amperage that is required.
C.  space designated for the battery.
D.  components the battery supports.

10.  The simplest protective device in an electrical system is
the _________________________ .

A.  switch.
B.  circuit breaker.
C.  fuse.
D.  relay.

29 OD0611
 LESSON TWO

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback 

1.   B.   When removing the battery cables, the ground cable (negative

side) should be removed first.  (Page 20, para b. (1)).

2.   A.   Battery cells are filled with a solution of water and sulfuric

acid which is known as electrolytes.  (Page 22, para (2)).

3.   D.   The duo­check is used to test the battery state of charge.

(Page 25, para (5).

4.   B.   A switch is defined as a device used in an electrical circuit

for making, breaking, or changing connections.  [Page 27, para
(3) ].

5.   C.   Electrolyte level in the cells of a battery should be up to the

bottom of the split ring.  [Page 24, para (3) ].

6.   A.   Battery vent caps should be inspected for damage or missing

gaskets.  [Page 23, para (2) ].

7.   B.   Test the battery before adding water to the cells.  [Page 26,

para (d) ].

8.   C.   When mixing electrolyte, you should pour acid into the water.

(Page 22, CAUTION).

9.   A.   The number of cells in a battery is determined by the voltage

that is desired.  (Page 21, para c.).

10.   C.   The simplest protective device in an electrical system is a

fuse.  [Page 27, para (1) ].
30 OD0611
 TM 9-8000

PART THREE

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND RELATED UNITS

CHAPTER 11

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY

Section I. ELECTRICITY

11-1. Composition of Matter.
a. To understand electricity, first study matter, the
name for all material substances. Everything (solids,
liquids, and gases) is made up of tiny particles known as
atoms. These atoms combine in small groups of two or
more to form molecules. Air is made up of molecules.
These molecules are made up of atoms, and these toms
can be further subdivided. When atoms are divided,
smaller particles are created, some of which have
positive and others, negative electrical charges. Atoms
of different materials are discussed below.
b. There are over 100 different basic materials in
the universe. These basic materials are called elements.
Iron is one element; copper, aluminum, oxygen,
hydrogen, and mercury are other elements. An element
gets its name from the fact that it cannot be broken down
easily into simpler (or more elemental) substances. In
other words, more than 100 basic elements are the
building materials from which the universe is made. If
any one of these elements is studied closely, it is obvious
that it is made up of those same basic particles having
positive and negative electrical charges as discussed
above.
c. The basic particles that make up all the
elements, and thus all the universe, are called protons,
electrons, and neutrons. A proton is a basic particle
having a single positive charge; a group of protons
produces a positive electrical charge. An electron is a
basic particle having a single negative charge; therefore,
a group of electrons produces a negative electrical
charge. A neutron is a basic particle having no charge; a
group of neutrons, therefore, would have no charge.
d. Examine the construction of atoms of the various
elements, starting with the simplest of all, hydrogen. The
atom of hydrogen consists of one proton, around which
is circling one electron (fig. 11-1). There is an attraction
between the two particles, because negative and positive
electrical charges always attract each other.

Figure 11-1. Composition of Matter.

11-1

Opposing the attraction between the two particles, and
thus preventing the electron from moving into the proton,
is the centrifugal force on the electron caused by its
circular path around the proton. This is the same sort of
balance achieved if a ball tied to a string was whirled in a
circle in the air. The centrifugal force exerted tries to
move the ball out of its circular path, and is balanced by
the string (the attractive force). If the string should
break, the centrifugal force would cause the ball to fly
away. Actually, this is what happens at times with atoms.
The attractive force between the electron and proton
sometimes is not great enough to hold the electron in its
circular path, and the electron gets away.
e. A slightly more complex atom is shown in figure
11-1. This is an atom of helium. Notice that there are
now two protons in the center and that two electrons are
circling around the center. Because there is an
additional proton in the center, or nucleus, of the atom,
an electron must be added so as to keep the atom in
electrical balance. Notice also that there are two
additional particles in the nucleus; these are called neu-
trons. Neutrons are necessary in order to overcome the
tendency of the two protons to move apart from each
other. For, just as unlike electrical charges attract, so do
like electrical charges repel. Electrons repel electrons.
Protons repel protons, except when neutrons are
present. Though neutrons have no electrical charge,
they do have the ability to cancel out the repelling forces
between protons in an atomic nucleus and thus hold the
nucleus together.
f. A still more complex atom is shown in figure 1-1.
This is an atom of lithium, a light, soft metal. Note that a
third proton has been added to the nucleus and that a
third electron is now circling around the nucleus. There
also are two additional neutrons in the nucleus; these are
needed to hold the three protons together. The atoms of
other elements can be seen in a similar manner. As the
atomic scale Increases in complexity, protons and
neutrons are added one by one to the nucleus, and
electrons to the outer circles. After lithium comes
beryllium with four protons and five neutrons, boron with
five protons and five neutrons, carbon with six and six,
nitrogen with seven and seven, oxygen with eight and
eight, and so on. In each of these, there are normally the
same number of electrons circling the nucleus as there
are protons in the nucleus.
Change 1 11-2
TM 9-8000
11-2. Composition of Electricity (Fig. 11.2).
a. When there are more than two electrons in an
atom, they will move about the nucleus in different size
orbits. These orbits are referred to as shells. The
innermost shells of the atom contain electrons that are
not easily freed and are referred to as bound electrons.
The outermost shell will contain what is referred to as
free electrons. These free electrons differ from bound
electrons in that they can be moved readily from their
orbit.
b. If a point that has an excess of electrons
(negative) is connected to a point that has a shortage of
electrons (positive), a flow of electrons (electrical current)
will flow through the connector (conductor) until an equal
electric charge exists between the two points.
11-3. Electron Theory of Electricity (Fig. 11-2). A
charge of electricity is formed when numerous electrons
break free of their atoms and gather in one area. When
the electrons begin to move in one direction (as along a
wire, for example), the effect is a flow of electricity or an
electric current. Actually, electric generators and
batteries could be called electron pumps, because they
remove electrons from one part of an electric circuit and
concentrate them in another part of the circuit. For
example, a generator takes electrons away from the
positive terminal and concentrates them at the negative
terminal. Because the electrons repel each other (like
electrical charges repel), the electrons push out through
the circuit and flow to the positive terminal (unlike
electrical charges attract). Thus, we can see that an
electric current is actually a flow of electrons from
negative to positive.
This is just the reverse of the old idea of current flow.
Before scientists understood what electric current was,
they assumed that the current flowed from positive to
negative. However, their studies showed that this was
wrong, because they learned that the current is electron
movement from negative (concentration of electrons) to
positive (lack of electrons).
11-4. Conductors and insulators (Fig. 11-3).
a. General. Any material that will allow electric
current to flow through it is an electrical
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-2. Composition of Electricity.

conductor. Any material that blocks electric current flow
is an electrical insulator. Conductors are used in
automotive equipment to carry electric current to all of
the electrical equipment. Insulators also are necessary
to keep the electric current from taking a shorter route
instead of going to the intended component. The
electrical properties of a substance depends mainly on
the number of electrons in the outermost orbits of its
atoms that cannot, at any time, contain more than eight
electrons.
b. Conductors (A, Fig. 11-3). Whenever there are
less than four electrons in the outer orbits of the atoms of
a substance, these electrons will tend to be free. This
will cause the substance to permit free motion of
electrons, making it a conductor. Electrical energy is
transferred through conductors by means of the
movement of free electrons that migrate from atom to
atom within the conductor. Each electron moves a short
distance to the neighboring atom, where it replaces one
or more electrons by forcing

Figure 11-3. Conductors and Insulators.

11-3

them out of their orbits. The replaced electrons repeat
this process in nearby atoms until the movement is
transmitted throughout the entire length of the conductor,
thus creating a current flow. Copper is an example of a
good conductor because it only has one free electron.
This electron is not held very strongly in its orbit and can
get away from the nucleus very easily. Silver is a better
conductor of electricity but it is too expensive to be used
in any great quantity. Because of this, copper is the
conductor used most widely in automotive applications.
Section II. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
11-5. Fundamental Principles.
a. Description. Paragraph 11-4 explains that any
substance whose atoms contain less than four electrons
in their outermost orbits is classified as an electrical
conductor. It also is explained that any substance whose
atoms contain more than four electrons in their
outermost orbits is classified as an electrical insulator. A
special case exists, however, when a substance contains
four electrons in the outermost orbits of its atoms. This
type of substance is known as a semiconductor and is
the basis for all modern electronic equipment. The most
popular of all semiconductors is silicon.
b. Characteristics of Semiconductors. in its pure
state, silicon is neither a good conductor or insulator.
But by processing silicon in the following ways, its
conductive or insulative properties can be adjusted to
suit just about any need.
(1) When a number of silicon atoms are jammed
together in crystalline (glasslike) form, they form a
covalent (sharing) bond. Therefore, the electrons in the
outer ring of one silicon atom join with the outer ring
electrons of other silicon atoms, resulting in a sharing of
outer ring electrons between all of the atoms. It can be
seen in figure 11-4 that covalent sharing gives each
atom eight electrons in its outer orbit, making the orbit
complete. This makes the material an insulator because
it contains more than four electrons in its outer orbit.
(2) When certain materials such as phosphorus are
added to the silicon crystal in highly controlled amounts
the resultant mixture becomes a conductor (fig. 11-5).
This is because phosphorus, which has five electrons in
forming a covalent bond with silicon (which has four
11-4
TM 9-8000
c. Insulators (B, Fig. 11-3). Whenever there are
more than four electrons in the outer orbits of the atoms
of a substance, these electrons will tend to be bound,
causing restriction of free electron movement, making it
an insulator. Common insulating substances in
automotive applications are rubber, plastic, Bakelite,
varnish, and fiberboard.
electrons in its outer shell), will yield one free electron
per molecule, thus making the material an electrical
conductor. The process of adding impurities to a
semiconductor is called doping. Any semiconductor
material that is doped to yield free electrons is called N-
type material.
(3) When boron, which has three electrons in its
outer ring, is used to dope the silicon crystal, the
resultant covalent bonding yields seven electrons in the
outer shell. This leaves an opening for another electron
and is illustrated in figure 11-6. This space is called a
hole and can be considered a positive charge just as the
extra electrons that exist in N-type semiconductor
material are considered a negative charge. Materials
that have holes in their outermost electron shells are
called positive or P-type materials. In order to
understand the behavior of P-type semiconductors, it is
necessary to look upon the hole as a positive current
carrier, just as the free electron in N-type semiconduc-
tors are considered negative current carriers. Just as
electrons move through N-type semiconductors, holes
move from atom-to-atom in P-type semiconductors.
Movement of holes through P-type semiconductors,
however, is from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal. For this reason, any circuit analysis of solid-
state circuitry is done on the basis of positive to negative
(conventional) current flow.
c. Hole Movement Theory (Fig. 11-7). When a
source voltage, such as a battery, is connected to N-type
material, an electric current will flow through it. The
current flow in the N-type semiconductor consists of the
movement of free
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-4. Covalent Bonding OF Silicon.

electrons, the same as the current flow through a natural
conductor such as copper. When a current source of
sufficient voltage is connected across a P-type material,
an electric current will also flow through it, but any
current flow in a P-type semiconductor is looked upon as
the movement of positively charged holes. The holes
appear to move toward the negative terminal as the
electrons enter the material at the negative terminal, fill
the holes, and then move from hole to hole toward the
positive terminal. As is the case with N-type semi-
conductors, the movement of electrons through P-type
semiconductors toward the positive terminal is motivated
by the natural attraction of unlike charges.
11-6. Diodes(Fig. 11-8).
a. Purpose. A diode is a device that will allow
current to pass through itself in only one direction. A
diode can be thought of as an electrical checkvalve.
b. Construction. A diode is made by joining N-type
material and P-type material together. The negative
electrical terminal is located at the N-type material and
the positive terminal is located on the P-type material.
c. Operation. When a diode is placed in a circuit,
the N-material is connected to the

TA233523
Figure 11-5. Phosphorus-Doped Silicon.

11-5
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-6. Boron-Doped Silicon.

negative side of the circuit and the positive side of the
circuit is connected to the P-material. In this
configuration, which is known as forward bias, the diode
is a good conductor. This is because the positively
charged holes in the P-type material move toward the
junction with the negatively charged N-material so that
electrons may cross the junction and fill these holes
using them to move across the P-material. If the
connections to the diode are reversed, current flow will
be blocked. This configuration is known as reverse bias.
When the diode is connected backwards, the positively
charged holes are attracted away from the junction to the
negative terminal and the free electrons in the N-material
are attracted away from the junction to the positive
terminal.
Without the presence of holes at the junction, the
electrons cannot cross it.
11-7. Zener Diodes (Fig. 11-9). The diode, as
described in paragraph 11-6, is a semiconductor device
that allows current to flow only in one direction. A zener
diode, however, is a special type that allows reverse
current to flow as long as the voltage is above a value
that is built into the device when it is manufactured. As
an example, a certain zener diode may not conduct
current if the reverse bias voltage is below 6 volts. As
the voltage increases to 6 volts or more, the diode
suddenly will begin to conduct reverse bias current. This
device is used in control circuits such as voltage
regulators.

Figure 11-7. Hole Movement Theory.

11-6

Figure 11-8. Diode Operation.
11-8. Transistors.
a. General (Fig. 11-10). Transistors, as they
apply to automotive applications, are switching devices.
They can switch large amounts of electric current on and
off using relatively small amounts of electric current.
Because transistors operate electronically, they last
much longer than the relays they replace. This is
because they have no contact points to burn. The major
automotive applications of transistors are for electronic
ignition systems and voltage regulators.
b. PNP Transistors (Fig. 11-11). The PNP
transistor is the most common configuration in
automotive applications. It is manufactured by
sandwiching an N-type semiconductor element between
two P-type semiconductor elements. A positive charge
is applied to one of the P-type elements. This element is
called the emitter. The other P-type element connects to
the electrical
11-7
TM 9-8000
component. This element is called the collector. The
third element, which is in the middle, is made of N-type
material and is called the base. The application of a low-
current negative charge to the base will allow a heavy
current to flow between the emitter and the collector.
Whenever the current to the base is switched off, the
current flow from the emitter to the collector is
interrupted also.
c. NPN Transistors (Fig. 11-11). The NPN
transistor is similar to the PNP transistor. The difference
is that it is used in the negative side of the circuit. As the
name NPN implies, the makeup of this transistor is two
elements of N-type material (collector and emitter) with
an element of P-type material (base) sandwiched in
between. The NPN transistor will allow a high-current
negative charge to flow from the collector to the emitter-
whenever a relatively low current positive charge is
applied to the base.
TA233525
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-9. & Figure 11-10. Transistor Configurations.

Change 1 11-8
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-11. Transistor Operation.

11-9

Section III. 11-9. Amperage(Current) and Voltage.
a. Amperes. Current flow, or electron flow, is
measured in amperes. While it is normally considered
that one ampere is a rather small current of electricity
(approximately what a 100-watt light bulb would draw), it
is actually a tremendous flow of electrons. More than 6
billion billion electrons a second are required to make up
one ampere.
b. Voltage. Electrons are caused to flow by a
difference in electron balance in a circuit; that is, when
there are more electrons in one part of a circuit than in
another, the electrons move from the area where they
are concentrated to the area where they are lacking.
This difference in electron concentration is called
potential difference, or voltage. The higher the voltage
goes, the greater the electron imbalance becomes. The
greater this electron imbalance, the harder the push on
the electrons (more electrons repelling each other) and
the greater the current of electrons in the circuit. When
there are many electrons concentrated at the negative
terminal of a generator (with a corresponding lack of
electrons at the positive terminal), there is a much
stronger repelling force on the electrons and,
consequently, many more electrons moving in the wire.
This is exactly the same as saying that the higher the
voltage, the more electric current will flow in a circuit, all
other things, such as resistance (para 11-10), being
equal.
11-10. Resistance.
a. Even though a copper wire will conduct
electricity with relative ease, it still offers resistance to
electron flow. This resistance is caused by the energy
necessary to break the outer shell electrons free, and the
collisions between the atoms of the conductor and the
free electrons. It takes force (or voltage) to overcome
the resistance encountered by the flowing electrons.
This resistance is expressed in units called ohms. The
resistance of a conductor varies with its length, cross-
sectional area, composition, and temperature.
b. A long wire offers more resistance than a short
wire of the same cross-sectional area. The electrons
have farther to travel.
11-10
TM 9-8000
c. Some elements can lose electrons more readily
than other elements. Copper loses electrons easily, so
there are always many free electrons in a copper wire.
Other elements, such as iron, do not lose their electrons
quite as easily, so there are fewer free electrons in an
iron wire (comparing it to a copper wire of the same
size). Thus, with fewer free electrons, fewer electrons
can push through an iron wire; that is, the iron wire has
more resistance than the copper wire.
d. A small wire (in thickness or cross-sectional
area) offers more resistance than a large wire. in the
small wire, there are fewer free electrons (because fewer
atoms), and thus fewer electrons can push through.
e. Most metals show an increase in resistance with
an increase in temperature, while most nonmetals show
a decrease in resistance with an increase in
temperature. For example, glass (a nonmetal) is an
excellent insulator at room temperature but is a very poor
insulator when heated to red heat.
11-11. Ohm’s Law.
a. The general statements about voltage,
amperage, and ohms (para 11-9 and 11-10) can all be
related in a statement known as ohm’s law, so named for
the scientist Georg Simon Ohm who first stated the
relationship. This law says that voltage is equal to
amperage times ohms. Or, it can be stated as the
mathematical formula:
E=IxR
where E is volts, I is current in amperes, and R is
resistance in ohms. For the purpose of solving
problems, the ohms law formula can be expressed three
ways:
(1) To find voltage: E = IR
(2) To find amperage: l = E/R
(3) To find ohms: R = E/I
b. This formula is a valuable one to remember
because it makes understandable many of the things
that happen in an electric circuit. For instance, if the
voltage remains constant, the
 TM 9-8000

current flow goes down if the resistance goes up. An
example of this would be the lighting circuit that is going
bad in a truck. Suppose the wiring circuit between the
battery and the lights has deteriorated due to
connections becoming poor, strands in the wire breaking,
switch contacts becoming dirty, or other, similar
problems. All of these conditions reduce the electron
path or, in other words, increase resistance. And, with
this increased resistance, less current will flow. The
voltage of the battery stays the same (for example, 12
volts). if the resistance of the circuit when new (including
light bulbs) was 6 ohms, then 2 amperes will flow. To
satisfy the equation, 12 (volts) must equal 12 (amperes
times ohms resistance). But if the resistance goes up to
8 ohms, only 1.5 amperes can flow. The increased
resistance cuts down the current flow and, consequently,
the amount of light.
c. A great majority of electrical troubles on
automotive vehicles result from increased resistance in
circuits due to bad connections, deteriorated wiring, dirty
or burned contacts in switches, or other such problems.
With any of these conditions, the resistance of the circuit
goes up and the ampere flow through that circuit goes
down. Bad contact points in the ignition circuit will
reduce current flow in the circuit and cause weak sparks
at the spark plugs. This will result in engine missing and
loss of power.
a. General (Fig. 11-12). A very basic circuit
consists of a power source, a unit to be operated, and a
wire to connect the two together. if the unit to be
operated is to be controlled, a switch will be included in
the circuit also.
b. Automotive Circuits (Fig. 11-13). The body and
chassis in an automobile are made of steel. This feature
is utilized to eliminate one of the wires from all of the
automobile’s circuits. By attaching one of the battery
terminals to the body and chassis, any electrical
component can be connected by hooking up one side, by
wire, to the car battery and the other side to the body.
The practice of connecting one side of the battery to the
automobile body is called grounding. Virtually all current
automotive manufacturers ground the negative side of
the battery. This is referred to as an electrical system
with a negative ground. Vehicles with a positive ground
are very uncommon at the present time.
c. Series Circuits (A, Fig. 11-14). A series circuit
consists of two or more resistance units (electrically
operated components) that are connected together in an
end-to-end manner so that any current flow in the circuit
is dependent on a complete path through all of the units.
The following characteristics of series circuits are
important:

d. If the resistance stays the same but the voltage

increases, the amperage also increases. This is a
condition that might occur if a generator voltage regulator
became defective. In such a case, there would be
nothing to hold the generator voltage within limits, and
the voltage might increase excessively. This would force
excessive amounts of current through various circuits
and cause serious damage. If too much current went
through the light bulb filaments, for example, the
filaments would overheat and burn out. Also, other
electrical devices probably would be damaged.

e. On the other hand, if the voltage is reduced, the

amount of current flowing in a circuit will also be reduced
if the resistance stays the same. For example, with a
run-down battery, battery voltage will drop excessively
with a heavy discharge. When trying to start an engine Figure 11-12. Basic Electrical Circuit.
with a run-down battery, the voltage will drop very low.
This voltage is so low that it cannot push enough current
through the starter for effective starting of the engine.

11-12. Circuit Configurations.

TA233528

11-11
 TM 9-8000

1. HEADLIGHT 7. DIMMER SWITCH

2. BATTERIES 8. BLACKOUT DRIVE LIGHT
3. BLACKOUT AND SERVICE TAILLIGHT 9. BLACKOUT SERVICE LIGHT
4. TRAILER RECEPTACLE 10. INSTRUMENT CLUSTER
5. BLACKOUT TAILLIGHT, SERVICE TAILLIGHT, 11. HORN BUTTON
AND SERVICE STOPLIGHT 12. HORN
6. LIGHT SWITCH
Figure 11-13. Typical Automotive Circuit.

(1) Any break in the circuit (such as a burned-
out light bulb) will render the entire circuit inoperative.
(2) The current (amperage) will be constant
throughout the circuit.
(3) The total resistance of the circuit is equal to
the sum of the individual resistances.
(4) The total voltage of the circuit is equal to the
sum of the individual voltage drops across each
component.
d. Parallel Circuits (B, Fig. 11-14). A parallel circuit
consists of two or more resistance units (electrically
operated components) connected in separate branches.
In a parallel circuit, each component receives full voltage
from the source. The following characteristics of parallel
circuits are important.
(1) The total resistance of the circuit will always
be less than the resistance of any individual component.
(2) The disconnection or burning out of any
individual component in the circuit will not affect the
operation of the others.
(3) The current will divide itself among the
circuit branches according to the resistances of

TA233529

11-12

Figure 11-14. Circuit Configurations.
the individual components. The sum of the individual
amperages will be equal to the total circuit current.
(4) The voltage will be constant throughout the
circuit when measured across the individual branches.
e. Series-Parallel Circuit (C, Fig. 11-14). The
series-parallel circuit is a combination of the two
configurations. There must be at least three resistance
units to have a series-parallel circuit. The following
characteristics of series-parallel circuits are important.
(1) The total circuit voltage will be equal to the
sum of the total parallel circuit voltage drop plus the
voltage drops of the individual series circuit components.
.
Section IV. MAGNETS
11-13. Magnetic Field.
a. General. It was stated in paragraph 11-9 that
electric current is a flow of electrons and that the
imbalance of electrons in a circuit (that causes electrons
to flow) is called voltage. Magnets will be studied to
learn what causes a generator to concentrate electrons
at the negative terminal and take them away from the
positive terminal.
b. Magnetic Lines of Force. If iron filings were
sprinkled on a piece of glass on top of a bar, magnet, the
11-13
TM 9-8000
(2) The total circuit resistance will be equal to
the sum of the total parallel circuit resistance plus the
individual resistances of the series circuit components.
(3) Current flow through the total parallel circuit
will be equal to the current flow through any individual
series circuit component.
(4) The disconnection or the burning out of any
of the series components will completely disable the
entire circuit, whereas a failure of any of the parallel
circuit components will leave the balance of the circuit
still functioning.
filings would become arranged in curved lines (fig. 11-
15). These curved lines, extending from the two poles of
the magnet (north and south), follow the magnetic lines
of force surrounding the magnet. Scientists have
formulated the following rules for these lines of force.
(1) The lines of force (outside the magnet) pass
from the north to the south pole of the magnet.
(2) The lines of force act somewhat as
rubberbands and try to shorten to a minimum length.
TA233530
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-15. (3) The lines of force repel each other along
along their entire length and try to push each other apart.

(4) The rubberband characteristic opposes the

push-apart characteristic.

(5) The lines of force never cross each other.

(6) The magnetic lines of force, taken together,

are referred to as the magnetic field of the magnet.

c. Bar and Horseshoe Magnets. The magnetic

fields of a bar and of a horseshoe magnet are shown in
figure 11-16. In each, note how the lines of force curve
and pass from the north to the south pole.
Figure 11-16. Bar and Horseshoe Magnet.
d. Effects Between Magnetic Poles (Fig. 11-17).
When two unlike magnetic poles are brought together, close to each other, lines of force going in the same
they attract. But when like magnetic poles are brought direction are brought near each other. Because these
together, they repel. These actions can be explained in lines of force attempt to push apart, a repelling effect
terms of the rubberband and the push-apart results between the like poles.
characteristics. When unlike poles are brought close to
each other, the magnetic lines of force pass from the 11-14. Electromagnetism.
north to the south poles. They try to shorten (like
rubberbands), and, therefor try to pull the two poles a. An electric current (flow of electrons) always
together. On the other hand, if like poles are brought produces a magnetic field. In the wire

TA233531
Figure 11-17. Effects Between Magnetic Poles.

11-14

shown in figure 11-18, current flow causes lines of force
to circle the wire. It is thought that these lines of force
result from the movement of the electrons along the wire.
As they move, the electrons send out the lines of force.
When many electrons move, there are many lines of
force (the magnetic field is strong). Few electrons in
motion means a weak magnetic field or few lines of
force.
b. Electron movement as the basis of magnetism in
bar and horseshoe magnets can be explained by
assuming that the atoms of iron are so lined up in the
magnets that the electrons are circling in the same
direction. With the electrons moving in the same
direction, their individual magnetic lines of force add to
produce the magnetic field.
c. The magnetic field produced by current flowing
in a single loop of wire is shown in figure 11-19. The
magnetic lines of force circle the wire, but here they must
follow the curve of the wire. If two loops are made in the
conductor, the lines of force will circle the two loops. In
the area
Figure 11-18. Electromagnetism.
11-15
TM 9-8000
Figure 11-19. Electromagnetism in a Wire Loop.
between the adjacent loops, the magnetic lines are going
in opposite directions. In such a case, because they are
of the same strength (from same amount of current
traveling in both loops), they cancel each other out. The
lines of force, therefore, circle the two loops almost as
though they were a single loop. However, the magnetic
field will be twice as strong because the lines of force of
the two loops combine.
d. When many loops of wire are formed into a coil
as shown in figure 11-20, the lines of force of all loops
combine into a pattern that resembles greatly the
magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. A coil of this
type is known as an electromagnet or a solenoid.
However, electromagnets can be in many shapes. The
field coils of generators and starters, the primary winding
in an ignition coil, the coils in electric gages, even the
windings in a starter armature, can be considered to be
electromagnets. All of these produce magnetism by
electrical means, as discussed in paragraph 11-15.
e. The north pole of an electromagnet can be
determined, if the direction of current flow (from negative
to positive) is known, by use of the left- handed rule (fig.
11-21). The left hand is held around the coil with the
fingers pointing in the direction of current flow. The
thumb will point to the north pole of the electromagnet.
This rule is based on current, or electron, flow from
negative to positive
TA233532

Figure 11-20. Electromagnetism in a Wire Coil.
f. The left-handed rule also can be used to
determine the direction that lines of force circle a wire-
carrying current if the direction of current is known. This
is done by circling the wire with the left hand with the
thumb pointing in the direction of current flow (negative
to positive). The fingers will then point in the direction
that the magnetic field circles the wire.
g. The strength of an electromagnet can be
increased greatly by wrapping the loops of wire around
an iron core. The iron core passes the lines of force with
much greater ease than air.
11-16
TM 9-8000
Figure 11-21. Left-Handed Rule.
This effect of permitting lines of force to pass through
easily is called permeability. Wrought iron is 3,000 times
more permeable than air. In other words, it allows 3,000
times as many lines of force to get through. With this
great increase in the number of lines of force, the
magnetic strength of the electromagnet is increased
greatly, even though no more current flows through it.
Practically all electromagnets use an iron core of some
kind.
11-15. Electromagnetic Induction.
a. Current can be induced to flow in a conductor if it
is moved through a magnetic field. In figure 11-22 the
wire is moved downward through the magnetic field
between the two magnetic poles. As it moves
downward, cutting lines of force, current is induced in it.
The reason for this is that the lines of force resist cutting,
and tend to wrap around the wire as shown. With lines
of force wrapping around the wire, current is induced.
The wire movement through the magnetic field produces
a magnetic whirl around the wire, which pushes the
electrons along the wire.
b. If the wire is held stationary and the magnetic
field is moved, the effect is the same; that is, current will
be induced in the wire. All that is required is that there
be relative movement between the two so that lines of
force are cut by the wire. It is this cutting and whirling, or
wrapping, of the lines of force around the wire that
produces the current movement in the wire.
c. The magnetic field can be moved by moving the
magnet or, if it is a magnetic field from an electromagnet,
it can be moved by starting and stopping the current flow
in the electromagnet. Suppose an electromagnet such
as the one shown in figure 11-20 has a wire held close to
it. When the electromagnet is connected to a battery,
current will start to flow through it. This current, as it
starts to flow, builds up a magnetic field. In other words,
a magnetic field forms because of the current flow. This
magnetic field might be considered as expanding (like a
balloon, in a sense) and moving out from the
electromagnet. As it moves outward, its lines of force
will cut through the wire held close to the electromagnet.
This wire, therefore, will have current induced in it. The
current will result from the lines of force cutting across
the wire. If the electromagnet is
TA233533
 TM 9-8000

Figure 11-22. Electromagnetic Induction.

disconnected from the battery, its magnetic field will
collapse and disappear. As this happens, the lines of
force move inward toward the electromagnet. Again, the
wire held close to the electromagnet will be cut by
moving lines of force and will have a current induced in it.
This time, the lines of force are moving in the opposite
direction and the wire, therefore, will have current
induced in it in the opposite direct ion.
d. Thus it can be seen that current can be induced
in the wire by three methods: the wire can be moved
through the stationary magnetic field; the wire can be
held stationary and the magnet can be moved so the
field is carried past the wire; or the wire and
electromagnet both can be held stationary and the
current turned on and off to cause the magnetic field
buildup and collapse, so the magnetic field moves one
way or the other across the wire.

TA233534

11-17/(11-18 blank)

CHAPTER 13
CHARGING SYSTEMS
Section I PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
13-1. General. The generator is a machine in which the
principle of electromagnetic induction is used to convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator
restores the current used in cranking the engine to the
battery. It also supplies, up to the limit of its capacity,
current to carry the electrical load of the lights, ignition,
radio, and horn. A generator and a motor are basically
the same in construction and use the same electrical
principles; however, their operation is opposite. In the
generator, mechanical motion is converted into electrical
energy. In the motor, electrical energy is converted into
mechanical motion.
13-2. Simple Single-Loop Generator.
a. Induced Current. If a single loop of wire is
rotated in the magnetic field between a north and a south
pole, there will be an electrical pressure produced in the
two sides of the loop. The voltage and current produced
will relate to the direction of the magnetic field and the
direction of rotation. If each end of the loop is connected
to a metal segment of a commutator on which brushes
rest (fig. 13-1), this electrical pressure will cause a
current to flow through any external circuit that may be
connected across the two brushes.
b. Commutation. If the loop is rotated through a
complete revolution (fig. 13-1), sides 1 and 2 will cut
magnetic lines of force in first one direction and then in
the other. This will produce current in each side of the
loop, first in one direction and then in the other. That is,
in side 1, current will flow in one direction when it is
passing the north pole and in the other direction when it
is passing the south pole. However, because the
commutator segments also rotate with the loop, the
current always will leave the right-hand brush (4) and
enter the left-hand brush (3). The directions of current
produced in each side of the loop can be determined by
use of the left-handed rule, described in paragraph 11-
14.
13-3. Multiple-Loop Generator. The advantages of a
multiple-loop generator are explained below.
13-1
TM 9-8000
a. More Current Induced. In the simple, single-loop
generator (fig. 13-1), the current produced in each side
of the loop reaches a maximum when the sides are
cutting the lines of force in a perpendicular direction.
This is the position in which the loop is shown. As the
loop moves away from this position, it cuts fewer and
fewer lines of force and less and less current is
produced. By the time the loop has turned 90 degrees
from the position shown, the sides are moving parallel to
the lines of force and are cutting no lines, therefore no
current is being produced. The current produced from
the single loop is shown in graph form in figure 13-1.
Many loops, or turns, of wire are required in the
conductor in order for the generator to produce an
appreciable amount and even flow of current. The
rotating member that contains the wire loops and the
commutator is called an armature. Figure 13-2 shows
an armature in place in a generator. Note that many
turns are used in the armature windings.
b. Smoother Current Flow. The windings are
assembled in a soft iron core because iron is more
permeable than other substances that could be used.
The windings are connected to each other and to the
commutator segments in such a way that the current
impulses overlap and produce a smooth flow of current.
This could be compared to the overlapping of power
impulses in an 8- or 12-cylinderenglne.
13-4. Generator Speed. In order for the generator to
provide rated output, it must be operated at sufficient
speed. Because military vehicles spend a large amount
of time at engine idle, it is important to note that during
these periods the generator may be required to supply
full rated current on a large portion thereof. Therefore,
the requirement for establishing the speed at which full
rated output must be delivered is the controlling factor for
optimizing the size of the generator. As a general rule,
engines have a speed ratio between four and five to one
from idle to maximum speed; that is, the typical engine
idles at 650 rpm and has a maximum speed of 3,000
rpm. Typical
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-1. & Figure 13-2. Multiple -Loop Generator.

13-2
 TM 9-8000

generator speeds can be two to four times engine rpm.

13-5. Field Intensity. The magnetic lines of force that

are created by the generator field are critical to the
generator’s output. The more lines of force that there
are for the armature to cut, the more output the
generator will produce. Generator field coils are
designed to produce the most intense field that is
possible. The key factors that affect field intensity are:
a. The number of wire turns in the coil.

b. The ratio of the coil’s length to its width.

c. The type of material used in the core.

13-6. AC and DC Current Flow.

a. General. There are two basic forms of electrical

current flow: Direct current (dc) and alternating
current(ac).

b. Alternating Current. Alternating current forces

electrons from one terminal to the other and then back
again (the direction of current flow alternates). A graph
of the voltage versus time for alternating current is
shown in figure 13-3. It can be seen that the value of the
voltage rises in the positive direction, reaches a peak,
falls in the negative direction, reaches a negative peak,
and then rises to zero. This is a constantly repeating
cycle. Generators normally produce alternating current.
c. Direct Current. Direct current flow forces electrons
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
(current flow is always in one direction or direct). Direct
current voltage versus time is shown in figure 13-3.
Figure 13-3. AC and DC Flow.
produces dc flow, must also have a dc flow, because ac
and dc flow are incompatible in the same circuit. To
correct this problem, the generator output therefore must
be changed to dc through a process called rectification.
By its design, a dc generator is self-rectifying, but an ac
generator must have its output rectified electronically.
The processes of rectification are respectively covered in
their related sections.

d. Compatibility. An automotive electrical system, due

to the need for a storage battery that

Section II. DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLES

13-7. Field Winding Configurations (Fig. 13-4). The
purpose of the field windings is to create the lines of
force electromagnetically that induce a current flow in the
armature. The field winding usually is connected in
parallel with the armature winding (that is, across the
brushes).
13-3
This is called shunt-field winding. The shunt-field
winding usually is connected only at one end to the
brushes. The other end of the field winding then is made
to pass through a voltage regulation circuit (para 13-13).
In this manner, the output of the generator is controlled.
Depending on the
TA233543

Figure 13-4. Field Winding Configurations.
regulation circuitry used, the field windings may be
connected in one of two ways.
a. A-Type Field Circuit. The A-type field circuit shunts
one end of the field winding to the negative generator
brush and controls output through the regulation circuitry
to the positive (battery) connection.
b. B-Type Field Circuit. The B-type field circuit shunts
one end of the field winding to the positive generator
brush and controls output through the regulation circuitry
to the negative (ground) connection.
13-8. Shunt-Wound Generator (Fig. 13-5).
a.General. Most motor vehicle generators are shunt
wound, with an outside means of regulating the voltage
output. Approximately 8 to 12 percent of the total current
generated by the armature is shunted (sent) through the
field coils for producing the magnetic field.
b. Components. The generator essentially consists of
an armature, a field frame, field coils, and a commutator
with brushes to establish electrical contact with the
rotating element. The magnetic field of the generator
usually is produced by electromagnets or poles
magnetized by current flowing through the field coils.
Soft iron pole pieces (or pole shoes) are contained in the
13-4
TM 9-8000
field frame that forms the magnetic circuit between the
poles. Although machines may be designed to have
any even number of poles, two-and four-pole frames
are the most common.
c. Field Frames. In the two-pole type frame, the
magnetic circuit flows directly across the armature,
while in the four-pole type each magnetic circuit flows
through only a part of the armature core. Therefore,
the armature must be constructed in accordance with
the number of field poles because current is generated
when the coil, winding on the armature, moves across
each magnetic circuit.
d Brushes and Commutator. The current is
collected from the armature coils by the brushes
(usually made of carbon) that make rubbing contact
with a commutator. The commutator consists of a
series of insulated copper segments mounted on one
end of the armature, each segment connecting to one
or more armature coils. The armature coils are
connected to the external circuit (battery, lights, or
ignition) through the commutator and brushes. Current
induced in the armature coils thus is able to flow to the
external circuit.
e. Principle of Operation. In figure 13-6,
assume that the magnetic field flows from the north
pole piece (N) to the south pole piece (S), as indicated
by the arrows. When the armature is
TA233544
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-5. Shunt-Wound Generator.

rotated, the armature coils will cut the weak magnetic

field (residual magnetism) retained by the poles and set
up a slight voltage, usually 1 to 1 ½ volts, across the
brushes. In this particular case, the upper brush will be
positive (+) and the lower brush will be negative (-). This
voltage is sufficient to cause a small current to flow from
the negative brush through the field winding around the
pole pieces to the positive brush. If the magnetic effect
of this field current is of the same polarity as the
remaining magnetism, the pole strength will be
increased. This, in turn, will increase the magnetic field
through the armature. Because the armature coils then
will be cutting more magnetic lines of force per
revolution, the voltage across the brushes will be
increased. An increase in brush voltage increases the
field strength which, in turn, increases the armature
output. The armature voltage helps the field and the field
helps the armature voltage until the generator reaches its
normal operating volt- age at the specific running speed.
This process is called building up the generator voltage.
f. Residual Magnetism. The importance of the
magnetism retained by the poles should be noted in the
description of generator operation because it serves as a
foundation for building up the generator voltage.
Residual magnetism is
TA233545
Figure 13-6. Shunt-Wound Generator
Operation.

13-5
 TM 9-8000

the magnetism remaining in the pole pieces after the

field-magnetizing current has stopped. If there is no
residual magnetism in the pole pieces, there will be no
initial output of the generator, and it will not build up
voltage to push current. If the pole pieces lose residual
magnetism through long storage, or by being newly
rebuilt, subjected to extreme heat or cold, dropped,
vibrated, or struck by a sharp blow, it can be restored by
passing direct current through the field winding in the
proper direction. If current is passed through the field
windings in the reverse direction, the generator will be
polarized in reverse. This reverse polarity will cause the
generator to discharge the batteries instead of charging
them, and also could cause damage to some of the
vehicle accessories. Several conditions are necessary
for the generator to build up a voltage. Two of the most
important requirements are that the pole pieces have
residual magnetism as a foundation on which to build,
and that the current in each field coil be in a direction Figure 13-7. Generator Drive Systems.
around the pole that it will produce magnetism to assist,
and not oppose, the residual magnetism. If the field gears at one to one and one-half times the crankshaft
current opposes it, the voltage built up will not be higher speed. The present trend is to have the water pump and
than that produced by the residual magnetism. generator driven by a V-type drive belt from the pulley on
the forward end of the crankshaft. Pivoting the generator
g. Construction. The armature core is made of sheets on the generator mounting studs allows adjustment of
of iron insulated from each other so that the magnetic the belt tension. A rotary fan usually is contained on the
field will not induce eddy currents in the core. Eddy generator pulley to draw cooling air through the
currents are currents that are induced within the core by generator.
the constant variation in the lines of force. Making the 13-9. Waterproofed Generator Systems. The
armature core in one piece would allow eddy currents to generators, as well as other electrical components are
become large enough to create a counter-voltage, which made watertight on military vehicles that ford bodies of
would result in a large portion of the generator’s output to water. This is done by completely sealing the generator
be converted to heat. The armature core is wound with so that water cannot enter. In addition, stainless steel
coils of copper wire and mounted on a shaft with a bearings are used to prevent corrosion. The
commutator on one end. Field coils are made of many commutator-end bearing is packed with heat-resistant
coils of fine wire arranged for shunt connection. The grease on assembly, while the drive-end bearing is
field frame, usually two or four poles with brushes, brush lubricated by a pickup gear rotating in an oil reservoir.
holders, and end housings with bearings, completes the Neither bearing requires attention or lubrication between
essential parts of the generator. generator overhauls. Other types of sealed bearings
also may be used. The generator leads are carried in a
h. Generator Drives (Fig. 13-7). The method of waterproof conduit that is connected by plug-ins to the
mounting and driving the generator depends to a large generator terminals. The conduit is attached to the
extent on the construction and design of the engine. It generator terminal assembly by a waterproof coupling.
usually is mounted on the side of the engine and driven
by belts or 13-10. Circuit Breaker or Cutout Relay (Fig. 13-8).

a. Purpose. The circuit breaker is simply an

TA233546

13-6

Figure 13-8. Cutout Relay.
automatic electromagnetic switch connected in the
battery charging circuit between the generator and the
storage battery of the electrical system. Its function is to
connect the generator automatically to the battery when
the voltage of the generator is sufficient to charge the
battery. It also must disconnect the generator and
battery when the generator is not running or when its
voltage falls below that of the battery, to prevent the
battery from discharging through the generator windings.
In these respects, the action of the circuit breaker is very
similar to that of a check valve between a pump and a
reservoir.
b. Construction. The circuit breaker consists of two
windings: a shunt winding and a series winding. These
are assembled on a single core, above which is placed
an armature. The shunt winding consists of many turns
of fine wire, and is connected across the generator. The
series winding consists of a few turns of heavy wire
designed to carry full generator output, and is connected
to the charging circuit. The armature operates a moving
contact point that is positioned above a stationary
matching point. Common practice is to place the cutout
relay inside the voltage regulator.
c. Operation. When the generator is not operating,
the armature is held away from the winding core by
spring tension, and the points are separated. As soon as
the generator begins
13-7
TM 9-8000
to operate at a speed sufficient to produce enough
voltage to charge the battery, this voltage, which is
impressed on the relay windings, creates enough
magnetism to overcome the armature spring tension and
close the points. As long as the generator charges the
battery, the points are held closed. When the generator
slows or stops, so that current flows from the battery to
the generator, the points open. They open because the
series-winding magnetic field reverses as the current in it
reverses, so that the two windings no longer help each
other. The magnetic fields buck, causing a reduction of
the total magnetic field to a point where it can no longer
hold the armature down and the points closed. The
spring tension pulls the armature up and opens the
points. The air gap between the armature and the iron
core of the relay has little or no effect upon the voltage at
which the circuit breaker opens, because the spring
tension governs this almost entirely. On the other hand,
the voltage at which the circuit breaker closes is
governed by both the air gap and the spring tension.
13-11. Regulation of Generator Output. The fields of
the generator depend upon the current from the
armature of the generator for magnetization. Because
the current developed by the generator increases in
direct proportion to its speed, the fields become stronger
as the speed increases and correspondingly, more
current is generated by the armature. The extreme
variations in speed of the automotive
TA233547

engine make it necessary to regulate the output of the
generator to prevent excessive current or voltage
overload. On the average motor vehicle, a charging
current in excess of 12 to 15 amperes may be harmful to
a fully charged battery if continued too long. With the
increased use of electrical accessories, generators have
been increased in output until they are capable of
producing far more than 15 amperes. Some heavy-duty
generators, for example, may produce as much as 150
amperes.
13-12. Reverse-Series Field Generator (Fig. 13-9).
The reverse-series field generator is self-regulating.
a. Operation. Because the output of the generator
depends on the number of conductors in the armature,
their speed of rotation, and the strength of the magnetic
field in which they rotate, varying the strength of this field
is the only convenient method of regulation. One of
Figure 13-9. Reverse-Series Field
.
13-8
TM 9-8000
the simplest methods, used on special applications, is
the use of a reverse-series field for differential action. A
shunt field is connected across the brushes to produce
the magnetizing action.
Charging current going through the reverse-series field,
however, has a demagnetizing action so that, as the
current increases, it tends to restrict the rise of current
above a reasonable value.
b. Disadvantages. This type of differentially wound
generator has disadvantages that limit its use on motor
vehicles without some additional external regulator. If a
break should occur in the charging circuit (except during
normal circuit breaker operation), destroying generator
regulation by the series field, the voltage will become
excessive. This usually results in damage to the field
and armature winding and to the voltage winding of the
circuit breaker. Therefore, such generators usually have
some form of external voltage regulation.
13-13. Vibrating Point Regulator.
a. Current Regulation.
(1) The vibrating regulator (fig. 13-10) can be used to
regulate the current or the voltage, depending on how
the regulator coil is connected. A circuit diagram of a
typical vibrating regulator used for limiting the current
from the generator is shown in figure 13-11. The
regulator consists of a soft iron core, a heavy winding or
current coil around the core, a set of regulator contact
points normally held closed by spring tension, and a
resistance unit connected across the two regulator
contact points.
(2) As the generator output increases, the current
regulator prevents the current output of the generator
from exceeding its rated maximum. It does this by
cutting a resistance intermittently in and out of the shunt-
field circuit as the regulator contact points open and
close, due to the varying magnetic pull of the core. The
resistance is connected in the shunt-field circuit, but
normally is short circuited by the regulator contacts when
they are closed. One of these is mounted on a soft iron
contact armature, to which the spring for holding the
points in contact is attached. The
TA233548

Figure 13-10. Vibrating Point Voltage Regulator.
generator, when driven by the engine, builds up as a
simple shunt-wound generator. When the speed and
voltage of the generator are increased sufficiently to
close the circuit breaker, the generator will begin to
charge the battery, the charging current flowing through
the regulator winding. This current flowing through the
regulator winding will magnetize the core. It, in turn,
exerts a magnetic pull on the regulator contact
13-9
TM 9-8000
armature, which tends to separate the contacts. When
the battery-charging current reaches the value for which
the regulator is adjusted, the core is sufficiently
magnetized to attract the armature overcoming the pull
of the regulator spring. This separates the contact points
and inserts the resistance unit in series with the shunt-
field winding and weakens the field strength. This
causes a drop in voltage generated in the
TA233549

armature, which then decreases the charging current.
When the current decreases to a predetermined amount,
the current coil does not magnetize the core sufficiently
to overcome the pull of the spring, which then closes the
contacts. With the contacts closed, the resistance unit is
once more short circuited and the full field strength is
restored, causing the charging current to increase again.
The regulator will continue to repeat this cycle. Under
operating conditions, the armature vibrates rapidly
enough to keep the generator output constant. As a
result, the generator will never produce more than the
predetermined rate (for example, 40 amperes), no
matter how high the speed of the car. This will be true
regardless of the connected electrical load.
(3) This method of generator regulation is termed
current regulation, because the current output of the
generator is used for regulation. It is very important,
therefore, that no breaks occur in the charging circuit
after the generator reaches a voltage that will operate the
circuit breaker. If a break does occur, no current will flow
through the current coil to operate the vibrating points
and, due to lack of regulation, the generator will build up
an excessive voltage at high speeds. A voltage regulator
is used to prevent excessive voltage.
(4) The charging rate of the generator can be adjusted
easily in all electrical systems controlled by a vibrating
regulator. To increase the maximum charging rate, the
spring tension on the vibrating armature should be
increased slightly. To decrease the maximum charging
rate, the spring tension should be decreased. Care must
be taken that the generator output does not exceed the
value for which it was designed.
b. Voltage Regulation.
(1) A circuit diagram of a typical vibrating voltage
regulator is shown in figure 13-11. Although the
construction of this relay does not differ materially from
that of the current regulator, the principle of operation is
somewhat different. With this regulator, the voltage
output of the generator is used for automatic regulation.
By comparing both circuits, it will be seen that the
principal difference in the two regulators is in the winding
of the controlling coil and its connections. In the voltage
regulator, the charging
13-10
TM 9-8000
current does not flow through the regulator winding. The
winding on the core consists of a voltage coil of fine wire.
The two ends of the voltage coil are connected across
the generator brushes and in parallel with the battery
instead of in series with it. The iron core, regulator
points, and resistance unit, however, are practically the
same; the only important exception is that the voltage
regulator resistance is considerably higher than that used
with the current regulator.
(2) The current flowing in the regulator coil and
resultant magnetic pull of the core on the contact
armature depend on the voltage developed by the
generator. For an example of regulator operation,
assume that the regulator is adjusted to operate at 12.8
volts. With increasing generator speed, the voltage
tends to rise above 12.8 volts. However, if this value is
exceeded by a small amount, the increased magnetic
pull of the core on the contact armature due to the
current flowing in the voltage coil will overcome the
spring tension and pull the armature toward the core.
This action will open the contacts and insert a resistance
in the generator field circuit. This added resistance
decreases the current in the field winding, and the
voltage developed by the armature drops below 12.8
volts.
(3) When the voltage drops, the pull of the spring on
the regulator armature overcomes the magnetic pull of
the core and closes the contacts. This short-circuits the
resistance unit and allows the field current to increase.
The cycle of operation is repeated rapidly, preventing the
generator voltage from rising above that for which the
regulator is set. The regulator on most late-type military
equipment will prevent the generator from building up an
excessive voltage if a break occurs in the charging
circuit. But this is not true on standard passenger cars
and light-duty equipment. In these, if a break occurs in
the voltage regulator circuit, regulation of the generator
may be lost and at high speeds an excessive charging
rate will result.
(4) It is obvious that increasing the tension of the
regulator spring will increase the output voltage of the
generator. Under no circumstances should the regulator
spring tension be increased in an attempt to have the
generator charge at a higher rate at lower speeds. The
generator cannot begin to charge until the circuit breaker
closes. The closing of the circuit breaker
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-11. Vibrating Point Regulator Circuit.

13-11
 TM 9-8000

is independent of the action of the regulator. Increasing
the tension of the regulator springs so that the generator
will develop an excessive voltage will send excessive
current to the battery, overcharging it. It also will cause
the generator to overheat, possibly burning it out.
c. Charging Rate.
(1) Current Regulator. With the vibrating current
regulator, the maximum possible charging current
remains constant for any one setting of the regulator,
regardless of the condition of the battery. To vary this
maximum generator output, the spring tension of the
regulator must be adjusted. The setting must never
exceed the rated maximum of the generator.
(2) Voltage Regulator.
(a) The main advantage of the voltage regulator is that
the output of the generator is controlled to a great extent
by the amount of charge in the battery. When the
generator reaches a speed at which it develops the
regulated voltage, there will be no further increase in
voltage with increasing speed. The voltage will be
maintained constant at all loads and at all higher speeds.
13-14. Carbon-Pile Regulator (Fig. 13-12).
a. General. In the vibrating-contact type regulator, a
set of contacts open and close to insert and remove a
resistance in and from the generator field circuit. This, in
effect, inserts a variable resistance into the field circuit
that controls the generator. When only a small output is
required, the voltage regulator maintains the resistance
in the field circuit most of the time. When output
requirements increase, the resistance is in the field a
smaller part of the time. This same variable-resistance
effect can be achieved by a carbon-pile regulator.
b. Construction. The carbon-pile regulator consists
essentially of a stack of carbon disks held together by
spring pressure. The spring pressure is applied by an
armature. The resistance through the carbon pile is
relatively small with full spring pressure applied. But with
less pressure, the resistance increases. The carbon pile
is connected to the generator field circuit so that its
resistance is in series with the field. With full pressure
applied, there is no regulation and generator output can
increase to a high value. To

(b) During the time the generator is connected to the

battery, the difference in voltage between the two is the
voltage available for sending current into the battery. In
a discharged battery, the difference in voltage between
the generator and the battery will be relatively great, so
that a comparatively high charging current will pass from
the generator to the battery. As the charge continues,
the voltage of the battery increases, so that the
difference in voltage between the generator and the
battery is diminishing continually. With a fully charged
battery, the voltage is equal nearly to that of the
generator so that the difference between the two is very
slight. As this slight difference in voltage is all that is
available for sending current into the battery, the
charging current will be small. The charging current,
therefore, is variable and depends upon the charge in the
battery. In practice, the charging current with the
constant voltage regulator varies from a maximum of 25
to 35 amperes for a discharged battery to a minimum of
4 to 6 amperes for a fully charged battery.
Figure 13.12. Carbon-Pile Regulator and
Circuit.

13-12

limit current output to a safe value, or to provide voltage
regulation, the armature pressure can be adjusted to
vary the resistance.
c. Current Regulation. To limit current, or to provide
current regulation, the carbon-pile regulator has a heavy
winding through which all current from the generator
must pass. This winding produces a magnetic pull as
current asses through it, which opposes the armature
spring pressure. When the output reaches the value for
which the generator is rated, the magnetic pull
overcomes the spring pressure sufficiently to reduce the
pressure on the carbon disks and thereby increase the
resistance of the pile. This increased resistance, which
is in the generator field circuit, prevents any further
increase of output.
d. Voltage Regulation. A winding is incorporated in
the carbon-pile voltage regulator to regulate voltage.
This shunt winding is connected across the generator so
that generator voltage is forced on it. When this voltage
reaches the value for which the regulator is set, the
winding produces enough magnetic pull on the armature
to reduce the armature spring pressure. This causes the
resistance of the voltage-regulator carbon pile to
increase. The increased resistance, which is in the
generator field circuit, prevents any further generator
voltage increase and thereby reduces generator output.
Figure 13-13. Third-Brush Regulation.
13-13
TM 9-8000
The rheostat is connected to the shunt-winding circuit of
the voltage regulator. Its purpose is to permit adjustment
of the voltage regulator setting. When all resistance in
the rheostat is cut out (by turning the knob), the full
generator voltage is imposed in the shunt winding. But
when some of the rheostat resistance is cut in, less than
full generator voltage is imposed on the shunt winding
(part of it being in the rheostat). In the latter case,
generator voltage must go higher before voltage
regulation commences. Thus, accurate setting of the
regulator can be made.
13-15. Third-Brush Regulation (Fig. 13-13).
Third-brush regulation is much simpler in operation and
less expensive to manufacture than other methods of
control. However, it can be used only for relatively small
and specialized applications. Generators with this type
of control have an extra brush called the third brush,
located between the two main brushes.
a. Arrangement. Arrangement of a typical two-pole,
third-brush generator is shown in figure 3-13. One end
of the shunt-field winding is connected to the third brush,
the other end is grounded. Only a part of the total
voltage generated is supplied to the field by the third
brush.
b. Operation.
(1) When the generator is running at a low speed and
little or no current is flowing in the

armature winding, the magnetic field produced by the
field windings is approximately straight through the
armature from one pole piece to the other. The voltage
generated by each armature coil is then practically
uniform during the time the coil is under the pole pieces.
(2) As the generator speed and current increase, the
armature winding acts like a solenoid coil to produce a
cross-magnetic field. The magnetic whirl around the
armature winding distorts the magnetic field produced by
the shunt-field windings so that the magnetism is not
distributed equally under the pole pieces. With this
distortion of the magnetic field, the armature coils no
longer generate a uniform voltage while passing under
the different parts of the pole. Although the voltage
across the main brushes remains nearly the same, a
greater proportion of this voltage is generated by the
coils between the positive brush and the third brush than
was generated between them when little current was
flowing through the armature winding. This is due to the
distortion of the magnetic field, which crowds more
magnetic lines of force between the positive and the third
brush.
(3) The coils that connect the commutator between the
negative and the third brush are in the region of the
weakened field and generate a lower proportion of the
voltage. The result is a dropping off of the voltage
between the negative and third brushes, which is applied
to the shunt-field winding, thereby weakening the field
strength. As the field strength decreases with increased
generator current, the result will be an automatic
regulation of the current output.
c. Output.
(1) One of the outstanding characteristics of
generators with third-brush regulation is that the output of
the generator increases gradually up to an intermediate
speed. After this, due to obvious field distortion, the
output falls off as the speed continues to increase. At
high generator speeds, the output is approximately one-
half its maximum value.
(2) In practically all generators that have third-brush
regulation, provision is made for changing the output to
suit the conditions under which the generator is
operated. This can be done by moving the position of
the third brush on the commutator. The average voltage
applied to
13-14
TM 9-8000
the field winding will depend upon the number of
armature coils spanned by the brushes that collect the
field current. Thus, moving the third brush in the
direction of the armature rotation increases the average
current delivered to the shunt-field winding and,
consequently, the output of the generator. Moving the
brush against the direction of armature rotation
decreases the output. When this brush is moved, care
should be taken to see that it makes perfect contact with
the commutator.
(3) Because the third-brush generator depends upon
the current flowing through the armature winding to
produce the field distortion necessary for regulation, it is
obvious that it is current-regulated internally (as distinct
from external current regulation). Therefore, it must
have a complete circuit available through the battery at
all times. Otherwise, regulation would be destroyed and
excessive field currents would burn out the generator
windings. The generator terminals must be grounded in
case the third- brush generator is disconnected from the
battery.
13-16. Control of Third-Brush Generator. A fuse is
sometimes provided in the field circuit to guard against
the possibility of the third-brush generator burning up.
When used, it is placed either in the generator end plate
or in the regulator control unit. If the battery becomes
disconnected, there is a rise in voltage at the generator.
This, in turn, sends an abnormally heavy current through
the field winding and this field current burns out the fuse.
As soon as the fuse is blown, the field circuit is open and
no current can flow through it. The generator then
merely turns, producing practically no voltage, and does
no harm. The third-brush generator provides current
regulation only and does not take battery voltage into
consideration. In fact, a fully charged battery that has a
high voltage actually will get more current from a third-
brush generator than a battery that is completely
discharged, because the high voltage holds up the
voltage at the generator, makes the field stronger, and
causes the generator output to increase. This, combined
with the varying demands of radio sets and other current-
consuming devices, necessitates more accurate
regulation than a third-brush generator alone can give.
a. Switch Control. Practically all systems of regulation
provide a means for inserting a resistance in series with
the third-brush field.

A simple way of accomplishing this is shown in figure 13-
14. A resistance is mounted on the back of the lighting
switch and connected in series with the field. When the
lights are off, the generator output current is limited by
the resistance in the field circuit. When the lights are
turned on, the resistance is shorted so that the generator
delivers full current to take care of the additional lighting
circuit load. This is just a two-step arbitrary system of
regulation, however, that will not meet the varied load
requirements of normal vehicle operation.
b. Step-Voltage Control.
(1) The purpose of step-voltage control is to increase
or decrease the output of a third- brush generator in
accordance with the requirements of the battery and the
connected electrical load. It is really a two-stage
regulator in which the change from one output to the
other is controlled by the generator voltage. The
generator voltage is control led then by battery voltage.
(2) A step-voltage control unit is shown in figure 13-15.
A fine-winding voltage coil, connected to the generator
armature terminal so that it receives the armature
voltage, is the controlling element. Contacts are
connected in series with the field terminal and have a
resistance unit connected across them. When the
battery is fully charged, its voltage raises the generator to
such a value that sufficient magnetizing current flows
Figure 13-14. Light Switch Control of a Third-Brush Generator.
13-15
TM 9-8000
through the fine winding on the control unit to pull the
contact points apart. When this happens, the resistance
across the contacts is connected in series with the field
winding to lower the field strength and, consequently, to
reduce the generator voltage and the current output.
When the voltage is lowered sufficiently, spring tension
will close the contact points and the higher charging rate
will be restored.
(3) When there is sufficient electrical load (such as
lights, radio, or heater) to require a higher generator
output, the contact points will close, because the load will
lower the generator voltage and the generator will
produce maximum output for the selected position of the
third brush and the speed at which it is driven.
c. Vibrating Regulator Control. A vibrating regulator
(para 13-13) also can be used with a third-brush
generator. Such a regulator is controlled by a voltage
coil that operates vibrating contacts. When the battery is
discharged, there is insufficient voltage to operate the
regulator. The generator output is controlled then only by
the third brush. As the battery becomes charged, the
voltage of the system will increase and more current will
be forced through the regulator coil. The regulator points
then begin to vibrate, connecting a resistance in the
generator field circuit and cutting down the output to a
fairly constant value.

Figure 13-15. Thermostatic Control of Third-Brush Generator.
d. Thermostatic Control.
(1) Another type of control for the third-brush generator
uses a thermostat blade to control the field strength. If
the generator is set to give the greatest possible current
to take care of demands during the winter, the battery
would be in a constant state of overcharge in warm
weather and soon be ruined. The thermostat blade
automatically takes care of the changing current
demands under different conditions.
(2) The control consists of a bimetal thermostat blade
made of a strip of spring brass welded to a strip of nickel
steel. The blade warps or bends when heated, due to
the greater expansion of the brass side. The blade is set
so that a contact on its end is held firmly against a fixed
contact at low temperatures. When the temperature
rises to approximately 1600 to 1650F, the blade bends
and separates the contacts.
(3) The thermostat is connected in the third-brush field
circuit (fig. 13-16) so that the full field current passes
through the thermostat contacts when closed, permitting
full current from the generator. After the engine has
been run
13-16
TM 9-8000
long enough for the high charging rate to heat the
generator, the thermostat contacts open (due to the
bending of the thermostat blade), causing a resistance
unit across the contacts to be connected in series with
the third-brush field and thereby reducing the current
output. The charging rate is reduced approximately 30
percent when the thermostat contacts are opened.
(4) The chief advantages of thermostatic control are
that it gives a large battery-charging rate in cold weather
when the efficiency of the battery is lower than in warm
weather, and also a larger charging rate when the
vehicle is being driven intermittently and the demands on
the battery are greater because of frequent use of the
starter. This control also prevents the generator and
battery from overheating in summer by reducing the
charging rate when the temperature rises.
13-17. Split-Series Field Generators (Fig. 13-17
a. Generator regulation sometimes is accomplished by
means of a split-series field. A generator with this
method of regulation combines third-brush, reversed-
series (differential), and cumulative-compound
principles.
TA233554
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-16. Thermostatic Control of Third-Brush Generator.

The series-field winding is divided so that the generator
output is changed according to the load.
b. With lights off, no current flows through one part of
the series field (1, fig. 13-17). The current going to the
battery flows through the remainder of the series field (2,
fig. 13-17) in the opposite direction to the shunt-field
current.
This weakens the total field strength, keeping the
generator output down for the delivery of a reasonable
charging rate.
c. When the lighting switch is closed, the entire
lighting current flows through section 1 of the series field
in the same direction as the shunt

Figure 13-17. Split-Series Field Regulation.

13-17
 TM 9-8000

field. The strength of the field is thereby increased, generator. Where two generators are working in a
giving a higher generator output to take care of the Single set of batteries and a single electrical System, the
lighting load. problem of paralleling exists. That is, the two generators
must be connected in parallel. Unless special provision
d. If the lights are turned on before the generator is made, trouble may result if two generators are parallel.
circuit breaker closes, the entire lighting current is The reason for this is that one generator may attempt to
supplied by the battery. This current then flows through carry most or all of the load while the other generator
all of the series field, instead of through section 1 only, in might use current or act like a motor. The problem is
the same direction as the shunt field, making the total further complicated if one of the generators varies in
field strength still greater. This will build up the generator speed (as the unit on the power plant might).
voltage to close the circuit breaker. The entire current b. System Description. To provide effective paralleling,
output of the generator that passes through the circuit each of the voltage regulators contains an additional
breaker flows to the center tap of the series field, where paralleling winding. These windings become connected
it divides. Part of the current then flows in one direction to each other through two paralleling relays when both
through to the battery and the remainder flows to the generators are operating. With this condition, the
lights. paralleling windings can increase the voltage and thus
the output) of the generator that is producing more than
e. As soon as the circuit breaker closes, the generator its share. Therefore, the two generators can be kept in
begins to pick up the lighting load. This lessens the step.
drain on the battery and thereby reduces the current
flowing through section 2 of the series field. When the 13-19. Generator System - Main and Auxiliary
generator output just equals the lighting current, the Generators.
current in section 2 is zero and, as the generator output
increases further, current begins to flow in the reverse a. General. A wiring circuit of a combat vehicle using a
direction through section 2 to the battery. This tends to main and auxiliary generator is shown in figure 13-18 in
weaken the field built up by the shunt winding and schematic form. This system uses two generators, two
section 1 of the series winding. By obtaining the proper carbon-pile regulators, plus various relays and switches.
relationship between the shunt winding and the two The following chart identifies the circuits in figure 13-18.
sections of the series winding, results quite similar to
those obtained from voltage regulation are secured, and CIRCUIT CIRCUIT NAME
the battery is kept in a charged condition.
1 Main Generator Feed
f. The charging rate of the split-series field generator 2 Main Gen Positive Line
may be adjusted by shifting the third brush as in the 7 Battery Ground
regular third-brush generator. In some generators of this 10 Instrument Panel Feed
type, separate coils are used for the two sections of the 61 Auxiliary Generator Field
series field. In others, the two sections are combined 62 Aux Gen Positive Line
into one coil. Generators of this type do not have 65 Auxiliary Engine Starter
standard connections and must not be confused with the 81 Battery - Positive Line
ordinary third-brush generator. Neither terminal should 421 Aux Eng Fuel Cutoff Valve
be grounded under any circumstances. 422 Aux Eng Magneto Ground
459 Master Relay Control
13-18. Paralleling Generators. 459B Master Relay Feed
478A Aux Gen Equalizing
a. General. Some military vehicles have two separate 478M Main Gen Equalizing
power plants, each with its own generator and regulator 506 Main Gen Warning Light
working into a common set of batteries. Certain combat 508 Aux Gen Warning Light
vehicles have a single power plant, but they also carry an
auxiliary

13-18
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-18. Main and Auxiliary Generators.

13-19

b. Generator. The generator is a shunt generator with
a maximum output of 150 amperes, and is used with a
24-volt battery set. The generator contains an additional
field winding of a few turns of very heavy wire through
which the entire generator output passes. This is a
series winding. It is wound so that its magnetic field
opposes the magnetic field from the shunt windings.
This acts as a current-limiting device because the higher
the output, the greater the opposition from the series-
winding magnetic field. When the output reaches the
rated maximum, the series-winding field is so strong that
it effectively prevents any further increase in output.
More increases would strengthen the series-winding
field, thus further opposing the shunt- winding field and
causing a decreased total field and, consequently, a
drop-off of output. This series-field winding in the
generator also plays an important part in the operation of
the regulators and certain relays in the control system
(para c and d, below).
c. Pilot Relay. There is a pilot relay for each
generator. Because both operate the same, the one
used with the main generator will be discussed. It
contains a shunt winding that is connected across the
main generator terminals. In addition, it has two sets of
contacts: an upper set and a lower set. The upper set is
used in conjunction with the paralleling system, so
consider the lower set first. This lower set is open when
the generator is not operating. But when the generator
begins to run and its voltage increases sufficiently to
charge the battery, then the lower set closes. The shunt
winding in the relay produces this action because, with
sufficient voltage, it has a strong enough magnetic pull to
pull down the relay armature and close the lower
contacts. When the lower contacts close, this causes
the differential-voltage-and-reverse-current relay to
operate.
d. Differential-Voltage-and-Reverse-Current Relay.
(1) Closing. When the pilot relay closes its points, one
of the windings in the differential- voltage-and-reverse-
current relay becomes connected between the
insulated battery terminal and the installed generator
terminal. If the generator voltage is greater than the
battery voltage, the difference (or differential) between
the two causes current to flow in the winding
13-20
TM 9-8000
(which is called the differential-voltage winding). As this
current flows, a magnetic field is produced that pulls the
relay armature down and causes relay contacts to close.
When the relay contacts close, the line-switch winding is
connected across the generator so that it closes, thereby
directly connecting the generator to the battery.
(2) Opening. With the relay and line switch closed so
the generator charges the battery, current flows through
the battery and back to the generator by means of
ground wire and the series winding in the generator field.
Because the current is flowing through the series
winding, there is a voltage difference between the two
ends of this winding. This voltage varies with the rate of
current. With a high generator output, a high current is
flowing and the voltage across the series winding is
greater. This voltage is applied to the differential-
voltage-and-reverse-current relay. When the generator
is charging and the relay is closed, this voltage is
imposed across a second winding in the relay (the
reverse-current winding) in such a direction as to help
the differential-voltage winding hold the relay contacts
closed. But when the generator voltage falls below the
battery voltage, the battery begins to discharge through
the generator. In other words, the current reverses. This
means that the current in the series-field winding, and
thus the voltage across the series-field winding, also
reverses. The resultant reverse voltage, which is applied
to the reverse-current winding, causes the magnetic field
of this winding to reverse. This winding then no longer
helps the differential-voltage winding, but opposes it. As
a result, the total magnetic field is so weakened that the
relay armature is pulled up by its spring tension and the
contacts open. This then opens the line switch winding
circuit so the line switch opens. This disconnects the
generator from the battery.
e. Line Switch. The line switch is a simple magnetic
switch. When its winding is electrically energized, it pulls
the armature down so the switch is closed. When the
winding is disconnected, the spring pressure under the
armature moves the armature up so the switch opens.
f. Paralleling Relays.
(1) Connections. In operation, the contacts of the
paralleling relays are connected in

series with the paralleling windings in the two voltage
regulators and to the two series-field windings in the two
generators. Whenever a generator begins to charge, the
armature on the pilot relay moves from the upper to the
lower position, opening the upper and closing the lower
contacts. When the upper contacts are closed (meaning
that the generator is not charging), the paralleling relay
winding is shorted through them and no paralleling relay
action can take place. But when the pilot relay opens
these upper contacts and closes the lower contacts, the
winding of the paralleling relay becomes connected
across the generator. Now, generator voltage can
energize the winding and cause the paralleling relay to
close its contacts. Only one paralleling relay will be
actuated if only one generator is operating. This means
that no paralleling can take place. But when both
generators are operating so that both paralleling relays
are in action, then the contacts of the relays, the
paralleling windings in the regulators, and the series-field
windings in the generator are all in series.
(2) Operation. When all are in series, current will flow
in the circuit if one generator is putting out more current
than the other. To understand how this might be, refer to
figure 13-19, which is a simplified sketch of the generator
series-field windings and the regular paralleling windings
connected in series. The paralleling relay contacts are
not shown here because they are closed and are
therefore a part of the circuit. Suppose that the main
generator is putting out more current than the auxiliary
generator. This means that more current flows through
the series-field winding of the main generator than
through the series-field winding of the
Figure 13-19. Paralleling Relays.
13-21
TM 9-8000
auxiliary generator. Under these conditions, there will
be a greater voltage across the main generator series-
field winding. This means that current will flow from this
winding, through the paralleling windings, and the
auxiliary generator series-field winding. The current flow
through the paralleling windings in the regulators helps
the regulating winding in one regulator and opposes the
regulating winding in the other. it helps in the main
generator regulator; this means that the spring pressure
on the carbon-pile armature is lightened further so that
the carbon-pile resistance increases, cutting down the
main generator output. On the other hand, the
paralleling winding in the auxiliary generator regulator
opposes the regulating winding. This means that the
spring pressure on the carbon-pile armature is
increased. Carbon-pile resistance is reduced and the
auxiliary generator output goes up.
(3) Paralleling. With paralleling, if one generator tries
to produce more output than the other, its output is cut
down immediately while the output of the low generator
is increased. The action is entirely automatic once the
system has been adjusted correctly. In order to achieve
adjustment, the voltages of the two carbon-pile
regulators must first be set, then the voltages perfectly
balanced by means of the no-load voltage-adjusting
potentiometer, or pot. Finally, the two paralleling
rheostats must be adjusted. All these adjustments must
be made by authorized personnel and according to
instructions supplied in the applicable technical manual.
g. Regulators. The carbon-pile regulators, one for
each generator, operate on generator voltage (para 13-
16). A simplified sketch of one carbon-pile regulator
circuit is shown in figure 13-20 (paralleling winding not
shown). Some special features of this circuit will be of
interest.
The carbon pile is connected between the insulated
generator brush and the generator shunt field. The
regulator winding is connected across the generator
brushes so that full generator voltage is imposed on it. It
therefore regulates on generator voltage as explained in
paragraph 13-16. There is a voltage-adjusting rheostat
connected in series with the winding so that voltage
adjustment can be made. In addition, the circuit goes to
ground through an adjustable resistor called a
potentiometer. The potentiometer permits accurate
balancing of the two voltage regulator settings.
TA233560

Figure 13-20. Carbon-Pile Regulation of Generators.
For instance, if one regulator is slightly higher than the
other, but both are within specifications, balance can be
achieved by turning the potentiometer knob slightly. This
puts more resistance into one regulating winding circuit
and takes it out of the other, thus achieving the desired
results.
Section III.13-20.General.Most of the military vehicles are now given one direction and thus be changed to direct
equipped with an ac charging system. The reason for
changing to the ac system is that an alternator is capable
of producing a higher voltage at idle speed, whereas a dc
generator produces very little voltage at idle speed.
Many of the military vehicles are equipped with radios,
firing devices, and other high-current-drawing equipment.
When this equipment is in operation and the vehicle’s
engine is at a low rpm, a dc generator will not produce
the required current and voltage to keep the batteries
charged and supply the current required to operate the
accessories properly.
13-21. The Basic Alternator.
a. Construction (Fig. 13-21). The alternator is
composed of the same basic parts as a dc generator.
There is a field that is called a rotor and a generating
part known as the stator. The purpose of the alternator
is to produce more power and operate over a wider
speed range than that of a generator. Because of this,
the construction of the functional parts is different. The
stator is the section in which the current is induced. It is
made of a slotted laminated ring with the conductors
placed in the slots. The current generated in the
windings is transferred to the rest of the system through
three stationary terminals.
13-22
TM 9-8000
b. Rectifier Bridge (Fig. 13-22). The ac generator
produces alternating current at its output. As stated in
paragraph 13-6, this is unacceptable for an automotive
electrical system. The ac generator is fitted with a
rectifier bridge to convert the output to dc. If the two
output wires of a basic ac circuit are each fitted with a
silicon diode (para 11-5), the alternating cur- rent can be
current. To change current direction, use diodes that
allow current flow toward the alternator on one wire
(positive) and away from the alternator on the other wire
(negative). Because most automotive alternators have
three outputs (three-phase stator), the rectifier bridge will
consist of six diodes (three positive and three negative).
The diodes will be connected so that they combine the
three ac outputs of the alternator into one dc output.
13-22. Comparison to a DC Generator.
a. Advantages.
(1) The ac generator is configured opposite to the dc
generator. The current is produced in the stator, which
does not rotate. This compares with the dc generator
that produces current from its armature, which must
transmit its output through brushes. This means that the
brushes must be very large and, therefore, will wear out
TA233558

Figure 13-21. Typical Alternator.
quickly due to arcing caused by the large current carried
by them.
(2) The rotating field in the ac generator is much lighter
and less susceptible to centrifugal force. Because the
brushes must only transmit field current, they can be
much smaller and will last longer due to less arcing.
(3) The ac generator uses smooth sliprings on its rotor
that produce very little arcing during use. This compares
with the segmented commutator of the dc generator,
which causes large efficiency losses due to drag and
arcing.
(4) The ac generator is much smaller and lighter than
its dc counterpart.
b. Disadvantages.
(1) The ac generator requires electronic rectification
through the use of silicon diodes. Modern rectifier
bridges, though extremely durable under normal
conditions, are extremely sensitive to accidental polarity
reversal. This can result from jump starting, battery
charging, and battery installation.
13-23
TM 9-8000
(2) The ac generator does not retain residual
magnetism in its field. Because of this, an ac generator-
equipped vehicle cannot be push started with a
completely dead battery.
c. Comparison of Output Characteristics. It can be
seen from figure 13-23 that the dc generator has a much
narrower speed-producing range than the ac generator.
The initial startup is at a much higher rpm, which is
undesirable for vehicles that operate mostly in low-speed
rang-s. As high speeds are reached, the dc generator
output will fall below its rated output largely due to the
brushes bouncing on the commutator segments, causing
poor commutation.
13-23. The Automotive Alternator.
a. The Basic Alternator. A basic alternator would
consist of one winding or loop in the stator and a single
pair of poles in the rotor (fig. 13-24). When the rotor of
this machine is turned through 360 degrees, it will induce
a single cycle of ac just as the simple generator armature
did.
b. Rotor Design (Fig. 13-25). The rotor is designed
with two pole pieces that sandwich the
TA233560
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-22. Diode Arrangement Rectifier Bridge.

13-24
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-23. & Figure 13-24. Simple AC Generator.

13-25

Figure 13-25. Rotor Construction.
field winding on the shaft. Each pole piece has finger -
like projections. When the rotor is assembled, the
projections interlock with each other. The pole pieces
form north and south magnetic poles. The core of the
rotor contains the axially wound field winding which is
made of varnish-insulated copper wire. Each end of the
field winding is connected to an individual slipring.
c. Stator Design (Fig. 13-26). The stator is’ designed
with three separate windings so that it produces three
separate ac currents. This is known as three-phase
output. Each winding is in the form of loops that are
spaced at intervals on the frame. The windings then are
arranged so that they are offset from each other. The
three windings are all tied together at one end to form
what is known as a wye wound stator.
d. Rotor-to-Stator Relationship (Fig. 13-27).
Figure 13-26. Wound-Pole Alternator.
13-26
TM 9-8000
The rotor is synchronized to the stator; that is, when one
north pole projection is aligned with one of the loops of
one-phase winding loop, the other north pole projections
will also align with the other loops of that phase winding.
This sequence of alignment between the rotor
projections is necessary for operation. If one-phase
winding was being acted on by a negative pole projection
at one loop and a positive pole projection at another
loop, the two loops would cancel each other out and no
current would be generated.
13-24. Common Alternator Designs. The following
are brief descriptions of various configurations of
alternators.
a. Wound-Pole Alternator. Figure 13-28 illustrates the
configuration of a typical wound- pole alternator with
rotating field. Alternate
 TM 9-8000

temperature, high-altitude, or high-speed applications.

Brush arc is an explosion hazard; fuel or oil cannot be
used safely as a coolant. The rotor winding is hard to
cool and is relatively unreliable in high-speed or rough-
drive applications that cause stress on rotor windings
and insulation. The wound-pole alternator has an
extensive history of development, but is best suited for
low- speed applications in a limited range of
environments.

b. Lundell Alternator. The Lundell rotor, as shown in

figure 13-29, develops a field by placing the excitation
windings around the axis of the rotor shaft, resulting in
each end of the shaft assuming a polarity. Coupled to
each end are interspaced fingers forming opposite
polarities that provide an alternating field when rotated.
Field excitation is achieved through slipring conduction.
Figure 13-27. Rotor-to-Stator Relationship.
The following are advantages of the Lundell rotor. This
rotor has a simple rotor winding construction and
polarity occurs on successive poles. Pole excitation
stationary output current windings. The disadvantages of
current is obtained through sliprings. The advantages of
the Lundell rotor are windage (air resistance) losses and
the wound-pole alternator are a wide speed range:
the use of sliprings and brushes.
output current windings are stationary, and sliprings carry
low field excitation current. The following are
c. Lundell Inductor. This generator type differs from
disadvantages of the wound-pole alternators: Brushes
the previously described Lundell type, in
and sliprings wear, are affected by contamination,
produce contaminating carbon dust, may cause voltage
modulation, and are not reliable for high-

Figure 13-28. Wound-Pole Alternator.

13-27

Figure 13-29. Rotor-to-Stator Relationship.
that the rotor contains no windings. Excitation is induced
in the rotor poles by stationary field coils located at the
ends of the rotor. This results in the elimination of
sliprings and rotating windings. Further advantages can
be obtained by casting a nonmagnetic material around
the pole fingers, thus producing a smooth rotor with low
windage losses and high speed capability. An inherent
design requirement of this stationary field arrangement is
the inclusion of an auxiliary air gap in the magnetic
circuit. This requires greater field current for excitation.
Figure 13-30 illustrates construction features. There are
a variety of advantages to a Lundell inductor. There are
no slipring wear or contamination problems, and the unit
is inherently explosion proof. The rotor can be solid and
permanently balanced. All windings are stationary and
readily accessible for cooling. The low rotor mass
reduces bearing loads and permits rapid acceleration.
The bearing center-to-center distance is minimized by
the elimination of sliprings, and this, combined with a
large shaft diameter, permits high-speed operation. The
field windings are simple, bobbin-wound coils permitting
short mean turn length. The only disadvantage is that
extra air gaps in the magnetic circuit require increased
excitation power.
d. Inductor Alternator. An inductor alternator employs
a fixed, non-rotating field coil that induces excitation in
the central portion of the rotor as if it were a solenoid.
Each end of the rotor assumes a polarity. A multilobed
segment is
13-28
TM 9-8000
attached to each end of the rotor. The segment varies
the reluctance in the magnetic circuit as it rotates. As a
result, the fixed stator poles experience a variation in
magnetic strength or coupling and produce a resulting
output voltage in the stator coils. In contrast to other
types of generators, the iron does not experience a flux
reversal. Consequently, there is only a 50-percent
utilization of the iron in the stator. Figure 13-31
illustrates typical construction of the inductor alternator.
The advantages of an inductor alternator are easier
winding construction for field and stator coils; simplified
cooling; it is brushless; and it has an integral solid rotor
without windings that permits high-speed operation. The
disadvantages of an inductor alternator are that it has
less than 50 percent use of iron, resulting in a heavier
unit and the increased total air gap in the magnetic circuit
requires more excitation.
e. Brushless-Rotating Rectifier. Another means for
eliminating brushes and sliprlngs is found in the rotating
rectifier type of alternator. The machine consists of five
main functional elements. These include a stator-
mounted exciter field, the exciter armature, a main
rotating field, the main output stator windings, and the
output rectifier assembly.
The exciter field induces alternating current in the
rotating armature and the output is rectified and directly
coupled to the rotating main field, which excites the
stator-mounted output windings. With this arrangement,
a small amount of exciter field excitation can be
amplified in the exciter stage to supply a high level of
main field current. A diagram of elements is shown in
figure 13-32, along with a cross section through the
alternator. The advantages of the brushless rotating
rectifier are that it is brushless and a low exciter field
current permits a low-level regulator. However, the
disadvantages of the brushless-rotating rectifier are that
a wound rotor limits top speed, multiple windings
contribute to complexity and cost, a large number of
heat-producing rotating elements increases cooling
requirements, and a large magnetic circuit limits
response.
13-25. Cooling Generators. The common methods
used for cooling generators use heat transfer by airflow
or oil circulation. Each has its particular application
based on their advantages and disadvantages.
TA233564

Figure 13-30. Lundell Inductor.
a. Air Cooling (A, Fig. 13-33). In tank-automotive
applications, air cooling Is the most common method.
The usual arrangement consists of a fan that forces air
through the alternator to cool the rotor, stator, and
rectifier. The major advantage of air cooling Is that the
generator and cooling are self-contained, drawing air
from the environment. However, fan power
requirements can become excessive at high speeds
because fan designs usually are structured to provide
sufficient cooling at the lowest speed corresponding to
rated output. Fan power at high speeds then appears as
a severe reduction in generator efficiency. Another
factor is that, unless it is filtered, cooling air can deliver
13-29
TM 9-8000
abrasive particles, water, or other substances to the
generator interior. Furthermore, rotor and stator design
must permit unrestricted passage of air through the
generator. This can be accomplished by designing
passages through the rotor and stator. However,
roughness in the surface of the rotor contributes to
windage losses, further affecting unit efficiency.
b. Oil Cooling (B, Fig. 13-33). 0il cooling features
a transfer of alternator heat into the circulating oil flow,
followed by cooling of the hot oil in a heat exchanger.
The oil supply can be part of the driving power system
TA233565

Figure 13-31. Inductor Alternator
or a separate self-contained system.
Some oil-cooled system advantages are that the
generator can be sealed completely, preventing entrance
of foreign matter; cooling oil can be used for bearing
lubrication; the rotor can be solid, reducing windage
losses; and generator efficiency can be higher because
the effective losses that occur in oil circulation
13-30
TM 9-8000
are constant with generator speed.
Several disadvantages encountered with oil cooling
include the consideration that complex manifolding,
porting, seals, and passages increase costs; and that
auxiliary heat exchangers and pumps increase cost,
weight, and complexity.
TA233566
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-32. Brushless-Rotating Rectifier

13-31
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-33. Generator Cooling.

13-32

13-26. AC Generator Regulation. The regulation of ac
generator output, though just as important as the
regulation of dc generator output, is much simpler for the
following reasons:
a. The ac generator, because of its rectifier bridge,
will not allow current to backflow into it during shutdown.
This eliminates the need for a cutout relay.
b. An ac generator will limit its current automatically
by regulating the voltage. A current regulator, therefore,
is not needed in the voltage regulator.
Because a cutout relay and a current regulator are not
necessary, an ac generator voltage regulator contains
only a voltage regulation element. A typical single-
element voltage regulator for an ac generator is shown in
figure 13-34. For comparison, a typical three-element
voltage regulator for a dc generator is also shown.
13-27. Vibrating Point Regulator.
a. Description (Fig. 13-35). The vibrating point
voltage regulator is a single-element unit that limits
system voltage. The element consists of a double set of
contact points that are operated by a magnetic coil. The
center contact is stationary and connected directly to the
generator field. The upper and lower contact points are
pulled downward by the magnetic coil against
Figure 13-34. AC and DC Regulator Comparison
13-33
TM 9-8000
the force of a spring. The upper and lower contacts
always maintain the same distance from each other.
The upper contact is shunted directly to the ground. The
lower contact connects to battery voltage as does the
operating coil. A resistor is connected from the battery to
the field connection.
b. Operation (Fig. 13-35). The lower contact
normally is connected to the center contact because of
spring tension. As the magnetic coil is energized, the
movement of the upper and lower contacts will
disconnect the center and lower contacts. As they move
further, the upper contact will become connected to the
center contact. The following describes the operation:
(1) As the operation begins, the center contact
is connected to the lower contact, sending full battery
voltage to the field winding. This will cause the alternator
to produce full output.
(2) As the alternator raises system voltage, the
force exerted by the magnetic coil increases. This
causes the upper and lower contacts to move, which in
turn breaks the connection between the center and lower
contacts. The field then receives reduced voltage from
the resistor, causing a corresponding reduction in
alternator output. The resulting lower system voltage
decreases magnetic coil force, allowing the lower and
center points to come together again. This is a

Figure 13-35. Vibrating Point Regulating Circuit
constantly repeating cycle (many times a second) that
serves to limit electrical system voltage. The magnetic
coil force and spring tension are calibrated to maintain
the desired voltage, which is usually approximately 13.2
to 13.8volts in commercial vehicles.
(3) During periods of light electrical loads,
particularly at high speeds, the system voltage may go
too high even with reduced field voltage from the
resistor. When this happens, the magnetic coil will pull
the upper contact into connection with the center contact.
This will shunt all field current to ground, causing the
alternator to stop producing current.
13-28. Transistorized Point Regulator (Fig. 13-36).
The operation of the regulator is essentially the same as
the vibrating point regulator. The main difference is that
the contacts only carry a current that is used to trigger a
transistor. Based on this signal current from the points,
13-34
TM 9-8000
the transistor will control and carry the field current. The
advantage to this configuration is increased contact point
life. This is because the signal current to the transistor is
low and causes very little arcing.
13-29. Solid-State Voltage Regulator (Fig. 13-37). A
solid-state voltage regulator is a static unit that is totally
electronic in operation. In this configuration, the contact
points are replaced by zener diodes (para 11-7). The
zener diodes produce a signal to the base of a transistor
whenever the electrical system voltage reaches the
desired level. This signal to the base of the transistor
reduces or shuts off field current to reduce or stop
alternator output. When the system voltage drops again,
the transistor again will allow alternator output. This
cycle will repeat itself as much as 2000 times per
second. Some applications utilize a rheostat to adjust
the resistance of the field current, thereby regulating
TA233570

Figure 13-36. Transistorized Voltage Regulator
alternator output. The solid-state regulator virtually has
replaced the mechanical units in all currently produced
equipment due to the extreme reliability and low
manufacturing costs of solid-state components. Another
desirable feature of a solid-state regulator is that it can
be made small enough to be built into the alternator.
13-30. Accessory Items.
a. Fuel Pressure Field Switch (Fig. 13-38). The
fuel pressure field switch is a device that is used on high
output alternators to prevent the alternator from placing a
load on the engine until it is running by opening the
alternator field circuit until the fuel pressure reaches the
normal operational range.
b. Field Relay. The field relay is used in two basic
applications:
13-35
TM 9-8000
(1) It can be used to isolate the field circuit from
the battery whenever the ignition switch is turned off (fig.
13-39). In this application, the magnetic coil is energized
with the ignition switch. The contact points then pull
together, completing the field circuit.
(2) It also can be used to operate an alternator
no-charge warning light (fig. 13-39). In this application,
the magnetic coil is energized by one of the stator
windings. This will cause the contact points to be pulled
together whenever the alternator produces sufficient
current to sustain operational voltage. When the contact
points are open (alternator not operating), the field circuit
receives current from a lead that passes in series
through an indicator lamp that is in parallel with a
resistor. The field current will cause the lamp to light. As
the alternator begins to produce, the field relay contact
points will close, shunting the field circuit directly to
battery voltage, causing the indicator lamp to go out.
TA233571
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-37. & Figure 13-38. Fuel Pressure Field Switch Circuit

13-36
 TM 9-8000

Figure 13-39. Field Relay and Warning Light Circuit.

TA233573

13-37/(13-38 blank)