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Gas-Solid Flows

INTRODUCTION

There is essentially no limit to the capability or a pneumatic conveying system for the conveying of dry bulk particulate materials. Almost any material can be conveyed and high material flow rates can be achieved over long distances. There are, however, practical limitations and these are mainly imposed by the fact that the conveying medium, being a gas, is compressible. The limiting parameters are then mainly the economic ones of scale and power requirements. Conveying capability depends mainly upon five parameters. These are pipe bore, conveying distance, pressure available, conveying air velocity and material properties. The influence of many of these variables is reasonably predictable but that of the conveyed material is not fully understood at present. 1.1 Pipeline Bore

The major influence on material flow rate is that of pipeline bore. If a greater material flow rate is required it can always be achieved by increasing the pipeline bore, generally regardless of the other parameters. In a larger bore pipeline a larger cross sectional area is available and this usually equates to the capability of conveying more material.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

108 1.2 Conveying Distance

Chapter 4

In common with the single phase flow of liquids and gases, conveying line pressure drop is approximately directly proportional to distance. Long distance conveying, therefore, tends to equate to high pressure, particularly if a high material flow rate is required. For the majority of conveying applications, however, it is not convenient to use high pressures. As a consequence, long distance, with respect to pneumatic conveying, means about one mile. This limitation, and means of extending distance capability, are discussed at various points in this handbook. In this chapter the basic fundamentals are considered. 1.3 Pressure Available

Although air, and other gases, can be compressed to very high pressures, it is not generally convenient to use air at very high pressure. The reason for this is that air is compressible and so its volumetric flow rate constantly increases as the pressure decreases. In hydraulic conveying, pressures in excess of 2000 lbf/in 2 can be used so that materials can be conveyed over distances of 70 miles and more with a single stage. With water being essentially incompressible, changes in the velocity of the water over this distance are not very significant. In pneumatic conveying, air at pressures above about 15 lbf/in 2 gauge is generally considered to be 'high pressure', as mentioned in Chapter 1. With air at 15 lbf/in 2 expanding to atmospheric pressure, for example, the conveying air velocity will double over the length of the pipeline. Although the air expansion can be accommodated to a certain extent by stepping the pipeline to a larger bore part way along its length, this is a complex design procedure. As a consequence, air pressures above 100 lbf/in 2 gauge are rarely used for pneumatic conveying systems that deliver materials to reception points at atmospheric pressure. Where pneumatic conveying systems are required to deliver materials into reactors and vessels that are maintained at pressure, however, high air supply pressures can be used, and 300 lbf/in 2 is not unusual. With a high back pressure the expansion of the air is significantly limited and relatively few, if any, steps would be required in the pipeline. It is on this basis that staged pneumatic conveying systems would be designed for very long distance conveying. 1.4 Conveying Air Velocity

The parameter here is volumetric flow rate, for this has to be quoted, along with supply pressure, when specifying a blower, compressor or exhauster for a pneumatic conveying system. The critical design parameter with respect to pneumatic conveying, however, is conveying air velocity, and more particularly, conveying line inlet air velocity or pick-up velocity. Since the air expands along the length of the pipeline it will always be a minimum at the material feed point at the start of the pipeline, in a single bore pipeline, regardless of whether it is a positive pressure or a vacuum conveying system.

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In a single bore pipeline the velocity will be a maximum at the end of the pipeline. It is the value of the minimum velocity of the air that is critical to the successful operation of a pneumatic conveying system. Volumetric flow rate, of course, is given simply by multiplying conveying air velocity by pipe section area. In this process, however, the correct velocity has to be used and this is considered in detail in the next chapter on 'Air Requirements'. The minimum value of conveying air velocity depends to a large extent on the properties of the bulk particulate material to be conveyed and the mode of conveying. For dilute phase conveying this velocity is typically about 3000 ft/min, although this does depend upon particle size, shape and density, as will be discussed. For dense phase conveying the minimum velocity is about 600 ft/min. For fine powders that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase the minimum value of conveying air velocity also depends upon the concentration of the material in the air, or the solids loading ratio, and this will be considered in detail in this chapter. In dilute phase conveying the particles are conveyed in suspension in the air and this relatively high value of velocity is due, in part, to the large difference in density between the particles and the air. In hydraulic conveying typical velocities for suspension flow are only about 300 ft/min, but the difference in density between water and particles is very little in comparison. The difference in density between water and air is about 800:1. Since the difference in conveying medium velocity is only of the order of about 10:1 it will be seen that the pressure of the air, and hence its density, will not have a major effect on the value of minimum conveying air velocity for general pneumatic conveying. 1.5 Material Properties

The properties of the conveyed material have a major influence on the conveying capability of a pneumatic conveying system. It is the properties of the material that dictate whether the material can be conveyed in dense phase in a conventional conveying system, and the minimum value of conveying air velocity required. For this reason the conveying characteristics of many different materials are presented and featured in order to illustrate the importance and significance of material properties. Although it is the properties of the bulk material, such as particle size and size distribution, particle shape and shape distribution, and particle density that are important in this respect, at this point in time it is the measurable properties of materials in bulk that are more fully understood, These include air-material interactions, such as air retention and permeability, and are more convenient to use. In general, materials that have either good air retention or good permeability will be capable of being conveyed in dense phase and at low velocity in a conventional conveying system. Materials that have neither good air retention nor good permeability will be limited to dilute phase suspension flow.

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7.5.7 Dense Phase Conveying There are two main mechanisms of low velocity, dense phase flow. For materials that have good air retention, the material tends to be conveyed as a fluidized mass. In a horizontal pipeline the vast majority of the material will flow along the bottom of the pipeline, rather like water, with air above, but carrying very little material. At a solids loading ratio of about 150 the pipeline is approximately half full. For dense phase flows there is a distinct pulsing of the flow, with the material flowing smoothly and then suddenly stopping for a second or two and then flowing smoothly again. In vertically upward flow, the flow of material also pulses, and for the second that the flow halts the material falls momentarily back down the vertical pipe. For materials that have good permeability the material tends to be conveyed in plugs through the pipeline. The plugs fill the full bore of the pipeline and are separated by short air gaps. As the conveying air velocity is reduced, the air gap between the plugs gradually fills with material along the bottom of the pipeline and the plug ultimately moves as a ripple along the top of an almost static bed of material. As the air flow rate reduces, to give very low conveying air velocities, the material flow rate also reduces. Materials composed almost entirely of large mono-sized particles, such as polyethylene and nylon pellets, peanuts, and certain grains and seeds, convey very well in plug flow. In dilute phase conveying, nylons and polymers can suffer damage in the formation of angel hairs, and grains and seeds may not germinate as a consequence of damage caused at the high velocities necessary for conveying. Because of the very high permeability necessary, air will readily permeate through the material while it is being conveyed and so maximum values of solids loading ratios will typically be about 30. 2 MATERIAL CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS

If a pneumatic conveying system is to be designed to ensure satisfactory operation, and to achieve maximum efficiency, it is necessary to know the conveying characteristics of the material to be handled. The conveying characteristics will tell a designer what the minimum conveying velocity is for the material, whether there is an optimum velocity at which the material can be conveyed, and what pipeline diameter and air mover rating will be required for a given material flow rate and conveying distance. Alternatively, for an existing pneumatic conveying plant, the appropriate conveying characteristics will tell a designer what flow rate to expect if it is necessary to convey a different material, and whether the air flow rate is satisfactory. Conveying characteristics can also be used to check and optimize an existing plant if it is not operating satisfactorily. In order to be able to specify a pipe size and compressor rating for a required duty it is necessary to have information on the conveying characteristics of

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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the material. If sufficient previous experience with a material is available, such that the conveying characteristics for the material are already established, it should be possible to base a design on the known information. If previous experience with a material is not available, or is not sufficient for a full investigation, it will be necessary to carry out pneumatic conveying trials with the material. These should be planned such that they will provide data on the relationships between material flow rate, air flow rate and conveying line pressure drop, over as wide a range of conveying conditions as can be achieved with the material. The trials should also provide information on the minimum conveying air velocity for the material and how this is influenced by conveying conditions. This is particularly important in the case of dense phase conveying, for the differences in conveying characteristics between materials can be very much greater than those for dilute phase conveying. If the investigation is to cover the entire range of conveying modes with the material, then the previous experience must be available over a similar range of conveying conditions. Scale up in terms of air supply pressure, pipe bore, conveying distance and pipeline geometry from existing data is reasonably predictable, provided that the extrapolation is not extended too far. Scale up in terms of mode of conveying, into regions of much higher solids loading ratios and lower conveying air velocities, however, should not be attempted unless evidence of the potential of the material for such conveying is available. 2.1 Conveying Mode

With high pressure air, conveying is possible in the dense phase mode, provided that the material is capable of being conveyed in this mode. It is the influence of material properties on the possible mode of conveying, as well as differences in material flow rates achieved for identical conveying conditions, that makes it essential for conveying trials to be carried out with an untried material before designing a pneumatic conveying system. In conveying tests with high pressure air there is an additional need, therefore, to establish the limits of conveying and this may be over a very wide range of conveying conditions. In addition to material properties, conveying distance can have a significant influence on the solids loading ratio at which a material can be conveyed, and hence mode of conveying that is possible. The influencing factor here is simply pressure gradient, and this will limit conveying potential regardless of the capabilities of the material. This aspect of conveying pipeline performance is considered in more detail in Chapter 8. 2.1,1 The A ir Only Datum

In order to illustrate how conveying characteristics can be used it is necessary to show first how they are built up and to examine the influence of the main variables.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Chapter 4

30

40

80

120

160

200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Figure 4.1 Air only pressure drop data for pipeline shown in figure 4.2.

The simplest starting point is to consider the air only flowing through the pipeline. If a graph is drawn of pressure drop against air flow rate for a conveying line the result will be similar to that shown in Figure 4.1. The data in Figure 4.1 relates to a 165 ft long pipeline of 2 inch nominal bore which includes nine ninety degree bends. Details of the pipeline are presented in Figure 4.2. This pipeline was used for conveying many of the materials for which conveying characteristics are presented in the first part of this chapter, and several subsequent chapters. As a consequence, both the pipeline in Figure 4.2, and the air only pressure drop datum in Figure 4.1, will serve as a reference for much of the data that follows. The line representing the air only pressure drop on Figure 4.1 is effectively the lower limit for conveying and will appear on subsequent graphs with a zero to indicate that this is the datum for conveying and represents a material flow rate of Olb/h. It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that the air only pressure drop increases markedly with increase in air flow rate. When material is added to the air in the pipeline, at any given value of air flow rate, there will be an increase in pressure. This is as a consequence of the drag force of the air on the particles to enable them to be conveyed through the pipeline. The air, however, has to be at a velocity that is sufficiently high to convey the material, otherwise the particles will not convey, and a build up of such material could cause blockage of the pipeline.

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Pipeline: 165 ft long 2 inch nominal bore 9 * 90 bends D/d = 24

Figure 4.2

Details of pipeline used for conveying trials.

In some situations, when fine dust is fed into a pipeline, there will be a slight reduction in pressure drop, and this relates to modification of the boundary layer. The flow rates of material involved are very small and have no relevance to pneumatic conveying. It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that if an air mover having a low pressure capability is to be employed, the pressure drop available for conveying material will be very limited, particularly if a high air flow rate is required for dilute phase conveying. Pipeline bore, of course, can be increased in order to compensate if the pressure available for conveying is limited. 2.1.1.1 Pressure Drop Evaluation Figure 4.1 relates to single phase flow and the analysis of such flows is well established and quite straightforward. The pressure drop, Ap, for a fluid of density p, flowing through a pipeline of a given diameter, d, and length, L, can be determined from Darcy's Equation:

fLpC2
Ap a

lbf/in 2

(1)

where / is the friction factor, which is a function of the Reynolds number for the flow and the pipe wall roughness, and C is the mean velocity of the flow - ft/min It can be seen from this mathematical model, which is presented in more detail in Chapter 6 on 'The Air Only Datum', that pressure drop follows a square law relationship with respect to velocity. This means that if the velocity is doubled the

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Chapter 4

pressure drop will increase by a factor of approximately four. Velocity, therefore, is a very important parameter in this work and so in graphical representations of experimental results and data, velocity needs to be represented on one of the axes. 2.7.2 Conveying Air Velocity A major problem with using velocity, however, is that it is not an independent variable. Gases are compressible and their densities vary with both pressure and temperature. Since density decreases with decrease in pressure, the velocity of the conveying gas will gradually increase along the length of a constant bore pipeline. In Figure 4.1 it will be noticed that free air flow rate has been used instead of velocity. Velocity, however, can be determined quite easily from the volumetric flow rate by use of the two following equations:
D r\ V \
_

fD . V 2 T

D ^0 V0

.-T*.

T M

T *2

T -'0
- lbf/in 2 - ftVmin - R(F + 460)

where p = absolute pressure of air V = volumetric flow rate of air and T = absolute temperature of air and the subscripts relate to: 1 = conveying line inlet 2 = conveying line exit 0 = free air conditions and for a circular pipeline:
576 V

C =

ft/min

- - - - - . . . . -

(3)

where C = conveying air velocity and d = pipeline bore

- ft/min - inch

This shows quite clearly how velocity is influenced by both gas pressure and temperature, for a given volumetric flow rate of free air, and that for any given set of conditions the gas velocity can be evaluated quite easily. These equations are developed further in the next chapter. In Figure 4.3 a graph is presented that will allow the conveying air velocity to be evaluated for any given free air flow rate and conveying air pressure for conveying data relating to Figures 4.1 and 2. Conveying air velocity values up to about 6000 ft/min have been considered as this is ideally the maximum value that should normally be employed in dilute phase conveying.

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6000 L

Conveying Air Pressure - Ibf/in 2 gauge

I L 4000

_o

Atmospheric Pressure = 14-7 Ibf7in 2 absolute

>
= 2000
c o U

Pipeline Bore = 2 in nominal Air Temperature = 60 F


40 80
120

160

200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Figure 4.3 The influence of air flow rate and pressure on conveying air velocity for test pipeline and data. 2.2 Pneumatic Conveying

If a small quantity of a granular or powdered material is fed into a gas stream at a steady rate there will be an increase in the conveying line pressure drop, above the air only value, if the gas flow rate remains constant. For a given material the magnitude of this increase depends upon the concentration of the material in the gas. As the material flow rate into the conveying line increases, therefore, the conveying line pressure drop will also increase. In a two phase flow system consisting of a gas and solid particles conveyed in suspension, part of the pressure drop is due to the gas alone and part is due to the conveying of the particles in the gas stream. In such a two phase flow the particles are conveyed at a velocity below that of the conveying gas. There is, therefore, a drag force exerted on the particles by the gas. For dilute phase, suspension flow, this drag force is the main contributor to the conveying line pressure drop, whether it is accelerating the particles from the feed point or conveying them through straight pipeline or around bends, and so it is not surprising that different materials will behave very differently. These differences will be highlighted in this chapter, and they will be a major theme through the handbook. 2.2.7 Slip Velocity The difference in velocity between the conveying gas and the particles is called the slip velocity. The magnitude of the slip velocity will depend upon the size, shape

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Chapter 4

and density of the particles. For horizontal conveying, low density 20 micron sized particles are likely to be conveyed at about 90% of the velocity of the conveying gas, and for high density 1000 micron sized particles the value will be about 50%. A typical representative value for the velocity of powdered materials is about 85% of the gas velocity for horizontal conveying and 75% of the gas velocity for conveying vertically up. 2.2.2 Cases Considered

The influence of particle concentration on conveying line pressure drop over a wide range of conveying air flow rates, and hence velocities, is illustrated with three very different materials. These are ordinary portland cement, a sandy grade of alumina and polyethylene pellets. They are representative of materials capable of the range of conveying modes discussed above and so are used to illustrate the conveying characteristics typical of these three groups of material. Identical sets of axes have been used for presenting the conveying data for each of the three materials so that direct visual comparisons can be made between the conveying capabilities of the three materials. Each of the three materials considered was conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. 200 ftVmin of free air was available at a pressure of 100 Ibf/in 2 gauge, although the maximum value of pressure employed for conveying any of the materials was limited to about 40 Ibf/in" gauge. A top discharge blow tank was used to feed each of the materials into the pipeline. It should be emphasized that the data presented here for the various materials relates only to the materials tested and to this particular pipeline. This aspect of the problem is considered in more detail in Chapters 7 and 8 where scaling parameters are presented, which will allow the conveying data presented here to be scaled to any other pipeline required. 2.3 The Conveying of Cement

Pressure drop data for the cement is presented in Figure 4.4. This is a graph of conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate, and lines of constant cement flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves. Within the limit of the 30 Ibf/in2 pressure drop the cement was conveyed at flow rates up to about 35,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline. 2.3.1 Conveying Limits The zero line at the bottom of the graph is the curve representing the variation of conveying line pressure drop with air flow rate for air only, which comes from Figure 4.1 for the pipeline used. This, therefore, represents the lower limit with respect to the material conveying capacity for the given system. Apart from the lower limit of zero for material conveying capacity, there are three other limitations on the plot in Figure 4.4.

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Gas-Solid Flows

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30

Material Flow Rate - I b / h * 1000

30

20

0. o

10
c o U

40

80

120

160

200

Free Air Flow Rate - ItVmin Figure 4.4 Pressure drop data for cement.

The first is the limit on the right hand side of the graph, but this is set only by the volumetric capacity of the compressor or blower used. This was 200 ftVmin, and by reference to Figure 4.3 it will be seen that conveying air velocities are up to about 8000 ft/min at the end of the pipeline. For the majority of pneumatic conveying systems this is considered to be the upper limit. This upper limit is partly influenced by problems of material degradation and bend erosion in the conveying line, but it is mainly due to the adverse effect on the conveying line pressure drop and hence material flow rate. This aspect of the problem is considered in more detail in the next section. In terms of the overall conveying characteristics, the shape of the curves is quite clearly established within this maximum limit. The second limit is that at the top of the graph and this is set by the pressure rating of the compressor or blower used. Once again this is not a physical limit, for if air is available at a higher pressure, it can be used for conveying, but it would normally be recommended that the pipeline be stepped to a larger bore in order to limit the very high values of conveying air velocity. This aspect of system design is considered in Chapter 9. The third is the limit on the left hand side of the graph and this represents the approximate safe minimum conditions for successful conveying with the material. The lines actually terminate and conveying is not possible in the area to the left at lower air flow rates. This limit is governed by a complex combination of material properties, material concentration and conveying distance, and is considered in more detail later in this section.

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Chapter 4

Any attempt to convey with a lower air flow rate would result in blockage of the pipeline, in a conventional conveying system. This is because the air flow rate would be below the minimum required to convey the material. The terminology employed for these situations is choking, when conveying vertically up, and saltation when conveying horizontally. 2.3.2 Conveying Air Velocity Effects

An alternative way of presenting the conveying data on Figure 4.4 is to plot the material flow rate against the air flow rate and to have a series of curves at a constant value of the conveying line pressure drop. Such a plot is presented in Figure 4.5a. Although the air only datum is lost, this alternative plot shows the influence of excessively high conveying air velocities very well. The lines of constant pressure drop can be seen to slope quite steeply to the air flow rate axis, and hence to zero material flow rate at very high air flow rates, and hence velocities. This is because of the square law relationship of pressure drop with respect to velocity, presented in Equation 1 for air only, but which approximately applies to suspension flow for high velocity dilute phase conveying. Conveying Line Pressure Drop - Ibt7in2
\ ,50
35 o o 40 30

Solids Loading Ratio

60

60
Conveying

o 50

> 40
<u
CS

30

-AREA

_0

_o 20 I 20
O "o3

10

S 10
Conveying Pressure Dri - Ibf/iiv

50

100

150

200

50

100

150
3

200

(a)

Free Air Flow Rate - fVVmin

(b)

Free Air Flow Rate - ft /min

Figure 4.5 Performance data for cement conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.

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If the conveying system has a compressor or blower with a maximum rating in terms of delivery pressure, a considerable amount of this available pressure will be taken up by moving the air through the line if the air flow rate, and hence velocity, is too high. Part of the pressure drop is due to the material being conveyed and the greater the concentration of the material in the air, the greater the pressure drop. If the conveying air velocity is too high, therefore, the concentration of the material in the air will have to be reduced in order to match the available pressure drop, and so the resulting material flow rate will be much lower. 2.3.3 Solids Loading Ratio Solids loading ratio is the term generally used by pneumatic conveying engineers to describe the conveyed gas-solids suspension flow. Solids loading ratio is the ratio of the mass flow rate of the solids conveyed to the mass flow rate of the air used. The particular advantages over particle concentration are that it is a dimensionless quantity and its value does not vary with the conveying gas pressure. With the graph in Figure 4.5a being a plot of material flow rate against air flow rate, lines of constant solids loading ratio can be superimposed quite easily as they will be straight lines through the origin. Such a plot is shown in Figure 4.5b. The plot presented in Figure 4.5b is referred to as the conveying characteristics for the material and is, in effect, a performance map for the material in the given pipeline. A conveying limit for the material is also identified on this plot. From Figure 4.5b it will be seen that solids loading ratios up to about 140 have been achieved and this is quite clearly dense phase conveying. With a low air pressure and a high air flow rate, however, the cement is conveyed at solids loading ratios below ten and this is quite clearly dilute phase, suspension flow. It will be seen that there is no transition between dilute and dense phase flow and so the dividing line between the two modes of flow is not clearly defined. 2.3.4 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity

The conveying limit represented on Figure 4.5b appears a little strange at first sight. If reference is made to Figure 4.3, or if conveying air velocities are otherwise calculated, it will be seen that at the upper part of the conveying limit curve the conveying air velocity is about 600 ft/min. This is where the solids loading ratio is about 140 and so a minimum conveying air velocity of 600 ft/min is consistent with that appropriate for dense phase conveying. At very low values of conveying air pressure, and hence low values of solids loading ratio, the minimum conveying air velocity is about 2000 ft/min and this is consistent with that necessary for the dilute phase conveying of this type of material. The slope of the conveying limit curve is positive in both of these extreme areas of dilute and dense phase conveying. This is due to the compressibility effect of the air. In these two regions the conveying air velocity is reasonably uniform, being about 2000 ft/min for the dilute phase conveying of the cement, and 600

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Chapter 4

ft/min for the dense phase conveying. As the pressure of the conveying air increases, a greater volumetric flow rate of air is required to maintain the same value of conveying air velocity, and hence the positive slope to the conveying limit curve in these areas. Between these two regions two opposing effects come into play. One is the problem of compressibility, which means that a greater air flow rate is required as the air supply pressure increases. The other relates to the considerable increase in solids loading ratio that is possible with an increase in conveying line pressure drop. This means that the cement can be conveyed at a lower velocity, which in turn means that a lower air flow rate is required. The combination of these two effects dictates the shape of the transition between the dilute phase and the very dense phase portions of the conveying limit curve. 2.3.4.1 Solids Loading Ratio Influence The relationship between the minimum conveying air velocity and the solids loading ratio at which a material is conveyed can be determined experimentally with the material in a pipeline. This is typically derived during the conveying trials carried out with a material in order to determine the conveying characteristics for the material, since the determination of conveying limits is generally an integral part of the test work. Pneumatic conveying trials with bulk particulate materials are considered in Chapter 23. The approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum conveying air velocity for the cement is presented in Figure 4.6.
3000

2000

1000
en

c o U

20

40

60

80

100

Solids Loading Ratio Figure 4.6 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of ordinary portland cement.

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This curve is typical of the relationship between minimum conveying air velocity and solids loading ratio for air retentive materials that are capable of being conveyed in the sliding bed mode of dense phase flow. This relationship has a major influence on the operation and pneumatic conveying capability of this type of material and will feature at many points throughout this Handbook. Possibly the greatest effect is the change that occurs with increase in conveying distance, which is considered in Chapter 7. Since high solids loading ratios can only be achieved with a high value of pressure gradient, an increase in conveying distance will mean that the value of solids loading ratio must be reduced if there is no increase in the air supply pressure. A reduction in solids loading ratio, as will be seen from Figure 4.6, will require an increase in conveying air velocity and this will consequently require an increase in air flow rate. In the extreme the solids loading ratio will reduce to a value at which the material can only be conveyed in dilute phase. This relationship is introduced later in this Chapter. 2.4 The Conveying of Alumina

The grade of alumina used and reported here is one that is generally referred to as being sandy or coarse. The alumina was conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2 and the pressure drop data for the material is presented in Figure 4.7. This is a graph of conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate, and lines of constant alumina flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves.
30

Material Flow Rate - l b / h x 1000


D.

Q u

20

I OJ
OH

DO C

10

o U

40

80

120

160

200

Free Air Flow Rate - fr/min Figure 4.7 Pressure drop data for sandy alumina.

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Within the limit of the 30 Ibf7in2 pressure drop the alumina was conveyed at flow rates up to about 25,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline. If this is compared with the corresponding data for the cement in Figure 4.4 it will be seen that the maximum value of flow rate for the alumina is very much lower and that the air flow rate required to achieve 25,000 Ib/h is significantly greater than that required to convey the cement at 35,000 Ib/h. The same conveying limits, as discussed in relation to the conveying of cement, apply to the alumina. It is the same pipeline and so the air only pressure drop relationship is the same. It is the same air supply and so the air flow rate and pressure considered are also the same. It is the conveying limit for the material that differs. Conveying capability and conveying limits, however, do differ widely from one material to another, and this is why conveying data is so essential. 2.4.1 Conveying A ir Velocity Effects An alternative presentation of the data, in terms of material flow rate plotted against air flow rate, with lines of constant conveying line pressure drop superimposed, is presented in Figure 4.8a. Once again this graph is drawn with the same axes as that for the cement in Figure 4.5a so that a direct visual comparison of the two materials can be made.

60
50

60

50

40

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in2

o * 40
.o

NO GO

Solids Loading Ratio Conveying Limit 20

g30
25
od

I30
5

AREA

20
10

320

10

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2

50

100

150

200

50

100

150

200

(a)

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

(b)

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 4.8 Performance data for sandy alumina conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.

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Gas-Solid Flows

123

The comparison is striking in terms of the small area of the graph in which the data for the sandy alumina appears. It will be noted in Figure 4.8a that the lines of constant conveying line pressure drop terminate at progressively higher air mass flow rates as the material flow rate increases. This does not mean that the minimum conveying air velocity increases. This is entirely due to the influence of air pressure and the compressibility of the air. By reference to Figure 4.3, it will be seen that the minimum conveying air velocity for this material is about 2600 ft/min and that it changes little over this range of material concentration. This slope of the minimum conveying limit on Figure 4.8b is a characteristic feature of all materials conveyed in dilute phase and will be seen on the conveying characteristics for most of the materials presented here. It applies equally to materials capable of being conveyed in dense phase, if the pressure gradient is low, as will be seen in the very low pressure area on Figure 4.5b for the cement. With the cement it was possible to convey the material with higher air supply pressures. From Figure 4.5a it will be seen that within the limit of 60,000 Ib/h of material, conveying line pressure drop values up to 40 Ibf/in2 were employed. From Figure 4.8a for the alumina it will be seen that 25 Ibf/in 2 is close to the maximum pressure that could be employed. Although the air pressure with the test facility was available at 100 Ibf/in 2 gauge, a pressure higher than 25 Ibf/in 2 could not be used because the volumetric flow rate of the air was limited to 200 ftVmin. The locus of the conveying limit line is included on Figure 4.8b and it will be seen that this passes through the 200 ftVmin air flow rate limit with an air supply pressure of about 30 Ibf/in2. At these air supply pressures the minimum conveying air velocity for the alumina is about 2600 ft/min compared with only 600 ft/min for the cement, and so for a given air supply pressure the air flow rate is more than four times greater. 2.4.2 Solids Loading Ratio The conveying capability for the alumina is clearly illustrated with the conveying characteristics presented in Figure 4.8b. The maximum value of solids loading ratio achieved is only just over 25 and this, together with the minimum conveying air velocity of 2600 ft/min, equates to dilute phase, suspension flow for the material. Despite the fact that a high air supply pressure was available, the material is only conveyed in dilute phase. It must be stressed, therefore, that high pressure is not synonymous with dense phase conveying. Solids loading ratios for dilute phase conveying are generally much lower than 25. The fact that a solids loading ratio as high as 25 was achieved in this case is due to the fact that the pipeline was relatively short at 165 ft and the air supply pressure was relatively high at 25 Ibf/in2. To complete the picture for the alumina a plot of the minimum conveying air velocity versus solids loading ratio is presented in Figure 4.9. This is simply a horizontal line at a value of 2600 ft/min over a limited range of solids loading ratios. This is typical of materials that can not be conveyed in dense phase, and there is generally little change in the value of the minimum conveying air velocity value over the range of solids loading ratios.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

124

Chapter 4

3000

I
2000

<5

.S 1000
oo c

o O

20

40

60

80

100

Solids loading ratio Figure 4.9 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of sandy alumina. 2.5 Comparison of Materials

To illustrate the influence of the material on conveying capability further, the conveying characteristics for two more materials conveyed through the Figure 4.2 pipeline are presented in Figures 4.10a and 4.1 Ob. The first of these is a fine grade of pulverized fuel ash, obtained from the electrostatic precipitators of a boiler plant, and had a mean particle size of about 25 micron. The second is a silica sand, obtained from a quarry, and air classified to give a mean particle size of about 70 micron. It will be seen that this pair of materials are very similar to the cement and alumina in terms of overall characteristics, particularly with regard to minimum conveying limits. The conveying line pressure drop curves for the pulverized fuel ash, however, are very much steeper than those of the cement and so very much higher material flow rates were achieved at low values of air flow rate. As a consequence very much higher values of solids loading ratio were achieved. Apart from differences in density, the shape of the particles are also very different, with the cement coming from a grinding process and fly ash being derived from a combustion process. It is not surprising, therefore, that the conveying characteristics are very different. Values of minimum conveying air velocity, however, are very similar. The differences between the alumina and the sand are not so pronounced, although the sand has a slightly lower value of minimum conveying air velocity, but a much lower material flow rate was achieved for a given pressure drop.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gas-Solid Flows

125

60

300200 120 100 80

60

50 NO
40
40

GO

Solids Loading Ratio


Conveying Limit

AREA
ai

20

.320

Conveying Line Pressure Drop 25

35 V.20 15 10

S 10

10 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150

200

(a)

Free Air Flow Rate - frYmin

(b)

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 4.10 Conveying characteristics for materials conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.2. (a) A fine grade of pulverized fuel ash and (b) silica sand.

2.6

The Conveying of Polyethylene Pellets

Polyethylene pellets were also conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2 and the pressure drop data for the material is presented in Figure 4.11. This is a graph of conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate, and lines of constant material flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves. The axes used are the same as those employed for the cement in Figure 4.4 and the alumina in Figure 4.8 and so a direct visual comparison can be made. Within the limit of the 30 lbf/in 2 pressure drop the pellets were conveyed at flow rates up to about 30,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline. This compares with 35,000 Ib/h for the cement and 25,000 Ib/h for the alumina but the main point is that the overall conveying data is very different once again. Conveying is possible at very low values of air flow rate, like the cement, but the maximum value of material flow rate was achieved at the highest value of air flow rate, like the alumina. The same conveying limits, as discussed in relation to the conveying of both the cement and alumina, apply to the polyethylene pellets. It is the same pipeline and so the air only pressure drop relationship is the same. It is the same air supply and so the air flow rate and pressure considered are also the same. In this case it is the conveying limit for the material that differs and the behavior of the material at low values of conveying air velocity.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

126

Chapter 4

Material Flow Rate Ib/h x 1000

30

80 120 Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin


Figure 4.11 2.6.1 Pressure drop data for polyethylene pellets.

160

200

Conveying Air Velocity Effects

An alternative presentation of the data, in terms of material flow rate plotted against air flow rate, with lines of constant conveying line pressure drop superimposed, is presented in Figure 4.12a. Once again this graph is drawn with the same axes as those for the cement in Figure 4.5a and the alumina in Figure 4.8a so that a direct visual comparison of the three materials can be made. Once again the pattern of the data is totally different from that of the previous two materials. With this material a distinct pressure minimum point is observed. The lines of constant conveying line pressure drop on Figure 4.12a change slope at the point where the material flow rate is a maximum. The term 'pressure minimum' is actually derived from Figure 4.11 where a minimum value of conveying line pressure drop can be seen for each of the lines of constant material flow rate. With the pressure drop lines changing slope below the pressure minimum point, material flow rates reduce considerably with further decrease in air flow rate. Although conveying is possible at lower air flow rates, unlike the alumina, material flow rates are significantly lower than those achieved with the cement. It will be seen that the pressure drop lines all merge below the pressure minimum points and this is why the curves on Figure 4.11 rise vertically below the pressure minimum point. The material flow rate, however, was reasonably uniform over the entire range of conveying conditions, although this is not always the case with this type of material. With the pipeline being of relatively small bore it was not possible to separate the lines of constant pressure in this area.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gas-Solid Flows

127

60
50
o o o 40

60
50

NO GO

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2

Solids Loading Ratio

AREA

30

as

cd

FT 20
10

\ Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in%

(a)

50 100 150 200 Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

(b)

50 100 150 200 Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 4.12 Performance data for polyethylene pellets conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics. 2.6.2 Solids Loading Ratio The conveying characteristics for the polyethylene pellets are presented in Figure 4.12b and from this it will be seen that the maximum value of solids loading ratio at which the material was conveyed is no different from that of the sandy alumina, at about 25. The polyethylene pellets, however, were successfully conveyed with conveying air velocities down to about 600 ft/min and so this is clearly dense phase flow at low values of air flow rate. The material, having a relatively large particle size, and being mono-sized, means that it is very permeable. As a consequence the air will pass through a packed bed of the material relatively easily. It is as a result of the material being very permeable that it will naturally convey in dense phase in a plug flow mode. With the material being so permeable it is possible that the material could be conveyed with very much lower air velocities than 600 ft/min without blocking the pipeline. As the material flow rate decreases with decrease in air flow rate, below the optimum point, however, the benefits of ultra low velocity conveying need to be carefully considered. As with the cement, a natural transition from dilute phase conveying to dense phase conveying occurs, but the value of the solids loading ratio provides no guidance in this case. It can, however, be determined by the value of the conveying line inlet air velocity and this is considered further in Chapter 7.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

128 3 THE INFLUENCE OF MATERIALS

Chapter 4

The conveying characteristics for different materials can vary significantly, as illustrated with the representative group of materials considered above. This is particularly so for materials that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase. At low values of air flow rate the lines of constant conveying line pressure drop can have a wide variety of slopes. There is also the added complexity of different materials having different minimum conveying limits. Thus for a given air flow rate and conveying line pressure drop, material flow rates for different materials can vary considerably, and the air flow rate necessary to convey different materials can also vary considerably. Some of these differences were illustrated earlier with the materials used to show how conveying characteristics are determined. These differences, however, are not just a feature of conveying with high pressure air but will be found in low pressure systems also. 3.1 Low Pressure Conveying

If only low pressure air is available for conveying a material through a pipeline, such as that from a positive displacement blower or any vacuum conveying system, and with a pressure drop below about 15 lbf/in 2 , a material will only be conveyed in dilute phase through a pipeline, unless the conveying distance is very short. Conveying at high values of solids loading ratio typically requires high values of conveying line pressure drop. The influence of solids loading ratio on pressure drop is illustrated in Figure 4.13. This is an extension of the data presented in Figures 4.4 to 4.6 for the cement and is a plot of conveying line pressure drop against free air flow rate, with lines of constant solids loading ratio superimposed. For the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2, for which the data relates, a conveying line pressure drop in excess of 10 lbf/in" is required before the material can be conveyed in true dense phase and at low velocity. It will be seen that the volumetric flow rate of the air has a significant effect in this respect and helps to illustrate why high values of solids loading ratio are not possible for materials that can not be conveyed in dense phase. If the pipeline is very much shorter, and with fewer bends, however, the air only curve and the pressure drop axis on Figure 4.13 will be significantly reduced and low velocity dense phase conveying will be possible at much lower values of pressure drop. By positioning the reception vessel on the quayside close to bulk container ships, conveying distances can be kept very short and materials such as cement can be off-loaded in dense phase, and at very high flow rates, with a vacuum conveying system. Fly ash can similarly be transferred from electrostatic precipitators on boiler plants to intermediate reception vessels in dense phase by vacuum conveying systems.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gas-Solid Flows

129

30

Solids Loading Ratio

120

100

80

60

50

40
30

o,

20 20
NO GO

AREA

g'lO
c o U

Conveyin: Limit
40 80 120 Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
160

200

Figure 4.13

Solids loading ratio data for cement.

Conveying data for four different materials is presented in Figure 4.14. Each material was conveyed in a positive pressure conveying system up to a limit of 8 lbf/in2 in terms of conveying line pressure drop. All four materials were conveyed through the same pipeline, a sketch of which is given in Figure 4.15. Although each material could only be conveyed in dilute phase, because of the limit on pressure available, it will be seen that there are significant differences in their conveying capabilities. The differences between materials are mainly in terms of the material flow rates achieved, varying from 8500 Ib/h for the pearlite to 3500 Ib/h for the iron powder, for a pressure drop of 8 lbf/in 2 . Since all the materials were conveyed in dilute phase, and they were all either powders or fine granular materials, such marked differences would not be expected in terms of minimum conveying air velocities. With a 3 lbf/in 2 pressure drop, these varied between 2400 ft/min for the pearlite and 3200 ft/min for the iron powder. Although the iron powder achieved the lowest flow rate of the four materials presented, it should be noted that the iron powder conveyed very well, regardless of the fact that particle density was 355 lb/ft3 and the bulk density about 150 lb/ft3. Metal powders can be conveyed pneumatically; the main problem is that many of them are potentially explosive and so require to be conveyed with nitrogen. Uranium with even higher density values is regularly conveyed in pneumatic systems because of the safety aspects of the conveying system. At the other extreme the pearlite had a bulk density of only 6 !b/ft' and a particle density of 50 lb/ft'. With a higher pressure gradient available both the iron powder and pearlite have dense phase conveying potential.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

130

Chapter 4

Conveying Line Pressure Drop 8 - lbf/in 2


o7
x
X3

Solids Loading Ratio

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2

Solids Loading
Ra(io

^ 5 ~T

"8 o x, 2 u

<L>

!2 i
0
(a)
40 60 80 100 120 Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min

40

(b)

60 80 100 120 Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin

o
2
X

Solids Loading Ratio - Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2

o o

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2 Solids Loading Ratio

_c .Conveying Line 5

8.

3
B 2

40

60

80

100

120

40

60

80

100

120

(c)

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

(d)

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 4.14 Conveying characteristics for low pressure conveying of materials, (a) Pearlite, (b) sodium chloride (salt), (c) iron powder, and (d) sodium carbonate (soda ash).

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gas-Solid Flows

131

Pipeline: length 115ft bore 2 in bends 8 x 90 D/d = 5

Figure 4.15

Details of pipeline used for low pressure conveying trials.

Many different materials have been tested in the pipeline presented in Figure 4.15. To illustrate how the conveying characteristics of different materials can vary in such a low pressure system, the 8 lbf/in 2 constant conveying line pressure drop curves from a number of such materials are compared on Figure 4.16. With additional materials it will be seen that the conveying performance, in terms of material flow rate achieved, does not correlate with material density. Soda ash is little better than iron powder and pulverized fuel ash is better than pearlite in terms of material flow rate achieved. Lump coal is better than fine granular salt, although a slightly higher value of conveying line inlet air velocity is required, and so performance does not correlate with particle size either.
Pulverized Fuel Ash (fine grade)

Pearlite

(U

^ . oi 4

Soda Ash Silica Sand

g2

Iron Powder

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Free Air Flow Rate - fr/min Figure 4.16 Comparison of performance of different materials conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.15 with a conveying line pressure drop of 8 lbf/in 2 .

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

132

Chapter 4

Different conveying capabilities and air requirements mean that particular care must be taken if an existing system is to be used to convey another material, or if one system is required to convey a number of different materials. If the capability of a system is dictated by the pressure rating of the air mover, then different material flow rates must be expected, and the feeding device must be capable of meeting the needs of any other material. A different air flow rate may also be required, as shown by the different minimum values for conveying line inlet air velocity. 3.2 High Pressure Conveying

If high pressure air is available for conveying a material, and the pipeline is not too long, then the material could be conveyed in dense phase if the material is capable of being conveyed in dense phase. Conveying data for a further four materials is presented in Figure 4.17. All four materials were conveyed through the same pipeline once again, so that direct comparisons of performance can be made. The pipeline is the same as that used for the earlier high pressure conveying trials, a sketch of which was given in Figure 4.2. The compressor used for this high pressure work was capable of delivering 200 frVmin of free air at 100 lbf/in 2 gauge. The four materials presented include two food products and two metal products, and from each group, one material could not be conveyed in dense phase and one could. The materials that could be conveyed in dense phase were conveyed at solids loading ratios of well over 100 and were conveyed in the sliding bed mode of dense phase flow. These were wheat flour and iron powder and the conveying characteristics for these materials are very similar in form to those for the cement in Figure 4.5b and the fly ash in Figure 4.10a presented earlier. With high pressure conveying air, and at high values of solids loading ratios, all four of these materials could be conveyed with conveying line inlet air velocities as low as 600 ft/min. That high pressure is not synonymous with dense phase conveying is clearly shown with the granulated sugar. A minimum conveying air velocity of 3200 ft/min had to be maintained and, as a result, the maximum pressure that could be used was only 25 lbf/in 2 , because of the limit of 200 ftVmin on air flow rate available. As a consequence the maximum solids loading ratio achieved was well below 20. Granulated sugar has both poor air retention properties and poor permeability. Flour and sugar are often materials that are required to be conveyed with a common system and often through the same pipeline. It will be seen that there are significant differences between the conveying capabilities of these two materials. The specification of air requirements represents a particular problem, apart from choice of feeder and controls. Many different materials have been conveyed in the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. To show how the conveying characteristics of different materials can vary in such a high pressure system, the 20 lbf/in 2 constant conveying line pressure drop curves from a number of such materials are compared on Figure 4.18.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gas-Solid Flows

133

Conveying Limit
50

Solids Loading Ratio

50

NO
I 40 I 30
Conveying Line

>40

GO
AREA

I
730
Bi

Solids Loading Ratio Conveying Limit

fcu

20

is 'C
'S
0)

.220 ~ is
<B JS10

10

Conveying Line Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2

(a)

40 80 120 160 200 Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min

(b)

40 80 120 160 200 Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

60
Conveying Line 50 " Pressure Drop
o o o

Conveying
Limit

60 0 50

Solids Loading Ratio

"

NO
GO
AREA Solids Re

^40

=5 4Q
u

30 _o i 2 .5

(S30

s _o

cConvey!

'8 S 10
AREA

Limit E Conveying Line |20 Pressure Drop ; - lbf/in 2 \ 1 10 ; 15 r=-j . ^^ 5

.^

(C)

100 150 200 50 Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min

(d)

50 100 150 200 Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 4.17 Conveying characteristics for high pressure conveying of materials, (a) Wheat flour, (b) granulated sugar, (c) iron powder, and (d) zircon sand.

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134

Chapter 4

50 o o o 40

Pulverized Fuel Ash - fine

Barite

30
Iron Powder

Sugar Granulated

FT 20

Cement Wheat Flour

10

PVC Powder Magnesium/ Sulfate

50

100

150

200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min Figure 4.18 Comparison of performance of different materials conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.2 with a conveying line pressure drop of 20 !bf/in2. It will be noted that at the extreme right of Figure 4.18, at high air flow rates, all the materials are conveyed in dilute phase and the degree of scatter in material flow rates is similar to that shown in Figure 4.16. All the pressure drop curves have a negative slope in this area and each one will probably reach the air flow rate axis at a value of about 600 ft3/min. As a result of the different slopes of the pressure drop curves, at low values of air flow rate, for the different materials, quite remarkable differences in material flow rate can be obtained. This is for materials conveyed through exactly the same pipeline and under exactly the same conveying conditions. Differences in minimum conveying air velocities, for materials that will not convey in dense phase, significantly add to the problems of reliable system design, particularly for a new or unknown material. 3.2.7 Conveying L im its

Conveying limits in terms of minimum conveying air velocities and maximum solids loading ratios vary widely for different materials. This point is clearly illustrated in Figure 4.19 with the limits for three materials presented. Each material was conveyed through the 165 ft long pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. Although the fine grade of fly ash could be conveyed at solids loading ratios in excess of 200 and with minimum conveying air velocities close to 600 ft/min the copper concentrate could not be conveyed above a solids loading ratio of about 55.

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Gas-Solid Flows

135

Limit for Copper Concentrate

50
40

'100

/80

o20
.3 j

20

10

10
Solids Loading Ratio
50 100
150

200

Free Air Flow Rate - fr'/min Figure 4.19 Comparison of material conveying limits for conveying under identical conveying conditions. The minimum conveying air velocity for the copper concentrate was about 1600 ft/min. With the granulated sugar, however, conveying at a solids loading ratio of 20 could not be achieved and the minimum value of conveying air velocity was about 3200 ft/min. 4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Certain material characteristics can be used to predict the potential behavior of a material when pneumatically conveyed. These are mostly based on bulk properties of the material that relate to material-air interactions, such as fluidization, air retention and permeability. The air retention capabilities of a bulk material are a good indicator of whether a material will convey in dense phase or not. Powdered materials such as fly ash, cement, and flour have very good air retention properties and are generally capable of being conveyed at low velocities in a sliding bed mode of dense phase flow. Large mono-sized particles having very good permeability, such as polyethylene pellets are generally capable of being conveyed at low velocities in a plug mode of dense phase flow. Coarse granular materials such as sand and alumina, that have very poor air retention and permeability are generally only capable of being conveyed in dilute

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

136

Chapter 4

phase suspension flow in conventional pneumatic conveying systems, particularly if they have a wide particle size distribution. 4.1 The Geldart Classification

The Geldart classification of materials is essentially in terms of two material properties [1J. One is the difference in densities between the material particles and the fluidizing medium. For air this can simply be taken as the particle density, since the density of air is negligible in comparison. The other property is the mean particle size of the material. This classification is shown here in Figure 4.20. It includes four broad areas that identify the behavior of bulk materials when fluidized. It has often been considered that this form of classification could be used to assess the suitability of materials for dense phase conveying. Group A materials retain air and the fluid bed collapses very slowly when the gas is turned off. These materials are generally capable of being conveyed in dense phase. Group B materials do not retain air and the fluid bed collapses almost instantaneously when the gas supply is turned off. These materials are not generally capable of being conveyed in dense phase in a conventional conveying system and so are restricted to dilute phase, suspension flow. Group C materials are essentially cohesive and will behave in a similar manner to Group A materials but are more difficult to handle. They will generally convey in dense phase but the main problem is often one of feeding them into the pipeline. Group D materials are likewise an extension of Group B in terms of pneumatic conveying.
500

100
50
"o
I

10

10

50

100

500

1000

5000

Mean Particle Size - micron Figure 4.20 ent air. Geldart's classification of fluidization behavior for fluidization with ambi-

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Gas-Solid Flows

137

This Group D classification, however, being in terms of mean particle size, is not capable of identifying materials that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase in plug flow mode, for this is only appropriate to essentially mono-sized particles. By the same reasoning the line separating Groups A and B is not particularly reliable in identifying the division between dilute and dense phase conveying capability. 4.2 Dixon's Slugging Diagram

Dixon [2], realized the importance of material type on the mode of conveying and devised a classification known as the Slugging Diagram, which is shown in Figure 4.21. The axes are the same as those for the Geldart classification and the same divisions are identified. This classification, however, clearly identifies the capability of large mono-sized particles for conveying in the plug mode of dense phase flow. An understanding of the role of particle properties such as size, and size distribution, shape or fractal properties and density will probably provide the ultimate solution to the problem. It is, however, very difficult to quantify properties such as particle shape and size distribution, and so measurable bulk properties relating to gas-particle interactions offer the best short-term means of using property values to predict pneumatic conveying performance. Air retention, permeability and specific surface are probably the best properties to consider for this purpose, although the first two are probably the easiest to measure and determine.

500

Group D

100
t 50

g Q

Strong Axisymmetric Slugs Group C

10

10

50

100

500

1000

5000

Mean Particle Size - micron Figure 4.21 Dixon's slugging diagram.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

138 4.3 Aeration Property Classification

Chapter 4

Jones and Mills [3, 4] used a vibrated de-aeration constant and permeability factor to produce an empirical material classification for conventional pneumatic conveying systems. The correlation that they produced is presented in Figure 4.22. For convenience the de-aeration rate was determined by vibrating the material from the 'as poured' condition rather than measuring it from the fluidized state. This clearly identifies the three main modes of conveying. Dense phase, moving bed flow, will naturally occur with materials that have very poor permeability and very low values of de-aeration. Dense phase, plug type flow, will naturally occur with materials that have very good permeability and a very rapid rate of de-aeration. The center grouping represents materials that are generally restricted to dilute phase flow in a conventional conveying system. Materials that have very good air retention, and hence a low vibrated deaeration rate value, such as cement, flour and fly ash, fall into the Group 1 category, and will convey very well in a conventional conveying system. A simple test to apply is to half fill a glass jar, preferably having a screw top lid, with a sample of the material to be conveyed. Invert the jar a few times to aerate the material, place it on a surface, remove the lid, and drop a ball bearing or similar object into the jar. If the ball bearing falls through the material and hits the bottom of the jar, the material is likely to have good air retention properties and be a potential candidate for dense phase conveying. With a material such as cement, the ball bearing will hit the bottom of the jar, even if it is dropped in the jar several minutes after the material has been aerated and left standing, as it has such good air retention properties.

10
GROUP 2 DILUTE PHASE GROUP 1 \ (SusPension Flow)

GROUP 3 PLUG TYPE FLOW

Q
T3

& 0-5

MOVING BED TYPE FLOW

0-1

1 10 Permeability Factor - ft3 in/lb x l(r6

100

Figure 4.22

Bulk material property classification for pneumatic conveying.

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Gas-Solid Flows

139

If the material is granular, the ball bearing is unlikely to penetrate the material and will simply come to rest on the top of the surface. In this case the material is unlikely to have sufficient air retention to allow it to be conveyed in dense phase in a conventional conveying system. If the material has good permeability, however, such that it falls into Group 3, it is possible that the material will convey at low velocity in the plug type dense phase mode of flow. Pelletized materials, such as polyethylene and nylon, are ideal candidates and will convey very well in a conventional conveying system. Coarse granular materials having a wide particle size distribution, however, do not generally have sufficient permeability to be capable of dense phase conveying in the plug phase mode. 5 CONVEYING SYSTEM CAPABILITY

For a given material a particular problem with pneumatic conveying systems is the evaluation of their conveying potential. The capability of a pneumatic conveying system in terms of achieving a given material mass flow rate, depends essentially on the following three parameters: D the diameter of the pipeline, D the distance to be conveyed, and D the conveying line pressure drop available. Within normal limits, and for a given material, air flow rate is a secondary function, being primarily dependent upon the pipeline bore and air pressure. It is, however, important with respect to achieving optimum conveying conditions in a given pipeline. The properties of the material to be conveyed are also of paramount importance. Their main influence, however, in terms of material mass flow rate, is in placing an upper limit on the solids loading ratio at which the material can be conveyed under particular conditions, as shown in Figure 4.19.

5.1

Solids Loading Ratio - </>

The solids loading ratio of a conveyed material is the dimensionless ratio of the mass flow rate of the material being conveyed to the mass flow rate of the air used for conveying.

m
<t>

ma

(4)

where mp = mass flow rate of material - Ib/h and ma = mass flow rate of air - Ib/h

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

140

Chapter 4

Since air is a compressible fluid its density changes with pressure and so the volumetric flow rate, and hence velocity, of the conveying air can increase quite significantly along the length of a pipeline. Solids loading ratio, therefore, is a particularly useful parameter for describing the concentration of the material in the air in pneumatic conveying system pipelines, for it is a dimensionless quantity and its value remains essentially constant. This applies to stepped bore pipelines as well as single bore lines. 5.2 The Influence of Pipe Bore

The mass flow rate of a material can be expressed in terms of the solids loading ratio at which the material is conveyed, by:

m =
Note:

Ib/h

(5)

To convert free air flow rate, in ftVmin, to a mass flow rate, in Ib/h, multiply by the density of the air, in lb/ff, and by 60 min/h:
x

0-0765 x 60

Ib/h

(6)

where F0 Thus

= volumetric flow rate of free air - ftVmin

ma cc
and for a circular pipeline

n d2 576

x C

ft7min

(7)

where d and C Therefore

= pipeline bore = conveying air velocity

- in - ft/min

m,.

oc

Ccf

(8)

As a first order approximation, for simplicity, conveying air velocity, C, can be considered as being constant, so that:

cf

(9)

For a given system, therefore, throughput capability can be increased quite considerably by increasing the pipe bore and so enable high material flow rates to be achieved. The air requirements, of course, also have to be increased in the same proportion in order to maintain an equivalent air velocity.

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Gas-Solid Flows

141

In terms of achieving a given material flow rate over a specified distance, pipeline bore is probably the main variable. Pressure drop is also important, but an increase in air supply pressure is not always possible. Pipeline bore also has a significant effect on the air only pressure drop value, and this is particularly important if a low pressure air supply is to be used. A significant proportion of the available pressure could be used in getting the air through the pipeline. This aspect of system design is considered in Chapter 6. 5.3 The Influence of Pressure and Distance

The inter-relating effects of conveying line pressure drop and conveying distance are illustrated for low pressure systems in Figure 4.23, and for high pressure systems in Figure 4.24. The data is in terms of an approximate value of solids loading ratio that might be achieved for typical combinations of air supply pressure and conveying distance. It must be stressed that these figures are only approximations for the purpose of illustration and should not be used for design purposes. Pipe bore, conveying air velocity and, more particularly, material type, all have an influence on the overall relationship. For very short distances it is quite possible to convey a material at high values of solids loading ratio, even with the limited pressure drop available with negative pressure systems, as will be seen in Figure 4.23, provided that the material is capable of being conveyed in this mode. Pressure gradient, therefore, is the parameter that will dictate the potential mode of conveying for a material that is capable of being conveyed in dense phase.

150

100

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15
o 00 3

10
5

.
D. 3 t/3

200 300 Conveying Distance"^

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< -10

100 80 60

40

30

Figure 4.23 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading ratio for low pressure systems.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

142

Chapter 4

60
30 50 40

a 020

cn

30

. ,

,0

500

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1500

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2500

Conveying Distance - ft Figure 4.24 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading ratio for high pressure systems. Figure 4.24 shows that if very long conveying distances are required, the solids loading ratio will be relatively low, even with a high pressure system. With a low pressure system the maximum value of solids loading ratio that can be achieved will be very low, and then only with a large bore pipeline. It must be stressed once again that the high values of solids loading ratio are only applicable if the material being considered is capable of being conveyed in dense phase.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. D. Geldart. Types of gas fluidization. Powder Technology. Vol 7. pp 285-292. 1973. G. Dixon. The impact of powder properties on dense phase flow. Proc Int Conf on Pneumatic Conveying. London. Jan. 1979. M.G. Jones and D. Mills. Product classification for pneumatic conveying. Powder Handling and Processing. Vol 2. No 2. June 1990. D. Mills. Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide. Butterworth-Heinemann. 1990.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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