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Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

1991, 10 (3), 609-627

Environmental problems of aquaculture in Asia and their solutions


S.N. C H E N *

Summary: During the past decade aquaculture has expanded very rapidly in Asia. Extensive, semi-intensive and especially intensive systems are currently in use. These systems require careful management to avoid deterioration of the environment and mass mortality of cultured species. Taking shrimp culture as an example, the author discusses the major environmental factors which affect the health of aquatic species. Solutions to the various problems are also discussed. KEYWORDS: Aquaculture - Asia - Crustaceans - Environmental pollution Fish farming.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture comprises extensive, semi-intensive and intensive systems. Extensive systems require no input of feed or fertiliser, and the stocking density is low. Their success depends upon adequate exchange of tidal water a n d a natural food supply. Semi-intensive systems utilise limited amounts of feed or fertiliser and, except in tidal waters, a p u m p e d water supply and aeration systems. Intensive systems are also equipped with adequate water pumping and aeration facilities. The success of semi-intensive systems is also dependant u p o n a natural supply of feed, while intensive systems rely mainly on exogenous formulated feed. Extensive culture in Asia includes seaweed, coastal bivalves (e.g. mussels, oysters, clams), coastal fish (e.g. mullet, tilapia, milkfish) and crustaceans (shrimps and crabs), all kept in pens or cages (e.g. carp and catfish) immersed in eutrophic water. Semi-intensive systems utilise ponds of fresh or brackish water for fish (carp, catfish, milkfish, mullet, tilapia) or crustaceans (shrimps, p r a w n s , crabs, crayfish), or an integrated agriculture-aquaculture pond system, or culture in cages or pens (e.g. catfish, tilapia, milkfish, snakehead, carp). Intensive culture takes place in controlled areas of fresh or brackish water, or in marine ponds for shrimps, catfish, snakehead, grouper, sea bream, sea bass, mullet, tilapia, milkfish, carp, etc. There are also cages and pens in fresh, brackish or sea water for carnivorous fish (e.g. grouper, sea bass, sea bream) and omnivorous fish (e.g. c o m m o n carp, black carp).

* Department of Zoology, Institute of Fishery Biology, National Taiwan University, N o . I Roosevelt Road, Section 4, Taipei, Taiwan 10764, R.O.C.

610 Stocking density is the key criterion for classifying culture systems, but it varies with the species cultured. For example, in the case of penaeid shrimps, an extensive system would have less t h a n 30,000 individuals per hectare, a semi-intensive system 30,000-100,000 and an intensive system more than 100,000 individuals per hectare. In the case of milkfish, a density of 20,000 per hectare would be intensive. Aquaculture is recognised as the fastest expanding sector of food production. Asia produces over 8 0 % of all aquaculture products, and is becoming the dominant region for aquaculture (20). Although Asian aquaculture still relies on extensive and semiintensive production, intensive units are increasing rapidly. P r o d u c t i o n in aquaculture is governed by the capacity of the organisms and the capacity of the aqueous environment. The former is expressed as the maximum number of individuals which can survive and grow under optimum environmental conditions. Capacity for fish or shrimp production is governed by the quality of the fry and stocking densities. Capacity of the environment is governed by the quality of water and soil. For successful management it is important to consider the ecological equilibrium of culture p o n d s . With the increased use of higher stocking densities and greater pond areas, the environmental impact of the aquaculture industry has become m o r e important. There are m a n y books a n d articles on the environmental factors involved. The environmental impact of aquaculture and benefits for producers in Third W o r l d countries have been reviewed by Pullin (18), who summarises the environmental and social constraints arising from extensive, semi-intensive a n d intensive systems. Culture systems employed in Asia a n d the Pacific, and relationships between environment and health of aquatic animals have been reviewed by Braaten and Hektoen (4). Because the environmental constraints of aquaculture are complex and variable with the system used, it is impossible t o provide a detailed account. T h e culture of shrimps in Asia will be taken as a n example of environmental constraints, because this type of aquaculture has expanded considerably during the past decade, a n d because its economic and social benefits are being eroded gradually by environmental degradation.

WATER QUALITY

The ability of organisms t o grow in ponds is determined by correct management of water quality, which is the key factor in successful aquaculture. There are various reports of criteria for the quality of fresh and sea water ( 1 , 2, 3, 9). According to Huguenin and Colt (9), carrying capacity is determined by certain environmental factors, summarised in Table I. These authors specified the water quality required for the screening process a n d production (Table II). However, their findings were based on short-term experiments, and further research is needed to establish safety levels for each factor.

611
TABLE I

Sea water properties

affecting (9)

carrying

capacity

Physical parameters Temperature range (daily and seasonal variability) Salinity range (tidal and seasonal variability) Particulates (solids) - composition (organic and inorganic) - size concentration Colour Light - artificial or natural - total annual incident energy - intensity of radiant energy - quality of light - photoperiod (daily cycles) Chemical parameters pH and alkalinity Gases - total gas pressure - oxygen - nitrogen - carbon dioxide - hydrogen sulfide Nutrients - nitrogen compounds - phosphorus compounds - trace metals and speciation Organic compounds - biodegradable - non-biodegradable Toxic compounds - heavy metals - biocides Biological parameters Bacteria (type and concentrations) Virus Fungi Others

Dissolved oxygen in p o n d water is a critical factor for fish and shrimps. W h e n low, it reduces appetite and growth rate, and increases susceptibility to pathogens (2). A d e q u a t e oxygen m a y be supplied by aeration systems (air p u m p s , p a d d l e wheels, etc.). T h e n u m b e r a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of p a d d l e wheels is crucial for p r a w n culture, and there should be at least six one-horse-power wheels per hectare.

612
T A B L E II

Preliminary

water quality screening and production for marine applications


(9) Screening level < 1 ftg/1 N H
3

levels

Parameter Ammonia (except for plants)

Production level -N < 1 Mg/1 N H 3 -N research < 10 Mg/1 N H 3 -N production < 4 0 Mg/1 N H 3 -N holding, little or no feeding
2

Nitrite Dissolved oxygen (except for plants) Total gas pressure Carbon dioxide (except for plants) Hydrogen sulphide Chlorine residual pH Temperature Salinity Metals (total) Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Mercury Manganese Nickel Lead Zinc

< 0 . 0 0 5 ixg/\ N 0

-N

< 0 . 1 0 Mg/1 N 0 > 6 mg/1 < 2 0 mm Hg

-N

> 9 0 % of saturation < 76 mm Hg 5 mg/1 C 0


2

< 1 0 mg/1 C 0
2

2 /ig/1 as H S 10 /ig/1 7.9-8.2 Depends on life stage and species Depends on life stage and species < 1 Mg/' < 10 Mg/1 < 1 Mg/1 < 3 0 0 Mg/1 < 0.005 Mg/1 < 5 0 Mg/1 < 2 Mg/1 < 2 Mg/1 < 10 Mg/1

< 1 Mg/1 as H S
2

< 1 Mg/1 <7.9-8.2 - 1 to 40C 1-40 g/kg

< 3 Mg/1 < 2 5 Mg/1 < 3 Mg/1 < 100 Mg/1 < 0 . 1 Mg/1 < 2 5 Mg/1 < 5 Mg/1 < 4 Mg/1 < 2 5 Mg/1

Optimum pH for fish or shrimps ranges from 6.5 to 9.0. According to Swingle (23), growth was poor in fish kept at p H 4.0-6.0 or 9.0-11.0. Investigations of the effect of p H on shrimp larvae have shown that an abrupt fall (from 8.2 to 7.0 within six hours) resulted in mass mortality. Various factors influence the p H of rearing water, but it remains an important indicator of water quality for fish or shrimp culture. The success of aquaculture may depend on maintenance of a stable p H in culture p o n d s . The toxicity of certain heavy metals, gases and other chemicals is dependant on p H (19, 25). A m m o n i a and nitrite, the end products of protein breakdown, are important parameters of water quality. The toxicity of a m m o n i a is due to the free, un-ionized form NH3 whereas the ionized form ( N H ) is of low toxicity to aquatic animals (21). A m m o n i a ionization is dependant upon p H . Poisoning seldom occurs in ponds of low (acid) p H , but unfortunately the rearing of fish and prawns requires an alkaline p H , and free ammonia may occur.
4

613 Nitrite ( N O 2 ) is also toxic to penaeid shrimps and to fish (2, 10, 21). Nitrification by Nitrosomas and Nitrobacter bacteria converts ammonia into nitrite, and then into non-toxic nitrate. Table III shows how the survival rate of shrimp larvae declines with increasing concentrations of a m m o n i a and nitrite. These concentrations can be reduced by using an air-lifting technique or by introducing plants (e.g. Gracilaria) and certain bacteria (Tables IV and V). To ensure normal growth and survival of shrimp larvae, a safety factor for ammonia concentration (Fig. 1) has been established, and this may be useful in the management of prawn hatcheries.

TABLE

III

Effect of water quality on the survival of Penaeus m o n o d o n larvae in hatcheries


Items for detection Water temperature (C) pH Dissolved oxygen (ppm) Salinity (%o) Ammonia-N (ppb) Nitrite-N (ppb) Hydrogen sulphide (Ppb) Survival rate
N: Nauplius Mage

N6 31 8.100.005 6.1 0 . 2 31 152 5+1 1 3 100

Z3 31 8.04 0 . 0 1 6.00.3 31 109 17 47 9 27 1 78 5

Stages M3 32 7.97 + 0.17 5.80.4 30 471 9 2 7 8 16 394 62 7

P3 32 7.92 + 0.24 5.70.7 29 1 1365 154 140 3 2 63 6 35+11


P: Postlarval stage

P6 32 7.840.16 5.6 + 0.6 29 2 3470 4 7 260 4 7 92+15 21 9

Z : Postzoea stage

The presence of hydrogen sulphide ( H S ) at just 1 /g/1 may result in mass mortality. A temporary remedy against H 2 S in pond water is the spraying of mud containing a ferric c o m p o u n d ('red m u d ' ) . This procedure has been used successfully by some prawn farmers in Taiwan.
2

T w o groups of pollutants, pesticides and heavy metal c o m p o u n d s , may harm cultured fish and crustaceans. O r g a n o p h o s p h o r u s and pyrethroid insecticides are relatively non-toxic to fish, but they are extremely toxic to crustaceans, including prawns and shrimps (26). Only a few micrograms per litre (ppb) of an organophosphorus c o m p o u n d or a nanogram per litre (ppt) of a pyrethroid can cause mass mortality among cultured shrimps after brief exposure. The toxicity of Cypermethrin and methylparathion for shrimps (Tables VI and VII) highlights the need to avert pesticide contamination of crustacean cultures. Heavy metals (such as mercury, copper, cadmium and zinc) and their compounds commonly occur in industrial wastes, and they are toxic for aquatic life. Mercury and cadmium are the most toxic. Copper and zinc are less toxic, but they are capable of inhibiting growth and lowering resistance to pathogens (5, 7). In Asia, copper

614
TABLE IV

Water

quality

after

treatment

using

various

techniques

Treatment Items for detection Control EDTA 8.00 30.00 8.07 6.80 31.10 27.00 11.00 ND 18.00 16.00 0.80 2.50 ND ND 16.00 Air-lifting 4.00 30.00 8.07 6.80 31.00 13.00 4.00 ND 48.00 . 35.00 1.70 7.80 ND ND 35.00 EDTA + air-lifting 4.00 30.00 8.07 6.80 31.00 12.00 3.00 ND 21.00 22.00 1.20 4.40 ND ND ' 22.00

Sum of solid (mg/1) Water temperature (C) pH Dissolved oxygen (ppm) Salinity (% ) Ammonia-N (ppb) Nitrite-N (ppb) Hydrogen sulphide (ppb) Fe (ppb) Mn (ppb) Cu (ppb) Zn (ppb) Cd (ppb) Hg (ppb) Pb (ppb)
0

10.00 30.00 8.05 6.80 31.00 28.00 11.00 ND 53.00 36.00 2.10 11.40 ND ND 36.00

N D : not detectable

compounds (e.g. the sulphate) are commonly used to control phytoplankton bloom. Excessive use of these c o m p o u n d s may retard growth and increase susceptibility of fish and crustaceans to pathogens (unpublished results). The concentration of heavy metals in water can be reduced by adding the chelating agent E D T A (disodium ethylenediamine tetra-acetate) at 1-5 p p m (Table IV), and this procedure has been used widely in hatcheries in Asia.

TABLE

Ammonia and nitrite contents before and after introduction

in pond water of Gracilaria

N H -N (ppm)
4

N 0 -N (ppm)
2

o
Before

(ppm) After 1 h

Exp. no.

Before 1 h

After

Before 1 h 4.0 4.5 3.8 1.8 2.4 1.9

After

24 h
0.1 0.2 0.1

24 h
0.4 0.1 0.3 6.0 5.0 6.0

24 h
8.0 7.2 8.0

1. 2. 3.

5.0 4.5 4.2

2.0 1.9 1.8

6.8 6.2 7.1

A l l observations were made between 9:00-10:00 am

615

FIG.

S a f e t y p a r a m e t e r s f o r a m m o n i a c o n c e n t r a t i o n in w a t e r in e a c h d e v e l o p i n g s t a g e o f Penaeus monodon l a r v a e in h a t c h e r i e s

E f f l u e n t f r o m culture p o n d s

A q u a c u l t u r e , particularly shrimp culture, is confined to certain areas in Asia (Fig. 2). Lack of governmental planning and regulation has resulted in overcrowding of farms. Because intensive systems use high-protein feed to meet the nutritional needs of the cultured animals, dissolved feed or degraded feed remnants a n d excrement become pollutants, leading to deterioration of the b o t t o m of p o n d s . Pollution by effluents of low water quality has become a serious problem in areas of intensive
TABLE VI

on survival

Effect of a single addition of Cypermethrin (g per litre) of P. m o n o d o n postlarvae in a 24 hour test in 20 litre Control tanks showed no mortality (26) Concentration ppm/ppb/pptr Mortality

aquaria.

Time

%
100 100 100 100 100 100 0 < 10 min < 10 min < 10 min <1 h <4 h <24 h 24 h

10,000 5,000 1,000 500-1 0.5-0.01 0.005

10 ppm 5 ppm 1 ppm 500-1 ppb 500-10 pptr 5 pptr

0.001 or less

1 pptr or less

616

FIG.

Intensive shrimp culture ponds in Asia

culture. T h e effluent of one unit may be p u m p e d in by a neighbouring unit, resulting in disease and reduced productivity. It is therefore important t o establish standards for discharged water, and to develop ways of overcoming the problem. The physical, chemical and biological properties and contaminants of effluent from intensive ponds are summarised in Tables VIII and I X . The increased demand in quantity and quality of water for aquaculture has drawn attention to procedures for recirculating the water. T h e general objective of water

617
TABLE VII

Effect of a single addition of methylparathion (g per litre) on survival of P . m o n o d o n postlarvae in a 24 hour test in 20 litre aquaria. Control tanks showed no mortality
(26) Concentration ppm/ppb 5,000 500 150-90 50 30 15 10 or less 5 ppm 500 ppb 150-90 ppb 50 ppb 30 ppb 15 ppb 10 ppb or less Mortality % 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 Time

< 1h <1 h <2h <4 h <9h <24h 24 h

TABLE V I I I

Physical,

chemical and biological

characteristics

of intensive shrimp pond


Cause

effluents

Characteristics Physical properties Colour Odour Solids

Decomposing organic matter; algal population; leaching of inorganic substances from soil Decomposing organic matter from uneaten feeds and metabolites Uneaten feed particles; detritus; coagulated/flocculated products of dead organisms and/or inorganic particles; scoured soil particles

Chemical constituents Organic: Oxygen-demanding waste (BOD) Pesticides Inorganic: pH Total nitrogen Phosphorus Gases: Other drugs and chemicals

Biodegradable organics, composed mainly of proteins, carbohydrates and fat from uneaten feeds and/or metabolites Applied in ponds for predator control Interaction among biological and chemical constituents of water and soil Decomposition of organic matter from uneaten feeds, metabolites Decomposition of organic matter, dead plants and animals Antibiotics applied in ponds for disease control or incorporated in feeds; disinfectants, other chemotherapeutic substances Phytoplankton and Zooplankton flourishing in ponds Bacteria, viruses from diseased shrimp in ponds

Biological constituents Planktonic organisms Pathogens


B O D : Biochemical oxygen demand

Source: Asia Shrimp News, 1st quarter, 1991

618
TABLE IX

Contaminants
Contaminants Biodegradable organic matter Suspended solids Pathogens Nutrients Other drugs/chemicals

of concern in intensive shrimp pond


Significance

effluents

If discharged at relatively high concentrations, biological stabilisation leads to depletion of oxygen resources in the receiving water body, causing septic conditions Can lead to the development of sludge deposits and aerobic conditions Diseases can be transmitted by pathogenic organisms When discharged into the aquatic environment, these lead to the growth of undesirable aquatic life Presence of antibiotics in the environment can lead to resistant strains of bacteria; most pesticides cannot be naturally decomposed in the environment

Sonne: Asia Shrimp News, lst quarter, 1991

treatment is to control the amounts of total a m m o n i a , biodegradable organic matter and suspended solids, so that polluted water can be purified and used again. Various biological filtration systems have been used successfully (15, 16, 17). The introduction of plants, such as Gracilaria s p . , can purify effluents rich in nutrients (14).

DISEASES A N D THEIR CONTROL


Most of the diseases of aquatic animals are multifactorial and are initiated by complex interactions of host, pathogen and environment. Poor environmental conditions or bad management may increase the susceptibility of fish to a pathogen, although it is necessary for a specific pathogen to be present. Certain bacterial diseases, such as vibriosis, pseudotuberculosis, streptococcosis,
and Edwardsiella, Flexibacter coiumnaris and Aeromonas hydrophila infections

commonly occur among fish kept in fresh, brackish or sea water in Asia. Vibriosis is the most serious bacterial disease of penaeid shrimps in Asia. All of these diseases occur in ponds in a deteriorated environmental condition. Diseases of fish and prawns can be prevented by good management of the environment. In recent years various diseases of fish have occurred frequently under intensive management conditions in Asia. Therapeutic substances commonly used to control these diseases are antibiotics (Chlortetracycline, Oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, neomycin), sulphonamides (sulfamonomethoxine, sulfadimethoxine, sulfadimidine) and furane derivatives (nifurpirinol, furazolidone). Formaldehyde, trichlorfon and copper sulphate have been used against parasitoses. Frequent use of drugs has resulted in a high incidence of drug resistance among pathogenic bacteria isolated in Asia. Among strains of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from eel ponds in Taiwan, 7 9 % were resistant to one or more antimicrobials, including chloramphenicol,

619 Chlortetracycline, furazolidone, kanamycin and sulfadimethoxine. Nearly ail (98.5%) of the strains isolated from eels were resistant to these antimicrobials (11). The use of drugs in aquaculture may result not only in pollution and increased bacterial resistance, but also in a risk to h u m a n health from drug residues. T o protect human health, drug residues in aquaculture products should be monitored. Certain drugs, such as oxolinic acid and Oxytetracycline, have been recommended for bacterial diseases of cultured shrimps and fish, but observance of a withdrawal period is still needed to guarantee that the product is free from residues. The withdrawal periods for drugs vary with water temperature.

BOTTOM QUALITY Water quality is a major environmental factor in aquaculture, and the p o n d soil is a secondary or generative environment which affects water quality. The pond bottom may seriously affect the life of bottom-dwelling organisms, such as prawns, shrimps and crabs. The pond environment is governed by organic substances in the water and in the pond b o t t o m . The metabolic pathways of organic c o m p o u n d s , carbon, nitrogen and sulphate (Figs. 3, 4, 5 & 6) are such that organic acids, CO2, H and C H may be released into the water from the pond b o t t o m .
2 4

WATER

Organic N

NH4

Living organisms

Food chain for bottom-feeding organisms

Soil

NH +
4

Organic N substances NO3-

N-fixation bacteria

NO
Anaerobic bacteria

Organic N -

N2O, N2

Sediment

FIG. 3

The fate of nitrogen in soil and water

620

CO3WATER H
2

CH

Organic acid

HC0 ~
3

Living organisms

Organic matter

C0

CH

C0

Soil

Bacteria

Organic acid CO

Debris

Anaerobic bacteria

Sediment FIG.

T h e fate o f c a r b o n in soil a n d w a t e r Organic substances in the p o n d b o t t o m p r o f o u n d l y affect the o x i d a t i o n - r e d u c t i o n potential o f s e d i m e n t , a n d m a y lead to d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f b o t t o m quality (Fig. 7). D e t e r i o r a t e d s e d i m e n t m a y p r o d u c e a m u d d y f l a v o u r in cultured a n i m a l s , a n d m a y impair their quality. A m u d d y o d o u r is a s s o c i a t e d with the g r o w t h o f certain
WATER Organic S H S
2

Living organisms

SO

Organic debris

Soil
H2S Organic S

Anaerobic bacteria

Sediment FIG. 5

T h e fate o f s u l p h a t e in soil a n d w a t e r

621

WATER

Organic c o m p o u n d in suspended particle or living cell

release absorb bio-decompose Free organic compound in w a t e r

sediment

suspend

diffuse

Soil
biodecompose Organic compound or living cells Organic release compound in solid particles between t w o mud absorb particles FIG. 6 T h e fate o f organic c o m p o u n d s in soil a n d w a t e r bio-decompose

fungi a n d b a c t e r i a in p o n d s for fish or s h r i m p s , including species of Micromonospora, Nocardiopsis Actinoplanes, Nocardia, (6, 8, 12). Microbispora, a n d Streptomyces

Actinomyces, Actinomadura,

FIG.

7
ponds

Deteriorated intensive culture

(the photographs were taken after harvest)

622

PLANKTON A N D THE ENVIRONMENT


Maintenance of a proper phytoplankton bloom and growth of Z o o p l a n k t o n is important for fish and shrimp culture. At the beginning of culture, the water can be stabilised by adding fertiliser to obtain a good phytoplankton bloom with a water transparency of 30-45 cm. The advantages of plankton (particularly phytoplankton) bloom in water are: enhancement of dissolved oxygen, stabilisation of water quality (with reduction in the toxicity of toxic pollutants), a source of feed, improvement of the conversion ratio of artificial feed, inhibition of plant growth in the pond, stabilisation of changes in water quality brought about by rapid temperature f l u c t u a t i o n s , and diminished occurrence of the environmental diseases of fish and prawns. It is important to avoid water that is too clean and unstable. However, excess p h y t o p l a n k t o n bloom may promote environmental deterioration, resulting in heavy mortality of fish or shrimps. Certain phytoplanktons (Oscillatoria spp., Microcystis spp.) can produce an undesirable o d o u r a n d flavour (13, 22, 24), impairing the quality of aquaculture products.

MANAGEMENT
T o ensure successful management of intensive p r a w n culture and to decrease the occurrence of bacterial infections, the following are recommended.
1. Selection of a g o o d site:

avoid eutrophic areas avoid areas which produce hydrogen sulphide (especially in mangrove areas) avoid areas with soil containing peat, h u m u s or pyrite

avoid areas polluted by domestic, industrial or agricultural sources (particularly areas in which herbicides, insecticides and other pesticides are used) avoid areas contaminated with toxic organisms

- avoid areas which undergo abrupt changes in temperature or p H avoid areas with a low soil p H (4.0 and below) ensure an adequate supply of clean water.

2. G o o d p o n d d e s i g n :

- availability of sea or fresh water; the pumping system should take into account tidal variations the p u m p i n g system should have an adequate capacity

623

a large reservoir (approx. 307o of the cultured area) is desirable

proper design of gates for inlet and outlet of water sufficient water depth (1.5 m or more)

- construction and sloping of dike walls, strong enough to allow the use of vehicles and to prevent flooding by heavy rain.
3. G o o d p o n d p r e p a r a t i o n :

complete drying a n d liming of sediments

- avoid pollution by tilling and ploughing sediments u p to the dikes, instead of flushing into a waterway or the sea avoid mixing inlet and outlet water.

4. S t o c k larvae o f g o o d quality 5. Establish an a p p r o p r i a t e s t o c k i n g d e n s i t y , and a v o i d o v e r c r o w d i n g 6. Maintain a stable p h y t o p l a n k t o n b l o o m :

- through fertilisation, proper feeding and water exchange - establish and maintain a plankton bloom, preferably greenish brown, to obtain a water transparency of 30-40 cm avoid clear water and an unstable aquatic environment.

7. M a n a g e m e n t o f w a t e r quality:

- ensure adequate water exchange and mechanical aeration and circulation (6-7 paddle wheels or air jets per ha) - to ensure a stable environment, avoid adding large volumes of new water which may be of variable quality or may contain pollutants (allow new water to settle for a few days in the reservoir) improve eutrophic water by using biological procedures avoid pollution by appropriate treatment of discharged water avoid using unsuitable drugs and chemicals.

8. R o u t i n e m o n i t o r i n g o f w a t e r a n d the p o n d :

- water colour, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, salinity, temperature, p H , N H 3 , N O , H 2 S , redox potential of the bottom.
2

9. P r o p e r f e e d i n g p r o g r a m m e :

use pelleted or natural feed of high quality to achieve a low feed conversion ratio, reduced feed wastage and improved productivity avoid pollution by not overfeeding pellets or fresh feed

624 regularly monitor feed consumption by using lift nets.

10. R o u t i n e m o n i t o r i n g o f s h r i m p survival, g r o w t h a n d health:

in the p o n d , by measuring weight and size after capture with lift or cast nets visual appearance and activity (observed at night), presence of food in the gut, faecal strands - m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n of fresh p r e p a r a t i o n s of h a e m o l y m p h , hepatopancreatic impression smears, gill m o u n t s , presence of obvious lesions microbiology histopathology.

11. Early a n d accurate d i a g n o s i s o f disease p r o b l e m s

12. Place new stock in quarantine 13. Treatment with drugs and chemicals: as a first step, correct any primary environmental problem or management fault accurate diagnosis before treating treat only when necessary, and early in the course of the disease - use drugs (particularly antibiotics) therapeutically instead of prophylactically at proper dosage and for a sufficient period - test bacterial isolates for sensitivity and resistance ensure an adequate withdrawal period.

14. Keep records and encourage g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s among the entire team.

Intensive systems (Fig. 8) for fish and shrimps are more easily controlled than semi-intensive and extensive systems, and the capacities of the environment and the organism can be enhanced by adopting the technology described above. However, an increase in the carrying capacity of ponds will augment the amounts of organic and inorganic products. These substances can be removed by changes of water and self-purification through aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. To a certain extent the organic and inorganic substances can be discharged or mineralised with the aid of micro-organisms and additives. Beyond this extent the life of cultured animals may be endangered by the presence of H , NH3 and N 0 .
2 2

Adoption of a given technology may prove to be a limiting factor for subsequent increases in productivity. Overstocking may result in disease and mass mortality. When this occurs, the blame should be attached to damage to the environment of the p o n d , rather than to the occurrence of a pathogen. Attempts to exceed the limits of nature and to degrade the environment should be resisted. Successful results are achieved with balanced ecological systems.

625

Environment (water resources)

Pond

Input feed or other exogenous materials (drugs and fertilisers, etc.)

Living organisms (plankton, plants, etc.)

Intake

Dissolved or waste

Intake

Pollutant

Waste products

Cultured fish or p r a w n

- Bacteria Pollutant

Anaerobic ( C H , N H , H S)
4 3 2

Pollutant

Aerobic ( C O , NO , P ,
2 32O5

= SO = )
4

Minerals, soil and organic c o m p o u n d s

FIG. 8

F l o w chart f o r intensive a q u a c u l t u r e

systems

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 am grateful to Professor Dr Robert Lee, Vice-President, Academia Sinica, Republic of China and Professor Dr Guang-Hsiung Kou, Dean of Academic Affairs, National Taiwan University for their kind support on my work. Assistance from my colleagues in the Asia Shrimp Culture Council (ASCC) is also gratefully acknowledged. Without the skilled technical help of Mr P . C . Liu, Lecturer at the National Marine University, this paper could not have been completed.

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A Q U A C U L T U R E ET E N V I R O N N E M E N T EN A S I E : LES PROBLMES RENCONTRS ET LEURS SOLUTIONS. - S.N. Chen. Rsum: Au cours de la dernire dcennie, l'aquaculture a connu en Asie une rapide expansion. Les systmes de production extensif, semi-intensif et surtout intensif sont largement pratiqus. Ces systmes exigent une gestion rigoureuse afin d'viter la dgradation de l'environnement et une mortalit massive des espces leves. A partir de l'exemple de l'levage des crevettes, l'auteur dcrit les principaux facteurs lis l'environnement qui ont une incidence sur la sant des espces aquatiques. Les solutions ces divers problmes sont abordes. MOTS-CLS : Aquaculture - Asie - Crustacs - Pisciculture - Pollution de l'environnement.

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A C U I C U L T U R A EN ASIA Y MEDIO AMBIENTE: PROBLEMAS Y SOLUCIONES. S.N. Chen. Resumen: En la ltima dcada, el desarrollo de la acuicultura en Asia se ha considerablemente acelerado. Los sistemas de produccin extensivo, semiintensivo y sobre todo intensivo son ampliamente utilizados. Estos sistemas requieren un manejo riguroso de manera a impedir la deterioracin del medio ambiente y la mortalidad masiva de las especies criadas. A partir del ejemplo de las gambas, el autor considera los principales factores relativos al medio ambiente que afectan la salud de las especies aquticas, y las soluciones a los distintos problemas que pueden surgir. PALABRAS CLAVE: Acuicultura - Asia - Cra de peces - Crustceos Polucin del medio ambiente.

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