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OnMarch20,2003,theforcesoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Australia,and Poland(hereafterreferredtoastheCoalition)begantheirgroundbasedinvasionofIraq.Thevast majorityofthisforceoriginatedfromtheKuwaitIraqborderinthesouthandproceedednorthtoward thecapitalBaghdad,andothercentersofBaathistcontrol.TheCoalitionforceswereaidedbyKurdish fightersfromthenorthofIraqwhohadhistoricallybeenfierceopponentsofSaddamHusseinsregime. DespitetheimmensesizeandpopulationofIraq,theinvasionprogressedquicklyandmetwithlittle resistance.ByApril9,theCoalitionoccupiedBaghdadandthefalloftheentirecountrywasimminent. TherearetwomainstoriestotellofarchaeologicallootinginwartimeIraq:thatofthelooting thatoccurredatarchaeologicalsitesandmuseumsthroughoutthecountry,andthatofthelootingthat occurredspecificallyattheIraqMuseum.Whilethelatterisclearlyapartoftheformer,itnonetheless receivedanoverwhelmingmajorityofthemassmediaattention.AsIamintroducingthetimelineof looting,IwillfocusontheIraqMuseumfirstandreturntotheotherstorylater.Ultimately,thispaper willexaminenotonlythestoryoflootingduringtheIraqwarbutthenatureofitsportrayalinthemass mediaaswellasinthescholarlyliterature,andhowthoseportrayalscontrast. Itwouldseemprudenttobeginthisstorywithasimpleaccountofwhatoccurredinandaround theIraqMuseuminApril2003,butwemustproceedwithcaution.Tolaythehistoricalfoundationon whichthisessayistorestforcesustojumpheadfirstintotheverysubjectmatterweseektoscrutinize andcritique.Thereforecautioniswarrantedfromthebeginning. PriortoandduringtheinitialCoalitionapproachtoBaghdad,theIraqMuseumwasunderthe nominalcontrolofitscivilianadministrators,ledbyarchaeologistDr.DonnyGeorge.AMarch29, 2003articleintheBelfastTelegraphindicatedthattheDr.George,alongwithafewdozenother

archaeologists,plannedtoprotectthemuseumthemselves(Keys2003a).Thefirstmajorinroadsby CoalitionforcesintothecityofBaghdadcameonApril5,andbyApril8theentrenchmentactivitiesof Iraqisoldierswithinthemuseumcompoundforcedthosestaffmemberstoleave.Dr.George,alongwith 3others,werethelastofthestafftoleavethemuseum,lockingthedoorsontheirwayoutevenas soldiersweredigginginaroundthem.1Whenmembersofthemuseumscivilianstaffreturnedjustfour dayslateronApril12,themuseumhadbeenlooted.Controlofthemuseumremainedwiththestaffuntil thearrivalofaU.S.ArmytankplatoononApril16(Bogdanos2005). RegardingthelootingoftheIraqMuseumspecifically,massmediacoveragecanbebroken downintotwodistincttimeperiodsseparatedbyApril12,2003.Itwasonthisdaythatthemuseum staffreturnedandthestoryofthelootingoftheIraqMuseumbrokearoundtheworld.Priortothis date,mentionsofofthemuseumwerecautionaryinnature,generallycharacterizedbyinterviewswith heritageauthoritiesabouttheneedtoprotectIraqsantiquitiesandtheneedtoprotecttheIraqMuseum specifically(Vergano2003).Muchofthespeculationaboutthepossibilityfordamagetoarchaeological sitesandmuseumswasformedonreflectionofthedamagedoneinthelastconflictbetweentheUnited StatesandIraqin1991.Ironically,whilemassmediacoverageafterApril12wouldbeenormously focusedontheIraqMuseumalone,mostofthemediacoveragepriortothatdateemphasizedheritage

Thereissomedisagreementinthereportingofwhetherornotasinglecivilianstaffmember, archaeologistMohsunAbbas,remainedonthemuseumgroundsforthedurationofthebattleand subsequentlooting.Bogdanosindicatesthatafterthelastofthestaffleftthemuseum,Drs.Jaberand George(alongwithadriverandanarchaeologistwholivedinabuildingneartherearofthemuseum compound)courageouslystayeduntilthelastmoment...ensuringallofthedoorstothemuseumandthe storageroomswerelocked,theyleftthroughthebackdoortothemuseumandlockeditbehindthem (Bogdanos2005).Thiswouldseemtoindicatethatallfourstaffmembersleft.However,inanarticle referencedbyBogdanos(2005)shortlythereafter,Mr.Abbasisinterviewedbytheauthorandclaims tohaveremainedonsite(Atwood2003).

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outsideofBaghdad,sincetheIraqMuseumwasmostlysparedin1991(Neuffer2003,Gugliotta 2003).Mentionwasalsomadeinthemassmediaofattemptsbyscholarstoprovidethemilitarywith dataonsitestoavoidbombingandactivelyprotect(Keys2003b).Althoughmostofthearticlesdid mentionlooting,theirempiricrelianceonthe1991wardrovemuchoftheirattentiontothefearthat coalitionbombswoulddomostofthedamagetoIraqsheritage.This,itturnedout,wasnotthecase. ThemassmediacoveragepriortoApril12alsotendedtoplaceagreatdealofemphasison twocloselyrelatedthemes:IraqasthebirthplaceofcivilizationandIraqsJudeoChristianheritage. NewspaperarticleswarningofthedangersposedtoIraqiheritagebythewarconsistentlyreferredto IraqintermsofMesopotamiaandthefertilecrescent.OneparticularlydramaticApril2,2003article inTheGuardiansartssectionwastitledTheendofcivilization:Iraqisonehugeworldheritagesite,a uniquestorehouseofartandarchaeology.Nowthewarthreatenstodestroyitall(Gibbons2003).The articleisrepletewithphrasessuchasfertilecrescentandcradleofcivilisationaswellasreferences toUrasthebirthplaceofAbraham.AnotherarticlepublishedonApril10,2003inFloridasSt. PetersburgTimesinterviewsaChristianministerandretiredbiblestudiesteacherontheimportanceof Iraqiheritageandthethreatposedbythewar.InanotsosubtleappealtoAmericanChristianity,he statesthat[Iraq]isthefirst12chaptersofGenesis(Tubbs2003).Tohercredit,Tubbsdoes interviewother,morecredentialedauthoritiesonIraqiarchaeology.Theabundanceofthesereferences inthemassmediademonstratesanattempttofindaconceptualcommongroundonwhichthe professionalarchaeologists(andothers)interviewedcanappealtothepublic.Itisinterestingtonotethat thelinguisticforcesemployedtoargueinfavorofpreservingIraqsheritagehavethemselvesbeen subjecttocritiquefortheirethnocentricconnotations(Bahrani1998).

OnApril12,thetoneofthemassmediareportingonarchaeologicalmattersinIraqchanged noticeably.Fromthere,anyattempttoascribehomogeneitytothenatureofmediacoverageisdoomed forfailure.Nevertheless,therewereclearpatterns.Duringthefirstfewdaysofthistimeperiod, includingApril12itself,themediaattentionswungdramaticallytothelootingofthemuseuminBaghdad (DavisandBrown2003).Bogdanoschroniclesmanyofthehighlightsofmassmediahysteriaoverthe looting,includingstatementsfromthemediacomparingthelootingoftheIraqMuseumtoMongol invasionsorthecompletedestructionofallmuseumsinWashingtonD.C.,andtheerroneousclaimthat 170,000artifactshadbeenstolen(Bogdanos2005).2Asmoretimepassedandsubsequentlymore opportunitytoassesswhathadandhadnotbeenlost,mediareportstendedtodwindleintheirreporting ofthelootingoftheIraqMuseum.Bogdanosobservesthatthisisthestageatwhichpartisanshipwas mostapparentinmassmediareporting,andtendedtocenteraroundthenumberofartifactstaken:

Theinvestigationwas,atanyrate,significantlyhamstrungbytheextremistsatbothendswho oftenwereusingthemuseumtheftsasavehicletosupporttheirpositiononthewarandonthe BushandBlairadministrations.Withexceptionsofcourse,theintensitywithwhichpeopleheld ontotheinflatednumbersusuallyincreasedindirectproportiontotheintensityofthatperson's oppositiontothewar.Similarly,thebeliefthatlittlewasstolentendedtoincreaseindirect proportiontotheintensityofthatperson'ssupportforthewar.Asusual,thetruthwas somewhereinthemiddle.[Bogdanos2005:494]

The170,000numberisendemicamongmediareportsimmediatelyfollowingthelooting.Fora detailedreviewofhowthismassivelyinaccuratenumbercameabout,seeBogdanos[2005].
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Theuseofarchaeologyasameansofeditorializingforcertainpoliticalperspectivescannotbe overstated.EvenlongafterthelootingoftheIraqMuseumhadoccurredandthepressfurorhad subsided,itwasinstrumentalizedinmassmediapoliticalarguments.Forinstance,inaJune18,2007 Comment&DebatearticleofTheGuardian,Coalitionforcesarecomparedunfavorablytothe NazisinPariswithregardtotheirprotectionoftheIraqMuseuminApril2003(Jenkins2007). Therefore,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatreportersandmediaoutletswithantiwarproclivities wouldquicklylatchontoearlyreportsofthedestructivenessoftheinvasion.Similarly,thosewith oppositeopinionswouldembracelaterreportsthatthetheftanddestructionwasgreatlyexaggerated. Onoccasion,however,themassmediacamethroughwithabalancedandwellreasonedaccount relativelydevoidofpolitics.OnJune15,2003TheWashingtonPostpublishedanarticlewrittenby archaeologistJohnRussellthatattemptedtoexplaintheearlierreportingdiscrepancies,explainwhythey mightevenhavebeenbeneficial,emphasizethesignificanceofspecificartifactsstillmissing,anddirect attentiontothecontinuedproblemoflootingbeyondBaghdad(Russell2003). IntheirrushtoreducethearchaeologicalcrisisinIraqtoadiscussionofnumbers,manyofthe massmediareportsonthesubjectneglectedtodiscusswhatwasactuallymissing(Bogdanos 2005:492).Whenmissingartifactswerediscussedinanyamountofdetail,therewasaclearand overwhelmingemphasisonpiecesthatwerelargeandconventionallybeautiful,particularlythosethat includedpreciousmetals.Ironically,byplacingdescriptionsofhighlyuniqueandmagnificentartifacts nexttoinflatednumbersinthesearticles,itmightbeinferredbyreadersthatmostormanyofthose itemsmissingwereofthatquality.AsBogdanospointsout,itisimpossibletoquantifythelossofthe SacredVaseofWarkaitwouldbecountedasoneitem,aswouldeachsinglebead,pin,potsherd,or

pieceofivory,shell,orclay.ThelossoftheVaseofWarka,however,wasclearlyanorderof magnitudegreaterthanthatofapotsherd(2005:492493) Again,itisimpossibletocharacterizeallmassmediaaccountsasfollowingasimilartheme.In spiteofthemanyarticlesthatexaggeratednumbersorglossedoverthedetailsoftheactualpieces missing,therewereexcellentaccountstoo.OnesuchexampleisaJuly18,2003articleinTheNew YorkTimesdetailingthelossof4,795tinycylindersealsandexplainingtheirsignificance(Charle2003). Thearticleiswellsourced,interviewingacademicarchaeologistMcGuireGibson,andalsodiscussesthe lootingoutsideofBaghdad.Attheotherendofthespectrumarearticlesthataredownrightdeceptive. Inhis2007Guardianarticle,JenkinsstatesthatthebeautifulWarkavase...wasrecoveredthough smashedinto14pieces.Ofcourse,hefailstomentionthatthebreaksinthevasearealmostasoldasit isnonewdamagewasdonetoitinthecourseofbeingtaken(Bogdanos2005:497) Throughoutthespringandsummerof2003,mediareportsremainedfocusedontheIraq Museum.Evenasaccurateaccountsofthenumberofartifactstakenfromthemuseumbeganto overtakeinaccurateonesintermsoffrequency,reportersstillfoundmaterialrelatedtoitslootingworth theirtime.Forinstance,onJuly4,2003,TheIndependent,amongnumerousothermediaoutlets, reportedonthetwohourreopeningofthemuseumforselectmediaanddiplomaticguests(Cockburn 2003).Nevertheless,asthesensationalismovernumberssubsided,themediaoccasionallyfocusedon thelargerarchaeologicalcrisisinIraq.ThefactthatIraqwashometofarmoreheritagethanthe contentsoftheIraqMuseumanoftcitednumberwas10,000knownarchaeologicalsitesmeant thatthegreatestthreattothatheritagewassimilarlyoutsideofBaghdad(Vendantam2003). ThestoryoflootinganddamagetoarchaeologicalsitesandartifactsthroughoutIraqalludedto

atthebeginningofthispaperisanappropriatepointatwhichtotransitionintoanaccountofscholarly coverageofarchaeologyintheIraqwar.WhileIhaveshownthatmassmediacoverage,particularly afterApril12,2003,wasobsessivelyfocusedonthelootingoftheIraqMuseumoftenattheexclusion ofIraqsotherheritagesites,scholarlycoverageexhibitstheoppositetendency.Withnotable exceptions,archaeologicalscholarshavechosentotakeamoreholistic,critical,andpragmatic approachtothewaranditsaftermath.Again,withcertainexceptions,theseworkshaveasked questionsregardingtheroleofacademicarchaeologyinconflictaswellashowandif archaeologistsshouldadvancetheirstewardshipofheritageinIraq.Despitethesubstantiallydifferent approachtakenbyscholarscomparedtothemassmedia,thereisnoshortageofdisagreementwithin theliteratureoverhowtoanswerthesequestions.WiththeinclusionofBogdanosinthiscategory,there areevenquestionsofwherethelegitimacyofscholarshipbeginsandends. OneimportantcontributiontotheoverallnarrativeofarchaeologyinIraqprovidedmost effectivelybythescholarsisanassessmentofitsstatebeforethecommencementofhostilitiesinMarch 2003.Whilemanymassmediaaccountsincludedfacetsofthisstory(totheircredit),particularlyinthe coverageprecedingApril12,2003,itisbettertoldintotalitybythescholarswhoweremost experiencedwithitandwhosemediajournalarticlesandbookscouldbetteraccommodatethe lengthofthetale. Thelootingofantiquitiescanbetracedbackasfarasmanyoftheantiquitiesthemselves,to 1160B.C.,butthestoryofheritagelootingbeginsinearnestwiththecolonialismoftheFrenchand Britishintheearlytomidnineteenthcentury.TheterritorytodayknownasIraqwasatthattimepartof theOttomanEmpire,andalthoughitwouldnotcomeunderdefactocolonialruleuntilaftertheFirst

WorldWar,Europeanshadnodifficultycartingofftheheritagetheyfoundthere.Despitelaws restrictingthetakingofartifacts,theOttomanrulerattheendofthenineteenthcenturycaredlessfor manyoftheantiquitiesofthelandheruledthantheforeignerstakingthem,andmuchofthisearly archaeologicalworkwasdonewiththecomplicityofthelocalrulers.WiththefalloftheOttoman empireattheendoftheFirstWorldWar,themodernstateofIraqcameaboutasaBritishMandate. Thearchaeologicalexplorationofthenewstatecametoreflectthecolonialismofitspolitical administration,andsuccessesinconservationcamehandinhandwithoutrightculturaltheft(Rothfield 2009).Nevertheless,thistimeperiodsawtheestablishmentoftheAntiquitiesServiceofIraqandthe creationoftheIraqMuseum,institutionsthathaveenduredtothepresent(AlHussainyandMatthews 2008). Despiteitsindependencein1932,heritageconservancyinIraqdidnotimprovemuchuntilthe installationoftheBaathPartyafterthe1958militarycoup.Notwithstandingitsauthoritarianism,the BaathPartyanditsmostfamouspresident,SaddamHussein,arewidelyrecognizedassaviorsofIraqi archaeology.TheBaathregimecombinedstrictstatecontroloverallantiquitiesfoundandarmed protectionofsiteswithanatmosphereencouragingforeignanddomesticarchaeologicalstudy.After Saddamsrisetopowerin1979,archaeologyalsotookonanewroleasaninstrumentofthenationalist narrativeofIraqandpartofSaddamscultofpersonality(Rothfield2009).Forinstance,inthecourse ofrebuildingtheoldcitywallsofBabylon,Saddamhadhisownnameengravedonthebricksnextto Nebuchadnezzars(Gibbons2003).ThereignoftheBaathPartynotonlydidanexceptionaljobof protectingIraqsheritagebutalsofosteredresearchandscholarship.Archaeologicalteamsfromaround theworldweregrantedpermitstoexcavateandIraqsownarchaeologicalstudentsandscholarswent

abroadtostudy.ThisgoldenageofIraqiarchaeologybegantofallintodeclinewiththecommencement ofthewarwithIranandendedalmostentirelywiththebeginningoftheinvasionofKuwait.Thewar withtheUnitedStatesandsubsequentUnitedNationssanctionssoundedthedeathknellfor internationalcooperation(AlHussainyandMatthews2008). Duringthe1990stheheritageofIraqanditsconservationfellintoanadvancedstateof disrepair.Theincreasedmilitarizationofthecountryencroacheduponmanyarchaeologicalsitesandthe lackofguardsledtolooting.Additionally,theethnicandsectarianconflictswithinIraqwereextended intothefieldofarchaeologyassitesinthemarginalizedShiasouthweresubjecttowhatAlHussainy andMatthewsdescribeastargetedlooting(2008:95).Thusitwasinthisconditionthattheheritageof IraqstoodontheeveoftheCoalitioninvasioninearly2003. Duetothetemporalrestraintsofpeerreviewandpublishinglogistics,scholarlyliteratureforthe mostpartdoesnotexistpriortoApril12,2003inthesamewaythatmassmediadoesforthistopic. OneofthefewsuchdocumentsthatdoesexistwaspublishedinScienceonMarch21,2003andisa publicappealforthepreservationofIraqiheritageinlightofloomingwar(Gibson2003).Thearticle presentsanexcellentchronicleoftheplightofIraqiarchaeologyduringthe1990sandwarnsofthe dangeroffurtherwarfare.Nevertheless,thearticlehasanundeniabletoneofresignationfortheevents thatwouldshortlyunfoldandtakesapragmaticapproachratherthanastrictlyideologicalone.Itis signedbyanumberofprofessionalandacademicarchaeologicalgroupsaswellasarchaeological scholarsfromaroundtheworld.Itservesasoneofthefewsourcesofscholarlyopinionthataddressed themilitarybuildupinearly2003andwaspublishedpriortothedestructionandlootingthatwould occurinthecourseoftheinvasion.

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Asforthebalanceofprofessionalarchaeologicalliteratureonthisspecifictopicthatwhich waspublishedafterApril12,2003itcanbebroadlysortedintothreecategories.First,thereis literaturethatsoughttoexaminewhathadtranspiredpriortoandduringtheinvasionofIraqinan attempttoformulateastrategyforaddressingsimilarproblemsinthefuture.Theoverarchingattitude presentintheseworksisthatheritageconservationeffortsshouldtrumpideology.Second,thereis literaturethatsoughtneithertofindfaultwithwhatoccurredpriortotheinvasionnorargueagainstits proprietyingeneralrather,itdocumentedtheattemptsofprofessionalsandsemiprofessionalswithin thearchaeologicalcommunitytoconserveIraqiheritageafterApril12,2003.Third,thereisliterature thatpresentedacritiqueofacademicandprofessionalarchaeologistsactionandinactioninthetime surroundingtheinvasionandischaracterizedprimarilybyideology. Warsandconflicthappen(Stone2009).Soopensanarticleofthefirstsortmentionedabove and,althoughprosaic,setsthetoneappropriately.Stonearguesthatinlightoftheeventsthattranspired duringtheinvasionandoccupationofIraqwithregardstoheritage,archaeologistshaveaprofessional dutytobecomeactivelyinvolvedintheprocessforthesakeofconservation.This,hereasons,should notbeviewedasanactofcomplicitywithwarfare,butinsteadasanefforttoindirectlyresistmilitarism bypreservingheritagethatmightleadtogreatercrossculturalunderstanding.Ultimately,thisinvolved [influencing]thoseinthemilitaryandgovernmentoftheincredibleimportanceoftheworldscultural heritageandtoremindthemoftheirresponsibilitiestoprotectit(Stone2009:38).Similarly,Gibson arguesforgreaterattentiontothenotionofculturewithinourarmedforcesbureaucracy,whichhe believeswasseverelylackingduringtheinvasionandoccupationofIraq(Gibson2009).Less prescriptivethanStoneandcertainlymorepessimistic,Gibsonneverthelessdefendshisattemptsto

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workwithmilitaryandciviliangovernmentalagentstopreventdestructionandlossofarchaeological heritage. Thesecondgroupofscholarlyliteratureisparticularlyinterestingbecauseofitslackofovert ideology.Nevertheless,itmustbereadcriticallylestweletourselvesbelievethattheyareideologically devoid.Perhapsthearchetypeforthissortofscholarlyliteratureandtheinspirationforthispaper isBogdanosaccountofhistimeservingasaColonelintheUnitedStatesMarineCorps.Col. BogdanosledthemilitaryteamthatwastaskedwiththeinitialinvestigationoftheIraqMuseumlooting andthepursuitofreclaimingitslostartifacts.Althoughitprovidesacritiqueofcertainmassmedia accounts,itisoutwardlynoneditorialinnature.Nevertheless,Bogdanosdefendsagainstcertainspecific claimsthatwerepervasive,especiallyinthemassmedia,suchastheonethatasingleUnitedStatestank couldhaveeffectivelydefendedtheIraqMuseumagainstthelooters(Bogdanos2005:504).Indoing so,hisarticleprovidesadvocacyfortheCoalitionmissioninIraqanddoescontainanunderlying ideologicalslant. TwootherworksthatfallunderthissecondcategoryarechapterswritteninArchaeology, CulturalProperty,andtheMilitary,onebyPinckneyandtheotherbySiebrandt.Pinckneyisa noncommissionedofficerintheUnitedStatesAirForceandisdescribedasaprofessional archaeologist.HischapterdescribeshistimeservinginKirkuk,Iraqasaforwardadvisorygroup memberintheCentralCommandsHistorical/CulturalAdvisoryGroup.Itincludeshisarchaeological findingsaswellasanaccountofthebureaucraticchallengeshefacedwithinthemilitaryinthepursuitof hisfieldwork(Pinckney2010).Siebrandtwas,andcontinuedatpresstobe,theCulturalHeritage LiaisonOfficerfortheUnitedStatesEmbassyinBaghdad.Herchaptercomesfromamore

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administrativeroleinattemptingtopursueheritageconservationinoccupiedIraq.Shediscusseshow herofficecollaboratedwiththeDepartmentofDefenseindistributingArchaeologyAwarenessPlaying Cards,providedheritageconservationlecturestomilitarymembersandcontractors,distributed brochureslistingatriskantiquities,andherobservationofthesemeasuressuccess(Siebrandt2010). Whilethesechapters,alongwithBogdanosarticle,smackofuncriticalflagwaving,theyareimportant ifonlyfortheirexistenceaspartofthescholarlyliterature.Additionally,itisimportanttorecognizethat unlikealmostanyothermediasourcestudied,theserepresenttheconcreteeffortsofheritage conservationistsinthefield. Finally,IincludeinthiscategoryTheLootingoftheIraqMuseum,Baghdad:TheLost LegacyofAncientMesopotamia.Thisuniquecontributiontothedocumentaryreportingon archaeologyduringtheIraqWarissurprisinglypowerfulconsideringitspaucityofideology,overtor otherwise.InanefforttobringawarenesstothelootingtheIraqMuseum,itseditorsdecidedtoinstead highlightthebeautifulandfascinatingcontentsofthemuseumwithdetaileddescriptionsandlarge, vibrantcolorphotographs.IntroducedbyIraqsformerchiefarchaeologist,thelateDr.DonnyGeorge, thebookisanalmostperfectcounterpointtomassmediaarticlesthatsensationalizednumbersand marginalizedthesubstanceofwhatwastaken.Itisasworthyaninclusioninthisreviewofmediaand literatureasthemostpolemicalpieceofwritingpreciselybecauseitisnot(PolkandSchuster2005). Thethirdcategoryofscholarlyliteratureisleftforlastbecauseitisprimarilycriticalnotofthe invasionandoccupationofIraq(ittakesthatcriticismforgranted),butofacademicandprofessional archaeologistsandtheirreactiontothewar.LaidoutbyHamilakisintwoseparatejournalarticles,he takesarchaeologiststotaskforparticipatingintheveryprocessofwarfare.Despitetheirnoble

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intentions,heargues,byattemptingtoworkwithgovernmentandmilitaryforces,archaeologists legitimizeconflictandharmarchaeology(Hamilakis2003:107).Heidentifiesamilitaryarchaeology complexinwhichheaccuseshiscolleaguesofbeingcomplicitwithmilitaryaggressionforsimply advisinghowtheymightavoiddamagingheritagesites(Hamilakis2009:48).Inparticular,heexpresses shockthatanarchaeologicaljournalwouldpublishBogdanosarticle(seeBogdanos2005)inwhichthe authorcriticizesarchaeologistswhoexpressedoppositiontothewarwithouteditorialcommentaryor response.IgnoringthefactthatheincorrectlyidentifiesBogdanosasanArmyofficerandneglectsto mentionthathehasamastersdegreeinclassicsandalawdegree,thisreeksofelitism.Thatbeingsaid, itcomesasnosurprisethatanacademicwhobelievesallofhiscolleaguesshouldsharehisviewsand conductthemselvesaccordinglywouldexpectanopposingideologytobeaccompaniedbyaneditorial disclaimer.Hamilakismakesareasonableargumentthatarchaeologistssimilarlymindedtohimselfought torefusetodobusinesswiththemilitaryregardlessoftheirbenevolentintent,butthisislosttohis overbearingattitudeofsmugintellectualsuperiority. ThescholarlyresponsetotheCoalitionsinvasionandoccupationofIraqin2003,whetheritbe academicspublishinginpeerreviewedjournalsornonarchaeologistheritageworkerswritingchapters inarchaeologicaltexts,isasvariedasthatofthemassmedia.Whereasthemassmediaclashedoverthe factshowmanyartifactshadbeenstolenandhowtheyweredescribedthescholarstendedto clashovermorepurelyideologicalmatterssuchastheroleofarchaeologistsinwarfare,themannerin whichtheacademicdiscussionitselfshouldproceed,andwhoshouldparticipateinit.Wecanseethat eachofthesetwogeneralgroupstendedtoaddresstopicsthatwereofmostinteresttotheirintended audiences.Forinstance,theintendedaudienceofthemost,ifnotall,massmediaarticlesreviewed

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abovewouldbethepublicthatreadsnewspapersandmagazinesandwouldatthetimehavebeen followingtheeventsofthewar.Ontheotherhand,thejournalsandbooksreviewedwouldbeintended forarchaeologyacademics,professionals,andstudentswithaninterestinthatfieldspecifically.Itcould bepresumedwithareasonableamountofcertaintythatthegeneralpublicwouldbeuninterestedinwhat rolearchaeologiststhinktheyshouldplayinwartimeandlikewisethosearchaeologistswouldhavelittle needforajournaltotellthemaboutjusthowimportantIraqiheritageis. Takengenerally,themassmediacanbesaidtoviewthewaritselfasamatterofpolicy,looting asanoperationalfailureoftheCoalition,andarchaeologyasavehicleforcriticism(ordefense)ofthat policy.Throughoutthesenewspaperandmagazinearticlesthereistheunmistakableimpressionthathad decisionsbeenmadedifferentlyandmoreconscientiously,thearchaeologicalharmsoftheinvasion couldhavebeenavoidedormitigated.Conversely,thescholarlyliteraturetakesthevictimizationof antiquitytobeanaturalconsequenceofarmedconflictpredictableanddifficulttoprevent.Withthe exceptionofoutsidevoicessuchasBogdanos,Pinckney,andSiebrandt,thescholarlysourcesaccept axiomaticallythatthemilitaryisfundamentallyatoddswithheritageconservation. Fortunately,thispaperisonlyabeginningforunderstandingtherolethatarchaeologyplayed andstillplaysinournationswarfareintheNearEastandelsewhere.AsimportantasIraqsantiquityis, evenmoreisthreatenedeverydayinplacessuchasIsrael/Palestine,Egypt,Syria,andmany,many morewartornareasaroundtheworld.Asprofessionalarchaeologistspursuetheirstudyandthe preservationofheritageinthesesettings,itisvitallyimportanttocommunicatemeaningfullywiththe generalpublic,whosharemoreoftheirconcernsthantheymayknow.

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ReferencesCited AlHussainy,Abbas,andRogerMatthews 2008TheArchaeologicalHeritageofIraqinHistoricalPerspective.PublicArchaeology7: 91100. Atwood,Roger 2003InsideIraqsNationalMuseum.ARTnews1July.Electronicdocument, http://www.artnews.com/2003/07/01/insideiraqsnationalmuseum,accessedMarch4, 2012. Bahrani,Zainab 1998ConjuringMesopotamia:imaginativegeographyandaworldpast.InArchaeologyunder fire:nationalism,politicsandheritageintheeasternMediterraneanandMiddle East,editedbyLynnMeskell,pp.159174.Routledge,London. Bogdanos,Matthew 2005TheCasualitiesofWar:TheTruthabouttheIraqMuseum.AmericanJournalof Archaeology109:477526. Charle,Suzanne 2003TinyTreasuresLeaveBigVoidInLootedIraq.TheNewYorkTimes18June:E34. NewYork. Cockburn,Patrick 2003Americansrestoreancienttreasurestomuseumfortwohoursonly.TheIndependent4 July:11.London. Davis,Aaron,andDrewBrown 2003InBaghdad,lootersaredescendingonartifacts.ThePhiladelphiaInquirer12April: A05.Philadelphia. Gibbons,Fiachra 2003Theendofcivilisation:Iraqisonehugeworldheritagesite,auniquestorehouseofartand archaeology.Nowthewarthreatenstodestroyitall.TheGuardian2April:12. London Gibson,McGuire 2003FateofIraqiarchaeology.Science299:18481849. Gibson,McGuire 2009CultureasAfterthought:USPlanningandNonplanningintheInvasionofIraq. ConservationandManagementofArchaeologicalSites11:333339. Gugliotta,Guy 2003IraqWarCouldPutAncientTreasuresatRisk.TheWashingtonPost3March:A09. WashingtonD.C. Hamilakis,Yannis 2003Iraq,stewardshipandtherecord:anethicalcrisisforarchaeology.PublicArchaeology 3:104111. Hamilakis,Yannis 2009TheWaronTerrorandtheMilitaryArchaeologyComplex:Iraq,Ethics,and NeoColonialism.Archaeologies5:3965.

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Jenkins,Simon 2007InIraq'sfouryearlootingfrenzy,theallieshavebecomethevandals:Britishand AmericancollusioninthepillagingofIraq'sheritageisascandalthatwilloutliveany passingconflict.TheGuardian8June:38.London. Keys,David 2003aAntiquitiesexpertsguardingtreasures.BelfastTelegraph29March.Belfast. Keys,David 2003bFearsfortreasuresofcivilization.TheNewZealandHerald12April.Auckland. Neuffer,Elizabeth 2003Antiquitiesinthelineoffire:Duringthe1991GulfWar,U.S.bombsdestroyedor damagedsomeofthe10,000archeologicalsitesthroughoutIraq.U.S.andIraqi archeologistsareconcernedthatanotherassaultwillruinyetmoreofhumanity's treasures.TheGazette27January.Montreal. Pickney,DarrellC. 2010TimenotonmySide:CulturalResourceManagementinKirkuk,Iraq.InArchaeology, CulturalProperty,andtheMilitary,editedbyLaurieRush,pp.117125.Boydell Press,Woodbridge. Polk,Milbry,andAngelaM.H.Schuster 2005ThelootingoftheIraqMuseum,Baghdad:thelostlegacyofancientMesopotamia. NewYork:HarryN.Abrams. Rothfield,Lawrence 2009TheRapeofMesopotamia:BehindtheLootingoftheIraqMuseum.Chicago:The UniversityofChicagoPress. Russell,JohnM. 2003We'reStillMissingTheLootingPicture.TheWashingtonPost15June:B05. WashingtonD.C. Siebrandt,DianeC. 2010USMilitarySupportofCulturalHeritageAwarenessandPreservationinPostConflict Iraq.InArchaeology,CulturalProperty,andtheMilitary,editedbyLaurieRush, pp.126137.BoydellPress,Woodbridge. Stone,Peter 2009ProtectingCulturalHeritageinTimesofConflict:LessonsfromIraq.Archaeologies5: 3238. Tubbs,Sharon 2003Artilleryandartifacts.St.PetersburgTimes10April.St.Petersburg,Florida. Vendantam,Shankar 2003WorstLootingMayBeInRemotePartsofIraqScientistsAssessDamagetoAncient Sites.TheWashingtonPost12June:A28.WashingtonD.C. Vergano,Dan 2003ArchaeologistsfearlossofIraqiantiquities.USAToday24March.McLean.