GROUND PENETRATING RADAR: FOR SUBSURAFCE MAPPING AND LANDMINE DETECTION

Submitted to EEE Department Doon Valley Institute of Engineering and Technology IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROJECT OF B.TECH (3rd YEAR) IN ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By

NIMIT JAIN (EEE, DIET)

Under the Supervision of

Dr. AMITANSHU PATTANAIK Scientist

DEFENCE TERRAIN RESEARCH LABORATORY METCALFE HOUSE, DELHI 110054 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In completing our project, I am thankful to GOD and many individuals and must place on record our sincere thanks to all of them.

And here I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to our supervisor Dr. Amitanshu Pattanaik ,Scientist D who gave us his invaluable time and guidance embodied in his words of encouragement and inspiration, criticisms and discussions throughout the research tenure. A special thanks to Mr. Sunil Dhar, Scientist, DTRL,without him anything cannot be possible. I am thankful to Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL), which comes under Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India, Metcalfe House, Delhi.

I am thankful to our HODs, EEE Department, and Head Training and Placement, for the motivation and inspiration that triggered us for the work.

To conclude, I indebted to my family. I would be failing in our duty if I dont thank my parents for their constant encouragement and moral support throughout the course of this study.

CONTENTS

PAGE PREFACE 4

FEW WORDS ABOUT DTRL

1. GROUND PENETRATION RADAR 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Introduction Basic Principle Theoretical Background Factors effecting GPR Design The Forward looking GPR

8 8 9 11 12 15 18

2. GPR and SUBSURFACE MAPPING 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Summarized use and Application

20 20 23

3. GPR and LANDMINE DEECTION 3.1 Introduction 3.2 What are Landmines and its types? 3.2.1 Anti-Personnel 3.2.2 Anti- Tank 3.2.3 Laying mines 3.3Landmine Properties 3.4 GPR and Landmine Detection 3.4.1 Soil water content 3.4.2 Soil Texture 3.4.3 Summary 4. MODELING VIA MATLAB 4.1 Model description 5
6

26 26 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 34 35 36 47 49

CONCLUSION AND RESULT REFRENCES

PREFACE
Landmines pose a serious threat to the society in around 90 countries in the world. Although research on how to detect and dispose of landmines started in the early half of the 1900's ,the field of humanitarian demining is only some 20 years old
This Report will directly focus on the nature of detection of landmind and also subsurface mapping with GPR, reasons behind it and the most recent technological advancements in GPR engineering. While many of these other applications have great value, this report will focus specifically on finding and identifying. Various earthquake sensing methods like accelerometers, quake alarm systems, satellite images for detection of earthquake and use of GSM technology come handy in designing a whole worldwide system for detecting the menace. These proceedings includes Different types of subsurface mapping Methods of detection of Landmines. Analysis of landmines in different types of soil with help of MATGRP in MATLAB.

.Few words about DRDO/DTRL

The Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) (Hindi: Rak

Anusandhn evam Viks Sangahan) is one of Asia's largest defence contractors and a leading aerospace manufacturer, headquartered in New Delhi, India. It was formed in 1958 by the merger of Technical Development Establishment and the Directorate of Technical Development and Production with the Defence Science Organization. DRDO has a network of 52 laboratories which are deeply engaged in developing defence technologies covering various fields, like aeronautics, armaments, electronic and computer sciences, human resource development, life sciences, materials, missiles, combat vehicles development and naval research and development. The organization includes more than 5,000 scientists and about 25,000 other scientific, technical and supporting personnel. Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) was established in 1958 by amalgamating Defence Science Organization and some of the technical development establishments. A separate Department of Defence Research and Development was formed in 1980 which later on administered DRDO and its 50 laboratories/establishments. IGMDP was an Indian Ministry of Defence program between the early 1980s and 2007 for the development of a comprehensive range of missiles, including the Agni missile, Prithvi ballistic missile, Akash missile, Trishul missile and Nag Missile. The program was largely managed by DRDO and has seen considerable success with many of the systems seeing rapid deployment as well as yielding significant technological benefits. DRDO has also since been successful in developing other major systems and critical technologies such as aircraft avionics, UAVs, small arms, artillery systems, EW Systems, tanks and armored vehicles, sonar systems, command and control systems, missile systems etc. Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) is a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO). Located in Delhi its primary function is research and development of techniques to evaluate terrains and assess mobility potential of inaccessible areas. Terrain evaluation activities were initiated in Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) with the creation of Terrain Evaluation Cell (TEC) in February 1964 with the objectives of development of techniques for terrain evaluation, and assessment of mobility potential of inaccessible
5

areas. TEC over a period of 17 years completed a number of assignments. In view of the potential and vitality of terrain information, TEC was expanded and accorded the status of a full fledged laboratory in December 1981, and was renamed as Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL).

ACHIEVEMENTS

Improvement in mapping accuracy by using better resolution data (5.6 m in panchromatic mode and 23.5 m in LISS lll mode) from IRS-lC and IRS-lD satellites.

Use of satellite information data of for preparation of different thematic maps. Use of Geographic Information System (GIS) to achieve automation of information of mobility maps.

Semi-automated generation of Traffic ability maps using artificial neural networks and GIS.

Use of remote sensing satellite data for generating information for terrain evaluation.

AREAS OF WORK DTRL is working on staff projects in close interaction with the Army. One of the thrust areas of the laboratory is Extraction and Integration of Terrain Parameters in near real-time and building a database for operational needs. Since the high resolution (less than or equal to 2 meters) satellites will be launched by the Department of Space in early 2001 and the induction of RPV's to acquire imageries, the activities of the laboratory are being expanded substantially and many new projects are being formulated in consultation with the defence services and other user agencies. Another thrust area in this direction, is creating knowledge base to characterize terrain and vehicle mobility parameters for the purpose of development, maneuvering and fortification. Ongoing scientific pursuits have led to competence in the following areas of work:

Semi-automatic extraction of terrain parameters from satellite/aerial images, and maps.

Development of a reliable system for assessment of terrain characteristics through terrain evaluation.
6

Traffic ability studies and preparation of mobility maps. Providing terrain briefs and generating land-use maps. Ground water study, landslide and hazard zonation, and geo-environmental studies. Terrain& military potential studies of strategic sectors and generation of terrain briefs. Military Geo-spatial Information System. Morph dynamic studies around Wheeler group of islands. Generation of purpose-specific terrain maps.

Chapter 1: Ground Penetrating Radar

1.1 Introduction
Ground penetrating radar (commonly called GPR) is a high resolution electromagnetic technique that is designed primarily to investigate the shallow subsurface of the earth, building materials, and roads and bridges. GPR has been developed over the past thirty years for shallow, high resolution investigations of the subsurface. GPR is a time-dependent geophysical technique that can provide a 3-D pseudo image of the subsurface, including the fourth dimension of color, and can also provide accurate depth estimates for many common subsurface objects. Under favorable conditions, GPR can provide precise information concerning the nature of buried objects. It has also proven to be a tool that can be operated in boreholes to extend the range of investigations away from the boundary of the hole. GPR uses the principle of scattering of electromagnetic waves to locate buried objects. The basic principles and theory of penetration for GPR have evolved through the disciplines of electrical engineering and seismic exploration, and practitioners of GPR tend to have backgrounds either in geophysical exploration or electrical engineering. The fundamental principle of operation is the same as that used to detect aircraft overhead, but with GPR that antennas are moved over the surface rather than rotating about a fixed point. This has led to the application of field operational principles that are analogous to the seismic reflection method. GPR is a method that is commonly used for environmental, engineering, archeological, and other shallow investigations. GPR is a reflection technique that requires very low power. A short pulse in the frequency range of 10 - 1000 Mhz is used. The propagation of the pulse is controlled by the relative dielectric permittivity (dielectric constant, r) which is dimensionless, relative

magnetic permeability ( r), and the conductivity ( ) of the subsurface. Dielectric conduction takes place in poor conductors and insulators, which have no free carriers, by slight displacement of electrons with respect to their nuclei. (Dielectric constant: A measure of the capacity of a material to store charge when an electric field is applied.) Radar-wave behavior in geologic media can be described in terms of conventional optics. Snell's Law is modified to a sin 2 a = b sin 2 b, where a and b are the dielectric constants of the two different media The velocity of a radar-wave can easily be estimated for a particular material by taking the square root of its dielectric constant; the .3 is because radar-waves are referenced to the speed of light in air or in vacuum (.3 m/ns). Dielectric constants for most dry geologic materials range from 4 (quartz sand) to 7 (shales and carbonates). GPR technology can be used to determine depth to bedrock and or water table, locate buried ordnance at gunnery ranges, caskets, map sinkholes, and to find fossil vertebrates.

1.2 Basic Principles

The practical result of the radiation of electromagnetic waves into the subsurface for GPR measurements is shown by the basic operating principle that is illustrated in Figure. The electromagnetic wave is radiated from a transmitting antenna, travels through the material at a velocity which is determined primarily by the permittivity of the material. The wave spreads out and travels downward until it hits an object that has different electrical properties from the surrounding medium, is scattered from the object, and is detected by a receiving antenna. The surface surrounding the advancing wave is called a wavefront. A straight line drawn from the transmitter to the edge of the wavefront is called a ray. Rays are used to show the direction of travel of the wavefront in any direction away from the transmitting antenna. If the wave hits a buried object, then part of the waves energy is reflected back to the surface, while part of its energy continues to travel down-ward. The wave that is reflected back to the surface is captured by a receive antenna, and recorded on a digital storage device for later interpretation. Antennas can be considered to be transducers that convert electric currents on the metallic Antenna elements to transmit electromagnetic waves that propagate into a material. Antennas radiate electromagnetic energy when there is a change in the acceleration of the current on the antenna. The acceleration that causes radiation may be either linear,(e.g., a time-varying electromagnetic wave traveling on the antenna), or angular acceleration. Radiation occurs along a curved path, and radiation occurs anytime that the current changes direction (e.g. at the end of the antenna element). Controlling and directing the radiation from an antenna is the purpose of antenna design. Antennas also convert electromagnetic waves to currents on an antenna element, acting as a receiver of the electromagnetic radiation by capturing part of the electromagnetic wave. The principle of reciprocity says that the transmit and receive antennas are interchangeable, and this theory is valid for antennas that are transmitting and receiving signals in the air, well above the surface of the ground. In practice, transmit and receive antennas are not strictly interchangeable when placed on the ground, or a lossy material surface, because of attenuation effects of the ground in the vicinity of the transmit antenna. Electromagnetic waves travel at a specific velocity that is determined primarily by the permittivity of the material. The interval of time that it takes for the wave to travel from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna is simply called the travel time. The basic unit of electromagnetic wave travel time is the nanosecond (ns), where 1 ns = 10-9 s. Since the velocity of an electro-magnetic wave in air is 3x108 m/s (0.3 m/ns), then the travel time for an electromagnetic wave in air is approximately 3.3333 ns per m traveled.

10

The velocity is proportional to the inverse square root of the permittivity of the material, and since the permittivity of earth materials is always greater than the permittivity of the air, the travel time of a wave in a material other than air is always greater than 3.3333 ns/m.

1.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The speed of an electromagnetic wave in any medium is dependent upon the speed of light in free space ( c = 0.3 m/ns), the relative dielectric constant (r), and the relative magnetic permeability (r = 1 for non-magnetic materials). The speed of electromagnetic wave (Vm) in a material is given by:

Vm=

where P is the loss factor, such that P = /, is the conductivity, = 2 f (where f is the frequency), and = ro ( where is the permittivity and o is the permittivity of free space (8.854x1012 F/m)). In low-loss materials, P 0, and the speed of electromagnetic wave is given by:

Vm=

m/ns

The depth of penetration (D) can be determined by, first, calculating the velocity of the medium, Vm, using Equation (1) and (2). Second, the two way travel time (T) can be determined from the graphic representation of the GPR signals. This will allow the use of the following equation:

D=
The success of the ground penetrating radar method relies on the ability of the various materials to allow or prevent the transmission of radar waves. Some materials, such as polar ice, are virtually transparent to these waves. Other materials, such as water-saturated clay and seawater, either absorb or reflect the waves to such an extent that they are virtually opaque in GPR results. The contrast in the relative dielectric constants between adjacent layers is a function of electromagnetic radiation. The greater the contrast, the greater the amount of energy reflected. The proportion of energy reflected, given by the reflection coefficient (R), is determined by the contrast in velocities, and more fundamentally, by the contrast in the relative dielectric constants of adjacent media.
11

The amplitude reflection coefficient is given by:

R=
where V 1 and V2 are the velocities in layers 1 and 2, respectively, and V1< V2. The amplitude reflection coefficient may also be determined by:

R=

where 1 and 2 are the respective relative dielectric constants (r) of layers 1 and 2, respectively. Typically, r increases with depth. In all cases the magnitude of R lies in the range of 1. The proportion of energy transmitted is equal to 1R. The equation given in (3) applies to normal incidence on a planar surface, assuming no other signal losses. The power reflection coefficient is equal to R2.

1.4 Factors effecting GPR:

There are various factors which effect the GPR radar wave including soil type, Propagation velocity of the frequency signal from antenna to the ground, penetrating depth, conductivity of soil, soil texture and topology which depends on the history of the place. Water, however, has a dielectric constant of 81 at 20oC and radically alters the velocity of the radar-wave traveling through materials and can cause serious errors in estimating depth. Saturated quartz sands will have a dielectric constant of up to 30; granite will rise from 5 to 7 as it becomes wet; dry soils will rise from 8 to about 20 as they become wet.

12

Soil conductivity also influences radar-wave interaction with geologic media. Radar works best passing through low conductivity materials such as dry granites and limestones. Clays with high conductivities are hard on radar waves, and the longest wavelength antennas can only get down 0. 5 meters or so in wet clays.

Fig: Showing different percentage composition of various type of soil which effects the GPR

Water clearly influences conductivity because of its ability to dissolve salts. GPR can be used to profile fresh-water lakes if t he water depth is no more than 10 meters. Attenuation or loss of radar energy is a complex function of the dielectric and electrical properties of the media through which the radar signal is traveling. Attenuation factor is controlled by the conductivity (), the relative magnetic permeability (r), and the relative dielectric permittivity (r) of the medium as well as the frequency of the signal itself. Where dielectric contrasts in the subsoil materials are sharp, the radar echoes will record an interface between the two just as seismic reflection does when there is an acoustic impedance contrast across an interface e. Wiggle plots showing data from either technique are indistinguishable as are velocity analysis techniques. T2 - X2 plots are commonly used to get velocity instead of published values since these values can be error if water is present. Radar surveys are done by towing a transducer or antenna of an appropriate wavelength by hand, or behind a vehicle over the area of interest. GPR transducers work as transmitters and receivers; commercial antennas work with center frequencies of about 50 to 1000 Mhz. Penetration depths vary inversely with frequency; commercial l50 Mhz antennas have achieved depths of more than 1000 nanoseconds, or about 60 meters in granite or carbonate bedrock.

13

The transmitter typically emits a broad bandwidth pulse every 50,000th of a second, then switches to or becomes the receiver, which "records" for about 20 microseconds before another pulse is sent. Because the waves are traversing the ground at sub-light velocities ample time is available for transmitted pulse to be reflected back and processed before another pulse is emitted. As the transmitted pulse moves from air into another m edium the pulse slows, depending on the dielectric constant of the material, and the wavelength decreases. Radar waves can generally resolve objects on the order of one-half wavelength and the wavelength of t he radar-wave decreases as it encounters higher dielectric material with depth so the resolution increases.

Factors effecting GPR

Physical Parameters

Equipment Parametars

Ground/ Materail
Soli type

Water content

Depth

Antenna Frequency

Propagation Velocity

Duty cycle, Sampling time

Effects Conductivity

Resolution

Effects Depth

Dielectric

Conductivity

Attenuation

14

1.5 Design:
There are some parameters to define for single-fold common-offset GPR reflection survey.

Operating frequency:
Selection of the operating frequency for radar survey is not simple. There is a trade off between spatial resolution, depth of penetration and system portability. It is better to trade off resolution for penetration. There is no use in having great resolution if the target cannot be detected. The best way to approach the problem is define a generic target type (i.e., point target, rough planar target, or specula target) and specify a desire spatial resolution, X. The initial frequency estimate is then defined by the formula:

Table: Propagation Depth and Centre Frequency used in GPR (assumption: The spatial resolution required is about 25 % of the target depth) Depth, m Center Frequency, MHz 0.5 1000 1.0 500 2.0 200 5.0 100 10 50 30 25 50 10

Estimating the time window:

The way to estimate the time window required is to use the expression:

Where, the maximum depth and minimum velocity likely to be encountered in the survey area are used.

15

Selecting sampling interval:

Table : Suitable sampling intervals versus operating frequency Antenna Center Maximum Sampling Frequency, MHz Interval, ns 10 16,7 20 8,3 50 3,3 100 1,67 200 0,83 500 0,33 1000 0,17 One of the parameters utilized in designing radar data acquisition is the time interval between points on a record waveform. The sampling interval is controlled by the Nyquist sampling concept and should be at most half the period of the highest frequency signal in the record. For most GPR antenna systems, the bandwidth to center frequency ratio is about 1. The pulse radiated contains energy from 0.5 times the center frequency to 1.5 times the center frequency. The function relationship is:

where " f " is the center frequency in MHz and " t " is time in ns.

Selecting Station Spacing:

The selection of spacing between discrete radar measurements is closely linked to the centre operating frequency of antennas and to the dielectric properties of the material involved. He Nyquist sampling interval is one of the wavelength in the host material and expressed as: Where, f is the antenna center frequency (in MHz) and K is the relative permittivity of the host. Data volume and survey time can be reduced by increasing the station interval.

Selecting Antenna:
To achieve an acceptable plan resolution requires a high gain antenna. To achieve small antenna dimensions and high gain therefore requires the use of a high carrier frequency which generally does not penetrate the ground material sufficient depth.

16

Selecting Antenna Separation:

Most GPR systems employ separate antennas for transmitting and receiving (commonly referred to as bistatic operation) although the antennas may be housed in a single module with no means of varying the antennas separation. To maximize target coupling, antennas should be spaced such that the refraction focusing peak in the transmitter and receiver antenna patterns point to the common depth to be investigated. An estimate of optimum antenna separation is given by the expression: An estimate of optimum antenna separation is given by the expression:

Depth resolution of targets decreases as antenna separation increases although this factor is small until S approaches half the target depth.

Survey grid and co-ordinate system:

An important aspect of survey design is establishment of survey grid and co-ordinate system. The selection of survey line location and orientation should be made such as to maximize target detection. All survey lines should be oriented perpendicular to the strike of the target if the target has a preferred strike direction.

17

1.6 THE FORWARD LOOKING GPR

A high-resolution ground penetrating radar (GPR) system was designed to help define the optimal radar parameters needed for the efficient standoff detection of buried and surface-laid antitank mines. The design requirements call for a forward-looking GPR capable of detecting antitank mines in a 5 to 8 meter wide swath, 7 to 60 meters in front of a mobile platform.

The system has a resolution goal of 15 cm both in range and azimuth. The range and azimuthal resolutions are achieved by using a 2.7 GHz bandwidth and a 4 meter synthetic aperture, respectively. The system uses a fully coherent homodyne stepped-frequency approach with a modulation scheme that produces range dependent power gain to partially offset range losses. Transmit power of 1 to 10 W is available over the entire band, and a large effective dynamic range was built into the receiver. The antennas are mounted on separate transmit and receive computer-controlled high-precision linear drives for creating the synthetic aperture. A data scan entails stepping through all the frequencies, polarizations, and antenna positions before the van is driven forward for the next scan. The radar engineer faces many tradeoffs in selecting appropriate radar design parameters, such as frequency range, aperture size, system resolution, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), polarization, and so on.

18

BASIC RADAR DESIGN

The general design guidelines for the Forward looking ground penetrating radar included the need for a versatile GPR collection system, high resolution image products, minimizing radar clutter, and a feasible transition to a later phase real-time system.

Table: Determining various types of practical FLGPR with its salient features and applications SR. NO. 1 FREQUECNCY BAND(GHz) 0.3-3.0 DEPTH RANGE(m) RANGE (cm) 15 53 (7-60) CROSS RANGE(m) 8 Antenna array (Tx,Rx) 2,2 TYPES OF MINE ANTI TANK Metallic REFE R. 1

0.3-2.0

5-15

23 (7-3)

----

----

ANTI TANK Metallic & Plastic ANTI TANK Metallic & Plastic ANTI TANK Metallic & Plastic ANTI TANK Plastic(VS3.6)

0.6-2.0

5-15

19(7-26)

12 m wide (6 m on each side) 8

2,18

0.3-3.0

5-15

23 (7-30)

1,1

0.5-3.0

5-10

----

----

----

19

Chapter 2: Subsurface Mapping

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a noninvasive geophysical technique that detects electrical discontinuities in the shallow subsurface. It does this by generation, transmission, propagation, reflection and reception of discrete pulses of high frequency electromagnetic energy. On earth, the subsurface is perhaps the most important geological layer as it contains many of the earth natural resources (e.g. building aggregates/stones, placer deposits, drinking water aquifers, soils). Additionally, through the study of rocks and unconsolidated sediment accumulations at or near the surface by soil scientist and geologist, scientist have discovered much about earth history and behavior of its dynamic landforms. For soil scientist, the subsurface are typical soil horizons and layers classified to a depth of 2 meter or to bedrock (if within depths 2 meters). For geologist and engineering geologist, the subsurface comes in terms with the underlying structures, spatial distribution of rock units, structures such as faults, folds and intrusive rocks and the depth of investigation may vary . The study of subsurface for geologist is an indirect method for assessing the likelihood of ore deposits or hydrocarbon accumulations, by using exploration geophysical. Exploration geophysics is the practical application of physical methods or known as geophysical methods (such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic) to measure the physical properties of rocks, and in particular, to detect the measurable physical differences between rocks that contain ore deposits or hydrocarbons and those without. Geophysical methods have a major role to play in resource assessment and the determination of engineering parameters, such as to directly detect the target style of mineralization, via measuring its physical properties directly. For example one may measure the density contrasts between iron ore and silicate wall rocks, or may measure the conductivity contrast between conductive sulfide minerals and barren silicate minerals. A wide variety of sensors could be considered to aid this situation, and generally each will have a particular niche role but the geophysical electromagnetic method that is of most universal value is Ground Penetrating Radar, or Ground Probing Radar (GPR) or also known by Surface Probing Radar or Surface Penetrate Radar, and had already used widely with on-going research and publications up to date . This method is a kind of mobile survey and works by sending of a tiny pulse of energy into material and recording the strength and the time required for the return of any reflected signal, and display it as radargram. GPR is used for all type of subsurface mapping weather it is related to detection of Landmines, Detection of buried metal pipes , gas pipes, Hazardous waste, Subsurface voids, Detection of water leaks, Cables (electricity or telecommunication)

20

Table: Showing summarized form of different use of GPR for subsurface mapping along with various parameters.
FREQ BLIND ZONE DEPTH DIELECTR IC/ MEDIUM CONDUCTIVI TY RESOLUTION AVAILABLE GPR APPILACATION REFE

12.5 16

120 150

Ice 3.1

VERY HIGH VERY HIGH HIGH

POOR POOR

Pulse EKKO IV system GSSIs SIR3000 GSSIs SIR3000 100 Mhz (MLF 80-10 MHz) a)GSSIs SIR-3000 100 Mhz b)RAMAC GPR X3M,MALA GEOSCIEN CE-100 MHz Ramac CUII GPR from Mala Geoscience (GSSI) SIR3000, a 400 MHz antenna

Ice depth determination Ice depth determination Urban road: bedrock depth detection

13 15

20

40

Unsaturat ed sand

POOR

11

100

a)12.2 b) 48

~1

MODERAT E TO HIGH

Poor

a)Lake bed view b)underground water level detection

a)11 b)16

250

0.5 -1

7-10

3-5

MODERAT E

1.0

Detection of buried metal pipes Ice depth determination

400

~17.5

3.5

MODERAT E

14

500 800 900

0.230.5 0.10.2 0.30.5

7-15 3-5 2.53.5

LOW LOW LOW

0.5 0.3 0.5 GSSI-SIR-2 900-MH EVALUATE THE EXTENT OF GROUT INFILTRATIO N FOR MINE ROOF CONTROL ESTIMATION OF RELATIVE PERMITTIVIT Y of TARGETS DETECTION OF WATER LEAKS

9 9 12

1000

LOW

EFFICIENT

1500

0.04

2-3

2.8

VERY LOW VERY LOW

0.02-0.04

MINEHOUN D, ERA TechnologyVallon GmbH GSSI. SIR 10B

10

2000

0.06

1.5-2

0.04-0.08 21

FREQUENCY V/S BLIND ZONE

900 800 700 FREQUENCY (MHz) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 FREQUENCY DEPTH 1 12.5 0 2 16 0 3 20 0 4 250 0.1 5 500 0.25 6 800 0.22 7

Table: Showing various subsurface and their parameters.

Electrical Properties of Geological Media Material

Air Distilled water Fresh water Sea water Dry sand Saturated sand Limestone Shale Silt Clay Granite Salt (dry) Ice

Dielectric constant

Conductivity (mS/m)

Velocity (m/ns)

Attenuation (dB/m)

1 80 80 80 3-5 20-30 4-8 5-15 5-30 4-40 4-6 5-6 3-4

0 0.01 0.5 30,000 0.01 0.1-1.0 0.5-2 1-100 1-100 2-1,000 0.01-1 0.01-1 0.01

0.3 0.033 0.033 0.01 0.15 0.06 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.13 0.13 0.16

0 0.002 0.1 1,000 0.01 0.03-0.3 0.4-1 1-100 1-100 1-300 0.01-1 0.01-1 0.01

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2.2 Applications A list of application is given below according to its generic form:
CIVIL/STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Miscellaneous Void Detection Pavement Thickness Reinforcing Bar Locating / Evaluation Submarine Pipe and Cable Locating Pipe Leak Detection: Gas Water Oil Filled Electrical Buried Pipe and Cable Mapping Peat Profiling Coal Mining Bauxite Hazardous Waste Mapping Landfill Boundaries Trench Boundaries Buried Drums Underground Storage Tank Detection Contamination Instruction Mapping Oil under Ice Detection Geological Strata Profiling Earthquake Fault Mapping, Highway and other Excavation Projects, Radar Ground Truth Bedrock Mapping: Subway Tunnel Excavations Rock Fracture Mapping: Safety & Other Purposes Crevasse Detection: Safety & Other Purposes Borehole Profiling River & Lake Bottom Profiling Ice Thickness Profiling: Sea Ice, River Ice Permafrost Mapping Sinkhole Prediction Water Table Detection / Mapping Mines: Metallic & Nonmetallic
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Utilities

GEOTECHNICAL

Mining

Hazardous Waste

Miscellaneous

Ordnance Detection

TRANSPORTATION

Roads

Railroads Airports Law Enforcement Archaeology

Unexploded Bombs Runway Integrity Movement Pavement Base / Subgrade Thickness Voids Under Pavement Railroad Bed Profiling Tie Evaluation Runway Integrity Testing Buried Body Detection Buried Weapons Archaeological Prospecting: Cavity or Chamber Detection, Treasure Prospecting

Below given the application of GPR for subsurface mapping according to range of frequency. Very Shot Range Road Reinforcement Road Structures Material Integrity Material Production Bridge Structures Building Structures Fiber Optic Cables Buried Objects Borehole Investigation. Security investigation Shot Range Tunnel Structures Road Reinstatement Road Structures Material Integrity Material Production Bridge Structure Building Structure Pipes-Cables Buried Objects Concrete Integrity Borehole Investigation. Security Investigation Medium Range Tunnel Structures Construct. Surveying Chemical Waste Borehole Investigation. Geological Surveying Resource Assessment. Archaeological Sites Long Range Construct. Surveying Chemical Waste Borehole Investigation. Geological Surveying Resource Assessment. Archaeological Sites

Military applications:
Finding and mapping metallic and non-metallic mines and unexploded bombs. Finding secret rooms, cellars, internal boxes. Finding underground warehouses, bomb-shelters, and different communications. Wall investigation - finding secret transmitters, receivers and microphones, internal boxes. GPR is the most effective method comparatively to traditional methods, such as magnetic mine finders or acoustic radars.

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Locating hazardous waste:

GPR is a cost-effective method to safety map contamination plumes, buried drums, buried trenches, and boundaries at abandoned landfills.

Subsurface conditions:
GRP can map and detect bedrock, buried boulders and ledge, water table, soil profiles, faults, voids and sinkholes quickly, easily, accurately and cost effectively (see Figure 4).

Undetected voids:
Highways, tunnels, airports, mines and buildings need to be inspected on a regular basis for subsurface voids. GPR is a cost-effective way to find and map voids.

Drilling into rebar:

GPR is used to save construction and maintenance money. It accurately locate rebars, highvoltage cables, conduits, and voids in concrete.

Finding buried pipes:

GPR is the cost effective tool for locating metallic or non-metallic subsurface features. It can accurately record the depth and location of pipes, cables, ducts, and other man made or natural objects.

Track bed failure:

GPR is a cost-effective method to quickly determine the thickness and conditions of railroad ballast, sub-ballast and sub-grade. Problems such as water intrusion and ballast contamination, as well as finding buried cables, culverts and other features, can be detected with GPR.

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CHAPTER 3: LANDMINE DETECTION USING GPR

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Landmines pose a serious threat to the society in around 90 countries in the world. Although research on how to detect and dispose of landmines started in the early half of the 1900's ,the field of humanitarian demining is only some 20 years old. Sixty five to 110 million landmines are believed to be scattered throughout 90 countries of the world, with Afghanistan, Angola, and Cambodia together totaling about 28 million mines. Detection and removal of these landmines is difficult because of the many variables involved, including soil type, climate, topography, and vegetation. Minefields are designed to be very complex since military engineers are taught to integrate minefields with natural obstacles such as steep slopes, watercourses, ditches, and dense vegetation. Because landmines are so difficult to detect, most landmines remain buried for many years and continue to threaten the people in these countries. The expense of de-mining is also an important factor hindering landmine removal. With a cost estimated at $300 to $1000 to remove each mine, the total cost for de-mining these countries is staggering.

FIG: Showing the parts of world affected by LANDMINES, and as seen every part INDIA is facing this problem There are many sensors that have been developed for use in the detection of metallic and non-metallic landmines. The following list includes the most up-to-date sensors in mine detection: Visible Broadband, Broadband Infrared, Active Thermal Sensing, Spectral, Polarimetric, Streak-Tube Imaging LIDAR, Acoustic-Excited Laser Vibrometry, Sonar, Electromagnetic Induction, Magnetometer,
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Passive Microwave Radiometry, Close-In Ground Penetrating Radar, Stand-off Ground Penetrating Radar, Sensing of Water Wave Disturbances, Forward looking Ground Penetrating Radar Nuclear Quadruple Resonance, Electro/Chemical Detection, and Penetrating Radiation..

Electromagnetic induction sensors work well for metallic landmines due to the high electrical conductivity of these types of landmines. However, newer mines are composed of nonmetallic parts, which have essentially zero electrical conductivity and can elude many electromagnetic conductivity based sensors.

Ultra-wideband-frequency-modulated-continuous-wave-radar has proven to be a useful sensor for detecting plastic anti- personnel landmines buried at shallow depths. These types of sensors depend more on the relative dielectric properties of the landmine-soil environment and less on the electrical conductivity of the landmine. The ground penetrating radar (GPR) system is one of the most widely used sensors of this sort. It has been used for many subsurface explorations including but not limited to the following: groundwater investigations, contaminant plume mapping, location of buried fuel tanks, ice sheet thickness mapping, permafrost investigations, integrity test of building materials, and even location of ancient grave sites.

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FIG : Showing a basic fundamental diagram of the detection of landmines with the help of GPR

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3.2 LANDMINES
A land mine is an explosive device, concealed under or on the ground and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets as they pass over or near the device. Such devices are typically detonated automatically by way of pressure from the target stepping or driving on it, though other detonation mechanisms may be possible. The device may cause damage either by a direct blast or by fragments that are thrown by the blast.

FIG: Showing various ANTI TANK mines

FIG : Showing types of ANTI PERSONAL mines

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TYPES of LANDMINE

According to Application

Material Used

Anti personnel

Anti-Tank

Metallic

Plastic

3.2.1 ANTI - PERSONNEL

Anti-personnel mines are designed to kill or injure enemy combatants as opposed to destroying vehicles. They are often designed to injure rather than kill in order to increase the logistical support (evacuation, medical) burden on the opposing force. Some types of anti-personnel mines can also damage the tracks or wheels of armored vehicles.

3.2.2 ANTI-TANK
Anti-tank mines were created not long after the invention of the tank in the First World War. At first improvised, purpose-built designs were developed. Set off when a tank passes, they attack the tank at one of its weaker areas the tracks. They are designed to immobilize or destroy vehicles and their occupants Anti-tank mines are typically larger than anti-personnel mines and require more pressure to detonate. The high trigger pressure (normally 100 kg [220 lb.]) prevents them from being set off by infantry or smaller vehicles of lesser importance. More modern anti-tank mines use.

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3.2.3Laying mines
Anti-tank minefields can be scattered with anti-personnel mines to make clearing them manually more time-consuming; and Anti-personnel minefields are scattered with anti-tank mines to prevent the use of armored vehicles to clear them quickly. Some anti-tank mine types are also able to be triggered by infantry, giving them a dual purpose even though their main and official intention is to work as anti-tank weapons. shaped charges to focus and increase the armor penetration of the explosives.

NOTE:

A typical landmine consists of a plastic or metal case enclosing an explosive charge, along with a fuse mechanism and firing pin to detonate the mine. Anti-personnel landmines are quite small, weighing a few hundred grams at most. These mines are typically laid on the surface or buried within a few centimeters of the surface. Anti-tank landmines are significantly larger, with a weight of several kilograms. These mines are buried at depths of up to 30 centimeters below the surface

3.3 Landmine properties[17]

A typical landmine consists of a plastic or metal case enclosing an explosive charge, along with a fuse mechanism and firing pi n to detonate the mine. Anti-personnel landmines are quite small, weighing a few hundred grams at most. These mines are typically laid on the surface or buried within a few centimeters of the surface. Anti-tank landmines are significantly larger, with a weight of several kilograms. These mines are buried at depths of up to 30 centimeters below the surface. With respect to landmine detection, the most important properties of a landmine are its metal content, which influences the delectability of the mine by GPR. Although older landmines often had metal cases and were thus relatively easy to detect with GPR sensors, more modern landmines typically have very low metal content. In some cases, the only metallic part of the landmine is a small firing pin. A second important property of a landmine is the explosive used. The explosive used is clearly of importance to chemical detection. The design of the landmine case and the explosive used determine the rate at which the explosive leaks from the mine and thus affects the delectability of the mine by chemical detection. measured the TNT flux from actual landmines and found that the flux varies dramatically depending on the design of the mine. The choice of the explosive also affects the thermal conductivity and dielectric of the mine and is thus of importance to GPR sensing parameters.
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3.4 Ground-penetrating radar for landmine detection

While dealing with landmine detection with GPR we have to deal with atmospheric effects and surface roughness. GPR has long been recognized as a potentially powerful technique for the detection of underground objects and landmines, and it is close to being applied in the field. With most landmines typically buried in the top 30 cm of a soil, in many circumstances GPR offers a good tradeoff between available frequencies (i.e. resolution) and penetration. GPR can detect low-metal landmines but under specific soil conditions reflections may be weak. Since the dielectric properties of the soil control the attenuation of the signal, and because the contrast between the landmine and the background medium controls the scattering and reflection strength, the electromagnetic properties of both mine and soil are crucial variables to understand radar signatures of landmines Nevertheless, the temporal and spatial variability in soil properties is seldom incorporated into models for the prediction of landmine signatures. Even when the effects of soil properties are acknowledged, very little modeling and little or no experimental research on the specific problem of soil variability effects has been done.

Pulsed GPR techniques transmit a short electromagnetic pulse typically in the

frequency range between 100s of MHz to several GHz . While many GPR applications place the antennas on the ground, landmine detection requires a small elevation above the surface. This induces a significant surface reflection. Due to the bandwidth of the signal and the shallow burial depth of many landmines, the reflection from the landmine is often incorporated in the ground bounce. Some sy stems use one dominant peak frequency; others use a wide frequency spectrum (WB or UWB).

3.4.1 Soil water content

The dielectric properties of the soil are strongly influenced by the water content, as the dielectric constant of water is a factor 20 times as large as most soil. The relationship between soil water content and bulk electromagnetic properties can be described by simple regression functions, or pedotransfer functions, that sometimes include information about bulk density, particle size distribution and the effect of bound water. However, these models do not account for the important effect of frequency dependence

Various authors have numerically and experimentally shown the effects of soil water content and frequency dependence on landmine detection.
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Most authors agree that at frequencies below 1 GHz the attenuation is relatively low and that attenuation and relaxation losses drastically increase over 1 GHz. Also, it is widely understood that GPR signal attenuation increases with water content. Nevertheless, the modeling results are often very difficult to compare and sometimes contradictory. The reason for this is that each study has its own set of variables. When soil water content, soil type, and frequency range are not standardized, modeling results will be different; this apart from differences in the models used. For low-metal landmines most studies agree that the presence of soil water enhances the dielectric contrast. Since larger water contents increase attenuation losses, there exists a trade-off between enhancing dielectric contrasts and increasing signal attenuation. The optimal soil water content for low-metal landmines also depends on burial depth and frequency. With increasing burial depth and higher frequencies the attenuation will become more significant. Another technique to potentially improve landmine delectability by soil modification is to freeze the soil. Frozen water does not have the disadvantage of a high attenuation. The addition of liquid nitrogen to wet soil s could reduce background medium loss and enhance target visibility. Spatial variability A wetting or drying front at the surface due to precipitation or evapotranspiration will cause different dielectric properties for the top part of the soil. A modeling study for a situation of a snow layer with variable dielectric properties on top of the soil surface can be used to understand this effect A layer with variable dielectric properties at the surface leads to changes in arrival time (apparent depth of the mine) and signature strength.

3.4.2 Soil texture

How the soil texture influences the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant. Soil texture has a smaller effect on GPR signals than water content has. The imaginary part of the dielectric constant is slightly larger in clays and silts than in sand. Although it is recognized that GPR signal attenuation is greater in clay soils than in sand soils, thus limiting penetration depth, part of this difference in field soils can be attributed to the higher water retention capacity of clays.

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3.4.3 Summary
Summarizing, it can be said that the detestability of low-metal landmines using GPR mainly depends on the soil water content and frequency used. Higher soil water contents lead to larger dielectric contrasts between the landmine and the soil it is buried in. However, higher soil water contents also lead to a larger attenuation. With higher frequencies, the resolution is larger, but ( notably above 1 GHz) attenuation and relaxation losses become more significant. Therefore, when using GPR for landmine detection, trade-offs is necessary between (i) (ii) Increased dielectric contrasts between soil and mine by water, or Increased attenuation due to higher soil water contents and higher frequencies.

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CHAPERT 4: MODELLING WITH MATGPR via MATLAB

Abstract
The Ground Probing Radar (GPR) has become an invaluable and almost indispensable means of exploring shallow structures for geoscientific, engineering environmental and archaeological work. At the same time, GPR analysis soft ware is mostly proprietary and usually available from GPR manufacturers or a handful of other vendors. The academic free software community has been slow to react on this issue and the limited freely distributed software is usually focused on very particular problems (mainly data input / output), generally unorganized and so diversely programmed, that if collected, it cannot form a consistent basis for the reliable manipulation of GPR data. MATGPR[20], is use to create a GPR analysis and interpretation package that can be truly cross-platform, as well as expandable and customizable to the needs of a particular user, with little programming effort. This is an ambiguous project , albeit feasible because MATLAB provides an all -inclusive high level programming environment, which facilitates the development of advanced soft ware. MATLAB is a vast computing system, with many add-on application-specific toolboxes , priced and licensed separately. Some of those ( e.g. Signal Analysis, Image Processing etc.), include algorithms and analysis techniques that may be very useful to MATGPR. Accordingly, special provision was made for MATGPR to offer in -house solutions for those algorithms and analysis techniques that are necessary, even if they do not have access to any other toolbox. A basic version of MATGPR, without GUI support may also be easily prepared, with rudimentary dialog and messaging services exclusivly through the MATLAB command window. Its functions have to be executed manually, but would be truly platform independent and moreover, operational with other computing engines that emulate the MATLAB language (e.g. OCTAVE), or provide in-house translators from the MATLAB language (e.g. SCILAB).

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4.1 MODEL DISCRIPTION

In this chapter various synthetic model of mine area is shown and with using different frequency it has been simulated using software MATGPR. All the models are built in MATGPR in its given function of modeling with the help of MATLAB. MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment for numerical computation, visualization, and programming. Using MATLAB, we can analyze data, develop algorithms, and create models and applications. The language, tools, and built-in math functions enable you to explore multiple approaches and reach a solution faster than with spreadsheets or traditional programming languages, such as C/C++ or Java. For studying versatile trend of burying landmines whether it is plastic or metallic mine, we have made three models. Having test site of 20m10 m, where 20m is width and 10 m is depth. Ist model shown in figure 1 contain only single metallic landmine having dielectric strength of 300 in dry sand type having dielectric strength of 3 and magnetic permeability of 1.the target is buried at some depth of 1 meter. Also the antenna frequency used here is 900MHz for the purpose of simulation. And the radargram for the same is shown in fig 2.
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2nd model that is shown in fir 3 contains background of same dry sand type having dielectric strength of 5 and magnetic permeability 1.but this time two mines used. One is metallic and the other is plastic land mine with dielectric strength of 300 and 4.5 respectively. Fir 4 shows the radargram for the above descripted model and the antenna frequency used here is 900 MHz. For the 3rd model which is shown in fig 5.clay type terrain is used having dielectric strength of 20 and magnetic permeability of 1. In which 3 landmines are built , two of them are metallic and third is a plastic. Dielectric strength for the metallic mines is 250 and for the plastic mine is 4.5. For a real war like pattern metallic mine is buried over plastic so as to hide plastic landmine form various instruments to be detected. All the landmines are buried with a meter as mines are usually not buried below few centimeter. Fig 6th shows the Radargram which is simulated with antenna frequency of 1200MHz. For the 4th model which is shown in fig 7.clay type terrain is used having dielectric strength of 30 and magnetic permeability of 1. In which 3 landmines are built , two of them are metallic and third is a plastic. Dielectric strength for the metallic mines is 300 and for the plastic mine is 4.5. All the landmines are buried with a meter as mines are usually not buried below few centimeter. The radargram for the 4th model is shown in figure 8th and it can be seen the the it has been simulated with frequency 1200MHz and the scan which we have receive shows parabola for metallic and plastic mines. The color saturation for all the radargram has been increased to max so that the scans for various landmines should become visible. Table: Describing all the models and landmine type with antenna frequency used

Model No. Test site 1 2 3 4 Dry sand Dry sand Clay Clay

Dielectric 3 5 20 30

Permeability 1 1 1 1

Landmine Metallic Metallic, Plastic 2 Metallic, Plastic 2 Metallic, Plastic

Frequency (MHz) 900 900 1200 1200

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Picture : Showing real time view og MATGPR working under MATLAB,it can be seen from the picture that the simulation of a model is going on.

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Fig:1 Model no 1 containing only one landmine which is metallic type

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PICTURE: Showing the processed data orradargram of a model

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Fig 2: showing the radargram for model no 1 and it can be seen that metallic landmine has a very pronounced scan.Fig:3 Model no 2 containing two landmine which are metallic and plastic both.

Fig2: Radargram of Model no 1 containing only one landmine which is metallic type

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Fig 3: Showing the model no 2 having a plastic and a metallic landmine.

Fig 4: Showing the radargram for model no 2 and it can be seen that metallic landmine has a very pronounced scan rather than the plastic one.

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Fig:5 Model no 3 containing three landmine in clay type test area.

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Fig 6: Showing the radargram for model no 3 and it can be seen that metallic landmine has a very pronounced scan rather than the plastic one but in case of clay the scan for both is diminished than in dry soil type and then antenna frequency is 1200MHz

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Fig:7 Model no 3 containing three landmine in clay type test area

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Fig 8: Showing the radargram for model no 3 and antenna frequency is 1200MHz

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CHAPTER 5: CONCULSION AND RESULT

So we can see that the all the model built are provided with set of different test site parameter, one is for dry sand and other is for clay. A number of virtual landmines were laid which were metallic and plastic at different buried depth and pattern and we can conclude that metallic landmines are easy to detect than plastic landmine. But it is seen with that with increase frequency, we able to get a visible scan of plastic landmine too. Here simulated model for max 1200 MHz frequencies was shown but work with higher frequency was done too.

With low frequency, though the penetration depth is high but this happens at the cost of resolution. That means that higher the frequency, greater will be the resolution. As we know that the landmines are not buried at greater depths, the buried depth depend on type of landmine, which can alter from few centimeter to some meters or so. Therefore using high frequency is quite efficient option for detection.

That will not only help in sure detection of metallic landmine but also plastic Landmine or landmine with less metal content will be detected easily. With higher frequencies, the resolution is larger, but ( notably above 1 GHz) attenuation and relaxation losses become more significant. Therefore, when using GPR for landmine detection, trade-offs is necessary between

Increased dielectric contrasts between soil and mine by water, or Increased attenuation due to higher soil water contents and higher frequencies

A large body of research has shown that soil physical properties can have important effects in landmine detection systems. Some basic soil properties include temperature, water content, texture, bulk density, and mineralogy. These properties in turn control properties such as electrical conductivity, dielectric constant, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity, which directly effect sensor performance. These properties can be highly variable in space and time.

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Multi-sensor landmine detection systems using sensor fusion techniques are being developed to deal with the high false alarm rate and low probability of detection of systems based on a single sensor. Since the performance of individual sensors varies strongly with soil properties, sensor fusion algorithms should be designed to incorporate information about prevailing soil conditions. Incorporating information about soil properties into the sensor fusion process has the potential to greatly improve the performance of multi-sensor landmine detection systems.

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References
1. A Forward-Looking High-Resolution GPR System,Joel Kositsky, Peyman Milanfar,SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025.

2. Time frequency analysis for plastic landmine detection via forward-looking ground penetrating ,Radar,Y. Sun and J. Li, IEE Proc.-Radar Sonar Navig., Vol. 150, No. 4, August 2003. 3. Frequency Subband Processing and Feature Analysis of Forward-Looking GroundPenetrating Radar Signals for Land-Mine Detection, Tsaipei Wang, James M. Keller, Paul D. Gader, Ozy Sjahputera, 0196-2892 2007 IEEE 4. Results from a forward-looking GPR mine detection system.Joel Kositsky, Russell Cosgrove, Charles Amazeen, Peyman Milanfar,SRI International;NVESD, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060;Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, SPIE Vol. 4742 2002-2012 5. Detecting Improvised Explosive Devices Via Forward Looking Ground Penetrating Radar, Will Woods,Bucknell University, A Proposal Submitted to the Honors Council For Honors in Electrical Engineering ,2 May 2011 6. Jeffrey J. Daniels, Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio State University Prepared as
an appendix to a report to the U.S.EPA, Region V, Nov. 25, 2000

7. Awangku Iswandy Awangku Serma and Halim Setan UTM-Photogrammetric and Laser
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8. Sami Eyuboglu, Hanan Mahdi, and Haydar Al-Shukri Department of Applied Science
University of Arkansas at Little Rock ,Little Rock, AR, 72204, USA

9. Detection of Water-Table by Using Ground Penetration Radar (GPR), Mundher Ali Seger &
Ahmed Fouad Nashait, Building and Construction Engineering Department, University of Technology/ Baghdad 554 , Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.29, No.3, 2011

10. Progress In Electromagnetics Research Letters, Vol. 2, 6371, 2008 11. The Application of Low Frequency GPR to Stratigraphic Investigations -Jutta Hager and
Mario Carnevale Hager, GeoScience, Inc. Woburn, Massachusetts, USA

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12. APPLICATION OF GROUND PENETRATING RADAR TO EVALUATE THE EXTENT

OF POLYURETHANE GROUT INFILTRATION FOR MINE ROOF CONTROL - A CASE STUDY William D. Monaghan, Electrical Engineer ,Michael A. Trevits, Research Physical Scientist ,National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ,Post Office Box 18070 ,Pittsburgh, PA 15236

13. Ground penetrating radar ice thickness measurements of Dokriani bamak (glacier), Garhwal
Himalaya, J. T. Gergan, D. P. Dobhal and Rambir Kaushik,Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun 248 001, India, 30 April 1998; revised accepted 22 April 1999

14. An Ice Thickness Study Utilizing Ground Penetrating Radar on the Lower Jamapa Glacier of
Citlaltpetl (El Pico de Orizaba), Mexico. S. C. Brown,B. P. Weissling and M. J. Lewis ,Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Texas at San Antonio, 6900 N. Loop 1604 W., San Antonio, Texas, 78249,Workshop on Radar Investigations (2005)

15. Estimation of glacier ice thickness using Ground Penetrating Radar in the Himalayan
region S.K. Singh, B. P. Rathore, I. M. Bahuguna ,A. L. Ramnathan and Ajai,Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad 380 015, India Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110 067, India CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 103, NO. 1, 10 JULY 2012

16. DETREMINATION OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL BY MODERN NON-DESTRUCTIVE

METHODs(GPR TECHNOLOGY),C. NICU,Gh. ROMANESCU

17. Strength of landmine signatures under different soil conditions: implications for sensor fusion ,Remke L. Van Dam, Brian Borchers, and Jan M.H. Hendrickx 18. Wikipedia. 19. Google and Google images. 20. MATGPR by Andreas Tzanis, PhD, Department of Geophysics, University of Athens

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