CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
Conventionally, there are two ways in which electrical power is transmitted. 1) Direct current (DC) 2) Alternating current (AC)

1.1 Direct current (DC) This comes from a source of constant voltage and is suited to short-range or device level transmission. DC voltage also has a place in powering devices. Wherever there is a changing electrical current, a changing magnetic field accompanies it. In a device-level electrical circuit, the magnetic variations introduced by AC current manifest themselves as electrical noise. The effects of this can range from audible line hum in an audio system to inaccurate measurements in an electronic instrument. Thus, it is commonplace for a device such as an MP3 player to employ DC voltages that have been rectified and filtered from an AC wall outlet. An MP3 player also proves one other benefit of DC power transmission: it can be done with a compact form factor. Without a need for transformers or switching circuitry, battery-powered MP3 players, or any other portable device, can be made small enough to fit into a pocket.

1.2 Alternating current (AC) This power consists of a sinusoidal voltage source in which a continuously changing voltage (and current) can be used to employ magnetic components. Alternating current can be found in AC motor drives and long distance power transmission. The cyclic nature of alternating current enables the use of transformers, which use magnetic principles to alter voltage levels. By stepping up an AC voltage, a large amount of power can be transferred over a long distance with less energy lost in heating up a conductor due to a lower current requirement, since P=I2R. As such, AC power is more conventional than high voltage DC systems due to the ease of stepping up voltage for transmission and stepping voltage down to household outlet levels.
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Long distance electrical transmission favors AC power, since the voltage can be boosted easily with the use of transformers. By boosting the voltage, less current is needed to deliver a given amount of power to a load, reducing the resistive loss through conductors. The adoption of AC power has created a trend where most devices adapt AC power from an outlet into DC power for use by the device. However, AC power is not always available and the need for mobility and simplicity has given batteries an advantage in portable power. Thus, for portable AC power, inverters are needed. Inverters take a DC voltage from a battery or a solar panel as input, and convert it into an AC voltage output. However, there may come a time when household AC power is cut off due to a power outage. The multitude of devices that are designed around AC/DC power conversion (computers, for example) would then no longer be able to operate. One solution to this problem is an auxiliary AC power generator, like those powered by gasoline engines, or DC/AC power inverters which use energy stored in batteries (a DC source) and emulate a wall outlet AC output through voltage boosting and switching to create a changing voltage with the proper amplitude across a load. In practice, DC/AC conversion is done with topologies of varying precision. It can be as simple as applying voltages of equal amplitude in opposite directions across a load to generate a square wave.

1.3 Types of DC /AC inverter It is an apparatus that converts direct current into alternating current. There are three types of DC/AC inverters available in the market, which are classified by their output type: 1) Square wave 2) Modified-sine wave 3) Pure sine wave. Off-the-shelf inverters are generally either square wave or modified-sine wave. These types of inverters are less expensive to make and the output, though delivering the same average voltage to a load, is not appropriate for delicate electronic devices which rely on precise timing. Pure sine wave inverters offer more accuracy and less unused harmonic energy delivered to a load, but they are more complex in design and more expensive.
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Pure sine wave inverters will power devices with more accuracy, less power loss, and less heat generation. 1.3.1 Square Wave Inverters DC to AC conversion is most commonly done through use of MOSFET inverter circuits, which can switch the voltage across the load, providing a digital approximation of the desired AC signal. The simplest variant of this inversion is the production of a square wave approximation of a sine wave (Figure 1). For a square wave, the load voltage must be switched merely from high to low, without the need for an intermediate step (i.e. 0V). In order to deliver the same power as the sine wave to be approximated, the amplitude of the square wave must be the sine wave's RMS value. This way, the average voltages, and therefore the power delivered, will be the same for the two waveforms. Square wave inverters are very rarely used in practice, as many devices which utilize timing circuits that rely on something close to the sine wave from the power company cannot operate with such a rough approximation. In addition, a square wave has relatively large 3rd and 5th harmonic components (figure 2), which burn power and severely cut down on the efficiency of devices using such inverters as a power source.

Fig 1.1:-Square wave

Fig1. 2: Square Wave Harmonic Analysis

1.3.2 Modified Sine Wave Inverters A very common upgrade to the square wave inverter is the modified sine wave inverter. In the modified sine wave inverter, there are three voltage levels in the output waveform, high, low, and zero (figure 1.3), with a dead zone between the high and low pulses. The modified sine wave is a closer approximation of a true sine wave than is a square wave, and can be used by most household electrical devices. As such, it is extremely common to see this type of inversion in commercial quality inverters. Despite being much more viable than a simple square wave, the modified sine wave has some serious drawbacks. Like the square wave, modified sine waves have a large amount of power efficiency loss due to significant harmonic frequencies (figure 1.4), and devices that rely on the input power waveform for a clock timer will often not work properly. Despite the inherent drawbacks, many devices can work while powered by a modified sine source. This makes it an affordable design option for such implementations as household uninterruptible power supplies.

Fig 1.3: Modified Sine Wave

Fig 1.4: Modified Sine Wave Harmonic Analysis

1.6 Pure sine wave inverter The best power source for most applications is a pure 60Hz sine wave, identical to the 120Vrms source available from any US power company. All low power household plugin devices are designed to work with this source (high power devices such as cooking ovens use a 240V source) and, as such, will be most likely to work properly and most efficiently on such a source. A true sine wave source is produced most easily for high power applications through rotating electrical machinery such as naval gas-turbine generators, house-hold diesel or gasoline backup generators, or the various generators employed by power companies that employ a shaft torque to create an AC current. These sources provide a relatively clean, pure sine wave (lacking significant harmonics and high frequency noise) thanks to their analog rotational make-up. Such rotating machinery can be inappropriate for low-power backup supply usage due to their high cost, large size and required maintenance. As such, a smaller, digital pure sine wave inverter can be extremely useful.

Fig 1.5:-Sine wave

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1.4 Sine, square, modified sine comparison

Fig 1.6:-sine, square, modified sine comparison What is the difference between sine wave and modified sine wave? A: Alternating current (AC) has a continuously varying voltage that swings from positive to negative. This has great advantages in power transmission over long distances. Power from your power company is carefully regulated to be a perfect sine wave, because that is what naturally comes out of a generator, and also because sine waves radiate the least amount of radio power during long distance transmission. On the other hand, a sine wave is expensive to make in an inverter, and many sine wave techniques use heavy, inefficient transformers. The most inexpensive way to make AC is to switch the DC on and off--a square wave. A modified sine wave is scientifically designed to simulate a sine wave in the most important respects so that it will work for most appliances. It consists of a flat plateau of positive voltage, dropping abruptly to zero for a while, then dropping again to a flat plateau of negative voltage, back to zero for a while, then returning to the positive voltage. This pause at zero volts puts more power into the 60HZ fundamental than a simple square wave does, so it is called "modified sine wave" instead of "square wave."
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1.8 Pulse width modulation

The most common and popular technique of digital pure-sine wave generation is pulsewidth-modulation (PWM).PWM, or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a commonly used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern electronic power switches. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the power supplied to the load is. The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load, which is to say the device that uses the power. Typically switchings have to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies. This method is better than the other conventional methods. Types of PWM:-

1.9 Single pulse width modulation Single pulse width modulation: - In single pulse width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half cycle and the width of the pulse is varied to control the inverter output voltage. The generation of gating signals and output voltage of single phase full bridge inverters is shown in fig (1) the gating signals are generated by comparing rectangular reference signals of amplitude ER with a triangular carrier wave of amplitude EC. The fundamental frequency of output voltage is determined by the frequency of the reference single. The pulse width P can be varied from 0o to 180o by varying ER from 0 to Ec. The ratio of ER to Ec is the control variable and is defined as the amplitude modulation index. The amplitude modulation index or simply modulation index is M=ER/Ec
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Fig 1.7:- single pulse width modulation

1.6 Multiple pulse width modulation In this method of pulse width modulation the harmonic content can be reduced using several pulse in each half cycle of output voltage. By comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave , the gating signals are generated for turning ON and turning OFF a thyriston as shown in fig(2).The carrier frequency fc determines the number of pulses per half cycle m, where as the frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency fo. The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is also known as symmetrical pulse width modulation. The number of pulses Np per half cycle is found from the expression Np=fc/2fo=mf/2 Where mf = fc/fo=frequency modulation ratio

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Fig1.8:- multiple pulse width modulation

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CHAPTER II SINGLE PHASE INVERTER AND ITS SWITCHING SCHEME

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CHAPTER II
2.1 Introduction In this chapter, types of inverter, inverter topology and its operation will be reviewed. The concept of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique on single phase inverter is described and it covered different types of PWM strategies which were applied in inverter circuit. 2.2 Inverter Inverters can be found in a variety of forms, including half bridge or full bridge, single phase or three phase, current source (CSI) or voltage source (VSI) and two-level or multilevel. The single phase voltage-source inverters can be further divided into three general categories, pulse width modulation type, square wave type and single phase inverters with voltage cancellation. In pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters, the input DC voltage is essentially constant in magnitude and the AC output voltage has controlled magnitude and frequency. Therefore the inverter must control the magnitude and the frequency of the output voltage. This is achieved by PWM of the inverter switches and hence such inverters are called PWM inverters.

For square-wave inverters, the input DC voltage is controlled in order to adjust the magnitude of the output AC voltage. Therefore the inverter has to control only the frequency of the output voltage. The output AC voltage has a waveform similar to a square-wave. In single phase inverter with voltage cancellation, it is possible to control the magnitude and the frequency of the inverter output voltage with a constant DC input voltage for a different switch mode that is not pulse width modulated. The inverter output voltage waveform is similar to square wave. This technique works only with single-phase inverters.

As mentioned earlier, all inverters can be operated by controlled turn-on and turn-off semiconductor devices such as BJT, MOSFET, IGBT and others. Modern inverters used IGBT as the main power control devices but MOSFET is also used especially for lower voltage, power ratings and application that required high efficiency and high switching frequency. The output voltage waveform of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal but in reality, the waveforms of inverters are non sinusoidal and contain certain harmonics.

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Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component It is also common to use a single quantity that is known as Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). Harmonics now represent a major design consideration in power electronic applications, the harmonics contents in output voltage of inverter can be minimized significantly by switching techniques. Nowadays the best switching technique is still under investigation but pulse-width modulated (PWM) is chosen as a switching technique purposely to reduce the harmonics in inverter output.

2.3 Single Phase Inverter Topology There are two circuit topologies commonly used in single phase inverter circuit. Half bridge and full bridge configuration are the main topologies used in low and high power applications. For certain low power application, the half bridge may suffice but the full bridge is more convenient for adjustment of the output voltage by pulse width modulation techniques 2.3.1 Half Bridge Inverter The power circuit topology and output example for half bridge inverter is shown in Figure 2.1. The inverter circuit consists of two controlled static switching elements. The switching elements can be transistor, MOSFET, IGBT and extra. The switching elements are labeled S1 and S2 and each of switches has an anti-parallel diode. It is evident from the presence of the diodes that the switching devices S1 and S2 need not have the capability to block the reverse voltages. If the switching element is power MOSFET, there may not be a need to use the anti-parallel diodes because the devices structure has an anti-parallel diode . The basis operation of half bridge inverter can be divided into two operations. If switch S1turned on for period of T/2, the instantaneous output voltage across the load equal to Vdc/ 2. If switch S2 turned on for period of T/2to T, the instantaneous output voltage Vdc/2 will appear. The switching strategy for switch S1 and switch S2 must be designed to make sure both switches not turn on at the same time. If that happens, it is equivalent to a short circuit across the DC input, resulting in excessive current and possible damage to the switching elements.

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Fig 2.1:- Half bridge circuit topology and its output

2.3.2 Full Bridge Inverter

A single phase full bridge inverter circuit and its output example are shown in Figure 2.2. It consists of four switching elements and it is used in higher power ratings application. The four switches are labeled as S1, S2, S3 and S4. The operations of single phase full bridge inverter can be divided into two conditions. Normally the switches S1 and S4 are turned on and kept on for one half period and S2 and S3 are turned off. At this condition, the output voltage across the load is equal to Vdc. When S2 and S3 are turned on, the switches S1 and switches S4 are turned off, then at this time the output voltage is equal to Vdc . The output voltage will change alternately from positive half period and negative half period. Same like in half bridge inverter, to prevent short circuit across DC supply occurred, the switches S1 and S4 must be in on state while S2 and S3 must be in off state. In order to prevent short circuit occurred, dead time mechanism has been used in gate driver circuit.

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Fig 2.2:- Full bridge inverter topology and its output example

2.4 Pulse Width Modulation switching Scheme Historically, pulse width modulation (PWM) switching strategy development has been largely prompted by the changes in technology that have occurred over the past 30 years. It started with the natural-sampled PWM analogue technique in early 60s, followed by the regular-sampled PWM digital techniques in the early. It has been shown that since natural-sampled PWM techniques are essentially analogue, these are inappropriate for discrete digital hardware or microprocessor software implementation. The heart of any PWM converter scheme is undoubtedly the switching strategy used to generate the switching edges of PWM control. The reason for using PWM techniques is that they provide voltage and current wave shaping customized to the specific needs of the applications under consideration .By using PWM techniques, the frequency spectra of input waveforms can be changed such that the major non-fundamental components are at relatively high frequency and also to reduce the switching stress imposed on the power switching devices. Most PWM is generated by comparing a reference waveform with a triangular carrier waveform. However, the reference waveform may come in various shapes to suit the converter topology, such as sine wave and distorted sine wave. A sinusoidal waveform signal is used for PWM in DC to AC converter where it is used to shape the output AC voltage to be close to a sine wave.
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2.5 PWM Switching Technique The PWM switching can be divided into two switching scheme which are 1) PWM with bipolar voltage switching 2) PWM with unipolar voltage switching

2.5.1 PWM with bipolar voltage switching The PWM bipolar switching scheme used with half bridge inverter can be used more efficiently with the bridge inverter. As shown in fig(2.4) a triangular wave of peak amplitude Ec is compared with a sine wave of peak amplitude Em to generate the base drives for the two devices \in the half bridge circuit (S1 and S4).Base drives for S2 and S3 are exactly 180o out of phase to those of S4 and S1 respectively. Thus S1 and S2 conduct simultaneously to make the instantaneous load voltage +Edc and S3,S4 then conduct simultaneously to make the instantaneous load voltage Edc. The load voltage waveform is a bipolar PWM waveform with a peak voltage of +Edc or Edc volts as shown in fig(2.4).

Fig 2.3:- The basic concept of natural sampling PWM

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Fig 2.4:- SPWM with Bipolar voltage switching (a) Comparison between reference waveform and triangular waveform (b) Gating pulses for S1 and S4 (c) Gating pulses for S2 and S3 (d) Output waveform 2.5.2 PWM with unipolar voltage switching In this scheme, the triangular carrier waveform is compared with two reference signals which are positive and negative signal. The basic idea to produce SPWM with unipolar voltage switching is shown in Figure (2.5). The different between the Bipolar SPWM generators is that the generator uses another comparator to compare between the inverse reference waveformVr . The process of comparing these two signals to produce the unipolar voltage switching signal is graphically illustrated in Figure (2.6). In Unipolar voltage switching the output voltage switches between 0 and Vdc , or between 0 and Vdc . This is in contrast to the bipolar switching strategy in which the output swings between Vdc and Vdc . As a result, the change in output voltage at each switching event is halved in the unipolar case from 2Vdc to Vdc. The effective switching frequency is seen by the load is doubled and the voltage pulse amplitude is halved. Due to this, the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform is reduced compared to bipolar switching. In Unipolar voltage switching scheme also, the amplitude of the significant harmonics and its sidebands is much lower for all modulation indexes thus making filtering easier, and with its size being significantly smaller
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Fig 2.5: -Unipolar PWM generator

Fig 2.6:- SPWM with Unipolar voltage switching (a) Comparison between reference waveform and triangular waveform (b) Gating pulses for S1 and S4 (c) Gating pulses for S2 and S3 (d) Output waveform
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CHAPTER III LITRETURE REVIEW

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Chapter III
Literature Review The most exciting new technology, PWM charging, has become very popular. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most effective means to achieve constant voltage battery charging by switching the solar system controllers power devices[3]. When in PWM regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according to the batterys condition and recharging needs PWM has recently surfaced as the first significant advance in solar battery charging.PWM solar chargers use technology similar to other modern high quality battery chargers. When a battery voltage reaches the regulation set point , the PWM algorithm slowly reduces the charging current to avoid heating and gassing of the battery, yet the charging continues to return the maximum amount of energy to the battery in the shortest time. The result is a higher charging efficiency, rapid recharging, and a healthy battery at full capacity. In addition, this new method of solar battery charging promises some very interesting and unique benefits from the PWM pulsing [1].

Longer battery life reduces the costs of the inverter reducing battery disposal problems. More battery reserve capacity increasing the reliability of the system reducing load disconnects, opportunity to reduce battery size to lower the system cost. Greater user satisfaction get more power when you need it for less Money. Many solar charge controllers that simply switch FETs differently than the on-off algorithm claim to be a PWM charger. Only a few controllers are actually using a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) constant voltage charging algorithm. The rest are switching FETs with various algorithms that are cheaper and less effective [2].

In three-leg voltage source inverter because of the constraint that the input lines must never be shorted and the output current must always be continuous a voltage source inverter can assume only eight distinct topologies. Six out of these eight topologies produce a nonzero output voltage and are known as non-zero switching states and the remaining two topologies produce zero output voltage and are known as zero switching states. Space vector modulation (SVM) for three-leg VSI is based on the representation of the three phase quantities as vectors in a two-dimensional (a, b ) plane. Space vector modulation algorithms are right aligned sequence SVM1), symmetric sequence (SVM2), alternating zero vector sequence ( SVM3), highest current not switched sequence (SVM4) [3,4].

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With high THD has low losses and vice versa and these characteristics are load dependent. This could be translated as a trade-off to be made between the size of the heat sink and size of the filters. At low switching frequencies SVM2 could be used, since losses are not very critical. At high switching frequencies SVM4 is preferred, especially at high load power factors due to the 50% reduction in switching losses. SVM3 could be used at low load power factors. The right aligned sequence (SVM1) (or the left-aligned sequence) does not seem to have any particular advantage if the converter is hard switched. However, if soft switching is introduced then this scheme is particularly useful because here all the three legs are being switched at the same time. It has also been observed that the performance of SVM4 can be improved by introducing symmetry. This results in reduced THD and in reduced peak-to-peak ripple in the load current; with the switching losses remaining the same [5].

The dc-ac converter, also known as the inverter, converts dc power to ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. The dc power input to the inverter is obtained from an existing power supply network or from a rotating alternator through a rectifier or a battery, fuel cell, photovoltaic array or magneto hydrodynamic generator. The filter capacitor across the input terminals of the inverter provides a constant dc link voltage. The inverter therefore is an adjustable-frequency voltage source. The configuration of ac to dc converter and dc to ac inverter is called a dc-link converter. Inverters can be broadly classified into two types, voltage source and current source inverters.[6]

A voltagefed inverter (VFI) or more generally a voltagesource inverter (VSI) is one in which the dc source has small or negligible impedance. The voltage at the input terminals is constant. A currentsource inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current from the dc source of high impedance that is from a constant dc source. A voltage source inverter employing thyristors as switches, some type of forced commutation is required, while the VSIs made up of using GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETs or IGBTs, self commutation with base or gate drive signals for their controlled turn-on and turn-off. A standard single-phase voltage or current source inverter can be in the half-bridge or fullbridge configuration. The single-phase units can be joined to have three-phase or multiphase topologies. Some industrial applications of inverters are for adjustable-speed ac drives, induction heating, standby aircraft power supplies, UPS (uninterruptible power

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supplies) for computers, HVDC transmission lines, etc. The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic, or sub-oscillation method, is very popular in industrial applications.[7,8]

A single phase inverter in the full bridge topology , which consists of four switching devices, two of them on each leg. The full-bridge inverter can produce an output power twice that of the half-bridge inverter with the same input voltage. Three different PWM switching schemes are discussed in this section, which improve the characteristics of the inverter. The objective is to add a zero sequence voltage to the modulation signals in such a way to ensure the clamping of the devices to either the positive or negative dc rail; in the process of which the voltage gain is improved, leading to an increased load fundamental voltage, reduction in total current distortion and increased load power factor.[9]

A single-phase inverter in the full bridge topology is as shown in Figure 2.5, which consists of four switching devices, two of them on each leg. The full-bridge inverter can produce an output power twice that of the half-bridge inverter with the same input voltage. Three different PWM switching schemes are discussed in this section, which improve the characteristics of the inverter. The objective is to add a zero sequence voltage to the modulation signals in such a way to ensure the clamping of the devices to either the positive or negative dc rail; in the process of which the voltage gain is improved, leading to an increased load fundamental voltage, reduction in total current distortion and increased load power factor.[10]

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CHAPTER IV PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

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CHAPTER IV PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Inverter is one of power conversion device that widely used in the world to convert DC input voltage to AC output voltage. The output voltage waveforms of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal. However, the waveform of practical inverter is non-sinusoidal and contains harmonics. Then, for this project, it should get closer sinusoidal waveform within +- 5% harmonics contains. Harmonic contents in inverter output depends more to number of pulses per cycle. As an example, square wave switching method will produce more harmonic contents in inverter output compared to pulse width modulation switching technique. This is due to number of pulses per cycle of pulse width modulation can be modified on the frequency of triangular carrier waveform. The frequency of triangular waveform can be modified from lower frequency to higher frequency. If higher frequency is used, the number of pulses per cycle also increased and at the same time it will reduce the harmonic contents of the inverter. In switching losses problem, the number of pulses per cycle also affected. The use of high switching technique will contribute to the high power losses and it also needs to take care on the inverter switching design. The following factors are to be considered in order to meet the requirement. i. Cost of equipment ii. Size of filter iii. Total harmonic distortion iv. Power loss in switching elements In order to fulfill the requirement, the new switching technique had been analyzed and recommended in this thesis, namely SPWM which is generated by Atmel microcontroller. The various frequency triangular carriers with different amplitude modulation ratio SPWM signal had been programmed and tested in single phase inverter circuit in order to find the best switching signal. In developing countries, healthcare is often of limited access to the local inhabitants. The government is often unable, or unwilling, to direct its attention to the issue of public healthcare because the country is not yet economically or technologically mature enough to support a quality healthcare system. The lack of money available for building a reliable electrical infrastructure stunts the growth of electronics use, which includes the employment of instruments used in modern healthcare.
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The lack of reliable power severely limits the quality of healthcare available in developing countries. While it is true that these countries receive donations of medical instruments, the means to operate them reliably often does not exist. An ongoing issue with poorly developed electrical grids is that the production of electricity is not enough to meet demand. Brown-outs are commonplace, and the transients that result damage the donated equipment used in medical procedures. Imagine, during an operation, that a patients heart stopped and no defibrillator was available because the grid suffered a brownout. Sadly, this is an all-too-common occurrence in much of the underdeveloped world. Due to these problems, there is a market for uninterruptible power supplies which can provide a temporary remedy to the lack of electrical infrastructure in developing countries. Enter Waste to Watts, a company devoted to the recycling of electronic waste into useful products in developing countries. Transient response is also important in a device that is meant to curtail the effects of suddenly losing grid power. For the purpose of a project prototype, the use of waste electronics parts is a distant goal.

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A flow chart showing the steps that lead to the decreased output power Increasing spectrum of power converters application fields

Increase in the demand of high performance power converter

High switching frequency is an effective method

Causes higher switching losses and greater EMI losses

Limits the increase of switching frequency

Hinders the improvement of system performance

Reduces the reliability of soft-switched converters

Harmonics in the load current decreases the power factor and the efficiency.

Fig 4.1:- Steps leading to decreased output

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CHAPTER V METHODOLOGY

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CHAPTER V
METHODOLOGY

5.1 Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation

The switches in the voltage source inverter ( Fig.5.1)can be turned on and off as required. In the simplest approach, the top switch is turned on If turned on and off only once in each cycle, a square wave waveform results. However, if turned on several times in a cycle an improved harmonic profile may be achieved.

Fig 5.1:- Simple Voltage Sourced Inverter In the most straightforward implementation, generation of the desired output voltage is achieved by comparing the desired reference waveform (modulating signal) with a highfrequency triangular carrier wave as depicted schematically in Fig.2. Depending on whether the signal voltage is larger or smaller than the carrier waveform, either the positive or negative dc bus voltage is applied at the output. Note that over the period of one triangle wave, the average voltage applied to the load is proportional to the amplitude of the signal (assumed constant) during this period. The resulting chopped square waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in its low frequency components, with the higher frequency components being at frequencies of an close to the carrier frequency. Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage waveform is still equal to the dc bus voltage, and hence the total harmonic distortion is not affected by the PWM process. The harmonic components are merely shifted into the higher frequency range and are automatically filtered due to inductances in the ac system.
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When the modulating signal is a sinusoid of amplitude Em, and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Ec, the ratio m=Em/Ec is known as the modulation index. Note that controlling the modulation index there for controls the amplitude of the applied output voltage. With a sufficiently high carrier frequency (see Fig. 3 drawn for fc/fm = 21 and t = L/R = T/3; T = period of fundamental), the high frequency components do not propagate significantly in the ac network (or load) due the presence of the inductive elements. However, a higher carrier frequency does result in a larger number of switchings per cycle and hence in an increased power loss. Typically switching frequencies in the 2-15 kHz range are considered adequate for power systems applications. Also in three-phase systems it is advisable to use fc /fm = 3k,(k N) so that all three waveforms are symmetric.

Fig 5.2: Principal of Pulse Width Modulation

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Fig. 5.3: SPWM with fc/fm = 48, L/R = T/3

Note that the process works well for m<=1 . For m>1 , there are periods of the triangle wave in which there is no intersection of the carrier and the signal as in Fig. 4. However, a certain amount of this over modulation is often allowed in the interest of obtaining a larger ac voltage magnitude even though the spectral content of the voltage is rendered somewhat poorer. Note that with an odd ratio for fc/fm, the waveform is anti-symmetric over a 360 degree cycle. With an even number, there are harmonics of even order, but in particular also a small dc compo- nent. Hence an even number is not recommended for single phase inverters, particularly for small ratios of fc/fm.
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Fig.5.4: Over modulation: m= 1.3 5.2 SPWM Spectra: Although the SPWM waveform has harmonics of several orders in the phase voltage waveform, the dominant ones other than the fundamental are of order n and n2 where n = fc/fm. This is evident for the spectrum for n=15 and m = 0.8 shown in Fig.5. Note that if the other two phases are identically generated but 120o apart in phase, the line-line voltage will not have any triplen harmonics. Hence it is advisable to choose fc/fm = 3k,k N, as then the dominant harmonic will be eliminated. It is evident from Fig 5b, that the dominant 15th harmonic in Fig. 5a is effectively eliminated in the line voltage. Choosing a multiple of 3 is also convenient as then the same triangular waveform can be used as the carrier in all three phases, leading to some simplification in hardware. It is readily seen that as the pwm 2 = E2 where E is the dc bus voltage, that the rms value of the output voltage signal is unaffected by the PWM process. This is strictly true for the phase voltage as triplen harmonic orders are cancelled in the line voltage. However, the problematic harmonics are shifted to higher orders, thereby making filtering much easier. Often, the filtering is carried out via the natural high-impedance characteristic of the load.

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Fig. 5.5: SPWM Harmonic Spectra: n = 15, m =0.8 5.3 Selective Harmonic Elimination (also called Optimal PWM) By performing repeated studies, comparisons of harmonic performance can be made with regard to the modulation frequency (synchronous or asynchronous) or the operating region of the inverter. In addition to providing design information, such exercises are an excellent means of encouraging students to use tools such as the FFT in their engineering analysis. Notice that in the SPWM strategy developed above, a large number of switchings are required, with the consequent associated switching losses. With the method of Selective Harmonic Elimination, only selected harmonics are eliminated with the smallest number of switchings. This method however can be difficult to implement on-line due to computation and memory requirements. For a two level PWM waveform with odd and half wave symmetries and n chops per quarter cycle as shown in Fig5.4, the peak magnitude of the harmonic components including the fundamental, are given by Eqn. 1:

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(1)

Here hi is the magnitude of the ith harmonic and s is the jth primary switching angle. Even harmonics do not show up because of the half-wave symmetry. The n chops in the waveform afford n degrees of freedom. Several control options are thus possible. For example n selected harmonics can be eliminated. Another option which is used here is to eliminate n-1 selected harmonics and use the remaining degree of freedom to control the fundamental frequency ac voltage. To find the s required to achieve this objective, it is sufficient to set the corresponding hs in the above equations to the desired values (0 for the n-1 harmonics to be eliminated and the desired per-unit ac magnitude for the fundamental) and solve for the s.

Fig 5.6: A two-level PWM waveform with odd and halfwave symm

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Equation 1 can be readily proved by finding the fourier coefficients of the waveform shown in Fig. 5.6. In general, for a periodic waveform with period 2, the Fourier Cosine and Sine Coefficients are given by:
2

a0=1/2 f()d
0 2

ak=1/ f(k) cos (k) d

0
2

( 2)

bk=1/ f(k) sin(k )d)

0

Because of the half-cycle symmetry of the waveform of Fig. 5.6, only odd order harmonics exist. Also, it is easy to see that the Fourier Cosine coefficients disappear with the choice of coordinate axes used. Utilizing the quarter cycle symmetry, the Fourier Sine coefficients become:
2

bk =4/ f(k) sin(k )d

0

(3)

Substituting the two-valued pwm waveform for f() , one obtains (see Fig. 5.6):

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(4)

The following example illustrates the use of three chops per quarter cycle which allow for three degrees of freedom. We may use these to eliminate two harmonics and control the magnitude of the fundamental to any desired value: Example: Selective Harmonic Elimination is applied with a view to controlling the fundamental component of voltage to 50V (rms) and eliminating the 3rd and 5th harmonics. The source voltage is 100 V. Calculate the required chopping angles.As three objectives are to be achieved, we need 3 chops. The fundamental, 3rd and 5th harmonic magnitudes are given by:

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We require,

This gives us three equations in the three unknowns 1 2 and 3. Solving numerically we get: 1 =27.432 deg 2 =42.131 deg 3 =85.62 deg

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CHAPTER VI RESULT

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CHAPTER VI RESULTS This section performs experiments to verify the proposed methodology. Here we have taken one reference signal which is a sinusoidal signal and one high frequency carrier signal which is a triangular signal. The triangular signal in this exp is obtained from integrating a sinusoidal signal. These are obtained from a signal generator. The output of both are applied to a MUX just to show the combined output. Then a logical operator is used which compare the two reference signals and give the output accordingly .The high output frequency signal is also compared with a constant 0 in order to separate the +ve and ve halves of the cycle .The output of this and the output of the former comparator are applied to an AND gate for generating the +ve pulse for the MOSFETS 1 & 3.The same outputs of the comparator along with a NOT gate is applied to another AND gate for generating the ve pulse for the MOSFETs 2 & 4. The outputs are applied to a voltage measurement device in MATLAB and then on integrating we get the current which can be seen in the oscilloscope. The sequence in which we are obtaining the output are as shown.

Fig 6.1 :- Low frequency sine wave used as reference signaled

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Fig 6.2:- High freq triangular carrier signal before applying gain In order to bring the value of the signals to a value such that the output can be seen clearly it is necessary to apply a gain that limits the amplitude a particular value such that the user can see the outputs clearly.

Fig 6.3:-carrier signal after applying gain

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Fig 6.4:-waveforms obtained from the MUX

Fig 6.5:- Output of logical operator 1

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Fig 6.6 :- Output of logical operator 2

Fig 6.7:-combined output of both the logical operators. Here the pulses in yellow color are for switching ON the switch and those in pink for switching OFF the switch.
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Fig 6.8:-Waveform from voltage measurement device.

Fig 6.9:- current waveform obtained on integrating the voltage obtained above
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Fig 6.10:-final output showing current and voltage

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CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION

The theoretical PWM pattern is found by solving the non linear harmonic equation which described suggested PWM method. The new pattern proposed in this paper has the features of harmonic reduction up to the specified order as well as linear voltage control and requires low orders pulse number .With the proposed pulse width control using DC ref. method, reduction of desired harmonics are attainable and output voltage can be controllable.

As per the requirement this method switches ON and OFF the switch at a much faster pace thereby increasing the efficiency of the system. This will keep the system ON for an increased amount of time thereby satisfying our needs.

Some times in hospitals if the current goes off then this can be a blessing in disguise as the person in the ventilator can be kept survived.

As seen from the output there is a phase shift in the current as both the current and voltage should start from the same point. This being a disadvantage will be worked upon in future on a three phase inverter.

Moreover Hysteresis current control is a method of controlling a voltage source inverter so that an output current is generated which follows a reference current waveform. This method controls the switches in an inverter asynchronously to ramp the current through an inductor up and down so that it follows a reference. Hysteresis current control is the easiest control method to implement . One disadvantage is that there is no limit to the switching frequency, but additional circuitry can be used to limit the maximum switching frequency. This method will overcome the disadvantage that has been mentioned above.

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Fig 7.1:- Hysteresis method(to be dealt in future)

This control technique is simple and fast. Following are the areas of future study which can be considered for further research work. 1)The proposed control method is applied on dc-dc buck converter. It can be applied to many other converter topologies. The non zero steady state error is minimized by adding PI block in the feedback control loop. 2)The using the sliding mode control concept used for studying the behavior of hysteretic controlled dc-dc buck converter can be extended for other converter topologies. 3)To verify the theoretical study, the proposed control scheme can be done with experimental prototype.

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CHAPTER VIII REFERENCE

48

CHAPTER VIII REFERENCE

[1] S. Jeevananthan1, R. Nandhakumar1, P. Dananjayan1, PWM Inverters and FPGA Based Implementations Serbian journal of electrical engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2007, 171-187

[2] Navpreet Singh Tung, Dynamics of IGBT based PWM Converter A Case Study, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), Vol. 4 No.04 April 2012.

[3] P.Palanivel1, Subhransu Sekhar Dash, Comparative Study of Constant Switching Frequency and Variable Switching Frequency Multicarrier Pulse width Modulation for Three Phase Cascaded Multilevel Inverter, International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol 2, No. 7, November 2009.

[4] Pranay S. Shete, Performance of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation based Three Phase Inverter , International Conference on Emerging Frontiers in Technology for Rural Area (EFITRA) 2012.

[5] Nisha G. K., Member, IAENG, Ushakumari S. and Lakaparampil Z.V ,Online Harmonic Elimination of SVPWM for a Systematic Method for Practical Implementation, IAENG International Journal of Computer Science, 39:2, IJCS_39_2_10.

.
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[6] Baharuddin Bin Ismail, design and development of unipolar SPWM switching pulses for single phase full bridge inverter application, Universiti Sains Malaysia 2008.

[7] Urmila Bandaru.1, Subbarayudu D, harmonic orientation of pulse width modulation technique in multilevel inverters, power engineering and electrical engineering, vol. 9, no. 1, march 2011. [8] David M.E. Ingram, A Novel Digital Hysteresis Current Controller for an Active Power Filter, University of Canterbury Private Bag 4800.

[9] Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation, 24.437 Power Electronics. [10] J. Holtz, Pulse width modulation - a survey, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 39, No. 5, pp. 410-420, October 1992.

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APPENDIX-I

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APPENDIX-I The circuit diagram that led to the output result is a shown. Fig:-Circuit diagram implemented with MOSFET

Fig:- Circuit diagram implemented using IGBT

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Fig:- Simplified circuit diagram

Fig:- Circuit contained in Sub-system 1

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Fig:- Circuit contained in Sub-system 2 The blocks that has been used in this circuit are explained a below:Signal generator:simulink sources sine generator Name Sine wave Sine wave1 Amplitude 1 1 Phase (rad) 0 0 Frequency (rad/sec) 2*pi*50 2*pi*3000 Bias 0 0 Sample time (t) 0 0

Table 9.1:- Parameter values of signal generator

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Abs (output absolute value of input):simulink math operations Abs Sample time is taken as -1 Signam (sign):simulink math operations sign Sample time is taken as -1 Gain:simulink commonly used block gain
Parameter name Gain Gain1 Gain 2 Gain 6500 12 1/.0065 Sample time -1 -1 -1

Table 9.2:- Gain parameters values Logical operator:Simulink Logic and bit operations Logical operator
Parameter name Logical operator1 Logical operator2 Logical operator3 Operator AND AND NOT No of inputs 2 2 -

Table 9.3:- Logical operator specification

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Relational operator:simulink commonly used block relational operator Name Operation Sample time Relational operator >= -1 Relational operator1 >= -1 Table 9.4:-Parameters values for relational operator MOSFET:SimPowerSystem Power electronics MOSFETs Name Internal diode forward voltage Vf(V) MOSFET1 .1 0 0.01 0 MOSFET2 0.1 0 0.01 0 MOSFET3 0.1 0 0.01 0 MOSFET4 0.1 0 0.01 0 Table 9.5:-Parameter values for MOSFET FET Internal resistance diode Ron(ohms) inductance Lon(H) Internal diode resistance Rd(ohms) Snubber resistance Rs(ohms) Snubber capacitance Cs(F)

1e5(10^5) 1e5(10^5) 1e5(10^5) 1e5(10^5)

inf inf inf inf

Powergui:SimPowerSystem Powergui Environment block for SimPowerSystem models

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