Danny Vu Electronics Fundamentals Three categories of materials are used in electronics: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. 1.

Conductors: are materials in which current can be established with relative ease. They have a large number of free electrons which gains sufficient energy from the surrounding medium. Silver is the best conductor and copper is next. Copper is most widely used conductive material because its less expensive.

2. Semiconductors: are classed below the conductors in their ability to carry current because they have fewer free electrons than do conductors. Certain semiconductive materials are diode, transistor, and integrated circuit. Silicon and Germanium are common semiconductive materials. 3. Insulators: are materials that have poor conductors of electrical current. Its used to prevent current where it is not wanted. A single electron has a charge of following formula: . Total charge, Q, is given by the

Anode is positive Cathode is negative RESISTORS: Composition resistors are with power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W, 1W, and up to 2W. Typical wrewound power resistors are used because of their relatively high power ratings. Usually, resistors are shown without its ratings are 1/4W type. Two type of automatically variable resistors: A thermistor and a photoconductive cell. Thermistor variable resistor changes inversely with temperature. Page39 Phtoconductive cell resistance also changes inversely with temperature.

LED Indicator Wiring:

Danny Vu Typical Blue and Red LED required 20mA to turn on the LED. Typical Voltage drop = 3.1V. R = V/I = (6V-3.1Vdrop)/.02 = 145 Ohm. Below is the equivalent circuit

SWITCHES: SPDT are used to control the current to two different lamps.

Push Button Rocket Swithces in dual-in-line packages Single-pole rotary switches Rocket Switches Toggle Switches

Example: the different sections of a stereo system are represented by the blocks in figure 2 below. Show how a single switch can be used to connect multiple devices to the amplifier by a single knob control. Only one section can be connected to the amplifier at any time. Page39

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Figure 2. Protective Devices: Fuses and Circuit breakers are placed in the current path and are used to deliberately create an open circuit when the current exceeds a specified number of amperes due to a malfunction or other abnormal condition in a circuit. For example, a fuse or circuit breaker with a 20A rating will open a circuit when the current exceeds 20A. Fuses cut off excess current more quickly than circuit breakers, fuses are used whenever delicate electronic equipment needs to be protected. Circuit breaker can be reset and reused repeatedly, while fuses must be replaced when it is blown.

WIRE RESISTANCE: Smaller wire has more resistance. Thus, for a given voltage, larger wires can carry more current than smaller ones. Unit: = CM 0.005in. = 5mils ; where A = d2

Example: Find the resistance of a 100ft length of copper wire with a cross sectional area of 810.1CM. The resistivity of copper is 10.4CM-/ft Page39

= 1.284

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Now consider the next schematic, which is similar to the first but has added a pull-up resistor. This resistors function is to limit the amount of current that can flow through the circuit. When switch S1 is open (off), pin 1 is tied to Vcc through the resistor. Since pin1 is a high impedance input, a voltage meter or logic probe placed on pin 1 will show Vcc (+5v) if connected to pin 1. When switch S1 is closed (on), pin 1 has a direct connection to GND, which takes it to the low state. The pin1 side of R1 also has a direct connection to ground. Current will flow from Vcc, through R1, and to ground. It isn't considered a short, however, because R1 will limit the amount of current that can flow to a very small amount. In fact, you can compute this using Ohms law. I=V/R Pull-up resistor limits the current I = 5v / 10,000ohms I = .0005A (.5mA) A variation on this them is a pull-down resistor. Just like the pull-up resistor, it is used to limit the current that can flow between Vcc and ground. Though less often used, it is still a valid thing to do. Most digital circuits use a 10k or a 47k resistor for pullups. The exact value doesn't actually matter, as long as it is high enough to prevent too much current from flowing. 10k seems to be the most common, but if you are hoping to save as much power as possible, a 47k resistor may be right for your application. In some cases, you can go higher, but then you are depending on characteristics of the pins on the chip.

In Summary
You will find that pull-up resistors are extremely common is most digital circuits. The key function for a pull-up is to prevent input lines from floating that may cause noise. The key function for the resistor itself is to prevent too much current from flowing through the pull-up circuit.

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Danny Vu CURRENT SOURCE vs. CURRENT SINK Current flow out of the chip we call it as output current source. Current flows in of the chip we call it as current sink. Open Collector needs a pull up resistor so that when the UUT output signal goes high then It pulls up to high. If the UUT output signal goes low then the current is source to ground.

GROUND: Circuit Ground used as reference point in the circuit. For example, the current is from the negative terminal of the 12V source through the lamp, and back to the positive terminal of the source through the ground connection. Ground provides the return path for the current back to the source because all of the ground points are electrically the same point. Chassis ground/earth ground used in ac power distribution where one side of the power line is neutralized by connecting it to a metal rod driven into the ground. Never connect Neutral line of AC power supply to Chassis (Duc). Never connect Return Line of DC P/S to Neutral Line of AC P/S to prevent AC noise. Return Line of DC Power Supply should connect to EGND/CHASSIS of the AC P/S. If PCB have AGND/PGND_A and DGND, treat them separately and at some point they have to join together.

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SATE System Isolation Test: Chassis To AC Neu = 1.3M Ohm DC-RTN To AC-Neu = Open DC-RTN TO CHASSIS = 0 For Precaution, always discharge yourself by touching on the system main frame, appliances, or pipe.

Household Wiring Color Code: On 110Vac circuit: Black is Hot each carry 110V vs. Neutral White is Neutral Green or Bare Copper is GND. POWER IN ELCTRIC CIRCUIT:

On 220Vac Circuit: Black and Red are both Hot, White is Neutral Green or Bare Copper is GND.

Power in an electric circuit is seen as heat given off by the resistance. Power = Engery / Time P=VI P= Page39

Use the next power rating of the resistor for your maximum power circuit consumption.

Danny Vu Total power in a parallel circuit is found by adding up the powers of all the individual resistors, the same applies for series circuit. Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 +.+Pn

P = 144/10=14.4Watts ; P = 144/20 = 7.2Watts ; P= 144/30 = 4.8Watts -Pt = 14.4+7.2+4.8 = 26.4 Watts. Type equation here. CURRENT IN PARALLEL: In parallel circuit, if one branch opens, the current in each of the remaining branches is the same (shown in Figure 3). Same applies to L and C connected in parallel. In troubleshooting, if you detect the voltage drops across the resistor is 0V, the path is open or the total current drawn is less than what it supposed to be, then there must be an open path.

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Figure 3

Using Battery as a backup circuit:

POWER SUPPLY EFFICIENCY: An important characteristics of electronic power supplies is efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of the output power, Pout, to the input power, Pin.

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Danny Vu Effiency is often expressed as a percentage. For example, if the input power is 100W and the output power is 50W, the efficiency is (50W/100W)x100% = 50%. All power supplies require that power be put into them. For example, an electronic power supply might use the ac power from a wall outlet as its input. Its output may be regulated dc or ac. The output power is always less than the input power because some of the total power must be used internally to operate the power supply circuit. This amount is normally called the power loss. The output power is the input power minus the amount of internally power dissipation (loss). High efficiency means that very little power is dissipated in the power supply and there is a higher proportion of output power for a given input power. Potentionmeter as an Adjustable Voltage Divider: The adjustable terminal or wiper is labeled 3. The pot is a two resistor voltage divider that can be manually adjusted.

The volume control of radio or TV receivers is a common application of a potentiometer used as a voltage divider. Since the loudness of the sound is dependent on the amount of voltage associated with the audio signal, you can increase or decrease the volume by adjusting the potentiometer. Choosing a Resistor: Never use Carbon composition resistors. Use either Vishays metal film resistors for better heat dissipation or Ohmites resistors types. Page39 Use Wirewound wires resistor types for power electronic purposes. Wirewound was made with little wire, not a good one for use with high frequencies application because it may cause harmonics and EMI effects.

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DC-Driven Coil:

Temperature Conversion Formula:

RS232 and RS485 Communication

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Danny Vu The difference between RS232 and RS485 are the transmission protocol. RS232 uses 3 wires: Tx, Rx, and GND where it uses logic state voltage difference between Rx and Tx reference to GND. RS485 uses the differential voltages between 2 wires A&B to define logic 0 and 1, not reference to GND. It transmits in the longer distance and higher baud rate than RS232. Also, RS485 allows to connect to 3 points as master and slave where RS232 only allows point to point. You can buy a converter from RS232 to RS485 (MOXA UPORT 1130 V1.4) or build a converter as shown.

RS-232 COM Port from the PC sends out a voltage level of -6V to +6V. If you want to communicate with a microprocessor, you need to convert the signal to TTL level (0 and +5V) because microprocessor does not accept negative voltage level. If the Microprocessor has a built-in Uart, which automatically convert the signal to TTL level, then we dont have to build an external circuit, otherwise, a MAX 232 chip can do the job. Baud rate 9600 indicates that the channel can change its state 9600 times per second (either from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0, up to 9600 times).

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RS232 Interfacing with COM Port : Max 232 uses to convert to TTL signal and connects to uPs Rx pin

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Hyperterminal Configuration: Start >> All Program >> Accessories>>Communications>>Hyperterminal>> and enter new connection test name File >> Properties >>select settings and configure [ASCII Setup] as followings:

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USB to uP connection: Most usb cable from the host generates 5.1V and its being converted by a power adapter to 3.3V in order to power up the uP. PIC IN PRACTICE 16F84 The microcontroller is a computer system on a single chip. It has many electronic circuits built into it, which can decode written instructions and convert them to electrical signals. The microcontroller will then step through these instructions and execute them one by one. Inside the microcontroller, the program we write is stored in an area called EPROM, this memory is non-volatile and is remembered when the power is switched off. The instructions we program into our microcontroller work by moving and manipulating data in memory locations known as user files and registers. This memory is called RAM. For example, we instruct the microcontroller to measure the temperature via its Analog to Digital Control Register (ADCON0), the measurement would then be compared with our data stored in one of the user files. A STATUS

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Danny Vu Register would indicate if the temperature was above or below the required value and a PORT Register would turn the heater on or of accordingly. In order to step through the instructions the microcontroller needs a clock frequency to orchestrate the movement of the data around its electronic circuits.

The model of microcontroller operation can be generically described as in Figure above. The microcontroller system:

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Inputs components would consist of digital devices such as, switches, push buttons, pressure mats, float switches, keypads, radio receivers etc. and

Danny Vu analogue sensors such as light dependant resistors, thermistors, gas sensors, pressure sensors, etc. The control unit is of course the microcontroller. The microcontroller will monitor the inputs and as a result the program would turn outputs on and off. The microcontroller stores the program in its memory, and executes the instructions under the control of the clock circuit. The output devices would be made up from LEDs, buzzers, motors, alpha numeric displays, radio transmitters, 7 segment displays, heaters, fans etc.

Specifications: Before select a microcontroller, understand your system requirements, such as followings: Number of digital inputs Number of analogue inputs and outputs If analogue inputs are used then the microcontroller must have an Analogue to Digital (A/D) module inside. Size of program memory storage The clock frequency determines the speed at which the instructions are executed. The higher the frequency the quicker the micro would finish one task and start another. Number of interrupts and timer circuits

Type of Microcontroller: Two types: OTP (one time programmable) Devices or Flash Devices. Flashes devices specified with an F such as 16F84. OTP specified by Oscillator Frequency. The oscillator specified 04 for devices working up to 4MHz, 10 up to 10MHz, or 20 up to 20MHz.

Using Microcontroller: In order to use the microcontroller in a circuit there are basically two areas you need to understand: Page39 1. How to connect the microcontroller to the hardware

Danny Vu 2. How to write and program the code into the microcontroller 1. Microcontroller Hardware: Microcontroller Power Supply: needs to be between 2V and 6V and a diode to protect for a micro if the battery is accidentally connected the wrong way round. In that case the diode would be reversed biased and no current would flow.

Power dissipation of 7805, Voltage Regulator Circuit Care must be taken when using a high value for Vin. For example if Vin=24v the output of the 7805 will be 5V, so the 7805 has 24 - 5 = 19v across it. If its supplying a current of 0.5A to the circuit then the power dissipated (P=VxI) is 19 x 0.5 = 9.5watts. The regulator will get hot! And will need a heat sink to dissipate this heat. Its always a good habit to put in a heat sink for a circuit that is required more than 2watts.

Connecting switches to the microcontroller The most common way of connecting a switch to an input of a microcontroller is via a pull-up resistor to 5v as shown below

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Danny Vu Connecting outputs to the microcontroller

The microcontroller is capable of supplying approximately 20-25mA to an output pin. So loads such as LEDs or small relays can be driven directly. Larger loads require interfacing via a transistor, for dc or a triac, for ac. Opto-coupled devices provide an isolated interface between the microcontroller and the load.

2. Programming the microcontroller: In order to have the microcontroller perform some controlling action you need to communicate with it and tell it what those instructions are to be. The 16F84 has 35 instructions in its vocabulary, but like all other languages not all of the instructions are used all of the time you can go a long way on just a few. 3. Definition of software loaded: Boot: (adj) Of or pertaining to the set of computer instructions executed immediately following a hardware reset or the memory device containing such instructions. It is the process of executing the boot software instructions. Boot Loader: Software resides in the Boot EEPROM that can interact with Host Loader software to effect a transfer of data from a PCDS to the LRU containing the Boot Loader. Dictionary: The memory containing FORTH code and data. It is typically organized as one or more linked lists. Flash Memory: Erasable, in-circuit reprogrammable semiconductor memory. Typically, erasure involves the entire memory; programming requires the use of a fixed power supply at a voltage level elevated above the usual logic interface level. The memory is usually capable of tolerating at least 10,000 write/erase cycles without failure.

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Danny Vu Functional Test Kernel: Software resident in the Boot EEPROM that implements a FORTH language interpreter. Host Loader: Software executed by a PCDS for the purpose of transferring a dataset into LRU memory. Also, the PCDS running such software. PC Download Station: A configuration-controlled computer system, including software and peripherals for loading the UUT software 4. Input A/D Scaling Factor:

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DIODE DATA SHEET 1N40 02 100V 1N40 03 200V

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1N40 1N40 1N40 1N40 04 05 06 07 Vrrm 400V 600V 800V 1000V Io 1A I(fsm) 30A Ir 30uA Tj (-65 to +175 deg C) Vrrm : Maximum allowable voltage in the reverse bias direction, if exceeded, the diode will conduct current and be destroyed. Io: Maximum allowable current in the forward bias direction. I(fsm): one time maximum surge of current. If it occurs, the diode may survive, but should be replaced.

1N40 01 50V

Danny Vu Ir: Leakage current when the diode in the forward saturation mode. Fmax: Maximum switching frequency of the diode. Ex: the following example shows the voltage multiplier circuit. During the positive half cycle D2 is open, D1 closes or shorted V3 = 5V+4.3V-0.7 = 8.6Vpk. During the negative half cycle D2 is shorted, D1 is open V3 = 0V.

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Basic applications: Diodes are used most frequently in rectifier circuits-circuits that convert ac to dc. Diodes are used in a number of other applications as well. Here are the rundown of some of the most common applications. 1. Half wave rectifier: output Voltage = Vin 0.7v. and output freq is the

Danny Vu same as input frequency. A transformer is typically used to step down or step up the voltage before it reaches the rectifier stage. 1. Full wave rectifier: output frequency is twice the input frequency.

Zener Diode: Zener diode is used to provide constant (regulated) DC voltage. Zener Part Number Vz Const ant Voltag e 3.3V 5.1V 6.2V 12V 12V 5.1V 15V W Max Power Dissipat ion 400mW 500mW 500mW 400mW 1W 1W 1W IZT Test Curre nt 20mA 20mA 20mA 20mA 21mA 49mA 17mA Rz Zener Resista nce ~28 ~17 ~5 ~30 ~9 ~7 ~9

1N746 1N751 1N753 1N759 1N4742 1N4733 1N4744

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Example: Suppose we want 3.3V across the load of 1K and Im using 20V source. How do we find R2?

Danny Vu Izmax = 400mW/3.3 = 121mA Rs(min) = (Vs Vz)/Izm =(20V-3.3V)/121mA = 138

Therefore Ravg=(138+2K)=1.075K TRANSFORMER FORMULAS:

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Danny Vu FULL WAVE POWER SUPPLY:

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OPAMP:

There is essentially only one formula you will need to know for solving op amp circuit problems. This formula is the foundation on which everything else rests. It is the expression for an op amps output voltage as a function of its input voltages V+ (noninverting) and V (inverting) and of its open-loop voltage gain Ao: Vout = Ao(V+ V) This expression says that an ideal op amp acts like an ideal voltage source that supplies an output voltage equal to Ao(V+ V)

An ideal OPAMP has infinite input resistance, and the Real OPAMP has finite input resistance (typically 10^6 for BJT, 10^12 for JFET)

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Danny Vu An ideal OPAMP has infinite gain, where the Real OPAMP has finite gain, typically 10^4 to 10^6) An ideal OPAMP has 0 output resistance, where the Real OPAMP has low resistance, typically between 10 to 1000

If Vin > 0V, the output ideally goes to +V; if Vin < 0V, the output ideally goes to V.

Select an OPAMP: Precision op amps are specifically designed for high stability, low offset voltages (resistor connect from noninverting input to gnd when circuit using high input bias current), low bias currents, and low drift parameters. In Catalogs, you will find that op amps fall into one of the following categories: bipolar, JFET, MOSFET, or some hybrid thereof (e.g., BiFET). In general bipolar has higher input bias currents than either JFET or MOSFET types. This means that their input terminals have a greater tendency to leak in current.
Negative Feedback:

Negative feedback is a wiring technique where some of the output voltage is sent back to the inverting terminal. This voltage can be sent back through a resistor, capacitor, or complex circuit or simply can be sent back through a wire. This formula looks a lot like our old friend Vout = Ao(V+ V). There is, however, the V in the formulathis you must reconsider. V in the formula changes because now the output voltage from the op amp is giving extra voltage (positive or negative) back to the inverting terminal. What this means is that you must replace V with fVout, where f is a fraction of the voltage sent back from Vout. Thats the trick!
There are two basic kinds of negative feedback, voltage feedback and operational feedback.

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Whenever an op amp senses a voltage difference between its inverting and noninverting inputs, it responds by feeding back as much current/voltage through the feedback network as is necessary to keep this difference equal to zero. (V+ - V- = 0). This rule only applies for negative feedback.

Transistors: There are two major families of transistors: BJTs, MOSFET, and FETs. The major difference between these two families is that BJTs require a biasing input current at their control leads. Whereas FETs requires only a voltage-practically no current. Because FETs draw little or no current, they have high input impedances (~10^9). FETs are definitely more popular in circuit design today than bipolar transistors. Besides drawing essentially zero input-output current at their control leads, they are easier to manufacture and making them useful elements in integrated circuits. One drawback with FETs is in amplifier circuits, where their transconductance is much lower than that of BJTs at the same current. This means that the voltage gain will not be that large. For simple amplifiers circuits, FETs are seldom used unless extremely high input impedances and low input currents are required. MOSFET is unlike JFET, have higher input impedance (~10^14 ) 1. BJT (2N2222: Switching NPN Transistor) Look up on data sheet for these values Ic, Vceo, Ptot For Switching application: use at saturation point to make sure the transistor is ON. For Analog Amplification: Review Class A, Class B, Class C, and Class D.

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2. FET VGS,off, IDSS (min and max) are typically the knowns (you get their values by looking them

up in a data table or on the package).

o o o Make sure your VD voltage will be of VDG(max) = 25/2 ~12 Using as a switch or voltage gain. Lower the transconductance (Id/Vgs), lower output voltage gain. Vgs(off) min and max indicates that the bath of FET specs are made to be off within the range depending on the manufacturer. Therefore, to make sure FET turns on you need use Vgs outside of the specified range.

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Test Set Up: Example below indicates that FET 2N5486 turns off at -6V, anything beyond -2V (-1 to +12VDC) turn on the transistor.

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MOSFET:

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Danny Vu Description: MOSFET acts as a voltage controlled switch. The voltage at which the transistor switches on is called the threshold voltage (Vgs). Large input impedance, low output impedance, and is typically used in switching or voltage gain amplifier circuits. Ex: Known values can be look up in the datasheet for ZVN3306A. Drain to Source Voltage VDS (Max) = 60V Continuous Drain Current (Max) ID = 270mA. This is the maximum drain current of the MOSFET. Power Dissipation Pt = 625mW. Gate-Source Threshold Voltage Vgs(th) = 0.8V(min) 2.4V(max). Below this range, MOSFET is completely OFF. Above this range >2.4Vdc MOSFET is ON and allow current flow from Drain to the Source. Static Drain-Source Resistance RDS (ON) = 5 On State Drain Current ID(on) (1) = 750mA meaning when working with pulse voltage at the gate input. On Time is shorter than continuous drain current.
(1) Measured under pulsed conditions. Width=300s. Duty cycle 2%

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Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Diagram. Examples Strain Gages Fortunately, the Wheatstone Bridge caught on in the mid 1800s and remains the basis for many types of sensor and transducer measurements. In Figure 1, if the Ra/Rb ratio is equal to the R1/R2 ratio, the voltage between the midpoints is zero. But if an imbalance exists, increasing the voltage across the bridge also amplifies the voltage difference. Ideally, temperature affects all four elements equally so the element ratios dont change.

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Figure 1. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Diagram In a strain gage application, one, two, or all four bridge elements can be strain gages. Some configurations only bond one gage to the DUT but provide a second identical gage to complete one half of the bridge. The other half uses precision resistors. This is a type of quarter bridge because only one active gage is used. Its possible to balance the bridge with three resistors and only one gage, but the temperature performance wont be as good as when a compensating gage is used to complete one side of the bridge. A half-bridge configuration uses two strain gages, but both are bonded to the DUT. Depending on the gage positioning relative to each other and the DUT, certain directions of bending or twisting will unbalance the bridge. Finally, all four elements can be strain gages, resulting in a full bridge configuration. Strain gages have been used to illustrate the operation of the Wheatstone bridge, but any sensor that changes resistance in response to a physical quantity is appropriate. How to use voltage regulator 7805

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7805 Pins Diagram

7805 Voltage Regulator Circuit I have attached an image of 7805 IC to describe its pin configuration setting. In addition to that I have also attached a small fully working voltage regulator circuit diagram with this tutorial. The two capacitors used in the voltage regulator circuit are not mandatory but they are good to maximize voltage regulation. The capacitor values I have used in this circuit are not written on stone, you can change them slightly. 7805 IC has a thermal shutdown feature to protect the IC in case of overheating so it should be safe to use 7805 without a heatsink plate for less than 200mA load. However should your load cross 200mA, you should consider using a heatsink plate. Heatsink plate should be large enough to bring 7805 heat to such a level that you can comfortably touch it. 7805 is a linear voltage regulator, so it is not very efficient and it has drop out voltage problem. It wastes a lot of energy in the form of heat. You can calculate the wasted energy with following formula. This formula will also help you to estimate the size of heatsink plate you will require to disperse amount of heat generated by 7805. (Input Voltage 5) x Output Current Suppose the input 15 volt and output current you require is .5 Amp by using above formula (15 5) x 0.5 =100.5 =5W 5W energy is being wasted as heat and you will need a decent sized heatsink plate to disperse this heat to ease your 7805. On the other hand the energy you are actually using is only (5 x 0.5Amp) =2.5W. So you are going to waste twice energy then you are actually utilizing. On the other hand, if give your 7805 9V as input at the same amount of load, only 2W { (9-5) x 0.5 } energy will be wasted as heat.

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UNDERSTANDING FILTERS
There are four main types: low pass, high pass, band pass, notch / reject filter. Low Pass filter pass low freq components of an input signal. High-pass filter passes high-frequency components Band-pass filter passes a narrow range of frequencies centered around the filters resonant frequency. Notch filter passes all frequencies except those within a narrow band centered around the filters resonant frequency.

Filters have many practical applications in electronics. For example: In DC power supply, filters are used to eliminate unwanted high-frequency noise present within the ac line voltage, and they act to flatten out pulsing dc voltages generated by the supply rectifier section. In RF, filters make it possible for a radio receiver to provide the listener with only the desired signal while rejecting all others. Likewise, filters allow a radio transmitter to generate only one signal while attenuating other signals that might interfere with different radio transmitters signals. In Audio electronics, filter networks called crossover networks are use to divert low audio signals to woofers, middle-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high frequencies to tweeters.

Phase Locked Loop Operation PLL is used to compare the phase of two signals. When two signals have different frequencies it is found that the phase difference between the two signals is always varying. The reason for this is that the time for each cycle is different and accordingly theyre moving around the circle at different rates. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO): the voltage controlled oscillator is the circuit block that generates the output radio frequency signal. Its frequency can be controlled and swung over the operational frequency band for the loop.

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