Emt Notes

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING EEE3055F 2012 Module A: Electromagnetic Field Theory
Lecture Notes: Version 2.33
2012
Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. A.J.Wilkinson Room: 6.09.1 Email: andrew.wilkinson@uct.ac.za
30th May 2012
Feel free to send me an email if you have questions regarding the course, or would like to arrange a time to see me. This course module has a web page where marks and notices will be posted (see courses link on www.ee.uct.ac.za) This part of EEE3055F consists of 24 lectures (two per week). Check web site and notice board on 4th oor Menzies for venues. Final mark for module A = exam (76%) + test1 (10%) + test2(10%) + lab (4%) + assignments (6%). Two class tests, provisional dates to be announced. There will be one laboratory practical on microwave antenna measurements. You will be required to submit a short report that will count 4% of your total mark. Computer simulation assignments will be set that will contribute up to 6% of the nal mark. The examination counts 70% of the mark awarded for this module. There is a sub-minimum of 35% required for each module to pass the course. To qualify for a Duly Performed certicate, all assignments and lab reports must be submitted by the due date. All submissions must include a signed declaration, declaring that the work is ones own, and has not been plagiarised. Course notes will be handed out in class, supplemented by material on the blackboard. There is no prescribed text, but the following books may be consulted for supplementary reading: Fundamentals of Physics, D. Halliday & R. Resnick Introduction to Electrodynamics, D.J.Griths Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery and T. Van Duzer.
AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
Electromagnetism, I.S. Grant & W.R.Phillips Electromagnetic Wave Propagation & Antennas, S. Cloude Antenna Theory, C.A. Balanis Lecture Topics Lectures will be given on aspects of the following topics: 1. Review of basic static eld theory: electrostatics; Gauss law; magnetostatics: Gauss law for magnetic elds; Amperes (Oersteds) law 2. Dynamic laws: Faradays law of electromagnetic induction 3. Maxwells equations & displacement current 4. Electromagnetic boundary conditions 5. Relationship to circuit theory an Kirchhos laws 6. Radiation and electromagnetic Waves; the radiation mechanism; the wave equation and solutions 7. Sinusoidal EM waves 8. Plane waves in (i) free space (ii) non conducting dielectrics; polarization 9. Simulation of propagating waves using FDTD method 10. Power ow in electromagnetic waves; electromagnetic safety considerations 11. Reection and refraction at boundaries 12. Propagation in conducting media and the skin eect 13. Radiation from antennas: Hertzian dipole, wire antennas 14. Thermal Radiation from warm objects
Laboratory session The laboratory session is on radiation from microwave horn antennas. It covers: experimentation with 10 GHz horn antennas. exposure to some microwave components and instrumentation. measurement of received power as a function of distance. linear polarization and its eect on the orientation of the antenna. measurement of the antenna beam patterns using a rotating turntable. A formal report must be submitted, documenting the experiments and results obtained. The laboratory venue is the Microwave Laboratory on the 7th oor of the Menzies Building.
Contents
1 Introduction and course objectives 1.1 Course aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Course outcomes . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Examples of the applications of EM 1.4 Prerequisite Knowledge . . . . . . . 1.5 List of Symbols and Units . . . . . 2 The 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-2 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-5 2-5 2-7 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-14 2-18 2-18 2-23 2-24 2-29 2-32
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eld and wave theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
laws of Electromagnetics Forces between charges (Coulombs Law) . . . . . . . . . . The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces on charges from Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . Lorentz Force Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work and Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy stored in an Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . Energy stored in a Magnetostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . Other useful Vector Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fields in Linear Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Fields in Dielectric Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic elds in Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maxwells Equations governing Electromagnetic Behaviour Gauss Law for Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gauss Law for Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . Amperes Circuital Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 The 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6
Dierential Forms of Maxwells Equations The Static EM Equations in Integral and Dierential Form Electromagnetic Equations before Maxwell . . . . . . . . . Continuity of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fixing the Problem with Amperes Law . . . . . . . . . . . Maxwells Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Table of Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
3-1 3-3 3-10 3-11 3-13 3-14 3-15 4-1 4-1 4-5 4-9 5-1 5-2 5-5 5-6 5-11 5-15 5-18 5-22 5-26 5-29 5-29 6-1 6-2 6-6 6-9 6-12 6-14
4 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions 4.1 Boundary Conditions for the Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Examples of Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Relationship between Field Theory and Circuit Theory 5.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Formulas for Practical Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Kirchhos Voltage Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Kirchhos Current Law at a Node . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 The Relaxation Time of Conducting Materials . . . . 5.9 Shielding and The Faraday Cage . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Twisted Pair Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Electromagnetic Waves 6.1 Mathematical Description of Travelling Waves . . . . . . . . 6.2 Wave Equation derived from Maxwells Equations . . . . . . 6.3 Physical Interpretation of the Radiation Generation and Propagation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Some Additional Notes on Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Travelling Waves in a Plucked Guitar String . . . . . . . . .
7 Sinusoidal Waves 7-1 7.1 Signals as Sums of Sinusoidal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Real Sinusoidal Travelling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7.3 Complex Phasor Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 8 Plane Waves 8.1 Plane wave propagating in z direction . . . . . . . . 8.2 Characteristic Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Sinusoidal Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Plane Wave Propagating in an Arbitrary Direction 8.5 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-2 8-4 8-5 8-7 8-9
9 Simulating Electromagnetic Waves using the Finite Dierence Time Domain (FDTD) Method [not covered in 2009] 9-1 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9.2 FDTD Solution to Maxwells equations in 1-D . . . . . . . . 9-3 9.3 FDTD Solution to Maxwells equations in 2-D Space . . . . 9-15 9.4 Solving Maxwells Equations in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22 9.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22 9.6 MATLAB CODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-23 10 Power Considerations and the Poynting Vector 10.1 Power in a Sinusoidal Plane Wave . . . . . . 10.2 Power density from Radiating Antennas . . 10.3 Power Flow in a Simple Circuit . . . . . . . 10.4 Electromagnetic safety considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 . 10-3 . 10-5 . 10-9 . 10-14
11 Reection and Refraction at Boundaries 11-1 11.1 Reection of Normally Incident Plane Waves from a Perfect Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11.2 Transmission Line Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11.3 Normally Incident Plane Wave on a Dielectric Interface . . . 11-5 11.4 Reection and Transmission (refraction) at a dielectric interface - arbitrary incident angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6 12 Propagation in Conducting Media and the Skin Depth 12-1 12.1 Wave propagation in a conducting medium . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
12.2 Skin Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12.3 Skin Eect in Conducting Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 13 Radiation from Antennas 13-1 13.1 Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13.2 Dipole Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13.3 Phase array pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13.4 Aperture Antennas [simplied treatment; lab session] . . . . 13-1 13.5 Discussion on why circuits that are small compared to the wavelength do not radiate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 14 Thermal Radiation from Warm Objects 14-1
1 Introduction and course objectives

1.1 Course aims
This course aims to provide students with an understanding of electromagnetic eld theory and wave propagation in the context of applications in electrical engineering.
1.2 Course outcomes

Knowledge and understanding of Maxwells equations in integral and dierential form. Understanding of the relationship between circuit theory and eld theory. Understanding of electromagnetic wave phenomena: radiation, plane wave propagation, reection and refraction. Exposure to tools and methods for simulating wave propagation Basic antenna concepts and understanding radiation from wire antennas.
1.3 Examples of the applications of EM eld and wave theory:

Understanding propagation of electromagnetic waves, and their interaction with matter. Design of structures for ecient radiation of EM power in the form of antennas for communication links and radar applications.
1-1
Predicting the behaviour of electronic circuits, particularly at higher frequencies, where the dimensions of components approach the wavelength. Solving eld problems, e.g. magnetic elds for the analysis of motors and generators In electrical impedance tomography, an image of object is reconstructed from impedance measurements. These are obtained by injecting electrical currents and measuring voltages around the boundary; the reconstruction algorithms require modelling the electric elds within the medium under investigation.
1.4 Prerequisite Knowledge

Previous course covering electrostatics, magnetostatics. Vector calculus to describe such elds, e.g. concepts such as div, curl, Gauss theorem, Stokes theorem etc.
1.5 List of Symbols and Units

A - vector potential B - the magnetic ux density vector in Wb m2 or Tesla T Bt , Bn - tangential and normal B-eld components at a surface c - speed of propagation in ms1 C - used to label an integration contour dl - vector used to dene elemental section of a contour for contour integration dS used to dene a surface element for surface integradS - vector dS n tion dV - volume element for volume integration
1-2
D - the electric ux density vector in Cm2 E - electric eld strength in in NC1 or Vm1 Et , En - tangential and normal E-eld components at a surface E - the electric eld intensity vector in NC1 or Vm1 F - force vector in N H - the magnetic eld intensity vector in Am1 J - current density vector in Am2 k - electric eld constant k = 1/(4/0) k - wavenumber in rad m1 n - unit vector normal to a surface P - Poynting vector in Wm2 S - used to label a surface for integration U - energy in joules UE energy in electric eld in J UM energy in magnetic eld in J I - current in A or Cs1 I - used occasionally to denote power density in Wm2 L - inductance in H. M - mutual inductance in H. t - time in s f - frequency in Hz G - antenna gain r - vector denoting position in space
1-3
q, Q - electric charge in Coulombs C T - period of a wave in s V - voltage V or JC1 V - used to label a volume for volume integration v - velocity vector of a particle in ms1 W - work in J - charge density in Cm3 s - surface charge density in Cm2 - reection coecient - conductivity in Sm1 - permittivity constant. In free space 0 = 8.854 1012 Fm1 (or C 2 N 1 m 2 ) - permeability; in free space 0 = 4 107 in NA2 - impedance of a medium of propagation in - wavelength in m - potential dierence or potential relative to zero reference in V or JC1 M - magnetic ux in webers Wb E - electric ux in coulombs C - frequency in rad s1
1-4
2 The laws of Electromagnetics

This section contains a review of the relationships covered in the static elds course PHY210S. This leads on to the incorporation of the dynamic eld laws, including Faradays law and the modied form of Amperes law. These laws are summarized in an elegant set of equations known as Maxwells equations. The fundamental electromagnetic (EM) eld quantities are E the electric eld intensity vector in NC1 or Vm1 B the magnetic ux density vector in Wb m2 or Tesla T These vector eld quantities have been introduced to explain and predict the observed eects that charged particles have on one another in static and dynamic situations. EM elds are not directly visible to the eye; but their eects are. Our eyes are of course sensitive to EM radiation in the optical band, although we are not observing the eld quantities E and B themselves. Although eld quantities are, in general, functions of position (x, y, z ) and time t, e.g. E E (x, y, z, t), for compactness, the arguments will usually be omitted in the written notation. Bold symbols will be used for vector quantities.
2.1 Forces between charges (Coulombs Law)

Two charged particles q1 and q2, separated by a distance r in free space (vacuum), experience a force of either attraction or repulsion modelled by q1 q2 F =k 2 R
2-1
where k = Fm1
1 40
is a constant. The permittivity constant 0 = 8.854 1012

F R R q2
Force on q2
F=
q1 q2 R 40 r 2
q1 Figure 2.1: Force on charge q2 owing to q1 .
Note that the force is proportional to the charge values and inversely proportional to r2. The eect of such forces can be observed and measured. We consider the force on q2 to be a result of placing q2 in the electric eld surrounding q1 . If we place the points within a coordinate system at locations P1 and P2 , the force on charge q2 can be expressed in vector form as q1 q2 F= R 40R2 = R is a unit vector in the direction of the vector R = P1 + P2 , where R |R | pointing from q1 to q2 .
2.2 The Electric Field

The electric eld arising from a charge q is dened in terms of the force it exerts on a test charge q E= in units of N C 1. The test charge q would generate its own eld, which acts on q.
2-2 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
q F R = q 40 r2
Superposition holds and so the total eld at any point is the sum of the components from all charges, i.e.
N
E=
i=1
Ei
where Ei results from each of the N charges as illustrated in the following diagram.
Total Electric Field
E3 q1 E2 P E1
E=
N i=1 Ei
q2
q3 Figure 2.2: Electric eld at point P is the vector sum of components all sources.
2.3 Forces on charges from Magnetic Fields

Magnetic elds were originally introduced to explain the eects of forces between magnetized materials, and also current carrying conductors. Magnetic elds are created by moving charges. The magnetic elds produced by permanent magnets can be explained in terms of the sum of elds arising from the electrons orbiting atoms. Recall, for a long straight wire conductor carrying current I, the sur0I rounding eld at a radial distance r from the wire is given by B = 2r . To determine the direction of the magnetic eld:
2-3
Grasp the conductor with right hand with thumb pointing in direction of current. Fingers point in direction of magnetic field
B I I
into page r
Figure 2.3: Magnetic eld surrounding a long straight current-carrying wire.
A charge moving through a magnetic eld experiences a force, described by the vector relationship F = qv B where v is the velocity vector of the particle. The directions of the eld quantities are depicted below (for a positive charge):
V (into page)
B
Magnetic force on moving charge
(down)
F = qV B
Figure 2.4: Force on a charged particle moving through a magnetic eld.
The units of B are deduced from the force per coulomb per unit of speed, i.e. (NC1)/(ms1) = NC1m1s. For convenience the equivalent unit of tesla T is commonly used (1 T = 1 NC1m1s).
2-4
2.4 Lorentz Force Law

The total electromagnetic force on a charged particle is the sum of forces resulting from the electric and magnetic elds and is known as the Lorentz law F = qE + qv B
A conductor carrying a current experiences both electric and magnetic forces from the EM elds in its environment. A stationary charged particle can experience only an electric force, since the term q v B = 0 if v = 0.
2.5 Biot-Savart Law
The Biot-Savart law (1820) relates the current owing in a wire to the magnetic eld resulting from it. Consider a linear homogeneous medium in which a wire carries current.
Magnetic Field (points out of page) B P R r dl r I
Figure 2.5: Magnetic eld at point P owing to current I.
The contribution to the magnetic eld at any point P resulting from an elemental section of the wire dl carrying current I in the direction described
2-5
by the vector quantity dl is found experimentally to be dB (r) = Idl sin 4R2
where is the angle between vector R and dl , and is the permeability of the medium. The magnetic eld at P points out of the page. The eld can be expressed in vector form as Idl R d B ( r) = 4R2 = (rr ) = R is a unit vector, given in terms of r being the position where R |rr | |R | of point P , and r being the position of the current element. The expression is sometimes written as Idl (r r ) d B ( r) = 4 |r r |3 To calculate the total magnetic eld resulting from a section (or entire circuit loop), we must add contributions from all elemental sections by integrating along the length of the wire, usually a closed loop B=
Homework
I dB = 4
dl R R2
Use the Biot-Savart law to show by integration, that the eld arising from an innitely long straight conductor carrying current I is B = 2I R where R is the perpendicular distance from the point of consideration to the conductor.
2-6
2.6 Work and Potential

The energy required to move a test chargeq from point A to point B along a contour C is given by the contour integral W = lim
B l0
(Fi cos i )l
i B B
F dl =
( q E + q v B ) dl =
q E dl
F
A
dl
contour C
Figure 2.6: Contour C joining points A and B.
The dot product F dl = F l cos extracts the component of F tangential to the contour C (in the direction of dl) and multiplies it by the incremental distance l, to yield the incremental amount of work dW = F dl. It is interesting to see that no work is done against the magnetic eld because the magnetic force component of F is always perpendicular to dl, i.e. q v B dl, and hence the dot product is zero (note that Fv and v dl hence Fdl). Work is only done against the electric eld. In electrostatics, it is often convenient to introduce the concept of potential. The potential dierence between two points A and B is dened as the work per Coulomb involved in moving a test charge q from A to B B A W = = q
B A
E dl
The units of potential dierence are JC1 or volts V. For static elds, this integral is path independent, i.e. electrostatic elds are conservative.
2-7
It is often convenient to dene a reference point (e.g. in circuit analysis) as the zero potential, and specify potentials relative to that point. For analysing problems involving point charges, the reference point is sometimes set at innity and thus the potential at any point P is given by
P
P =
It can be shown (in many standard textbooks) that the potential at a point P resulting from N point charges is given by
P N
E dl
P =
E dl =
i=1
qi 40 ri
where ri is the distance from charge qi to point P. The electric eld can be obtained from the gradient of an electrostatic eld, This is a useful relationship, as the approach to nding the electric eld is often approached by rst nding the (scalar) potential distribution1, followed by calculation of the electric eld from the gradient of the potential function. E =
x y z
= grad =
More generally, for solving dynamic elds problems, potential functions may also be dened. These are known as retarded potentials and incorporate the wave propagating nature of electromagnetic elds. Retarded potentials are functions of both position and time. It is often easier to solve a problem (either analytically or numerically) by rst solving for the potential functions, and then subsequently calculating E and B eld quantities. For example, the electric eld is found from E = A t
where (r, t) is the retarded electric potential function and A(r, t) is the retarded magnetic vector potential.
2-8
2.7 Magnetic Vector Potential

In the same way that a scalar potential function is useful in solving electric eld problems, it is possible to dene a special potential for solving magnetic eld problems. Since B = 0, and ( F) = 0 F, it follows that B can be expressed as the curl of another vector, A, i.e. B=A As this is analogous to E = grad, the vector A is known as the magnetic vector potential. It is interesting to note that the ux through an arbitrary surface S is related to A by a line integral around the perimeter: M =
S
B ds =
S
A ds =
A dl (by Stokes theorem)
Although we shall not analyse this here, the magnetic vector potential A can be determined at any point in space r by integrating contributions from all currents or current densities that exist, i.e. for the case of a current carrying conductor (see Figure 2.5), A ( r) = I (r )dl 4R
where dl is the elemental section of wire at position r on the contour, and R = |r r |. For a distributed current density within volume V , A ( r) =
V
J(r )dV 4R
Once A(r) has been obtained, the B eld is calculated from: B=A The introduction of the magnetic vector potential is useful for solving both static B eld problems as well as for nding the elds surrounding an antenna.
2-9
2.8 Energy stored in an Electrostatic Field

q1 P1
P2 q2 P3 q3 Figure 2.7: Collection of charges.
It can be shown [Griths and other texts] that the work required to assemble a conguration of point charges by moving charges from innitely far apart into xed position, is given by 1 W = 2
N
i qi
i=1
where i is the potential at point Pi resulting from all other charges, excluding the i th charge itself2. More generally, to assemble a continuous charge distribution (x, y, z ) with corresponding potential eld (x, y, z ), is found by integrating elemental volume contributions 1 dV W = 2 all space An important result is that this expression can be re-written purely in terms of the electric eld [Griths] to yield 1 W = 0 E 2dV 2 all space
2
Note: i qi is the work done to bring qi from far away into position Pi against the force from all other charges, i.e. i qi counts work against qj (j = i), but j qj counts work against qi (j = i). Thus the N quantity i=1 i qi counts the work in positioning qi against qj twice (for each pair). Hence we must N divide by two, giving W = 1 i=1 i qi . 2
2-10
2 3 and can be thought of as the energy The term 1 2 0 E has units of Jm density in the electrostatic eld. This will have some signicance in our later discussion on radiating electromagnetic elds.
2.9 Energy stored in a Magnetostatic Field

To set up a current in a conducting wire coil requires work; the energy involved can be recovered. The gure below shows an inductor carrying a steady state current of I amperes. If the switch is opened, the inductor will force the current through the resistor marked R, with a 1st order exponential decay. The energy stored in the inductor is dissipated in the resistor.
Open
Figure 2.8: Energy is stored in the magnetic eld of the inductor.
It can be shown [Griths and other texts], that the work required to 2 establish the current is W = 1 2 LI , which in turn, can be expressed purely in terms of the surrounding magnetic eld arising from the current as W = 1 20 B 2dV
all space
1 and thus we can consider the term 2 B 2 as the energy density in Jm3 and 0 can be thought of as the energy density in the magnetic eld. This will have some signicance in our later discussion on radiating electromagnetic elds.
2-11
2.10 Other useful Vector Quantities

For convenience, two additional EM eld quantities are introduced: D = E is called the electric ux density in Cm2. It is also known as the displacement vector. H=
B
is called the magnetic eld intensity in Am1
These quantities are useful for writing compact expressions of the laws of electromagnetics handling the case of elds in materials aiding in conceptualising certain physical relationships e.g. Gauss law in for electric elds; Amperes circuital law. The D vector has a close analogy to the concept of uid ow (hence the nameux density. The worduxliterally means therate of ow(which would be in units of litres per second in the case of uid ow).
2.11 Fields in Linear Isotropic Media

In the aforementioned equations, the eects of the medium in which a eld exists can be conveniently handled by introducing the concepts of permittivity and permeability of a medium. For the case of a linear isotropic medium, the parameters are related to the free space values by constants, i.e. = r 0 where r 1 is the relative permittivity and similarly = r 0 where r is the relative permeability.
2.12 Electric Fields in Dielectric Media

When a dielectric (non-conductor) is subjected to an electric eld, the molecules deform and polarize forming tiny dipoles. The electric eld from the induced molecular dipoles is in the opposite direction to the applied electric eld. The net eect of the polarization of the material is to
2-12
reduce the net electric eld within the material. The polarization eect also changes the direction of an electric eld vector at the interface between two dierent dielectric media (e.g. air and glass). This is studied later in the chapter on boundary conditions.
Eapplied
air
E (z )
z
glass
Einduced
z D (z )
z
air
Figure 2.9: Polarization of molecules caused by an applied electric eld.
The E eld (normal component) discontinuity arises from the polarization eect in the dielectric which results in an induced layer of bound charge at the interface between dielectrics. In the illustration, it can be seen that the slight polarization of the molecules causes a thin positive layer on the upper surface of the glass, and a thin negative layer on the bottom surface. An electric eld is induced within the material that is opposite to the applied eld. The total eld within the dielectric is the vector sum of the two, and is hence reduced. A plot of Ez (z ) will show a step change at the interfaces between glass and air. In a linear medium, Einduced Eapplied. i.e. E = Eapplied kEapplied = (1 k )Eapplied = 1 Eapplied. In this situation, the quantity D = E with be the same inside and outside of the medium hence the D vector is continuous (at least the normal component is) across a boundary, analogous to uid owing. The table below lists values of r for several materials.
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Medium Vacuum Gases He,Ne,H,Ar,Ni Air (sea level) Air (pressurized 100 atm) Water vapour Polystyrene Paper Glass Methyl Alcohol Water
Dielectric constant r 1 <1.0007 1.00059 1.05 1.01 2.5 3.5 4-7 35 80.4
Table 2.1: Some permittivity values
2.13 Magnetic elds in Materials

For nearly all materials the permeability is very close to that of free space, i.e. for practical problems, 0 , i.e. r 1.00. Iron (Fe) is one notable exception, for which r is in the thousands or tens of thousands, depending on the purity of the iron. Coils are wound on iron cores to increase the magnetic ux density. It should also be noted that behaviour of iron is nonlinear, and described by the BH curve. Magnetic Domains Insertion of a material into a magnetic eld will modify the eld. For example, an electromagnet can be made by winding a coil around an iron bar; the net eect of the presence of the iron bar is to boost the magnetic B eld strength, by a factor as much as 1000. To understand this phenomenon, one must examine the microscopic structure of the material. The image in Figure 2.10 [Ramo et al. 3rd ed. p 692] is a highly magnied picture of a nickel crystal. The boundaries (revealed by an etching technique) shown are local magnetic domains (typically 1010 to 1012 m3 in volume; or about 0.10.5 mm in diameter) that have a net magnetic eld. Under unmagnetized conditions, the domains point in random directions. If an external magnetic eld is applied and increased with time, initially, the domains with directions agreeing with the applied eld enlarge, shifting the boundary walls of each
2-14
domain. Increasing the applied eld causes all domains to rotate to align with the applied eld.
Figure 2.10: Ferromagnetic domains in nickel. [Ramo et al. 3rd ed. p 692]
Permanent Magnets Subjecting an iron rod to a strong DC magnetic eld causes the magnetic domains to align with the applied eld. If the applied eld is reduced to zero, the domains will tend to rotate back to their original positions, but not entirely. The remaining or residual eect is a net magnetic polarization, with a resulting magnetic eld. It should be noted that energy is required to rotate the domains. Some of this energy is lost as heat, and some is stored in the magnetic eld. In a permanent magnet, the total magnetic eld is the sum of contributions from magnetic elds generated by the electron current surrounding individual atoms. The illustration below show two atoms within the magnetized material. The sum of many such current loops can be modelled as a single current sheet circulating around the boundary of the material as illustrated on the right (interior current contributions tend to cancel).
2-15
Figure 2.11: Permanent magnet modelled by an equivalent eld-generating current sheet.
The B-H Curve The gure below shows the B-H curve traced out for commercial iron [Grant & Phillips]. On the x-axis is the applied H eld to which the material is subjected3; on the y-axis is the resulting B eld. The H eld arises from current I in a coil of wire, i.e. H I and the resulting eld is a non-linear function of I (the B-H curve exhibits a hysteresis cycle). The permeability dB in the linear region (H < 200A/m) is = dH 10000. At H = 250 A/m, the B eld is a little over 1.5 Tesla. As H is increased beyond 250 A/m, the dB = 0 . This is explained curve attens and converges on a line of slope dH by the fact that once all domains are aligned with the applied H eld, increasing H has no further eect on material, and B = 0 H + constant. Reducing H to zero leaves the so-called remanence magnetization Br . The H required to reduce B back to zero is called the coercive force Hc .
3
The applied H eld can also be seen as the applied B eld divided by 0 , i.e. H = Bapplied /0 . Thus the total B is Binduced by rotation of domains + 0 H = H where = r 0 .
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B
Tesla 1.5 remanence 1.0 magnetisation B r 0.5 H
saturation slope
0
H
linear region slope 0
r
saturation
250
500
A/m
BH curve for commercial iron used to make mains transformers [Grant & Phillips]
Figure 2.12: B-H curve for iron.
In a 50 Hz AC machine or transformer, the iron is driven repeatedly around the B-H curve 50 times per second. Each cycle results in an energy loss in the core (and hence heating), proportional to the area within the S-curve. The hysteresis power loss increases with frequency. If the core is not driven close to saturation, the area is less, and so are the losses.
Example
Calculate the power loss in a 50 Hz transformer containing 1000 cm3 of iron, operating along the hysteresis curve in the illustration above.
Solution
By integrating to obtain the area enclosed by the S-curve, the energy loss per cubic metre is found to be approximately 350 Jm3 in one cycle. The timeaveraged power loss in 1000 cm3 is therefore 50 350 1000 (0.01)3 = 17.5 watts (which is quite high). In practice, the iron core is not driven so far into saturation, and the area (and power loss) is about 1/6 of the B-H curve shown above.
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Magnetic Materials for Machines
Magnetic materials are divided according to their properties and application. Hard Magnetic Materials - have a wide B-H curve and can retain a high degree of magnetization; used for making permanent magnets, coating the surface of magnetic storage media like stiy disks and audio tapes. e.g. Iron (bonded powder) Br = 0.6T and Hc = 0.0765Am1. Soft Magnetic Materials - have a narrow B-H curve, low hysteresis dB at H = 0, high maximum losses, high initial permeability (r )0 dH B permeability (r )max = H , and high saturation Bsat. e.g. Commercial Iron (99 Fe), (r )0 = 200, (r )max = 6000, Hc = 9000 Am1 and Bsat = 2.16 T. Pure Iron (99.9 Fe),(r )0 = 25000, (r )max = 350 000, Hc = 100 Am1 and Bsat = 2.16 T. Note that the above mentioned permeabilities (r ) are relative permeabilities i.e. = r 0 .
2.14 Maxwells Equations governing Electromagnetic Behaviour

Maxwells equations are a set of equations that govern the behaviour of electromagnetic elds for both static and dynamic situations. Some of these equations you will have already met in PHY2010S covering electrostatics and magnetostatics. In this section we shall describe the basic laws and their physical interpretation.
2.15 Gauss Law for Electric Fields

Electric elds arise from charges. In free space, Gauss law relates a surface integral of the quantity 0 E dS over a closed surface to the total charge
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therein:
S
0 E dS =
dV
V
In a mixed medium, the electric eld is aected by the presence of dielectric material, and Gauss law is written as
S
( r) E d S =
dV
V
where (r) is the position dependent permittivity. A useful analogy to uid ow can be created by dening the quantity D = E , which we call the ux density arising from the free charge enclosed within S. Bound charge (which may be found on the surface of a dielectric inteface) is not considered - it is taken into account in the variation of (r). Gauss law states that the total electric ux emanating from a closed surface is equal to the (unbound) charge enclosed by that surface. It is written as D dS = dV
S V
Dn dS D
q + closed surface S surrouding charge q.
Figure 2.13: Illustration of Gauss law applied to a single charge.
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The quantity D dS D ndS is the amount of ux emanating from a small elemental surface area dS on S . D n is simply the normal component of D at the surface. is the charge density4 in Cm3 that is integrated over the enclosed volume to give the total enclosed charge Q. The concept of ux from a charge is a bit like thinking of uid from a source. The total ow from a closed surface is numerically equal to the charge contained within. The law can also be expressed in terms of E by substituting D = E where = r 0. The advantage in working with D, apart from the slightly more compact notation in some equations, is that the ux density/ow concept holds in all types of media as well as free space. Boundary conditions are specied in terms of the continuity of ux i.e. D dS is the same on either side of a boundary. In keeping with the uid ow analogy, what ows in on one side of an interface between two materials must ow out on the other. This does not hold for E dS on the interface between two dierent dielectrics i.e. E dS is discontinuous on either side of a dielectric interface. Shrinking dS to an innitesimal area, one concludes that the normal component of D is continuous across a dielectric interface (i.e. at some point on the interface, the normal component of D does not change) but the normal component of the E vector does change. The E eld (normal component) discontinuity arises because of the polarization eect in a dielectric which results in an induced layer of bound charge ob the boundary surface of each dielectric. Gauss law can be used to simplify calculations for elds in certain symmetrical situations e.g. determining the eld surrounding a charged
4
Note: There is one subtlety here: in matter, refers only to free charge i.e. charge that is free to move or form a current. It excludes the surface charge on dielectrics induced by an electric elds.
2-20
sphere, determining the eld surrounding a long line of charge; determining the eld from a at (capacitor) plate of uniform charge. Gauss law can in fact be derived from Coulombs force law and visa versa. As an exercise, derive Coulombs law by applying Gauss law to a sphere with a point charge located at its centre.
Example: Line of charge
The eld surrounding a long line of charge of density l Cm1 can be estimated by enclosing the line in an imaginary Gaussian cylinder, or radius r, and length l. From symmetry, the electric eld must point radially outwards. Gauss law states: S D dS = Qenclosed. Ignoring the small contributions of ux leaving the areas at the ends of the cylinder, Gauss law becomes l 1 l 2rl Dr = l l from which we obtain Dr = 2 r , or Er = 0 Dr = 0 2r . Both Dr and Er decay smoothly as a function of r.
Dr ( r )
r Er (r )
Figure 2.14: Application of Gauss law to a long line of charge.
Note: If we placed the line of charge inside a long hollow cylinder of glass (along its axis), keeping cylindrical symmetry in the problem, then we can still apply Gausss law to establish the eld quantities. In this new situation, Dr remains unchanged (compared to the previous case) - the D ux passes through the glass unaected (it is normal to the glass surface). The Er eld however abruptly decreases on entering the glass (i.e. is discontinuous), i.e. Er = Dr /(r) has a step change as it enters and then leaves the glass owing to the step change in (r). This modied example emphasises why is is better to view the D eld as a owing uid and not the E eld.
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0 glass 0
Dr ( r )
r Er (r )
Figure 2.15: Illustration of Gauss law applied to a line charge within a cycilinder. Example: Parallel Plate Capacitor
The capacitance of a capacitor is dened as C = Q/V where Q is the charge on either plate (+Q on one plate, and -Q on the other), and V is the potential dierence between plates. To estimate the capacitance of a parallel plate structure, with surface area A and small gap d, we must relate Q to V. Gauss law allows us to relate the electric eld strength between the plates, to the charge on the plates. Consider rst, a single at plate, area A and containing surface charge Q. Close to the plate, we can apply Gauss law to a small pillbox with upper and lower surface of area a (though which the eld lines penetrate), and with sidewalls parallel to the eld, as shown. Let Dn be the magnitude of the D eld normal to the plate. S D dS = Qenclosed => a Dn + a Dn s a => Dn = s /2 = (Q/A)/2 = Q/(2A). If two plates are placed a small distance d apart, one charged to Q and the other to Q, the total eld between the plates is D = 2Dz = Q/A. The eld vectors in the gap add constructively, doubling the magnitude, i.e. D = 2 Dn = Q/A. Above the upper plate (and below the lower plate), the eld vectors add destructively (being of equal magnitude Dn but opposit in direction), and hence will be zero. The result is illustrated in Figure 2.16. Thus the capacitance is AE A Q AD = = = V Ed Ed d which is a (should be) familiar result. Two plates, size 5cm 5cm, sepa0.050.05 rated by 5mm in air, have a capacitance of about 8.85E 12 = 4.4pF. 0.005 C=
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Think of the physical size of a 5pF capacitor used for electronic circuits it is physically much smaller. This small size is made possible by reducing the gap between plates, as well as the insertion of a dielectric material between the plates. Much larger capacitances in the micro-farad range can be created in a compact package by sandwiching an electrolytic dielectric between two thin metal sheets that are then rolled up like a swiss roll (socalled electrolytic capacitors). More recently, supercapacitors have become available, which make use an extremely thin dielectric layer to achieve signicantly higher (>1000 times) capacitances per unit volume than common electrolytic capacitors.
D
Charged Parallel Plate Capacitor
surface charge density
Field from a plate of positive charge
d Area A
Gaussian surface
Field cancels
Result of addition of fields from positive and negative plates
Field adds Field cancels
D = Q/A
Figure 2.16: Deriving the electric eld for a charged parallel plate capacitor.
2.16 Gauss Law for Magnetic Fields

Gauss law for magnetic elds is B dS = 0
2-23
The law reects the fact that no point magnetic charges have been found. Magnetic eld lines arise from moving electric charges (e.g. current in a piece of wire) Magnetic ux lines form continuous loops; they do not begin and end at xed points in space (like electric eld lines on point charges). Any magnetic ux line that enters closed surface S at some point must exit somewhere, as illustrated below:
Magnetic eld lines form continuous loops
Gaussian surface (closed surface)

North
South
Figure 2.17: Illustration to show that magnetic eld lines form continuous loops; hence any line that enters a close surface must exit it.
2.17 Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday discovered that a changing magnetic eld can induce an electric eect. Faradays law is stated in integral form in terms of a relationship between the line integral of the tangential component of the electric eld
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around a closed loop and the rate of change of magnetic ux threading the loop. Stated in integral form E dl = d dt B dS = d M dt
where M = S B dS is the magnetic ux owing through the open surface S , bounded by the integration contour. The law may also be written as E dl = B dS t
In evaluating the line integral, the right hand rule must be observed: if the vector dS is dened to point up as shown above, then E dl is made anticlockwise around the loop as illustrated below:
dS
Integration direction
Figure 2.18: Illustration showing the direction of integration when applying Faradays law to an open surface with surface normal dS. The right hand rule applies.
M This implies that for the case where t > 0 and uniform, the electric eld vectors point clockwise around the loop as illustrated for the pole face of an electromagnet shown below.
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Increasing
B
TOP VIEW
Case of uniform (changing) magnetic field piercing through flat circular area e.g. on the pole face of an electromagnet.
M t
>0 E E (r) Emax
i(t)
Increasing
r rmax
1/r r
Figure 2.19: Induced E-eld vectors surrounding the pole face of an electromagnet for the case where the magnetic eld is increasing in the direction shown. Note: although the B-lines must eventually curl back and form continuous loops, we can regard the ux density for r > rmax as negligible.
In electrostatics, E dl = 0 indicating the conservative nature of electrostatic elds and the fact that the net energy required to move a test charge around a loop is zero. In general, electric elds are NOT conservative. The eect of the induced E eld loop can be measured by inserting a wire ring into a changing magnetic eld and observing that a current ows as a result of the induced electric eld pushing the electrons round the circuit. Note: current density J = E inside/on wire.
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Increasing
B Current ow in wire ring Recall J = E

M t
>0
I=
Vinduced Rwire
Figure 2.20: Current ows in a wire ring placed on the pole face.
If the ring is broken by a small cut, the net eect is that the charges pile up on either side of the cut, resulting in a local concentration of electric eld as illustrated below.
B
E=0
M t
>0
inside conductor
Figure 2.21: Top view of a wire ring with an air gap. Note: the eld inside the metal is zero. Thus he eld from the induced dipole must exactly cancel the Faraday-induced electric eld within the metal - try to draw the two elds.
If a voltmeter is connected as shown in the gure shown below left, the M voltmeter will read a value Vinduced = d dt . The voltmeter wires extend the denition of the loop i.e. the boundary of a surface through which the magnetic ux passes.
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Voltmeter Reading ?
E=0
M t
>0
inside conductor
M t
>0
voltmeter
Vmeasured =
M t
Figure 2.22: Wire ring with voltmeter placed in dierent positions. Are the readings the same?
QUESTION: What happens if the voltmeter is moved to the opposite side as depicted above on the right? What value will the voltmeter read? ANSWER: virtually zero! Why? Ask yourself how much changing ux will thread the loop.
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2.18 Amperes Circuital Law

The dynamic form of Amperes law states that the line integral of the tangential component of magnetic eld intensity around a closed loop, bounding an open surface S is equal to the sum of (i) the conduction current owing through S , and (ii) the rate of change of electric ux cutting through S, H dl = or H dl =
S S
J dS + J dS +
D dS t D dS
d dt
The term S J dS = Ic is the conduction current and refers to the physical movement of charge. In linear conducting media, the current density is proportional to the electric eld strength J = E where is the conductivity constant in Sm1 (Siemens per metre).
dE d D dS = dt The term S t S D dS = dt = Id is known as the displacement current as it has the same units of current Ic , although it does not refer to the physical movement of charge. The displacement current is the rate of change of electric ux on S. D The time varying term S t dS was added by Maxwell as a result of a careful theoretical analysis that revealed that the static form of Amperes law was incomplete.
The
D t
is the displacement current density in units of Am2.
In the next section, we shall examine the dynamic form of Amperes law in detail and establish a deeper understanding of displacement current. 2.18.1 Physical interpretation of Displacement Current A classic example for gaining a physical understanding of the concept of displacement current involves the consideration of Amperes circuital law in a simple circuit involving a capacitor as depicted in Figure 2.23
2-29
S2 (balloon shaped surface passing S1 (shaded) between plates) + + + + + + +
Figure 2.23: Illustration showing how Amperes static law yields inconsistant results, depending on the denition of the surface S .
Consider applying the magnetostatic form of Amperes circuital law to the closed loop C , where the current passes through surface S1 in the plane of the loop. Loosely speaking, the static form of Amperes law says that the line integral of the tangential component of H around some contour C equals the conduction current (i.e. physical movement of charge) passing though a surface S bounded by loop C . For a long section of conductor, from considerations of symmetry, one concludes that the H eld lines are circles centred on the wire. The magnitude of the circulating eld can be found by applying Amperes law to a circular contour, of radius r from the wire. From Amperes static law H dl = I = H 2r which implies H= I . 2r
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If we consider an alternative choice of S = S2 , which is carefully chosen to pass between the plates of the capacitor and not cut the wire as illustrated in the sketch. Clearly the conduction current passing S2 is zero, implying that the static form of Amperes law is either wrong, or is an incomplete description. Maxwell accounted for this apparent paradox, by introducing an additional term which he called the displacement current density. The line integral H dl around closed loop C bounding some arbitrary surface S equals the sum of the conduction current Ic = S J dS plus the displacement D current Id = S t dS passing through S . If the conduction current is Ic = I, then between the plates of the capacitor, an electric eld will build up, resulting from the build up of a net positive charge on one plate, and a negative charge on the other. We wish to explore the displacement current term d d E D dS = D dS = Id = dt S dt dS t for the case of S = S2. We can apply Gausss law to determine relate it to other parameters. Gausss law states that for a closed surface S ,
S dE dt
and
D dS =
dV = Qenclosed
V
Although S2 is not closed (having an opening at its mouth), most of the ux is highly concentrated between the plates, and hence the amount of electric ux passing through surface S2 is approximately E Q where Q is the charge on the left plate. Only a tiny amount of ux would pass though the mouth at contour C . E dQ = Ic, being the conduction current in the wire. If Thus ddt dt we shrink the mouth of S2 to be a tiny hole then E Q and hence Id (through S2 ) I . Thus the displacement current Id owing through S2 is equal to the conduction current Ic owing through S1 . Maxwells form of Amperes law works for any denition of S, notably for S = S1 , Ic = I and Id 0, which implies H dl = I c + I d I + 0
2-31 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
for S = S2 , Ic = 0 and Id
dQ dt
= I , which implies
H dl = I c + I d 0 + I .
Figure 2.24: The magnetic eld ring exists both in the region around the conducting wire, and also around the displacement current in the gap between the plates.
2.19 Maxwells Equations

The set of four laws together are known as Maxwells equations: D dS =
S
dV
V
B dS = 0 d dt B dS
E dl = H dl =
d D dS dt S S In the following chapter, the dierentials forms will be derived. J dS +
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3 The Dierential Forms of Maxwells Equations

In the previous chapter, we examined the integral forms of Maxwells equations being: 1. Gauss law for electric elds
S
D dS =
dV
V
2. Gauss law for magnetic elds

S
B dS = 0 d dt B dS
3. Faradays law E dl = 4. Amperes (modied) law H dl =

S
J dS +
d dt
D dS
In this chapter, we shall show how a set of dierential equations can be derived from Maxwells four equations. These are known as the dierential formsand serve to describe eld properties at a point in space and time; this contrasts with the integral forms, which concern integrals along contours, over surfaces and over volumes. Both the static laws and the dynamic laws will be examined. Particulary, we shall also show how the displacement current term introduced by Maxwell can be derived by consideration of the dierential forms. The dierential forms are found by applying two theorems from vector calculus that apply to any vector eld F = F(x, y, x, t) at any point in space and time:
3-1
Gauss Divergence Theorem
For any (dierentiable) vector eld F, and any closed surface S dened in space enclosing a volume V , F dS =
1
F dV
F dS V where the quantity F dS is the net ux leaving volume V . The divergence theorem alows one to express a surface integral (over a closed surface) as a volume integral. The physical interpretation of the term on the right hand side of the thereom V F dV is that we are summing up, for each elemental volume dVi within V , the quantity F dVi , i.e. we are calculating i F dVi. The quantity F dVi = Si F dS is the ux leaving a volume element dVi through its surrounding closed surface Si . The ux contributions through the side walls of adjacent dV s cancel, leaving only the contributions through the side walls touching the outer surface S of the volume V , which we write as S F dS. Hence S F dS = V F dV . div F = limV 0
Stokes Curl Theorem
where F = div F is the divergence of the vector dened as
For any (dierentiable) vector eld F, and contour C bordering an open surface S , F dl = F dS
where F = curl F is a vector2 that measures rotation in the vector eld. The curl F vector points along the axis or rotation, and has mag Fx 1 Fy = In Cartesian coordinates, F = Fz x y z F x x 2 Fy = x = and F = y y z F Fx Fy Fz z z
x y z
Fx x
Fy y
Fz z .
Fz y
Fy z
x +
Fx z
Fz x
y +
Fy x
Fx y
3-2
nitude equal to limS 0 S where S is an elemental area in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation; the direction of integration along the contour is dened by the right hand rule applied to vector dF. If one imagines suspending a ball at some point in a uid velocity vector eld, with non-zero curl at the point, then the ball will tend to rotate about the curl F axis, and in a direction dened by the right hand rule applied to vector curl F. Stokes theorem relates a contour integral around the boundary of an open surface to a surface integral over the surface. The physical interpretation of the right hand side S F dS, is that we are summing up for each surface element dSi on S , the quantity F dSi, i.e we are calculating i F dSi . The quantity F dSi = Ci F dl is the line integral on the contour Ci bordering elemental area dSi . The contributions of the side edges of adjacent dSis cancel, leaving only the contributions from the outer boundary C bordering the surface S , which we write as C F dl. Hence C F dl = S F dS.
Fdl
3.1 The Static EM Equations in Integral and Dierential Form

The static forms of Maxwells equations in integral form are: D dS = dV
V
B dS = 0 E dl = 0
H dl = where D = E and B = H.
J dS
The term static refers to the fact that the eld quantities are not D H B E time varying, i.e. t = 0, t = 0, t = 0 and t = 0.
3-3 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
The dierential forms are derived by employing the divergence theorem and Stokes theorem as follows: Gausss law for electric elds states S D dS = V dV . From the divergence theorem, D dS = V D dV , hence V D dV = V dV . Since this must be true for any closed surface, independent of its shape or size, we conclude that D = . Gausss law for magnetic elds states S B dS = 0. From the divergence theorem, S B dS = V BdV . Again, since the closed surface can be arbitrarily chosen, we conclude that B = 0. The conservative property of electrostatic elds states E dl = 0. Applying Stokes curl theorem, E dl = S E dS. Since S E dS = 0 for any surface, we conclude that E = 0. The static form of Amperes law states that H dl = S J dS. Applying Stokes curl theorem, H dl = S H dS, we obtain S H dS = S J dS for any surface, from which we conclude that H = J. Thus the four static equations in dierential form are D= E=0 B=0
These dierential forms are used to solve for eld distributions in static situations. Like all dierential equations, the solutions require the specication of boundary conditions.
H=J
3-4
Examples of Static Field Problems

Example 1
In an electrostatic situation, we may wish to know how to calculate the eld quantities E(x, y, z ) and (x, y, z ) in space surrounding two metal plates at xed potentials relative to ground. As a more specic example, consider the elds surrounding a charged capacitor. The potentials on the metal plates (measured relative to a chosen reference ground) are the so called boundary conditions. A dierential equation describing the surrounding electric eld can be found from Gauss law, D = , and observing that the density is zero in the surrounding space (there may and will however be a thin layer of surface charge on the plates themselves). Substituting = 0 and D = E into Gauss law we get (E) = = 0 The above relationship describes a relationship between the three components of E. Since E = grad , we substitute into the above equation to obtain a dierential equation in terms of the single scalar function (x, y, z ): () = 0 + + =0 x x y y z z This is a second order partial dierential equation that may be solved using numerical methods like the nite element method, together with the specied boundary conditions. An equation in terms of the potential is also convenient as the boundary condition(s) are given in terms of the values of the potential on the plates of the capacitor. If the surrounding medium homogeneous, is a constant, the equation reduces to a well-known equation called Laplaces equation = 0 or
3-5
Laplaces equation is sometimes written in compact form as 2 = 0. Expanding in Cartesian coordinates, the dierential equation is 2 2 2 + 2 + 2 =0 x2 y z Having obtained (x, y, z ) using a numerical method, one can obtain E by dierentiation since E = .
Example 2
or
x y z
x y z
(x, y, z ) =
x y z
x y z
In electrical resistance tomography3 (ERT), the goal is to reconstruct an image of the electrical conductivity (x, y, z ) within a tank from measurements taken at electrodes placed around the circumference. ERT is applicable in situation where the medium under investigation can be modelled as a resistive medium. Applications include imaging inside mixing tanks and pipes containing uids. Any uid containing dissolved salts is conductive. Currents are injected between a pair of electrodes, and voltages are measured at all nodes. The reconstruction algorithm needs to be able to predict the voltages at all electrodes around the boundary, given either specied potentials or currents at the two driving electrodes. This relationship between injected and measured quantities called the forward model. Reconstruction algorithms typically solve the so-called inverse problem by iteratively nding a solution (i.e. the conductivity distribution (x, y, z )) for which the voltages predicted by the forward model closely match the measured voltages.
3
Tomography refers to a method by which an image of the interior of an object is obtained via measurements taken around the boundary. Tomography can be implemented via the injection and measurement of EM waves such as X-rays or microwaves, or using ultra-sound, or via low frequency impedance methods. The word tomography comes from the Greek words tomos which means part or section, and the word graphein (to write). In some types of tomography (e.g. X-ray tomography), the image is made up of slices taken at dierent angles and combined using an algorithm.
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Electrical Resistance Tomography v2 v1 I v8 Inject current I J v3 v4 Measure voltages between pairs
v4 v5
v7 v6
v5
Figure 3.1: Illustration of current injection in electrical resistance tomography (ERT). Voltage measurements are made between pairs of electrodes.
Stated mathematically, the goal is to nd the distribution (x, y, z ), described by a set of parameters { } , which minimizes a cost function C ({ }) derived sum of the squares of the dierence, i.e. minimise as a function of { },
N
C ( { }) =
n=1
(Vpred. (n, { }) Vmeas.(n))2
where Vmeas. (n) is the nth voltage measurement, and Vpred. (n, { }) is the voltage predicted by a simulator. In practice, a smoothness constraint on (x, y, z ) is usually applied as well. Minimizing C ({ }) is a multi-variable optimization problem for which iterative solutions have been developed. The forward model is a partial dierential equation that must be solved numerically to get . To construct the dierential equation to be solved, we start with the continuity equation4, J = 0, and substitute the relations J = E and E = . The resulting dierential equation is = 0. For the special case where (x, y, z ) = constant, the equation reduces to Laplaces equation = 2 = 0. The value of the (x, y, z ) on the boundary electrodes provides the values required to predict the measurements Vpred. (n, { }) in the cost function given above.
4
Explained in a later section. J = 0 is the dierential form of the continuity of charge relationship S J dS = V t dV , which describes the ow of charge within a conducting medium.
3-7
Figure 3.2: Electrical resistance tomography performed on a tank of water containing two non-conducting objects.
One can also extract other parameters of interest from the simulated potential function, for example the electric eld can be found by dierentiation, since E = . The current distribution can also be found via J = E. This is all implemented using discrete approximations to the derivatives.
Example 3
In electrical capacitance tomography (ECT), the goal is to reconstruct an image of the electrical permittivity (x, y, z ) within a non-conducting object (i.e. a dielectric medium) from capacitance measurements between electrode plates placed around the circumference of the object.
This partial dierential equation can be solved for a given permittivity distribution (x, y, z ) and an applied boundary condition (being the potential dierence applied between two plates), using a numerical method. Tomo-
The equation describing the potential distribution within the dielectric medium is = 0
3-8
Figure 3.3: Electrical capacitance tomography - the image shown is of three objects inserted into an (air-lled) container.
graphic algorithms are designed to nd an estimate of (x, y, z ) for which simulated measurements best match the actual measured data. The image shown is of three objects (a blackboard duster, and two plastic rods) standing vertically inside in a plastic container. A present research project at UCT concerns the condition monitoring of wooden electricity distribution poles using electrical capacitance tomography. An instrument has been built that allows one to detect decay and termite damage within poles. A specially designed jacket of 12 electrodes is attached to the base of a wooden pole, and an image of the interior can be seen on a computer screen. More generally, the method known as electrical impedance tomography
3-9
(EIT) is used in cases where both the conductivity and permittivity parameters are to imaged. Typically, a sinusoidal signal is injected (kHz or MHz frequency range), and both the magnitude and phase at the sensing electrodes are recorded. Pulse-based methods are also sometimes used. Another tomography method involves stimulating the medium under investigation with a sinusoidal magnetic eld (driving and sensing coils are placed around the boundary). This method is known both as magnetic induction tomography (MIT) or eddy current tomography. The applied time-varying magnetic eld creates eddy currents in/on conducting material within the medium, which, in turn, creates a magnetic eld which modies the magnetic eld sensed by the coils. A prototype MIT system is also being developed at UCT.
3.2 Electromagnetic Equations before Maxwell

Before Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current, the four equations describing the eld relationships stood as D dS = dV
V
B dS = 0
S
E dl = H dl = and in dierential form
B dS t J dS
B=0 B E= t H=J
D=
3-10
The third dierential equation (Faradays law) is obtained by applying Stokes equation to E, i.e. E dl = E dS
B B and comparing to E dl = S t dS. Since S E dS = S t dS B must hold for all open surfaces, this implies, E = t . A modern approach to justifying the addition of the displacement current term is to show that the static form of Amperes law is inconsistent with an relationship known as the continuity of charge equation, and that the inclusion of the displacement current (density) term xes the problem (Maxwell may not have done it quite this way). For this approach, we need the concept of the continuity of charge.
3.3 Continuity of Charge

If we consider a closed surface S, surrounding a volume V , the fact that charge is neither created or destroyed leads us to the continuity requirement J dS = d dt dV = dQ dt
which in words, simply states that the current leaving the volume equals (minus) the rate of change of charge within the volume. Note that if the net outow is positive, the hence the minus sign in the above equation.
dQ dt
will be negative, and
d Note also, that dQ dt = dt V dV = V t dV since dierentiation and integration are linear operations, which allows the order can be interchanged.
Thus we can write the continuity equation as J dS = dV t
3-11
The above integral form can be expressed as a dierential form by applying the divergence theorem to J, i.e. J dS = JdV
dV V V t Since this must hold for any chosen closed surface S containing volume V , we conclude that J= t This is the dierential form of the continuity of charge equation. JdV =
Thus
J If dQ/dt < 0 then there is a net current flowing out
Charge leaving dQ/dt<0 J
Figure 3.4: The continuity of charge equation implies that the rate at which charge leaves a closed surface equals (minus) the rate of change of the total charge within the enclosed volume.
An alternative, and more fundamental approach to obtain the continuity of charge relationship in dierential form is directly from the denition of divergence: J = lim
S
V 0
J dS = lim V 0 V
V t dV
dV = lim t = dV 0 dV t
3-12
3.4 Fixing the Problem with Amperes Law

A fundamental vector identity states that div(curlF) = ( F) = 0 for any dierentiable vector eld F. If we take the divergence of the left and right hand side of Amperes static form H=J we get which would imply that J = 0. This clearly is not consistent with the continuity equation J = t , and so we must conclude that H = J in general, although we know it holds for certain measurable cases (e.g. magnetic eld surrounding a conductor). To x the problem, we try adding a new term T, and see what we come up with - i.e. let H=J+T ( H) = J
Rearranging and substituting the continuity equation we get T = J = t
Taking the divergence on both sides, and applying again our vector identity, we get 0=J+T
Noticing that we can substitute D = , we see T= Mathematically, D D = = t t t T=
D +k t where k is a constant, satises the equality. The integration constant D does however not model anything physical5 and so, T = t as introduced
5
For example, if k = 0, then it would suggest that H = k = 0 even when J = 0 and something is observed physically, the constant is zero.
D t
= 0. Until
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by Maxwell, is sucient to resolve the inconsistency in Amperes law. This addition to Amperes magnetostatic law provides Maxwells fourth equation H=J+ D t
This simple x makes Maxwells equations a mathematically consistent set, and predicts the existence of an additional physical quantity called D the displacement current (density) t .
D must be the same as the conduction current J, being The units of t D 2 does not refer to any physical movement of charge. Am , although t
The extended model has been shown to be accurate by experiment, and predicts a variety of phenomena, some of which had not been previously realised, including the fact that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon, i.e. a propagating EM wave (discussed later). We have derived Maxwells modied form of Amperes law in dierential form. To obtain the integral form, we again write down Stokes theorem for D , H, and substitute H = J + t H dl = giving H dl =
S S
H dS =
J+
S
D dS = t
J dS +
D dS t
J dS +
D dS t
3.5 Maxwells Dierential Equations

The complete set of Maxwells Equations in dierential form is D= B=0 B E= t D H=J+ t
3-14 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
where D = E and B = H. It is pointed out that this groups for equations, together with the Lorentz force law F = qE + qv B summarize all the behaviour of classical electromagnetic eld theory in both matter and free space. All other laws e.g. Coulombs force law, the Biot-Savart law and the continuity equation can be derived from the above equations. The only place where these dierential forms do not hold are on boundaries between dierent materials where the derivatives are not nite. At boundaries, we can derive a set of boundary conditions that relate the eld quantities immediately on either side of the boundary (see section on boundary conditions). The quantities and J refer to the free charge in the medium - i.e. the charge that is free to move as current, as opposed to the charge bound to atoms. (When a dielectric is polarized via exposure to an electric eld, a layer of surface charge forms on the polarized dielectric, but this kind of bound charge is not included in the .)
3.6 Summary Table of Maxwells Equations

Gauss law Gauss law Faraday Ampere/Maxwell
S
D dS =
S
dV B dS
d dt S
H dl =
d E dl = dt S
B dS = 0
S
D =
B E = t
B=0
J dS +
D dS H = J +
D t
Auxiliary equations: F = qE + qv B D = E B = H J = E
3-15
4 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions

The integral forms of Maxwells equations describe the behaviour of electromagnetic eld quantities in all geometric congurations. The dierential forms of Maxwells equations are only valid in regions where the parameters of the media are constant or vary smoothly i.e. in regions where (x, y, z, t), (x, y, z, t) and (x, y, z, t) do not change abruptly. In order for a dierential form to exist, the partial derivatives must exist, and this requirement breaks down at the boundaries between dierent materials. For the special case of points along boundaries, we must derive the relationship between eld quantities immediately on either side of the boundary from the integral forms (as was done for the dierential forms under dierentiable conditions). Later, we shall apply these boundary conditions to examine the behaviour of EM waves at interfaces between dierent materials - from them we can derive the laws of reection and refraction (Snells law).
4.1 Boundary Conditions for the Electric Field

Consider how the electric eld E may change on either side of a boundary between two dierent media as illustrated below. The vector E1 refers to the electric eld in medium 1, and E2 in medium 2. One can further decompose vectors E1 and E2 into normal (perpendicular to interface) and tangential (in the plane of the interface) components. These components labelled En1, Et1 and En2, Et2 lie in the plane of vectors E1 and E2 . To derive boundary conditions for E, we must examine two of Maxwells equations: B dS E dl = t S
4-1
Medium 1
E1 Et2 Et1 En2 E2
En1
Medium 2
Figure 4.1: Normal and tangential components of the electric eld on either side of the interface between two media.
and D dS = dV
V
which will allow us to relate the tangential and normal components of E on either side of the boundary. Note that refers to the free, unbound change within V , i.e. it excludes the charge bound to atoms.
Normal Component of D
The boundary condition for the normal component of the electric eld can be obtained by applying Gausss ux law D dS = dV
V
to a small pill-box, positioned such that the boundary sits between its upper and lower surfaces as shown in the illustration.
4-2
Medium 1
n s dS = n
1 , 1 , l s
111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111
Surface charge
s
Medium 2
s dS = n 2 , 2 , 2
Figure 4.2: Gaussian pill box straddling the interface between two media.
If we shrink the side wall h to zero (keeping the interface sandwiched between the upper and lower surface) then all electric ux enters or leaves the pill-box through the top and bottom surfaces, and s + D2 (n ) s = Dn1 s Dn2 s D dS D1 n where Dn1 and Dn2 are the normal components of the ux density vector immediately on either side of the boundary in mediums 1 and 2, and s is the elemental surface area. The amount of charge enclosed as h 0 depends on whether there exists a layer of charge on the surface (i.e. an innitesimally thin layer of charge)1. If a surface charge layer exists then dV = s s
V
and thus
1
Dn1 s Dn2s = s s
In perfect conductors, any excess free charge always resides on the surface of the conductor and is denoted by s in units of Cm2 . Within the conductor, the charge density very rapidly goes to zero this is discussed in a later section on relaxation time. It should also be noted that in the case of dielectrics subjected to an electric eld, the material polarizes, which does in fact result in a surface charge layer - however this charged layer is bound charge caused by the polarization eect, and is not part of the quantity s .
4-3
from which we conclude For the case where s = 0, Dn1 Dn2 = s Dn1 = Dn2 Or in terms of the electric eld E, 1 E n1 = 2 E n2 or E n1 =
Tangential Component of E
2 E n2 1
We can derive the tangential component of E by applying Faradays law to a small rectangular loop positioned across the boundary, and in the plane of E1 and E2 , as illustrated in the diagram below.
E1
b
n
a Medium 1
h
d
1 , 1 , l 2 , 2 , 2
Medium 2
E2 Figure 4.3: To determine the boundary condition on the tangential component of the E eld, Faradays law is applied to rectangular loop straddling the interface between two media.
Consider the limiting case where the sides h perpendicular to boundary are allowed shrink to zero. In the limit as h 0 , the magnetic ux threading the loop shrinks to zero, and thus
b d
E dl
E1 dl +
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E2 dl = 0
from which we conclude that on either side of the boundary, E t1 E t2 = 0 E t1 = E t2
Writing the tangential components of E1 and E2 along the contour as Et1 and Et2 , we have E t1 l E t2 l = 0
E1 l + E2 (l) = 0
or
i.e. tangential components immediately on either side of a boundary are equal.
4.2 Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Field

The derivation of boundary conditions for the magnetic eld, follows similar arguments to that of the electric eld, but using equations B dS = 0 D dS S S t Again we consider the normal and tangential components as illustrated below. H dl = J dS +
Medium 1
B1 Bt2 Bt1 Bn2 B2
Bn1
Medium 2
Figure 4.4: Normal and tangential components the B eld on either side of an interface.
4-5
Normal Component of B
The boundary condition for the normal component of the magnetic eld can be obtained by applying Gausss ux law B dS = 0 to a small pill-box. If we shrink the side wall h to zero, all magnetic ux leaves/enters the pill-box through the top two surfaces, s + B 2 ( n ) s = Bn1 s Bn2 s B dS B 1 n Equating to zero, we nd and hence the normal component of B is continuous at boundaries. We can derive the tangential component of H by applying Amperes law to a closed loop as illustrated below. Again, the rectangular loop is in the plane of vectors H1 and H2 .
Tangential Component of H H1
b
Bn1 Bn2 = 0
n
a Medium 1
h
d
1 , 1 , l 2 , 2 , 2
Medium 2
H2 Figure 4.5: To determine the boundary condition on the tangential component of the H eld, Amperes law is applied to rectangular loop straddling the interface between two media.
Amperes law states H dl =

S
J dS +
4-6
D dS t
Consider the limiting case where the sides h perpendicular to the boundary are allowed shrink to zero. The left hand side becomes
b d
H dl
H1 dl +
H2 dl
D dS shrinks On the right hand side, the displacement current term Id = S t to zero. For physical media, the conductivity is nite, and J is also nite. Thus within the loop Ic = S J dS also shrinks to zero, and so
= H1 l + H2 (l)
which implies the tangential component of H does not change immediately on either side of the boundary, i.e. H t1 = H t2 For the special case of an idealised perfect conductor, , a surface current may exist (i.e. current owing within a vanishingly thin layer on the surface). Some physical situations involving good conductors like metals (e.g. skin eect and reection of EM waves o metallic objects) may allow us to treat currents concentrated on the surface as a surface current modelled by a vector Js in units of Amps/m (NB not m2) owing in an innitesimally thin layer. To get the correct orientation of the tangential component of Ht , we can orientate the rectangular loop until the line integral is a maximum. This is achieved when Js ows perpendicular to our rectangular loop. The current owing through S is then Ic =
S
H1 l + H2 (l) = 0
J dS Js l
where Js is the magnitude of the surface current density. We conclude that for the case where a surface current exists, the boundary condition on the tangential component of H is therefore and the tangential components, Ht1 and Ht2 , lie perpendicular to the surface current vector Js . The direction of vectors Ht1 and Ht2 can be found by applying the right hand rule with ones thumb pointing in the direction of Js . H t1 H t2 = J s
4-7
Summary of Boundary Conditions

Below are depicted the components on either side of the boundary in side view.
E1 Et2 Et1 En2 E2
En1 Bt2
B1 Bt1 Bn2 B2
Bn1
Medium 1
1 , 1 , l 2 , 2 , 2
Medium 2
Figure 4.6: Normal and tangential components illustrated for the cases of the E eld and the B eld.
The boundary conditions are summarised below. Dn1 Dn2 = s E t1 E t2 = 0 Bn1 Bn2 = 0 H t1 H t2 = J s
The boundary conditions can be expressed in vector form2 as: D2 n = s D1 n E1 n E2 = 0 n

2
These vector forms require careful 3-D visualization. Taking the cross product between the surface E1 extracts the tangential component (as a vector) . normal and a vector, say n
4-8
B2 n =0 B1 n (H1 H2) = Js n
These general conditions can be further rened depending on the specic media on either side of the interface. Some examples are given below.
4.3 Examples of Boundary Conditions

4.3.1 e.g. Dielectric - Dielectric Interface Dielectrics are materials for which all electrons are bound to atoms, and are non-conducting, i.e 0; no currents ow, and no unbound surface charge exists unless explicitly put there (i.e. s = 0). Thus we have Dn1 = Dn2 or 1En1 = 2En2 E t1 = E t2 Bn1 = Bn2 1 1 Ht1 = Ht2 or Bt1 = Bt2 1 2 An example of a dielectric-dielectric interface is the interface between air and glass. The above boundary conditions are applied when analysing the reection and refraction of plane waves (studied in a later section). For example, consider an air-glass interface where 1(air) = 0 and 2(air) = 50. Given the E1 vector in the air, how can we sketch the E2 vector?
4-9
Medium 1 AIR
E1
1 = 0
GLASS
E2 =?
2 = 5 0 , 2
Medium 2
Figure 4.7: E1 eld at the the interface between two dielectrics.
We already know the tangential component must be sketched as Et2 = Et1 . 1 E n1 = 1 The normal component is related by En2 = 5 En1 . The E2 can thus 2 be sketched as shown below:
Medium 1 AIR
E1 En1
1 = 0 En2
GLASS
E2
Et2 = Et1
2 = 5 0 , 2
Medium 2
Figure 4.8: E1 and E2 eld at the the interface between two dielectrics.
4.3.2 e.g. Dielectric - Perfect Conductor If one of the media is a dielectric (say medium 1 is air), and the other medium (medium 2) is a perfect conductor 2 , then En2 = 0 and Et2 = 0 inside the perfect conductor3.
3
The conductor is assumed to be stationary within the xyz frame of reference. If a conducting metal object moves through a magnetic eld, a non-zero E eld can exist within the conductor. For example, if a long thin metal rod moves through a uniform B eld with velocity v, the electrons inside the rod
4-10
Since Dn1 Dn2 = s , we conclude that Dn1 = s Since Et1 = Et2 and Et2 = 0, we conclude that Et1 = 0, i.e. there exists no tangential component on the dielectric side of the interface. In vector form we state the boundary conditions for the eld in the dielectric as = s D1 n and D1 = 0 n The E eld lines always meet a perfect conductor perpendicular to the surface, and magnetic eld lines parallel to the surface as is illustrated in the gure below:
experience a force q v B, perpendicular to the direction of motion and perpendicular to B. Electrons deplete on the one side and increase on the opposite side, causing an induced dipole.
B
Rod moving through uniform magnetic field
Fields inside the rod
E vB
As the dipole forms, an electric eld builds up until the internal forces balance, i.e. q E = q v B, and the electron current no longer ows. The internal eld strength is E = v B. If the rod is orientated in the direction of v B, then the potential dierence between the ends of the moving rod l is = 0 E dl = vBl where l is the length of the rod. In cases where a metal object is stationary within the frame of reference, the electrons will rearrange rapidly (if placed in an EM eld) such that the internal electric eld goes to zero; the potential dierence between any two points on the conductor will also then be zero.
4-11
En1 = E1 Et1 = 0 E2 = 0 H 1 = Js n B Bn1 = 0
dielectric e.g. air Medium 1
1 , 1 , l 2 , 2 , 2 = inf
Medium 2 Perfect conductor
B2 = 0
(AC fields)
Figure 4.9: E eld and the B eld at the interface between air and a perfect conductor.
For AC elds, no time-varying magnetic eld exists in a perfect conductor B - why? Recall that E = t and since E = 0 in a perfect conductor, B = 0. In other words, no changing magnetic eld E = 0 and hence t can exist in a perfect conductor, and hence Bn2 = Bn1 = 0, i.e. the normal component of the magnetic eld is zero. A surface current can still exist, implying a tangential component of B1 can exist. These two conditions can be expressed in vector form as =0 B1 n H1 = Js n These boundary conditions are useful for establishing, for example, the charge density or current distribution on the surface of a conductor, when the eld quanties in the dielectric are known or specied. These boundary conditions will be applied when analysing the reection of an electromagnetic plane wave o the surface of a perfect conductor. 4.3.3 e.g. Conductor-Conductor (steady state current)
E For the case of two conductors under static eld conditions (i.e. t = 0 and B t = 0), there can be no charge build up at the interface and hence
J n1 = J n2
4-12
Since Jn = En, we have an additional constraint on the normal component of the electric eld, i.e. 1 E n1 = 2 E n2 For non-steady state conditions a more complicated boundary constraint relates J1 and J2 , which can be derived by application of the continuity of charge equation S J dS = t V dV at the boundary. The result is + t Js = (J1 J2 ) n s t
where t is the two-variable divergence in the tangent plane applied to the s surface current Js , and t is the rate of change of surface charge density in Cm2s1 . See [Griths] for details.
Side View
Jn 1 = J1 n n
Medium 1
1 , 1 , l s
surface charge
Jn 2 = J2 n
2 , 2 , 2
Medium 2
Figure 4.10: Boundary condition for the normal component of J for conductors (for the non-steady state case for which there may be charge build-up at the interface).
4-13
5 Relationship between Field Theory and Circuit Theory

(ref: Ramo et al.) At lower frequencies where physical circuit dimensions are small compared to the wavelength1 of electromagnetic waves, the behaviour of circuits is accurately modelled using lumped elementcomponent models, together with Kirchhos laws. At higher frequencies where the distances between components are a signicant fraction of a wavelength and greater, the signals carrying information or power from one place in a circuit to another are treated as waves. Signals must be routed from one point to another using transmission lines, modelled using transmission line theory. If the component dimensions be comparable to the wavelength then accurate understanding and prediction of behaviour may require modelling using electromagnetic eld and wave theory. In this section we examine the relationship between Maxwells equations and circuit theory. Both Kirchhos voltage law, relating to voltage drops Vi around a loop
N
Vi = 0
i=1
and Kirchhos current law, relating relating currents Ii leaving a node

N
Ii = 0
i=1
can be explained in terms of eld theory. Consider for example, the circuit shown below shown rstly using standard circuit symbols for R, L and C, and secondly as a physical representation
1
f = c/f
50 Hz 6000 km
100 kHz 3 km
1 MHz 300 m
10 MHz 30 m
100 MHz 3m
1 GHz 30 cm
10 GHz 3 cm
100 GHz 3 mm
5-1
with wires of nite width, a resistor as a rod of carbon, an inductor as a coiled wire, and the capacitor as a pair of metal plates. We shall examine briey each lumped component model from a eld theory perspective.
1
I(t) R
1
V(t)
2
L
0 0
C
3 2
R
1 I(t) 1
V(t)
2 3
0 0
C
Coil
Figure 5.1: Circuit diagram showing component symbols (above) and a more physical depiction of the components (below).
5.1 Resistors
A resistor can be constructed from a resistive material of conductivity , length l and cross-sectional area A, as depicted below.
5-2
Area A
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11 1 00 11 00 11
J = E
e 2
l Figure 5.2: Resistor made from a cylinder of carbon. A current ows as a consequence of the (axial component) of the electric eld.
If the material is subjected to an electric eld orientated along the length of the cylinder, a current will ow, explained as follows: Electrons move under the inuence of the electric eld to reach an average drift velocity. A classical model explains this as follows: Electrons initially accelerate under the inuence of the eld, but repeatedly collide with bound atoms, and bounce o, resulting in deceleration. The net result is a constant average velocity for the electrons. This has some analogy to the terminal velocity reached by a falling object as a results of the resistance from the air molecules.
Area A
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
J = E
e Path of an accelerating electron, which collides with atoms.
Average drive velocity of the electrons
Figure 5.3: The electrons accelerate, but are impeded by the atomic structure, hence reaching a nite (average) terminal velocity. An imagined path of a single electron is shown.
Because of the high density of electrons, the average drift speed is surprisingly slow. For example, Halliday, Resnick & Walker 6th Ed, do an example calculation (Problem 27.3) in which the drift velocity with a copper wire or radius 0.9 mm, carrying a current of 17 mA, is calculated to be 4.9 107m/s or 1.8 mm/hr.
5-3
The average current density in Am2 is proportional to the strength of the electric eld, i.e. J = E where has units [Sm1] and is a property of the medium. It is noted that any particular electron continually accelerates and decelerates with each collision as illustrated. Energy is dissipated as a result of the collisions (i.e. in the form of heat). The voltage developed across the resistor is found by integrating the electric eld through it from node 1 to node 2:
2 2 2
V21 = V2 V1 = The constant

l A
Edl =
Edl = l A
J dl =
2 1
I/A l dl = I A
is identied as the resistance of the rod, i.e. R=
In the labelled circuit loop, V21 = V2 V1 = IR 5.1.1 Calculation of average drift velocity To calculate the average drift velocity of the electrons in a cylindrical wire conductor, one needs to know the current I , the charge on one electron (qe = 1.6 1019 coulombs), the thickness of the wire, and the electron density e [m3] (not to be confused with charge density). Copper contains e = 8.5 1028 electrons per m3 - a very large number! Imagine a slug of electrons moving along a wire rod in the x direction. The electron drift velocity in metres per second (in the x direction) can be expressed in terms of the current as vdrif t = where dx dQ 1 dx = = dQ (I ) dt dQ dt dx
5-4
x0 , is the ratio of charge passing the point x0 per distance dx moved in the x direction. This is identical the charge density in coulombs per metre of wire. is the charge per second passing point x0 per second. If the conventional current is I amperes moving in the negative x direction, then dQ dt = I .
dQ dt dQ dx
dx dt
is the velocity of the leading edge of the slug as it passes some point
To determine dQ , consider a wire segment of length dx, and of thickness 2r. dx The volume of the segment is r2 dx. The number of coulombs per metre is (e qe )(r2dx) dQ (charge/vol) vol = = = e qer2 dx length dx and hence vdrif t = For copper wire of 1 mm thickness, dQ = e qe r2 = 8.5 1028 (1.6 1019) 3.14 (0.5 103)2 = 10676 Cm1 dx If a current of I = 1 ampere ows in the wire, the electron drift velocity is vdrif t 1 [Cs1 ] I 5 1 = = 34 cm/hr. = 1 = 9.37 10 ms 2 e qe r 10676 [Cm ] I e qe r2
The number of electrons making up one coulomb is 1/ |qe | = 6.25 1018. Thus for a 1 ampere current, 6.25 1018 electrons pass per second.
5.2 Capacitors
Consider a parallel plate capacitor. As the current ows through the wires, a surface charge builds up on the inner sides of the capacitors plates.
5-5
Note that all excess charge will sit on the surface of the capacitor plates, in a thin layer (not inside the metal). Recall that E = 0 inside a perfect conductor, and since div D = or div E = this implies, = 0 inside the conductor. All excess charge must therefore lie on the surface, described by a surface charge density s in Cm2. The charge Q on the plate onto which the conventional current ows is found by integrating the current owing onto the plate, i.e.
t
Q(t) =
t0
I (t)dt + Q0
where Q0 is the initial charge at some starting time t0 . The other plate will have a charge of Q(t). A potential dierence builds up between the places. The potential dierence can be shown by careful argument [Griths] to be proportional to the charge Q on the plates, i.e. 1 Q(t) C where C is the constant known as the capacitance. Substituting for Q(t), we get Vc (t) = 1 Vc (t) = C
t
I (t)dt +
t0
Q0 C
In the circuit loop, V03 = V0 V3 = Vc (t).
5.3 Inductors
Inductors are made by winding several turns of wire either in air, or around some high permeability material (which boosts the inductance, requiring fewer turns). We shall explain the operation of an inductor by considering rst a single turn, and then a coil of several turns, in the context of the series circuit under analysis. As already discussed, we are interested in applying Faradays law around the dashed loop shown in the physical circuit. For the inductor, we are
5-6
interested in the integral of the electric eld through the air gap between the terminals as indicated by the dotted line between nodes 2 and 3 in the circuit. 5.3.1 Single-turn Inductor Consider a single turn inductor made from a thin piece of wire and illustrated in Figure 5.4.
B I
+ Integration contour C
Figure 5.4: Single turn inductor.
We can apply Faradays law locally to a closed contour C that goes clockwise around the inside of the wire and then across the air gap (in the shape of the dotted path), E dl = E dl + E dl = d dt B dS = d M dt
(air)
(wire)
where and dS points into the page, and M is the ux threading the integration loop (and cutting a chosen surface S , bounded by C ). Since E = 0 in the wire, the potential dierence is then V = E dl = d dt B dS
(air)
The magnetic eld B is linearly proportional to the current I owing in the wire2, i.e. B I , and so is S B dS I . The constant of proportionality
2
The magnetic eld vector owing to a short current segment can be computed using the Biot-Savart law (reviewed in Section 2.5). The total eld is found by integration of all contributions from current elements in the wire.
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is known as the inductance, i.e.

S
B dS = LI
or
B(t) dS M = I (t) I The units of inductance3 are henrys [H], The voltage across the inductor is d dI (t) d[LI ] V = =L B dS = dt S dt dt In the labelled series circuit, dI (t) V32 = V3 V2 = L dt L=
S
5.3.2 Multi-turn Inductor A multi-turn inductor is constructed by winding a coil of wire as depicted in the gure below.
I
+
V3 V V2 V1
Figure 5.5: Multi-turn inductor (N = 3 here).
The voltage drop across the terminals is the line integral along the dashed line:
+
V = = [
3
E dl E dl +
gap2
gap1
E dl + ...
gapN
E dl]
= V1 + V2 + ...VN
The units of inductance are equivalently [H] = [Wb A1 ] = [VA1 s1 ] = [VCs2 ] = [NC1 mCs2 ] = [Nms2 ].
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If we further assume that the ux linking each turn is the same, then V1 = and d = V2 = ... = VN dt
d dt Because there are N turns, the ux threading the coil will be N times stronger than the contribution from a single turn, i.e. V = N V1 = N = N 1turn where 1turn is the ux contribution from a single turn. Substituting, we obtain d d(L1turnI ) dI d = N 2 1turn = N 2 = N 2 L1turn V = N V1 = N dt dt dt dt Thus the inductance for a tightly wound N -turn coil is L = N 2 L1turn where L1turn is the inductance of a single turn. It is worth remembering that the inductance increases as a function of N 2 . If one doubles the number of turns, the inductances increases by a factor of four.
Alternative Explanation
Analysis of a multi-turn coil is similar to the case of a single turn coil, with the added complication that the integration contour C is not a circle, but rather made up of a spiral that follows the wire (and a short section in the air gap between its terminals). As argued for a single turn case, the voltage across the terminals is d B dS E dl = V = dt S (air) where surface S is now a complicated-to-visualise surface that is bounded by the contour C . It helps to imagine the surface within the coil as a smooth
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spiral staircase winding around an imaginary centre line. The total ux M passing through S is proportional to the current I in the wire, and is given by M =
S
B dS = LI B(t) dS I (t)
where L is the inductance of the multi-turn coil. Thus L= M = I

S
where M must be carefully evaluated for the particular coil structure. For a short, compact coil of N turns, it is not dicult to show that L = N 2 L1turn where L1turn is the inductance of a single turn coil of the same radius. To see this, one must grasp two points: the spiral surface S through with the ux lines pass consists of a stack of N identical contributing attish discs (the total surface area is approximately N times larger than for a single turn) the ux density on each component disc is N times stronger than the ux density generated by a single turn (superposition of contributions from N turns, each carrying current I ) Thus the total ux threading the surface of the multi-turn contour is M =
S
B dS N N 1turn
where 1turn is equal to the ux generated by a single turn coil carrying current I. The inductance of the multi-turn coil is then L= N 2 1turn M = = N 2 L1turn I I
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5.4 Formulas for Practical Coils

In order to calculate the inductance accurately, we need to consider both the eld inside, and outside of the wire making up the coil. The total inductance is usually computed in two parts: L = Linternal + Lexternal where Linternal is the contribution arising from the magnetic eld within the wire, and Lexternal is the contribution from the eld outside the wire. 5.4.1 Inductance of a Circular Wire Ring
External field in the surrounding air. r radius of circle Internal field inside the metal wire 2a
wire diameter 2a
Figure 5.6: Circular wire ring, and its cross section.
The inductance of a wire ring can be found from L=

S
B d S M = I I
where B can be found by integrating the eld contributions (using the BiotSavart law, reviewed in Section 2.5) from each elemental current segment around the ring. Considering only the contribution from the ux outside the wire, it can be shown, by integration, that M Ir[ln 8ar 2] and hence the external inductance (Ramo et al.) is Lext = 8r M 0 r[ln I a
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2]
for the case where a << r. The internal inductance of a long straight wire (in henrys per metre of wire), assuming uniform current density in the wire4, can be shown to be independent of wire radius a, and for non-magnetic metal wire is given by (ref Ramo et al.) 0 = 0.5 107 Hm1 Lint = 8
Example Calculation
Calculate the inductance of a circular copper wire ring, radius r = 10 cm, wire radius a = 0.5 mm. NOTE 0 in copper. The external component is Lext 0 r[ln 8r 8 0.1 2] = 4 107 0.1[ln 2] = 0.7 106 H a 0.0005
The internal inductance in henrys per metre is Lint 4 107 0 = = 0.05 106 Hm1 = 8 8
The total internal inductance Lint Lint2r = 0.050 106 0.63 = 0.03 106 H which is relatively small compared to Lext . The total inductance is L = Lint + Lext = 0.73 106 H
At suciently low frequencies (kHz down to DC), the current density is fairly uniform across the cross section of the wire. As the frequency increases from DC, the current tends to concentrate increasingly towards the outside of the wire. This eect is known as the skin eect, and is discussed later in the course.
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5.4.2 Inductance of a Short Coil (short length to radius ratio)

Radius
Figure 5.7: Short coil.
For a short length-to-radius ratio coil such as that depicted in Figure 5.7, the external inductance of an N turn coil is N 2 times that of a single turn, i.e. 8r L N 2 0 r[ln 2] a When winding a coil, it is useful to remember that the inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns. The inductance may be increased by winding the coil on an iron or ferrite rod or on a toroid, which has a relative permeability of hundreds or thousands that of air. 5.4.3 Inductance of a Long Multi-turn Coil (long length to radius ratio) Figure 5.8 depicts a long coil of length l and coil-radius r l, containing N closely-wound turns carrying current I amperes. Such a coil can be treated as a wrapped sheet of current (the row of dots in the illustration), from which H can easily be obtained by application of Amperes law H dl = J dS
. Consider the dashed integration contour shown in the sketch, which contains a horizontal length along the inside of the coil, and a length on the outside. The vertical side contributions to the integral are negligibly small because the ux lines are run perpendicular to the contour at the sides.
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Integration contour length l I
B field
r B ~ 0 outside
Radius
Figure 5.8: Long coil.
Outside the coil, the ux lines spread out, and H becomes negligibly small compared to inside the coil. Consequently, we can also ignore the horizontal segment of the integral on the outside of the coil. Thus H dl H l where H is the magnetic eld inside the coil. The total current passing through the integration contour is S J dS = N I . Thus Amperes law implies from which and H l NI H N I/l B 0 N I/l
An additional point to note is that this result is independent of the exact position of the lower horizontal segment of the contour within the coil. This implies that the eld intensity is uniform on a cross section of a long coil, and hence the ux through the cross section of such a coil is = Br2 = 0 Hr2
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(i.e. linking one turn of the coil) The inductance is the ratio of the total ux linking the coil to the current, being L=
S
B dS N N Br2 N (0 N I/l)r2 0 r2 N 2 = = = I I I I l
5.4.4 Inductance of an Intermediate Length Multi-turn Coil In cases where the coil can neither be considered very long or very short, the following approximate formula is commonly used: L 0 r2N 2 l + 0.9r
The formula incorporates an empirical correction factor (+0.9r) in the denominator.
5.5 Mutual Inductance

If two wire coils are close to one another, ux resulting from current owing in one coil will thread the coil of the other. Thus a changing current in one coil, will result in a changing ux in the other and hence induce a voltage across its terminals. This is the basis of a transformer.
1 + 1f rom2 2 + 2f rom1
V1 (t) I1 (t) I2 (t)
V2 (t)
Figure 5.9: Coupled coils.
Consider two coils in close proximity, one containing N1 turns, and the other containing N2 turns. Although not shown in the sketch, these coils are parts of circuits and carry currents.
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Let 1 (t) be the component of the ux threading coil 1, resulting purely from the current I1(t) owing in coil 1. Let the 1 f rom 2 be the ux threading coil 1 arising from the current I2(t) in coil 2. From Faradays law, the voltage across the terminals of coil 1 is d (N11 + N11 f rom 2 ) d 1 d1 f rom 2 = N1 + N1 dt dt dt where N11 is the total ux threading the multi-turn coiled surface. Since 1 is proportional to I1 and 1 f rom 2 is proportional to I2, we have, V1 (t) = dI2 dI1 + M12 dt dt where L1 is the self inductance constant of coil 1, and M12 is another cond f rom 2 2 = M12 dI stant. Since N1 1 dt dt , V1 (t) = L1 M12 = N11 f rom 2 I2
Similarly, the voltage across the terminals of coil 2 is V2 (t) = and d (N22 + N22 f rom 1 ) d 2 d2 f rom 1 = N2 + N2 dt dt dt V2 (t) = L2
dI1 dI2 + M21 dt dt where L2 is the self inductance constant of coil 2, and M21 is a constant: M21 = N22 f rom 1 I1
It can be shown (consult more detailed texts), that regardless of the geometry, M12 = M21. The constant M = M12 = M21 must have the same units of L1 and L2 being henrys, and is known as the mutual inductance between the coils5.
5
rom 2 for a given coil geometry by doing a surface inteOne could in principle, calculate M12 = 1 1If 2 gration of B(i2 ) dS to obtain 1 f rom 2 (I2 ) = S1 B(i2 ) dS. B(i2 ) can be obtained directly from the Biot-Savart law (which requires a contour integration along coil 2). There is a better way to do it (consult other texts for details).
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Mutual Inductance for Tightly Coupled Coils A special case is when the coils are tightly coupled, e.g. stacked on top of one another such that 1 f rom 2 = 2 and 2 f rom 1 = 1 (or coils would around a common toroid). For this case, M12 and hence M12 = d1 f rom 2 d 2 L2 dI2 dI2 = N1 = N1 = N1 dt dt dt N2 dt
N1 N2 L2 .
Similarly, M21 =
N2 N1 L1 .
Since M = M12 = M21 , the product M12M21 yields M2 = or M= for tightly coupled coils. The voltage ratio is
dI2 2 1 1 N1 L1turn dI L1 dI V1 dt + M dt dt + = 2 = dI2 1 2 V2 L2 dt + M dI N2 L1turn dI + dt dt dI2 2L 2 N1 1turnN2 L1turn dt dI1 2L 2 N1 1turnN2 L1turn dt
N1 N2 L2 L1 = L1 L2 N2 N1 L1 L2
N1 N2
which is a well known result for tightly coupled coils.
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5.6 Kirchhos Voltage Law

The relationship between Kirchhos law for a lumped element circuit model and the physical component layout, is established by application of Faradays law. Consider applying Faradays law to the closed contour indicated by the dotted line in the following physical circuit representation. Dene dS pointing into the page, which implies the integration direction is clockwise.
1 I(t) 1
V(t) R
V21 V10 V32 V03
2 3
0 0
Coil
3
C
Figure 5.10: Series circuit loop - Faradays law is applied along the dotted line to derive Kirchhos voltage law.
Since E 0 in the wires, the voltage drops around the circuit occur across the components. Thus, we can write
1 2 3 0
or
E dl =
E dl
E dl
E dl
E dl =
B d M dS = t dt
d M dt The ux threading the loop can be split into three contributions: V10 + V21 + V32 + V03 = M = applied + self + mutual where
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applied refers to any ux imposed on the circuit e.g. wave a bar magnet past the circuit. self refers to the ux generated by the current owing in the circuit loop itself (the circuit can be thought of as a single turn inductor). self = Lself I where Lself is the self inductance of the loop, which carries current I . mutual refers any leakage ux from other parts of the circuit (notably the inductive element) that threads the loop. Substituting the lumped element relationships derived above, 1 V (t) IR C
t t0
I (t)dt L
d M dI = dt dt
Kirchhos law N i=1 Vi = 0 describes the circuit model, and hence we must introduce additional model component(s) into the circuit model M to account for the term d dt .
M It is noted that the term d dt will modify the current owing in the circuit, and should be included for accurate prediction of the behaviour of the circuit.
In practice however, this term is usually small compared to the other terms, and is often neglected in practical circuit design. For the complete model shown below, the equation in the form of Kirchhos law is written as 1 V (t) IR C or
t t0
I (t)dt L
dI dapplied dself dmutual =0 dt dt dt dt

N
Vi = 0
i=1
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I
R
V (t) dS points into the page
dapplied dt
(the direction of positive flux)
Lself
Figure 5.11: Circuit modied to incorporate an additional series inductor Lself which models the series inductance of the loop, and an additional voltage source which models unwanted external signals.
self The term dt = Lself dI dt resulting from the current in the loop, is modelled by a (small) series inductance Lself . A feeling for the magnitude of this self inductance can be gained by considering a circuit arranged in a circular loop of radius 10 cm. We previously calculated the self inductance of a wire ring of radius 10 cm and wire radius of 0.5 mm to be 0.7 H. At an operating frequency of say 1 kHz, the AC reactance of this term is XL = 2f Lself 4 103 ohms, which is usually small enough to be neglected from calculations. At higher frequencies, this term may become signicant. d arises if the circuit is exposed to some externally genThe term applied dt erated AC eld, e.g. a nearby transmitter like a cell phone, or perhaps a motor, or close-by transformer. Usually this term can be neglected. Of course radio waves are ever present, but their contribution is usually in-
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signicant compared to the voltage signals of interest in the circuit. Higher frequency elds are naturally suppressed by the series inductance of the circuit or intentional bandlimiting in the design of circuits with RF immunity. Circuits can also be shielded from external sources by placing them in a metal enclosure such as a Faraday cage 6. in this context arises from the leakage ux from the The term dmutual dt inductor L, and is in practice usually small compared to the voltage drop across the (multi-turn) inductor. The net eect may either be to increase or decrease the current in the circuit, depending on the physical orientation of the inductor. NOTE: The ux S B dS requires the direction of dS to be dened. Since the integral of E was taken clockwise around the loop, the right hand rule tells us that dS points into the page. The ux will be a positive quantity if B (threading the loop) points into the page.
A Faraday cage will provide good shielding from electric elds. DC or slowly varying magnetic elds however do penetrate metal enclosures. e.g. the earths magnetic eld is still detected by a magnetic compass within a Faraday cage. The degree of penetration of time-varying AC electromagnetic elds is a function of a frequency dependent parameter of the metal known as the skin depth, which will be studied later in this course. For good shielding at a particular frequency, the enclosure wall should be considerably thicker that the skin depth (at that frequency).
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5.7 Kirchhos Current Law at a Node

Consider the illustration in Figure 5.12 showing four wires connecting to a node carrying currents I1, I2, I3 and I4. Kirchhos node current law states that the sum of all currents leaving the node equals zero, i.e.
N
Ii = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
i=1
I2
I1 I3
n dS
closed surface S1
I4
closed surface S2 Displacement current "flows" between plates
Figure 5.12: The relationship between Kirchhos cuurent law at a node the continuity equation.
Consider now the continuity of charge relationship J dS = d dt dV = dQ dt
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which states that the total conduction current leaving an arbitrary closed surface S is equal to (minus) the rate of change of charge within the volume V enclosed by S . One can re-express the continuity relationship in a form that looks similar to Kirchhos law by moving the charge term to the left hand side: d J dS + dV = 0 dt V S The 2nd term can be expressed as a surface integral over S by substituting Gauss law dV = S D dS,
S
J dS +
d dt
D dS = 0
Moving the time derivative within the integral, the continuity equation becomes D dS = 0 J dS + S S t which says that the sum of the conduction current Ic and the displacement current Id leaving an arbitrary closed surface7 is zero. I.e. for any closed surface S , Ic + Id = 0 where Ic =
S
J dS
D dS t S Thus we have derived a generalised form of Kirchhos current law, which can be applied to an arbitrary closed surface. Id = For example, consider the closed surface S = S1 surrounding the node in Figure 5.12. There are N = 4 wires piercing the surface and joining at the node.
7
and
It is worth noting that the total displacement current owing out of a closed surface is equal to the time D rate of change of charge enclosed by the surface, i.e. Id = S t dS = dQ/dt.
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For S1 , the total conduction current leaving the surface is Ic =

S1
J dS = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4
The displacement current is typically insignicant (there is no signicant charge build up within S1 ), i.e. Id =
S1
dQ D dS = 0 t dt
Thus we have If one shrinks surface S1 to a tiny surface surrounding the node, the displacement current shrinks to zero and the relationship converges exactly to Kirchhos law. If however, we choose a surface S = S2 in such a way as to pass between the plates of the capacitor as illustrated in Figure 5.12, then we have a slightly more subtle situation. As there is one less wire cutting the surface, the total conduction current is Ic =
S2
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 0
J dS = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
There is however a signicant charge build-up on the plate(s) of the capacitor as a result of current I4. The charge Qplate on the plate (within S2 ) dQplate builds up at a rate of dt = I4 . Thus the continuity relationship
S
J dS =
dQ dt
applied to surface S2 becomes I1 + I2 + I3 Rearranging, we get I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 0

5-24 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
dQplate = I 4 dt
which is consistent with the case where S = S1 and Kirchhos law. The approximation ( ) is present in the above expression because a small (and negligible) charge will exist on the surface8 of the conductors 1 to 4 Another way to look at the situation is to observe that the sum of all currents, both conduction and displacement current, owing out of a closed surface is zero, i.e. for surface S2, I1 + I2 + I3 + Id = 0
D dS is the displacement current leaving the surface. Id where Id = S t is concentrated primarily between the plates of the capacitor (where the electric eld is strongest). D Also, since we have shown that dQ dt = S t dS = Id (for any closed surface), and if the only signicant dQ dt within S2 is the charge build up on the inner plate of the capacitor due to I4, then
Id = which again for S2 implies
dQplate dQ = I4 dt dt
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 0
Any excess charge must be the surface, because 0 very rapidly inside a metal conductor - see section on relaxation time.
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5.8 The Relaxation Time of Conducting Materials

The term conductor refers to a material that will carry current when subjected to an electric eld. In solid materials, like metals, electrons are free to move, and the net movement of electrons constitutes a current. In liquids (e.g. a salt solution), charged ions in solution are free to move allowing a current to exist. Insulating materials, in contrast, are materials for which the electrons are tightly bound to particular atoms, and hence no current can ow. A perfect conductor is one for which there is an unlimited abundance of free electrons. The conductivity of a perfect conductor is innite - an innitesimal electric eld will create a large current. Metals can often be approximated as perfect conductors in the analysis of their behaviour under certain conditions. If a conducting object is placed in a stationary position within an electric eld, the electrons will, given time, rearrange themselves such that: E goes to zero inside the conductor (electrons quickly re-arrange themselves until the total E = 0 inside conductor). Note: in the steady state situation, the net force on the electrons must go to zero - the electrons will rearrange themselves to achieve this. Since the conductor is not moving (stationary), in the steady state situation, the magnetic force on the electrons will be zero, and hence the electric force must also be zero9.
9
If a conductor is moving through a static magnetic eld - then the E eld inside the metal can be non-zero - electrons will always rearrange themselves such that the sum of the magnetic and electric forces equals zero. For example, a rod of length l moving at velocity v through a static magnetic eld B will experience a magnetic force on the electrons F = q v B. Electrons will re-arrange themselves such that the total force on an electron of chage q is q v B + q E = 0, i.e. inside the metal, E = v B once the electrons have rearranged themselves.
B
Rod moving through uniform magnetic field Fields inside the rod
E vB
There will also exist a potential dierence between the end points of the rod, i.e. b a = b b a E dl = a (v B) dl. If v is perpendicular to B and the rod is orientated such that its length is perpendicular to v and B, then the potential dierence between the ends will be vBl.
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The charge density = 0 inside the conductor (since div D = and E = 0, it means = 0) . Any net charge (excess charge) resides on the surface in an innitesimally thin layer (we refer to this charge as a surface charge). The potential (x, y, z ) is constant throughout the conductor (since the electric eld is zero inside). E is perpendicular at the boundary (i.e. no tangential component). In practice, one might wonder just how long it would take for the electrons to re-arrange themselves. Imagine setting up an arrangement of charge (x, y, z ) within a homogeneous conducting material and then releasing the charge at some instant. The charge will redistribute itself such that the electric eld goes to zero at every point within the conductor10. This happens very rapidly in metals, so fast that it can be considered instantaneous in many practical situations.
J J = E
charges move
(t) 0 0.370 =

(x, y, z, t) J J
(t) = 0 e t t
Figure 5.13: The illustration shows an initial charge distribution within a homogeneous conducting medium. The charge will rearrange as time progresses, with the charge density at any monitored point decaying over time.
Consider the charge within the conducting body. The movement of charge will be governed by the continuity equation, for which the dierential form J=
10
Here we are ignoring the granularity of electrons and treating the charge as a kind of uid.
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describes the relationship between current leaving a small volume element, and the rate of change of charge within the element. If we substitute J = E, we get ( E) = t and then eliminate E via Gauss law ( E = /) we obtain a rst order dierential equation + =0 t which has solution (t) = 0 e t where 0 is the initial charge density at time t = 0. Thus the charge density at any point within the material will dissipate to zero with an exponential decay. The decay curve is characterised by the time constant = , also known as the relaxation time, which is the time at which the charge density has reduced to e1 36.8% of its initial value. After 5 the charge density will have decayed to less than 1% of the initial value. To see how quickly this happens in practice, the time constant may be calculated for various materials. For example for a metal conductor like copper ( = 5.8 107 Sm1, 0 = 8.85 1012 Fm1), the time = 1.5 1019 s, which is extremely short compared to constant is = say the period of a 100 GHz microwave sinusoid, being 1011 seconds. In electronic circuits, the charge in the wires rearranges itself very quickly in response to the dynamics of the circuits (i.e. to a very good approximation, we consider E 0 and 0 inside the connecting copper wires - a small component of E must however exist to drive the current). For a weakly conducting liquid like tap water ( 102 Sm1, 810 Fm1), the relaxation time is about 70 109 s. For a good insulator like glass (e.g. = 1014 Sm1, = 50), the relaxation time is calculated to be about 4000 seconds (67 minutes). Exercise: Calculate the relaxation time of iron ( = 0.9 107 Sm1).
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5.9 Shielding and The Faraday Cage

Circuitry may be shielded from external electric elds by enclosing the circuit inside a metal box known as a Faraday cage. External electric elds have no inuence on the circuitry within a box made from a perfect conductor - an electrically quiet zone exists within the box. On a larger scale, Faraday cages can provide protection against lightning strikes. Low frequency magnetic elds can however penetrate a real metal enclosure and inuence the circuitry inside it. Try for yourself to see if a permanent magnet is able to attract iron pieces through the walls of a metal box. DC magnetic elds penetrate through metal enclosures. For example, a magnetic compass will still detect the earths magnetic eld inside a Faraday cage. Eective shielding from a magnetic eld at 50 Hz requires a thick wall (several mm), preferably made from a high permeability material. As the frequency increases, a metal wall becomes more eective in attenuating magnetic elds. In the MHz range and higher, metal enclosures are very eective (if well sealed) for shielding circuits from external electromagnetic elds, and also for preventing radiation leakage from the circuitry within the enclosure. Electromagnetic waves reect o the enclosure, and what does enter the metal, decays exponentially with a decay constant called the skin depth (covered later in the course).
5.10 Twisted Pair Cables

An interesting application of eld theory concerns the understanding of how twin-wire transmission lines are inuenced by electric and magnetic elds. Figure 5.14 depicts a parallel wire (non twisted) transmission line, which could be used to carry a signal from one location to another. Such parallel wire transmission lines are particularly susceptible to inductive coupling of magnetic elds, especially when several signals need to be carried in the same bundle. Changing magnetic ux d/dt within the circuit loop induces an additional voltage which adds to the signal voltage in accordance with Faradays law. A clever solution to minimising inductive coupling is to reduce the net ux, by twisting the pair of wires as illustrated. The ux
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contributions B dS in adjacent twists are opposite in polarity and will tend to cancel, resulting in reduced d/dt and hence reduced magnetic eld interference. This type of cable is known as twisted pair and is very commonly used for data networks.
V (t)
dm /dt
V (t) net dm /dt 0 Figure 5.14: Illustration comparing a straight wire transmission line with a twisted pair transmission line.
In addition to the minimization of magnetic coupling, the twisting also improves the immunity to capacitive coupling (an electric eld eect). If, for example, the cable lies close to a conductor that is varying in potential relative to ground, like the live wire wire 50 Hz mains supply, this 50 Hz signal will capacitively couple to the conductors (imagine small valued capacitors (C1 and C2 in Figure 5.15 and Figure 5.16) between the 50 Hz conductor and cables two wires). Twisting the cable, creates a more symmetrical coupling arrangement, independent of the of the orientation of the pair, hence causing the eect to be common to both wires. A dierential amplier at the receiver with a high common-mode rejection ratio extracts the desired dierential signal, and removes the common capacitively coupled interference. It is also evident in Figure 5.15 that a balanced drive creates a symmetrical arrangement in which the interfering signal will better cancel at the receiver (if C1 C2 and the source resistors labeled R are identical). Twisting the wires as in Figure 5.16, better matches the coupling
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capacitance to each wire i.e. makes C1 C2.
Figure 5.15: Illustrations of capacitive coupling onto parallel wire transmission lines for the case of balanced versus unbalanced driving circuitry.
Sometimes twisted pairs are also shielded (i.e. wrapped with an outer braiding or foil sheath), oering increased immunity to electromagnetic interference and noise. The shielding also further reduces radiation from the cable itself. Several twisted pairs are sometimes bundled within the same cable. The use of twisted pairs oers signicantly lower cross talk between data channels compared to non-twisted side-by-side wires within a cable. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is now used for connecting standard PCs in in-door local area networks (LANs). UTP network cables replaced previously used 50 ohm coaxial cables for LANs because UTP cables are cheaper to manufacture than coaxial cable, and oer adequate immunity to electromagnetic interference. UTP network cable is typically used for
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Figure 5.16: Illustrations of capacitive coupling onto wire transmission lines for the case of straight-wire versus twisted pair cables. The twisting of the wires makes the capacitive coupling between each wire and the interfering source more equal. The interference is common to both wires and will be canceled at the dierential input of the receiver.
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distances up 100m. The Cat-5e series cable is the cable commonly used for PC LANs (for both 100 Mbit/s and gigabit ethernet networks), and is designed to carry frequencies up to 100 MHz. PC LAN network cables contain four unshielded twisted pairs, with RJ-45 connectors on each end. The characteristic impedance of Cat-5e is 100 ohms. Mechanical arrangement within the cable can further reduce coupling between pairs. For example the Power Cat-6 four pair cable sold by RS Electronics contains four unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, with a central separator, and is designed to support high speed data transmission systems (frequencies up to 250 MHz).
Cat-5e
Cat-6
RJ-45 connector Figure 5.17: Photos from from RS website; connector from Intel website
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6 Electromagnetic Waves
In this section we shall examine the generation and propagation characteristics of electromagnetic radiation as solutions of Maxwells dierential equations. One can divide the subject into six categories: Generation of radiation (for which we design antennas) Propagation through various media (e.g. free space and lossless media, lossy conducting media) Reection at interfaces between dierent media Refraction i.e. change of direction as a ray of light passes from one medium to into another (consider a laser beam passing from air into a prism) Diraction (e.g. bending around corners, and slit diraction eects) Scattering from objects (e.g. radars detect the energy scattered from targets)
Maxwells Dierential Equations

The complete set of Maxwells Equations in dierential form is D= B=0 B E= t D H=J+ t
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where D = E and B = H. It is pointed out that this set, together with the Lorentz force law F = qE + qV B summarize all the behaviour of classical electromagnetic eld theory in both matter and free space. All other laws e.g. Biot-Savart law and the continuity equation can be derived from this set. The only place where these dierential forms do not hold are on boundaries between dierent materials where the derivatives are not nite. At boundaries, we can derive a set of boundary conditions which relate the eld quantities immediately on either side of the boundary (see section on boundary conditions).
6.1 Mathematical Description of Travelling Waves

(ref S.Cloude 1995) Consider the signal received at a distance z metres from a radiating source. If the signal progates at speed of v metres per second then the time delay will be z/v seconds. In one dimension, a waveform propagating at a xed speed v [ms1] in the positive z -direction, can be described by a function of time and position f (z, t) of the form z f1 ( t ) v z where v is the delay (time shift). A waveform travelling in the negative z -direction can be expressed in the form z f2 ( t + ) v
z ), plotted See hand drawn illustrations of plots of f1(t v
1. as a function of time for dierent, xed, values of z. 2. as a function of z at dierent time instants.
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Figure 6.1: Illustration of wave propagation.
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z It is perhaps easiest to see why f1(t v ) represents a forward propagating wave by re-expressing the argument as
1 f1 ( (z vt)) v and dening a new function w1 (.) such that 1 w1(z vt) = f1( (z vt)) v The function w1(.) is a ipped and stretched version of f (.), i.e. w1(u) = f ( u v ). You should recognise that in w1(z vt), the quantity vt represents a (time varying) shift along the z -axis. As time increases, the waveform w(z vt) will therefore slide along the z axis in the positive z direction, at a rate of v metres per second. z Similarly, the function f2(t + v ) can be re-expressed as 1 f2 ( (z + vt)) = w2 (z + vt) v which reveals that waveform w2(.) will move in the negative z direction as vt increases. 6.1.1 The Wave Equation Waves travelling in the z directions are solutions to a 2nd order partial dierential equation known as the wave equation of the form 1 2f 2f = z 2 v 2 t2 or 2f 1 2f =0 z 2 v 2 t2 A more compact notation uses subscripts to indicate the derivatives, i.e. fzz = 1 ftt v2
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This equation arises in many physical contexts e.g. propagation of sound waves in air and uids, electromagnetic waves in space, transmission line theory. The wave equation can be generalized to model propagation in 3-D space and also to include a driving term that represents the source of the radiation. The generalized form in Cartesian coordinates is 2f 2f 2f + + x2 y 2 z 2 1 2f 2 2 = g (r, t) v t
where r =< x, y, z > represents position in space, and g (r, t) is the general source term creating the waves. Away from the souce, g (r, t) = 0. The source term g (r, t) models the underlying radiation generation mechanism e.g. a loudspeaker in acoustics, or an antenna in electromagnetic radiation. The 3-d wave equation may be more compactly written as 1 2f f 2 2 = g (r, t) v t
2
where 2
2 x2
2 y 2
2 z 2
is the Laplacian operator.
dAleberts solution to the 1-D wave equation
Solutions to the wave equation are propagating waves. It is easy to verify z that f1 (t z v ) and f2 (t + v ) (or equivalently w1 (z vt) and w2 (z + vt)) are solutions of the 1-D wave equation: 1 2f 2f =0 z 2 v 2 t2 The solution known as dAlemberts solution is z z f (z, t) = f1 (t ) + f2 (t + ) v v being the sum of forward and reverse propagating waves. As an exercise, it is worth verifying the solution by expanding out the 2nd partial derivatives with respect to z and t and substiting into the wave equation (do this yourself):
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1 1 z z f = f1 ( t ) + f2 ( t + ) z v v v v 1 z 1 z 2f = f f ( t ) + ( t + ) 1 2 z 2 v2 v v2 v and f z z = f1 ( t ) + f2 ( t + ) t v v z z 2f = f ) + f ) ( t ( t + 1 2 t2 v v
f 1 f Clearly z 2 = v 2 2 t and f (z, t) is a solution to the wave equation. In any physical problem, the solutions are constrained by the so called boundary conditions. In the case of electromagnetic radiation, these are the constraints on E, D, B and H at interfaces between dierent media, and the constraint on the eld quantities at the source of the radiation.
2 2
6.2 Wave Equation derived from Maxwells Equations

In this section, we shall see how the wave equation may be derived directly from the dierential forms of Maxwells equations. We shall also see that the source of electromagnetic radiation is the acceleration of electric charge. We must show that the eld quantities described by Maxwells equations can be manipulated into a standard form of the wave equation 2 f 1 2f =g v 2 t2
where g g (r, t), and f f (r, t). Following the approach described in (S.Cloude 1995), we can nd an expression for the electric eld as follows: Take the curl of Faradays law on both sides, i.e. E=
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B t
B ) t Making use of the interchangeability of the partial derivatives ( E) = ( E= ( B) t
becomes
To obtain an equation involving only E and not B, we can substitute for B which we obtain from Amperes law, H=J+ with D = E and B = H, i.e. B = J + Substituting for B we get E 2E J E = (J + ) = 2 t t t t Note that the right hand side looks a bit like the wave equation. To make further progress, we make use of a vector identity (proofs may be found in texts on vector analysis), E = ( E) 2E 2 Ex 2 Ex where 2E E = 2Ey , and 2 Ex = x 2 + 2 Ez E = E t D t
2 Ex y 2
2 Ex z 2
Lastly, we use Gauss law
to write the 1st term on the right hand side as ( E) = = grad( )

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In a charge free region = 0 (e.g. a vacuum, or air, or a dielectric material), grad( ) = 0, and the equation simplies further to J 2E E = 2 t t
2
or
2E J E 2 = t t
2
This is a vector form of the wave equation. For each Cartesian coordinate 2 Ex Jx Ex 2 = t t
2
Jy 2 Ey Ey 2 = t t 2 Ez Jz 2Ez 2 = t t
2
NOTE: In free space, J = 0, and so all three components of E are of the form 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 = 0 t If we compare this equation to the standard form wave equation 1 2f f 2 2 =0 v t we identify v12 , and hence we conclude that electromagnetic waves must propagate with velocity
2
v=
1 1 = 2.998 108 ms1 = 12 7 00 8.85 10 4 10
This is the same as the measured value for light, and hence suggests that light is an electromagnetic wave - Maxwells great revelation [around 1865]. At the time of Maxwell, this was an amazing result. The constants 0 and 0 were purely the results of electrostatic and
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magnetostatic theory and experiments, and had not been associated with light. Maxwell also predicted the existance of EM waves at all frequencies including radio waves, rst demonstrated experimentally by Hertz in 1888. In other non-conducting media (e.g. dielectrics), the speed of propagation is 1 1 1 c 1 v= = = = r 0 r 0 r r 00 r r Since, for most materials 0 , the speed of propagation is v cr . The term n = r r is called the refractive index of the material. Although we have derived the wave involving E, in exactly the same way, we can derive a dierential equation for B. In a non conducting medium, the equation is 2B 2B =0 t2
identical in form to that of the electric eld.
6.3 Physical Interpretation of the Radiation Generation and Propagation Mechanism

By comparing the derived dierential equation involving E (or its components Ex , Ey or Ez ) with the standard form(s) of the wave equation, the J source of radiation is clearly identied as the term g(r, t) = t . Thus we can conclude that the source of electromagnetic radiation is a time-varying current (density). A constant current implies charge moving at a constant speed. The time-derivative of a current corresponds to the acceleration of charge1. Thus radiation arises from accelerating charges.
1
The current density J resulting from current I passing through a small area S (S in a plane perpenx J 2x I dicular to the direction of movement), is J = S t . Thus t t2
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6.3.1 Propagation Mechanism To understand how the radiation propagates, examine the illustrations of the electromagnetic wave propagating aways from a dipole radiating source. SEE: (1) HANDOUT OF ILLUSTRATIONS of EM Propagation [from book on Antennas by J.D. Kraus] (2) Simulations of EM propagating waves via links on the EEE3055F course website.
Figure 6.2: a) Side view illustration of the E eld propagating away from a dipole antenna driven by a sinusoidal source. b) Top view illustration of the corresponding B eld propagating away from the dipole antanna. [images obtained from simulation made available by Hsiu C Han of Iowa State University]
A short dipole anntena radiator can be constructed from two bits of wire. Driving the dipole with a sinusoidal voltage source sets up time varying currents in the two arms. The time varying current sets up a time-varying electromagnetic eld that propagates away from the source. A cross section showing the E eld at a particular time instant can be seen in Figure 6.2.
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This disturbance propagates away from the accelerating charge governed by two equations: 1. Faradays law: Et = or (by Stokess theorem) Et dl = B dS t B t
2. Maxwells equation (from Amperes law): Bt = or (by Stokess theorem) Bt dl = E dS t E t
The radiation pattern can be used to depict the power density (W/m2) in a polar format in a particular direction. For an accelerating charge, a cross section of the pattern is shown below - the distance from the origin at a particular angle represents the power density radiated in that direction.
Radiation pattern from accelerating charge
J t
P owerDensity ()
Figure 6.3: Radiation pattern from an accelerating charge.
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6.4 Some Additional Notes on Wave Equations

There are many forms of the wave equation, describing wave propagation in 1, 2 and 3 dimensions, in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, and in scalar as well as compact vector notations. The general form describing some scalar eld quantity is 1 2f f 2 2 = g (r, t) v t
2
where f = f ((r, t)) is a function of position in space and time. The function g (r, t) is used to model a radiation source. The constant v is the velocity of propagation. Away from the source, g (r, t) = 0 and the wave equation is written as 1 2f f 2 2 =0 v t
2
The term 2f is called the Laplacian of f. 2 f In 1-D spatial dimension denoted by z, 2 f = z 2 and the equation is written as 1 2f 2f = g (z, t) z 2 v 2 t2 It is easy to show (by dierentiation) that a solution to the 1-D wave equation is of the form z z f (z, t) = f1 (t ) + f2 (t + ) v v or alternatively written as 1 1 f (z, t) = f1 ( (z vt)) + f2( (z + vt)) v v = w1(z vt) + w2(z + vt) where w1(u) = f1 (vu) and w2 (u) = f2(vu). The functions f1 and f2 (or alternatively w1 and w2) represent waves travelling in the positive and negative z directions. This solution is known as dAlemberts solution. It can be proved that this f (z, t) is a complete solution to the 1-D wave equation.
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The exact forms of the functions f1 and f2 are only known once a problem has been more fully specied i.e. specication of (1) the initial conditions and (2) the boundary conditions (an example of a 1-D problem involving a plucked string follows). In 3-D, the Laplacian can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates to yield 1 2f 2f 2f 2f + + 2 2 = g (r, t) x2 y 2 z 2 v t which has solutions of the form f (x, y, z, t) = f1 (ax + by + cz vt) + f2(ax + by + cz + vt) which can be veried by dierentiation. This form is used for modelling problems with rectangular symmetry e.g. a plane wave propagating in space. The values of the constants dene the direction of propagation of the wave. Waves can propagate simultaneously in several directions, i.e. f (x, y, z, t) can be the superposition of one or more waves propagating in dierent directions. The wave equation can also be expressed in spherical coordinates, which is convenient form modelling waves with spherical symmetry e.g. spherical waves radiating away from a source. The Laplacian in spherical coordinates is 1 f= 2 r r
2
2 f
1 + 2 r sin
f sin
1 2f + 2 2 r sin 2
The wave wave equation becomes unwieldy to write, and so the compact notation 1 2f 2 f 2 2 = g (r, t) v t is very convenient. If the wave amplitude depends only on the distance from the source (e.g. radiation from a point source), 0 and 0 and the Laplacian simplies to 1 f= 2 r r
2
2 f
2f 2 f +0+0= 2 + r r r
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and the wave equation in spherical coordinates simplies to 2f 2 f + r2 r r which has a general solution the form 1 1 f (r, t) = f1 (r vt) + f2(r + vt) r r where the rst term represents a spherical wave travelling radially outward from the source, with a decaying amplitude proportional to 1 r ; the 2nd term represents a wave converging on the origin. This solution can be veried by substitution. A 2-D example of a spherical wave, is the wave front propagating out on the surface of water when a stone is dropped into onto the surface. Suciently far from a radiating antenna, the amplitude of the electric and magnetic elds decay as a function of 1 r , like a spherical wave. The radiated 2 power density decays proportional to r12 . Unlike a spherical wave, practical antennas focus the radiated energy in particular directions, like the beam of a torch. 1 2f =0 v 2 t2
6.5 Travelling Waves in a Plucked Guitar String

(references: Wylie & Barrett, and also Griths) A simple example of the wave propagation is found in the analysis of a plucked guitar string, clamped at x = 0 and x = L as shown in Figure 6.4.
f (x|t)
(transverse displacement)
x=0
x=L
Figure 6.4: A plot of the displacement of the string as a function of position x (at some given instant t in time).
2
As we shall see in a later section, the power density vector P = E H points in the direction of power ow, and far from a source, the power density |P| r12 (in the so-called far eld).
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The function f (x, t) models the transverse displacement of the string as a function of position x and time t, and turns out to be the solution of a 1-D wave equation. The wave equation is derived by considering the forces acting on a small elemental section of the string shown in Figure 6.5.
Elemental section of string
f (x|t) T2 2
Restoring force
Horizontal and transverse components of T2

T2
Displacement
1 T1
2 T2 cos2
T2 sin2
x1 x
Figure 6.5: Forces on an element of the string; the magnitudes of the angles are exaggerated.
We shall make the following assumptions: the transverse displacement of the string is small (typically mm) compared to its length (normally 65 cm). the resulting small increase in string length has negligible increase in tension, i.e. tension T , in Newtons, is approximately constant i.e. T1 = T2 = T . The tension in a real guitar string is in the range 70 N to 180 N. the horizontal displacement of the elemental section is negligibly small. the tension is high enough such that gravity can be neglected i.e. string does not sag under its own weight. air resistance is also negligible - although it would in practice contribute to bringing a sting in motion to rest over time. Energy is lost as it is converted into an audible sound wave. the string has a uniformly distributed mass of w kg m1 (typically 0.4 103 to 8 103 kg m1). for any segment considered, the angles 1 and 2 are small enough such that we can make the small angle approximations sin1 tan1 1 and sin2 tan2 2.
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The elemental section experiences a force T1 = T to the left directed along the string, and a force T2 = T directed to the right along the string as illustrated. The horizontal force components are approximately equal, i.e. T2cos2 T1cos1 . The net transverse force on the elemental section is the dierence in the transverse components, i.e. F = T 2 sin2 T1sin1 = T (sin2 T1sin1) f f T (tan2 tan1) = T ( ) x x1 +x x x1 For a positive lateral displacement (i.e. f (x1|t) > 0) the value of F will be negative, indicating a restoring force in the direction of strings rest position being the x-axis. According to Newtons 2nd law, the force equals mass times acceleration. For the small section of length l, its mass m = wl wx since 1 and 2 are small angles. Thus Newtons 2nd law implies f F = T( x or ( f x
x1 +x
f x x1 +x
f x x ) 1
2f ) = w x 2 t x1 w 2f T t2
2
f f Taking the limit x 0, the left hand side becomes x ( x ) = x2 , being the second partial derivative evaluated at position x = x1. Thus we have derived the standard form of the 1-D wave equation
w 2f 2f = x2 T t2 which describes the lateral displacement of the string at any position x and time t between its clamped endpoints. The propagation speed of the wave
T . (in the +x or x direction) is identied as v = w How do we obtain a solution? dAlemberts solution, we know is a complete solution of the form
f (x, t) = f1 (x vt) + f2(x + vt)

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where f1() and f2() to be determined from the initial and boundary conditions. In this problem, the initial conditions are (i) the shape of the string at time t = 0 when it is released, i.e. f (x, 0) = f (x, t)|t=0 = U0 (x), and (ii) (x,t) = V0 (x) over the length. the initial transverse velocity ft t=0 From these initial conditions, we have two equations U 0 ( x ) = f1 ( x ) + f2 ( x ) and V0(x) = f (x, t) t
= vf1 (x) + vf2 (t)
Dierentiating the rst equation, = f1 ( x ) + f2 (x) and substituting f2 (x) = U0 ( x ) f1 (x) into the second, we get V0 (x) = vf1 (x) + v (U0 ( x ) f1 (x)) = 2vf1 (x) + vU0 (x)
t=0 U0 (x)
Rearranging
1 1 (x) V0 (x) f1 (x) = U0 2 2v and by integration we get 1 1 f1 ( x ) = U 0 ( x ) 2 2v where k is a constant, and 1 1 f2 ( x ) = U 0 ( x ) f1 ( x ) = U 0 ( x ) + 2 2v

x x 0
V0 (u)du k
V0 (u)du + k
0
If we assume that the string is stationary at the time of release, V0 (x) = 0; the integral terms are zero, and f (x, t) simplies to f (x, t) = f1(x vt) + f2 (x + vt) 1 1 = U0(x vt) + U0(x + vt) 2 2 The plucked string is the shown below as a triangular initial displacement3 at t = 0. The time-varying solution shows that f (x, t) is the sum of two
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Wave solution to a plucked string
U0 (x) U0 (x)/2
Initial displacement at t=0
Waves moving apart
U0 (x + vt)/2
U0 (x vt)/2
No longer overlapping
Waves invert on reflection at clamped end points.
Figure 6.6: The illustration shows an initial condition U0 (x). Releasing the string at t = 0 sets up two propagating waves that reect o the clamped ends of the string. There is an inversion on reection (similar to an voltage wave travelling down a transmission line and reecting o a short circuit termination).
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1 U0( ), one propagating to the left and the other to the waves, each being 2 right. If a nite length string is considered and the boundary conditions are applied (i.e. f (0, t) = 0 and f (L, t) = 0), then the full solution which can be derived which shows that the waves will bounce back and forth o the end points, reversing polarity at each bounce. The time taken for the string to return to its initial state is the period 2L/v seconds - each pulse must reect twice to return to its original state, travelling a distance of 2L. The frequency of the lateral oscillation is therefore T 1 v 1 f= = = period 2L 2L w which is the fundamental frequency of sound that one hears. The vibration of the string creates a compression wave in the air that propagates to ones ears. Higher frequencies are also heard at integer multiples of the fundamental. If one plots the lateral displacement of a point on the string as a function of time, it will be a periodic function. Fourier analysis will reveal the amplitude of the harmonic components.
Example
A guitar string has the following parameters: T = 100 N, w = 2103kg m1 and L = 0.65 m. The speed of wave propagation is v = The fundamental frequency is f= 224 v = = 172 Hz 2L 2 0.65
T w
= 224 ms1.
Tightning the string will increase speed of propagation and hence the frequency.
One could imagine creating such an initial displacement using three drawing pins that are simultaneously removed at time t = 0. A more realistic initial condition for a guitar string is a pluck made by a single nger.
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7 Sinusoidal Waves
7.1 Signals as Sums of Sinusoidal Functions
Analysis of a waveform can often be greatly simplied by representing the waveform as the sum of functions that are more easily analysed that the waveform itself. Examples of such representations for general signals are the Fourier series (for periodic waveforms) f (t) =
n=1
Cn cos(n0 t + n )
the complex Fourier series (for periodic waveforms) f (t) =

n=
Fn exp(jn0t)
and the (inverse) Fourier transform for non-periodic waveforms, i.e. 1 f (t) = 2

F ( )exp(jt)d
Well-known formulas exist for calculating the weightings of the sinusoids in the above representations, i.e. Cn (and phase n), Fn and F ( ). If, for example, one wishes to predict how a transmitted pulse propagates to a receiver through a complex medium (the response of which may be frequency dependent), one can carry out the analysis for a single frequency sinusoid, and having done so, build the nal output as the superposition of all the sinusoidal components. One could in fact represent the relationship between transmitter and receiver in terms of a frequency dependent transfer function H ( ), for which Vrec ( ) = H ( )Vtran ( )
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where Vrec ( ) and Vtran ( ) are the Fourier transforms of the transmitted signal Vtran (t) and received signal Vrec (t). The time domain waveform Vrec (t) found by inverse transforming Vrec ( ). This motivates the detailed study of sinusoidal solutions to Maxwells equations.
7.2 Real Sinusoidal Travelling Waves

Any function f (t) may be transformed into a travelling wave moving in the x direction at speed v by replacing the argument t by (t x v ), i.e. x f (t v ). A forward travelling sinusoidal wave f (x, t) can be constructed from cos(t + ) simply by replacing the variable t by (t x v ), i.e. x f (x, t) = A cos( (t ) + ) v = A cos( (x vt) + ) v
The function is also sometimes written as x f (x, t) = A cos(t + ) = A cos(t kx + ) v where is the angular frequency in radians per second, and the constant k = /v is called the wave number and is the spatial frequency in radians per metre, and is a constant phase shift. The waveform may be sketched as a function of x at a xed time, or as a function of t at a xed position x. Below are shown sketches of the function cos(t) and the travelling wave A cos(t kx + ) = A cos( [t as a function of time t at a xed position x. kx ])
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cos(t) as a function of t
period T =
cos(t kx + ) as a function of t
shift
kx
Figure 7.1:
It is pointed out that A cos(t) is shifted to the right by a time x/v /.
kx
The period T of the waveform is the time over which the phase changes by 2 , i.e. solving (t + T ) t = 2 yields T = 2
A sketch of cos(kx) and the wave as a function of x at a xed time t are shown below:
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cos(kx) as a function of x x
wavelength =
2 k
cos(t kx + ) as a function of x
shift
t+ k
Figure 7.2:
+ The wave A cos(t kx + ) = A cos(k [x + tk ]) which is A cos(kx) t+ shifted to the right by a distance k = vt + /k
The wavelength is dened as the distance between consecutive points of identical phase, i.e. the distance over which the phase changes by 2 , i.e. solving k (x + ) kx = 2 yields 2 v v [ms1 ] 2 = = = = k /v /2 f requency [Hz]
The complete sinusoidal solution to the 1-D wave equation is the sum of forward and reverse travelling waves of the form: f (x, t) = A1 cos(t kx + 1 ) + A2 cos(t + kx + 2 ) where the negative travelling wave is created by replacing x with x.
7.3 Complex Phasor Representation

Complex exponentials are often used in the analysis of linear system for a number of reasons: Complex exponential function are the basis functions used in the complex Fourier representations of signals.
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Mathematical notation and analysis can be simpler (e.g. in circuit analysis) The magnitude and phase shift changes that occur to a real sinusoid when passed through a linear system, can be obtained directly from analysis of the response to a complex sinusoid. The real function f (x, t) = A1 cos(t kx + 1 ) + A2 cos(t + kx + 2 ) is represented by the complex exponential form (x, t) = A1 exp [j (t kx + 1)] + A2 exp [j (t + kx + 2 )] f It is noted that (x, t)} f (x, t) = Re{f
If we pass a real signal through a physical linear system, the output is a convolution, i.e. f (t) h(t) where h(t) is the (real) impulse response of the system. (t) through the same linear system we get Passing the complex signal f (t) h(t) = f (t)} + j Im{f (t)} h(t) Re{f
(t)} h(t) + j Im{f (t)} h(t) = Re{f (t)} h(t) = f (t) h(t) + j Im{f
We see that
from which it is clear that we can perform the analysis using the complex (t) and simply take the real part afterwards to obtain f (t) h(t). function f (x, t) = A1exp [j (t kx + 1 )] is sometimes The complex function f written more compactly as (x, t) = A1ej 1 ejkx ejt = Ae jkx ejt f where the factor A1ej 1 has been replaced by a single complex constant = A1ej 1 . It is also common in wave analysis to drop the sinusoidal A
(t) h(t)} = f (t) h(t) Re{f
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component ejt in the written notation, and write the forward and reverse travelling waves as 1ejkx + A 2ejkx A 1ekx is called a complex phasor representation of the (forward) The term A wave. The derivative of a complex sinusoid is d A1 exp [j (t kx + 1 )] = A1exp [j (t kx + 1 )] j dt Thus time derivatives of complex phasors are simply obtained by multiplying by j . Integration with respect to time is achieved by dividing by j . 7.3.1 Maxwells Equations in Complex Phasor Notation If all time varying quantities are sinusoidal, the set of equations D=
B=0 B E= t D H=J+ t can be written in phasor notation as = D =0 B = j B E
=J + j D H (r, t) = E (r)ejt, B (r, t) = B (r)ejt, etc. Since where (r, t) = (r)ejt, E the ejt factors cancel on left and right hand sides, the phasor form of and B . Maxwells equations relate the non-time dependent portions of , E
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7.3.2 The Wave Equations in Complex Phasor Notation The wave equations (derived for a non-conducting dielectric medium) 2E E 2 = 0 t
2
2B B 2 = 0 t are written in phasor notation as

2
+ 2 E =0 2 E + 2 B =0 2 B
2 since t It is noted that in phasor form, the wave 2 (j )(j ) = . equations are purely a function of spatial coordinates and not time (the ejt terms cancel). We shall use the phasor notation in studying wave propagation in lossy conducting media.
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8 Plane Waves
The 3-D wave equations for E and B in free space in vector notation are 2E E 2 = 0 t
2
2B B 2 = 0 t Expanding the components of E in Cartesian coordinates,

2
2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex + + 2 = 0 x2 y 2 z 2 t 2 Ey 2 Ey 2 Ey 2 Ey + + 2 = 0 x2 y 2 z 2 t 2 Ez 2 Ez 2 Ez 2 Ez + + 2 = 0 x2 y 2 z 2 t we see that each (scalar) component of the E vector obeys a 3-D wave equation; and similarly for the components of B. Functions of the form f (x, y, z, t) = fn (ax + by + cz vt) are solutions, and represent waves travelling in a particular direction. A plane wave is a propagating wave for which the eld is uniform in any plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This kind of eld is an idealization, as the elds radiated from sources spread out as a function of distance with a curved wavefront (see handout of E eld lines propagating away from a dipole antenna). Far from the source, the wavefront may be analysed locally as a plane wave (by locally, is meant a region over which the curvature of the eld lines is negligible).
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8.1 Plane wave propagating in z direction

To simplify analysis and understanding, let us consider a wave front propagating in the positive z -direction. Since the components of a plane wave are by denition uniform within any plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, we conclude that E is only a function of z, independent of x and y. Thus x = 0 and y = 0 and the 3-D wave equations in Cartesian coordinates simplify to 1-D wave equations 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 = 0 z 2 t 2 Ey 2 Ey 2 = 0 z 2 t 2 Ez 2 Ez 2 = 0 z 2 t Additionally, we shall assume that only an Ex component exists, and that the Ey and Ez components of the E vector are zero.1i.e. E = Ex (z, t), 0, 0 . Now we need only consider a single equation 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 = 0 z 2 t dAlemberts complete solution is of the form Ex (z, t) = f1 (z vt) + f2(z + vt), with v =
1 .
The orientation of E eld depends on the radiating source. If a wire dipole antenna is placed at the origin and aligned with the x axis, then in the y z plane, the electric eld will have only an Ex component. Away from the y z plane, other components are non-zero, because of the curvature of the E-eld lines being closed loops.
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Electromagnetic propagation of a short pulse

x E(z, t) = Ex (z, t), 0, 0 c
c H(z, t) y
Figure 8.1: Propagation of a short EM pulse.
What about the magnetic eld? The magnetic eld is coupled to the electric eld in Maxwells equations, particularly, B E= t Expanding the curl of E in Cartesian coordinates, x E= Thus
x
y
y
z
z
Ex Ey Ez
x y z = 0 0 z Ex 0 0
Ex y z
B Ex = y t z from which we conclude that the time-varying magnetic eld has only a y component! i.e. Ex t y B= z It is pointed out that, mathematically, time-independent x , y and z components could exist, however these DC components are not generated by any source, and are therefore zero. Ex is a travelling wave of the general
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form Ex (z, t) = f (z vt). Substituting, we get By (z, t) = = = Ex z t
(f (z vt)) t
1 f (z vt) + h(z ) + C v where h(z ) is some function of z and C is a constant. We have the additional condition that By (z, t) is a travelling wave of the form By (z, t) = fn (z vt) (the solution to the wave equation). The rst term is of this form, thus 1 By (z, t) = Ex (z, t) v
8.2 Characteristic Impedance

Often, in engineering, the H eld is described; the Hy component is related to the Ex component by 1 1 1 Hy (z, t) = By = Ex (z, t) = Ex (z, t) v
where the constant = v = 1 = is called the characteristic impedance of the medium and is the ratio of the electric to magnetic elds Ex m 1 . The units of are V = V A1 = ohms, hence of the use of i.e. = H Am1 y the term characteristic impedance. For a plane wave propagating in free space, the characteristic impedance is 0 4 107 0 = = 377 ohms (in free space) 0 8.85 1012 In air, 0 and 0 , and so the characteristic impedance of free space is usually used for propagation in air. In other media, for example a dielectric material like glass with 0 and = r 0 where r 5 say, the characteristic impedance is reduced to
0 r 0 377 = 170 ohms (in glass) r 0 r 5
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8.3 Sinusoidal Representations

The sinusoidal representation of the forward travelling wave is then the EM pair Ex (z, t) = E1 cos(t kz + 1 ) 1 Hy (z, t) = Ex (z, t) = H1 cos(t kz + 1 ) 1 where k = /v = , and H1 = E1 . The following illustration depicts the sinusoidal electric and magnetic elds at a xed instant in time:
x E(z, t) = Ex (z, t), 0, 0 E = Ex x z E H= y
1 Ex y
H n direction of propagation
Figure 8.2: Sinusoidal EM wave propagating in the z direction.
NOTES: The electric and magnetic components are perpendicular and are both normal to the direction of propagation. For the more general case of a plane wave propagating in an arbitrary direction, involving Ex , Ey and Ez components , the associated H vector is perpendicular, and concisely related by 1 E H= n is a unit vector pointing in the direction of propagation. where n The cross product E H points in the direction of propagation.
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Complex Phasor Representation By assuming steady state complex exponential solutions, the standard wave equation can be simplied and the solutions obtained from the simplied equations. The 1-D wave equation representing the electric eld component of a plane wave propagating in the z direction is 2 Ex 2 Ex 2 = 0 z 2 t x (z )ejt , where E x (z ) is a We assume a solution of the form Ex (z, t) = E (complex) function to be determined. Substituting into the above wave equation, we get x 2E x ejt = 0 ejt + 2E 2 z The term ejt term cancels yielding x 2E x = 0 + 2E 2 z which is now a simpler dierential equation as it involves only functions of z and not of time. The complete solution to this 2nd order ordinary dierential equation is known to be x (z ) = E 1ejkz + E 2ejkz E 2 = E2ej 2 are constants (in general complex). 1 = E1ej 1 and E where E The real signal it represents is found by multiplying by ejt and taking the real part, i.e. Ex (z, t) = E1 cos(t kz + 1) + E2 cos(t + kz + 2 )
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8.4 Plane Wave Propagating in an Arbitrary Direction

A plane wave propagating in an arbitrary direction in Cartesian coordinates is related to the plane wave propagating in the z direction by a rotation of the axes. The diagram illustrates a plane wave propagating in the k direction.
l-axis
direction of propagation k
l=0 l-axis
k
x
r r=
cos
planes of constant phase
z y
Figure 8.3: Plane wave propagating in an arbitrary direction.
The phasor representation of an electromagnetic wave propagating in an arbitrary direction can be compactly written as the pair (r, t) = E1 ej (tkr+) = E 1 ej kr ejt E E = 1k H where x r = y species position in space. z
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kx is a vector that points in the direction of prop k = ky = k k kz agation. The wave number is given by k = wavelength =
2 k .
2 + k 2 + k 2 , and the kx y z
The term k r accounts for the phase change in the direction of propagation. To visualise this refer to the accompanying sketch. The term r is just k times the component of r in the k direction, i.e. k r = kk k r = k r cos . direction, One can dene an axis (labelled l-axis) pointing in the k r = r cos , is the distance as shown in the sketch. The quantity l = k measured along the l-axis from its origin. Then factor ej kr = ejkl is easily recognised as spatially varying phase factor, along the axis of propagation. 1 = E1 ej is a (complex) vector that is perpendicular to the direction E 1 k = 0), and lies in the plane of the plane of propagation (i.e. E wave. 1 determines the orientation of the E eld in the plane, i.e. in the oriE 1 determines both the amplitude, entation of the linear polarization. E phase shift, and polarization orientation of the plane wave. It can be made complex to allow for an arbitrary phase shift .
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8.5 Polarization
The polarization of a plane wave refers to the orientation of the E-eld vectors in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Up till now, we have considered only the simplest case known as linear polarization, in which the E eld lines are orientated at a xed angle in the plane. More generally, a forward travelling sinusoidal EM wave travelling in the +z direction can be represented as the sum of two orthogonal components, (z ) = x E E1ejkz + y E2ej ejkz where E1 and E2 are the amplitudes of the x and y components, and represents a possible relative phase shift between them. The associated H eld is given by 1 1 ( z ) = x E1ejkz H E2ej ejkz + y The physical sinusoidal electric and magnetic elds are modelled by the pair E(z, t) = x E1 cos(t kz ) + y E2 cos(t kz + ) 1 1 H(z, t) = x E2 cos(t kz + ) + y E1 cos(t kz ) From the real forms can be derived the magnitude and orientation of the E-eld vector as a function of time. There are three classes of polarization, which depend on the relative amplitudes of E1 and E2, and the phase shift . These are described in detail in the following subsections. 8.5.1 Linear Polarization: Ex and Ey are in phase i.e. = 0 The electric vector is orientated at an angle determined by the relative values of of amplitudes E1 and E2. The amplitude of the vector varies sinusoidally, illustrated by a sequence of snapshots in a xed plane (e.g. at z = 0), at dierent fractions of the period T of the sinusoidal wave.
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Linear Polarization - snapshots in time.

E Ey Ex t=0 t = T /8 t = T /4 t = 3/8 t = T /2
Figure 8.4: Linear polarization.
The time varying magnitude of the resultant E vector is given by

2 + E2 = Ex y 2 cos2 (t kz ) + E 2 cos2 (t kz ) = E1 2 2 + E 2 |cos(t kz )| E1 2
The orientation angle may be calculated from tan = Ey E2 = Ex E1
and jumps 180 degrees, when the resultant passes through zero. It is noted 1 times the magnitude of that the magnitude of the resultant H vector is the resultant E vector, as can be seen from
2 Hx
2 Hy
E y
Ex
1 = E
It is common in telecommunications and radar engineering to describe the polarization by the orientation of the electric eld vector: vertical polarization if the electric eld is orientated vertically, and horizontal polarization if the electric eld is horizontal. The orientation of the polarization is dependent on the orientation of the radiating antenna.
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8.5.2 Circular Polarization: E1 = E2 and = 2 If the two orthogonal components are equal in amplitude, but with a relative phase shift of 90 degrees, the total electric eld vector will rotate as a function of time if viewed in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation at a xed location in space. Imagine holding up a transparent sheet of paper through which the EM wave passes. The electric eld lines in the plane of the paper will rotate as a function of time at a rate of rad/s, but the magnitude, indicated by the line spacing, does not change as illustrated below.
Circular Polarization - snapshots in time.
t=0
t = T /8
t = T /4
t = 3/8
t = T /2
Figure 8.5: Circular polarization - snapshots at increasing times, in the same plane.
The E-vector at a point on the plane rotates as illustrated below, where in this alternative representation, the magnitude is indicated via the length of the vector.
Circular Polarization - snapshots in time (at a xed position, z=0) Wave propagates in +z direction out of page.
y E x (t)
t=0
t = T /8
t = T /4
t = 3/8
t = T /2
Figure 8.6: Circular polarization - snapshots at increasing times, in the same plane.
The diagram below illustrates a side view snapshot along the axis of propagation at a xed instant in time - the vectors wind around like a corkscrew.
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The corkscrew moves forwards in the z direction as time increases.
Figure 8.7: Circular polarization - E-vectors shown at a xed instant in time. Note: this is right-hand circular polarization.
To analyse the case of circular polarization, we set E1 = E2 = A and = 2 . The magnitude of the resultant E-vector is given by
2 + E2 = Ex y
A2 cos2 (t kz ) + A2 sin2 (t kz ) = A
which is independent of z and t. The orientation angle is however timevarying, and may be calculated from A cos(t kz Ey A sin(t kz ) 2) tan = = = = tan(t kz ) Ex A cos(t kz ) A cos(t kz ) Thus the angle is = (t kz ) mod 2 if = or = (t kz ) mod 2 if = 2
2 NOTE: At a xed position z, the vector rotates at a rate of radians per second in a circle in the plane. At a xed time t, the vector rotates at k radians per metre (with a cork-screw locus).
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The IEEE denes two types of circular polarization, according to the direction of rotation: Left-hand circular: If the E vector of a circularly polarized plane wave propagating out of the page rotates in the clockwise direction in the plane of the page. You can imagine drawing the E vectors position on the page, and watching it rotate clockwise. Another way to remember the denition is to point the thumb of your left hand in the direction of propagation (i.e. z-direction) with your ngers bent - your curled ngers will point in the direction of rotation of the E vector in the x-y plane (i.e. the x-y plane is at a xed position, say z=0). It is noted that in our particular example, this corresponds to the case where = 2. Right-hand circular if you use your right hand, with thumb pointing in the direction of propagation (z direction), your curled ngers will point in the direction of rotation of the E vector in the x-y plane (i.e. the x-y plane is at a xed position, say z=0). In our particular example, this corresponds to the case where = 2. The illustrations below show the directions of rotation in an x-y plane for the case of a plane wave travelling in the z-direction, being out of the page.
Left-Hand Circular Polarization
y E z x z
Right-Hand Circular Polarization

y E x
(Propagation out of page in z-direction)
Figure 8.8: Left-hand versus right-hand polarization.
One can easily plot the E vector in the xy plane for t = 0, T /8, 2T /8, 3T /8, 4T /8 by considering the Ex and Ey components in our polarization model E(z, t) = x E1 cos(t kz ) + y E2 cos(t kz + )
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For example, for the case of = 2 , the E eld components at z = 0 are Ex = A cos(t) Ey = A cos(t ) 2 The Ex and Ey values are plotted as functions of time below:
Ex = cos(t)
T /4 T /2
y
T /4 3T /8 T /2 T /8
t Ey = cos(t /2)
T /4 T /2
t=0
t E vector rotates in z = 0 plane

Circular Polarization - snapshots in time (at a xed position, z=0) Wave propagates in +z direction out of page; hence this is right hand circular polarization
Figure 8.9: Circular polarization - Ex and Ey components plotted against time.

8.5.3 Elliptical Polarization: Either E1 = E2 or = 0, 2, 2
Elliptical polarization is the general case, in which the vector not only rotates, but also varies in length, tracing out an ellipse in a plane at a xed position, as illustrated in the sequence below (which is left-hand elliptical polarization):
Elliptical Polarization - snapshots in time.
y E x
t=0
t = T /8
t = T /4
t = 3/8
t = T /2
Figure 8.10: Elliptical polarization - snapshots in time.
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In all three classes of polarization, the H-eld is always perpendicular to the E-eld, and in phase with it, as illustrated below:
Ey (t) H Ex (t) E H E
Linear Polarization - xed orientation of resultant - amplitude varies sinusoidally.
Circular Polarization - rotating vector traces a circle
E H
Elliptical Polarization - rotating vector traces an ellipse Figure 8.11: All three classes of polarization, showing both E and H vectors, and the loci of the tips of the vectors.
8.5.4 Applications of polarization

Communication Links
In broadcast transmitters e.g. radio, TV signal, linear polarization is most commonly used. Wire antennas like dipoles, monopole and Yagi antennas radiate linearly polarized radiation. Both horizontal and vertical polarization is used. The orientation of the transmitting antenna determines the orientation of the polarization. The receiving antenna must be orientated correctly to receive the maximum signal strength. Consider for example, a dipole antenna receiving a vertically polarized EM wave. The dipole must be orientated vertically to receive the signal - the
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electrons rush vertically up and down the wires in response to the incoming E-eld, resulting in a voltage response across the centre terminals. If the antenna is rotated 90 degrees to the electric eld, it should be clear that the electrons do not move up and down the rod as before, and so a potential dierence does not appear across the terminals. At an arbitrary angle, the signal drops o as the cosine of the angle from the vertical (i.e. with the component of the electric eld in the direction of the dipole rod).
Figure 8.12: Vertical versus horizontal polarization from a radiating dipole. Radar - Radio detection and ranging
Radar is a technique used to detect far away targets like aeroplanes approaching an airport, or ships out at sea. A pulse is transmitted in the direction of interest, and the return echo is received and used to detect the presence of targets. The range to the target is inferred from the time delay of the echo, and the direction obtained from the pointing direction of the antenna. Circular polarization is sometimes used in radar applications as some scat-
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tering structures only reect electromagnetic energy of a particular polarization. In circular polarization, the E-eld vector rotates in a plane at the reector (being a xed distance from the source), which ensures that there will aways be some reection from such structures. For example, a vertically orientated thin wire rod will only reect vertical polarization, where as a horizontally orientated wire rod will only reect horizontal polarization. Circular polarization can be thought of as the sum of two orthogonal, linearly polarized components. On reection, only one component, in line with the orientation of the reecting rod will be reected. An incident circularly polarized wave will be linearly polarized on reection. The received signal will be 3dB lower than one could obtain from transmitting linear polarization, as only half the power is reected. Circular polarization can be generated by using two perpendicular dipoles (crossed-dipoles), driven 90 degrees out of phase. Alternatively, the perpendicular dipoles may be driven in phase, but physically separated by a quarter wavelength in the propagation direction to achieve the required 90 degree phase shift.
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9 Simulating Electromagnetic Waves using the Finite Dierence Time Domain (FDTD) Method [not covered in 2009]
With the availability of fast computers with ever increasing memory and computational performance, the simulation of wave propagation has been made possible. In this section, a powerful method known as the nite difference time domain (FDTD) method for simulating the propagation of electromagnetic waves will be introduced. To simplify the discussion, the method will be described initially for wave propagation in 1-D space, followed by the extension to 2-D, and 3-D1 . This chapter is meant to provide only a brief overview.
9.1 Introduction
The nite dierence time domain (FDTD) method is a full-wave, dynamic, and powerful solution tool for solving Maxwells equations, introduced by K.S. Yee in 1966 [Yee, 1966]. The algorithm involves direct discretizations of Maxwells equations by writing the spatial and time derivatives in a central nite dierence form2. The time-dependent Maxwells curl equations in a homogeous dielectric medium ( = 0 r , = 0 , r = 1) are
1
The course coordinator wishes to thank doctoral student Pradip Mukhopadhyay for his assistance in preparing the material in this section on FDTD simulation. 2 The central nite dierence approximation for the derivative of the function f (x) at point P (x0 ) can be written as df (x0 ) f (x0 + x/2) f (x0 x/2) = f (x0 ) = dx x
9-1
E 1 = H t 0 r 1 H = E t 0
(9.1) (9.2)
E and H are vectors in three dimensions. The constants 0 and 0 are known as the permittivity and permeability of free space and r is the relative permittivity of the material. 9.1.1 Curl Equations in Cartesian Coordinates Expanding E 1 = H t 0 r
in Cartesian coordinates3,
x y x E t +
Ey z z E t + t
1 0 r
Hz y
Hy z
+y
Hx z
Hz x
+z
Hy x
Hx y
Equating the vector components, we obtain three equations, one for each vector component Ex 1 = t 0 r 1 Ey = t 0 r Ez 1 = t 0 r Similarly expanding as
x
x
Hz Hy y z Hx Hz z x Hy Hx x y
1 H = E t 0
y
y
z
z
H=
Hx
Hy
Hz
=x
Hz y
Hy z
+y
Hx z
Hz x
+z
Hy x
Hx y
9-2
x x H y t +
Hy z z H t + t
1 = x 0
Ez y
Ey z
+y
Ex z
Ez x
+z
Ey x
Ex y
we obtain three more equations, Hx 1 Ey Ez = t 0 z y 1 Ez Ex Hy = t 0 x z 1 Ex Ey Hz = t 0 y x In 1-D, we consider (i) exciting an Ex component, and assume Ey = 0 = 0 and y = 0. and Ez = 0 and (ii) no variation in the x-y plane, i.e. x The equations reduce to Hx 1 Ey Ez = =0 t 0 z y 1 Ez Ex Hy 1 Ex = = t 0 x z 0 z 1 Ex Ey Hz = =0 t 0 y x Hz Hy 1 1 Hy Ex = = t 0 r y z 0r z Furthermore, if the source has no DC component, then Hx = 0 and Hz = 0, leaving only the Ex and Hy components.
9.2 FDTD Solution to Maxwells equations in 1-D

In a simple one-dimensional case, we will consider the case where only the Ex and Hy components exist - consistent with modelling plane wave propagation far away from an antenna. Equations 9.1 and 9.2 become Ex 1 Hy = (9.3) t 0r z Hy 1 Ex = (9.4) t 0 z
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These equations represent a plane wave with the electric eld orientated in the x-direction and magnetic eld oriented in the y-direction and travelling in the z-direction. In the FDTD formulation, the central dierence approximations for both the temporal and spatial derivatives are obtained at (z = k z, t = nt) for the rst equation: Ex
n+1/2
(k ) Ex t
n 1 / 2
(k )
n n (k + 1/2) Hy (k 1/2) 1 Hy = (9.5) 0 r z
and at (z + z/2, t + t/2) for the second equation:

n+1/2 n+1/2 n+1 n Hy (k + 1/2) Hy (k + 1/2) 1 Ex (k + 1) Ex (k ) = t 0 z
(9.6)
In the equations above, n is the time index and k is the spatial index, which indexes times t = nt and positions z = k z , or positions t = (n 1/2)t and positions z = (k 1/2)z . The time index is written as a superscript, and the spatial index is within brackets. Equations 9.5 and 9.6 can be rearranged as a pair of computer update equations, which can be repeatedly updated in loop, to obtain the next time n+1/2 n+1 values of Ex (k ) and Hy (k + 1/2), corresponding the Ex (t + t/2, z ) and Hy (t + t, z + z/2). Figure 9.1 illustrates the interleaving of the E and H elds in space and time in the FDTD formulation.
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Ex
n1/2
k2
k1
k+1
k+2
Hy k1 1/2 k1/2 k+1/2 k+1 1/2 k+2 1/2
Ex
n+1/2
k2
k1
k+1
k+2
Figure 9.1: Interleaving of the E and H elds in space and time in the FDTD formulation. To calculate Hy (k + 1/2), for instance, the neighbouring values of Ex at k and k + 1 are needed. Similarly, to calculate Ex (k + 1), the value of Hy at k + 1/2 1 and k + 1 2 are needed (Sullivan 2000).
In equations 9.5 and 9.6 0 and 0 dier by several orders of magnitude, Ex and Hy will dier by several orders of magnitude. Numerical error is minimised by making the following change of variables as x = E 0 Ex 0 (9.7)
which bring the eld quantities to similar levels. Implementing the changing of variables, equations 9.5 and 9.6 become n+1/2(k ) = E n 1 / 2 ( k ) E x x t 1 n n Hy (k + 1/2) Hy (k 1/2) r 0 0 z (9.8)
1 t n+1/2 n+1/2(k ) Ex (k + 1) E x 0 0 z (9.9) Stability and the FDTD method: For stability purposes, we need to choose the cell size z to allow 10 to 15 points per wave length. In free space, an electromagnetic wave travels a distance of one cell in time z t = c0 , where c0 is the speed of light in free space. This limits the
n+1 n Hy (k + 1/2) = Hy (k + 1/2)
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maximum time step. In the case of a 2-D simulation, we have to allow for the propagation in the diagonal direction, which brings the time requirement z z . Obviously, three-dimensional simulation requires t = . to t = 2 c0 3c0 We will use in all our simulations a time step t of t = z , 2 c0 (9.10)
where c0 is the velocity of light in free space, which satises the requirements in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D for all media. The factor z/(2 c0 ) 1 t = c0 = 0.5 0 0 z z/2 (9.11)
Making use of equation 9.11 in equation 9.8 and 9.9, we obtain the following computer update equations: 0.5 [hy (k 1) hy (k )] r (k ) hy (k ) = hy (k ) + 0.5 [ex(k ) ex(k + 1)] ex(k ) = ex(k ) + (9.12) (9.13)
which are used repeatedly in a loop to update the eld quantities at every position at all positions in space, as time progresses. Note that the n or n + 1/2 or n 1/2 in the superscripts do not appear. In equation 9.12, the ex on the right side of the equal sign is the previous value at n 1/2, and the ex on the left side is the new value, n + 1/2, which is being calculated. In case of the spatial index, k + 1/2 and k 1/2 are replaced by k and k 1 in order to specify an integer position in an array. It is understood from the derivation, however, that the value stored in hy (k ) is the H value at position k + 1/2. n+1/2 x (k ), which is The value of ex(k ) on the nth iteration, represents E x / 0 . related to the electric eld by Ex = E 0 9.2.1 1-D FDTD code in Matlab This section contains a code segment written in Matlab, in which the 1-D FDTD algorithm is implemented. An electromagnetic pulse is radiated from
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a source located in free space. The source waveform is a Gaussian shaped pulse, injected at the centre of the array used to store the pulse in space. This is achieved by repeatedly updating the E-eld pulse value at the source location; the values at the other locations are computed using the update equations. Figure 9.2 shows snapshots of the simulation as time progresses. The E-eld pulse is seen to propagate away from the source to the left and to the right. The corresponding H eld is also calculated, but not plotted here. Note: In free space r = 1 1) Solution: The MATLAB le : fdtd 1d 1.m
KE = 201; kc = fix(KE/2) ; ex = zeros(1,KE); hy = zeros(1,KE); cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; % A Gaussian pulse t0 = 36.0 ; spread = 12 ; % % % % number of z samples. centre of the grid initialize Ex field initialize Hy field
parameters % location in time of the pulse % Width of the pulse
NSTEPS = 190 ; % number of time step for n=1:NSTEPS for k=2:KE ex(1,k) = ex(1,k) + cb(1,k).*(hy(1,k-1) -hy(1,k)); end pulse = exp(-0.5*((t0-n)/spread)^2.0); %The Gaussian pulse % adding the pulse at the centre of the grid ex(1,kc) = pulse; for k=1:KE-1 hy(1,k) = hy(1,k) + 0.5*(ex(1,k) -ex(1,k+1)) ; end plot(ex); pause(0.05); end
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1D EM Propagation 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time step=35
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1D EM Propagation 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time step=60
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1D EM Propagation 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Source location Time step=120
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
9-8 of a Gaussian AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012 Figure 9.2: 1-D Ez propagation. Propagation pulse away from a source located at the centre.
9.2.2 Wave hitting a dielectric medium (Matlab code) We now consider the case where a plane wave travelling in free space (medium 1) strikes a dielectric medium (medium 2), as is illustrated in Figure 9.3, which shows a source in free space on the left side, and a dielectric slab on the right.
= 0 r
0
Source
z (or k) kstart
Figure 9.3: EM wave hitting a dielectric surface
When the wave strikes the interface, a fraction of the incoming wave is reected, and a fraction is transmitted into the medium. The amplitude of the reected and transmitted waves, relative to the incident wave, are described by the reection coecient and the transmission coecient , which relate the amplitudes of the E eld waves. From theoretical analysis, these can be determined in terms of the characteristic impedances of the media, as Eref 2 1 = Einc 2 + 1 Etrans 2 2 = = Einc 2 + 1 = where 1 and 2 are the impedances of the respective media given by
(9.14) (9.15)
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0 r 0 r
(9.16)
In case of a non-magnetic medium (r = 1), equations 9.14 and 9.15 become, 1 2 = 1 + 2 2 1 = 1 + 2
(9.17) (9.18)
where 1 and 2 are the relative permittivities of medium 1 and 2 respectively. The 1-D FDTD code can be easily adapted to model propagation against a dielectric interface, as shown below. Running the simulation should show reected and refracted waves as in the snapshots in Figure 9.4. Note here that the reected pulse inverts in sign, as indicated by a negative reection coecient (check this by calculating it).
Modify the Matlab program as follows:

* Choose the dielectric constant: eps_r=4.0 * Define were to start the dielectric slab: k_start=kc+kc/2 (for example) * Put the dielectric material in one side as cb(1,k_start:KE)=0.5/eps_r Modify the above program as follows: . . eps_r = 4.0; k_start = kc+kc/2; cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; cb(1,k_start:KE) = 0.5/eps_r; . (for example)
9-10
. for n=1:NSTEPS . . plot(ex); pause(0.05); end %----------------------------------------------------
9-11
1D EM Propagation striking a dielectric slab on the right side 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time step=100
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1D EM Propagation striking a dielectric slab on the right side 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Reflected Time step=190 Transmitted
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Figure 9.4: Reection and transmission at a dielectric (1-D simulation)
9-12
9.2.3 Removing the unwanted reection at the boundary - The Absorbing Boundary Condition (ABC) In calculating the E eld, we need to know the surrounding H values; this is the fundamental assumption in FDTD. At the edge of the problem space we will not have the value to one side, but we know there are no sources z outside the problem space. The wave travels 2 (=c0 t) distance in one time step, so it takes two time steps for a wave front to cross one cell. Suppose we are looking for a boundary condition at the end where k=1. Now if we write the E eld at k=1 as
n n 2 Ex (1) = Ex (2)
then the elds at the edge will not reect. This condition must be applied at both ends.
Implementation
Modify the afore program as follows: This is easy to implement, store the value of Ex (2) for two time steps and then put it in Ex (1). Modify the above program as follows:
. . ex_left_m1 = 0.0; ex_left_m2 = 0.0; ex_right_m1 = 0.0; ex_right_m2 = 0.0; cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; % You may choose cb(1,k_start:KE)=0.5/eps_r . . for n=1:NSTEPS . . % add the pulse at the centre of the grid ex(1,kc) = pulse;
9-13
% add these additional lines after ex(1,kc)=pulse ex(1,1) = ex_left_m2; % left boundary ex_left_m2= ex_left_m1; ex_left_m1 = ex(1,2); ex(1,KE) = ex_right_m2; ex_right_m2= ex_right_m1; ex_right_m1 = ex(1,KE-1); . . plot(ex); pause(0.05); % right boundary
end %-----------------------------------------------
Solution: The MATLAB file : fdtd_1d_3.m

% modified programme (use ABC) of sampled in z direction centre of the grid initialize the Ex field initialize the Hy field
KE = 201; % number kc = fix(KE/2) ; % ex = zeros(1,KE); % hy = zeros(1,KE); % cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; ex_left_m1 = 0.0; ex_left_m2 = 0.0; ex_right_m1 = 0.0; ex_right_m2 = 0.0; % A Gaussian pulse t0 = 36.0 ; spread = 12 ;
NSTEPS = 200 ; % number of time step for n=1:NSTEPS for k=2:KE ex(1,k) = ex(1,k) + cb(1,k).*(hy(1,k-1) -hy(1,k)); end %The Gaussian pulse pulse = exp(-0.5*((t0-n)/spread)^2.0); % adding the pulse at the centre of the grid ex(1,kc) = pulse; ex(1,1) = ex_left_m2; % left boundary ex_left_m2= ex_left_m1; ex_left_m1 = ex(1,2); ex(1,KE) = ex_right_m2; % right boundary ex_right_m2= ex_right_m1; ex_right_m1 = ex(1,KE-1);
9-14
for k=1:KE-1 hy(1,k) = hy(1,k) + 0.5*(ex(1,k) -ex(1,k+1)) ; end plot(ex); pause(0.05); end %---------------------------------------------------
9.2.4 Some Exercises 1. In free space, put the source at the middle and see how the wave travels. See what happens when the pulse hits the boundary ? 2. Modify the program so that it has two sources 20 cells away from the middle. What happens when the pulse meet each other. 3. Divide the problem space into two, one side being free space and the other a dielectric material. What happens after the pulse hits the boundary? Look at the relative amplitudes of the reected and transmitted pulses. Check the values with equation 9.17 and 9.18.
9.3 FDTD Solution to Maxwells equations in 2-D Space

In deriving 2-D FDTD formulation, we choose between one of two groups of three vectors each: 1. The transverse magnetic (TM) mode, which is composed of Ez , Hx , and Hy or 2. The transverse electric (TE) mode, which is composed of Ex , Ey , and Hz We will work with the TM mode wave propagation. Expanding the curl = 0, Ex = 0, Ey = 0 and Hz = 0, we obtain equations4 9.1 and 9.2 with z
4
E=
x
x
y
y
z 0 =x Ez
Ez y
z +y E x
for the TM mode.
9-15
for the non-zero components of
E t
and
H t :
1 Hy Hx Ez = ( ) t 0 r x y 1 Ez Hx = t 0 y Hy 1 Ez = t 0 x
(9.19) (9.20) (9.21)
Now we can write the above three equations in the nite dierence scheme as Ez
n+1/2
(i, j ) Ez t
n 1 / 2
(i, j )
n n Hy ( i + 1 / 2 , j ) Hy (i 1/2, j ) 1 = 0 r x n n Hx (i, j + 1/2, ) Hx (i, j 1/2) (9.22) y n+1/2
n+1 n 1 Ez Hx (i, j + 1/2) Hx (i, j + 1/2) = t 0 n+1 Hy (i
(i, j + 1) Ez y + 1, j ) x
n+1/2
(i, j ) (9.23)
+ 1/2, j ) t
n Hy (i
+ 1/2, j )
1 0
n+1/2 Ez (i
n+1/2 Ez (i, j )
(9.24)
Rearranging the above equations, we can write the nal expression as

n+1/2 Ez (i, j ) n n (i, j + 1/2, ) Hy (i, j 1/2) t Hy = + 0 r x n n Hx (i, j + 1/2, ) Hx (i, j 1/2) (9.25) y n 1 / 2 Ez (i, j ) x
x
H =
y
y
Hx
Hy
z 0 =z 0
Hy x
Hx y
9-16
n+1 n Hx (i, j + 1/2) = Hx (i, j + 1/2)
1 t n+1/2 n+1/2 Ez (i, j + 1) Ez (i, j ) 0 y (9.26)
1 t n+1/2 n+1/2 Ez (i + 1, j ) Ez (i, j ) 0 x (9.27) For computer implementation we can write the above equations update equations as
n+1 n Hy ( i + 1 / 2 , j ) = Hy (i + 1/2, j ) +
ez(i,j)=ez(i,j)+{dt/(eps_0*eps_r)} *[{Hy(i,j)-Hy(i-1,j)}/dx -{Hx(i,j)-Hx(i,j-1)}/dy] Hx(i,j) = Hx(i,j)-{dt/(mu_0*dy)}*{Ez(i,j+1)-Ez(i,j)} Hy(i,j) = Hy(i,j)+{dt/(mu_0*dx)}*{Ez(i+1,j)-Ez(i,j)} 9.3.1 2-D FDTD code in Matlab The code listing in this section simulated the case of 2-D EM wave propagation in free space, source at the centre (r = 1).
Solution: The MATLAB file : fdtd_2d_TM_1.m

clear all; cc=2.99792458e8; % Speed of light in free space mu_0=4.0*pi*1.0e-7; % Permeability in free space eps_0=1.0/(cc*cc*mu_0); % Permittivity in free space eps_r = 1.0; ie = 201; je = 201; % Dielectric constant in free space % Grid pixels in Y direction % Grid pixels in X direction
9-17
is = floor(ie/2) ; js = floor(je/2) ; % Electric and Magnetic field Ez = zeros(ie,je); Hx = zeros(ie,je); Hy = zeros(ie,je); nmax = 150; % Number of time steps ddx = 1.0e-3; % X grid size ddy = ddx; % Y grid size dt = 0.98/(cc*sqrt( (1/ddx)^2 + (1/ddy)^2 )); %********************************************************* tw = 26.53e-12; t0 = 4.0*tw; T = (0:1:nmax-1).*dt; source = -2.0*((T-t0)./tw).*exp(-1.0*((T-t0)./tw).^2.0); % Plot injected pulse figure plot(source) title(Source pulse) pause(1); Emax = max(source); Emin = min(source); C1 = dt/(eps_0*eps_r); C2 = dt/mu_0; figure for n = 1:nmax %------------------- Ez ----------------for jj = 2:je for ii = 2:ie Ez(ii,jj) = Ez(ii,jj) + C1*((Hy(ii,jj) - Hy(ii1,jj))./ddx -(Hx(ii,jj) - Hx(ii,jj-1))./ddy); end end %----------------- Inject source -------Ez(is,js) = source(n); %------------------- Hx ----------------for jj = 1:je-1 for ii = 1:ie Hx(ii,jj) = Hx(ii,jj) - C2*((Ez(ii,jj+1) Ez(ii,jj))./ddy); end end %------------------- Hy ----------------for jj = 1:je
9-18
for ii = 1:ie-1 Hy(ii,jj) = Hy(ii,jj) + C2*((Ez(ii+1,jj) Ez(ii,jj))./ddx); end end %plot the Ez component imagesc(Ez, 0.4*[Emin Emax]); title(Ez component propagating in free space) colorbar; colormap(hot); pause(0.0002); end %--------------------------------------------
Source pulse 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
50
100
150
Figure 9.5: Source pulse [dierential Gaussian]
9-19
Ez component propagating in free space
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Figure 9.6: Propagation of a pulse away from a source. The pulse moves outwards as an expanding circle, centred on the source.
9.3.2 Wave hitting a dielectric surface (right side), source at the centre (2-D) We will examine two examples: 1. Wave hitting a dielectric surface (right side), with the source at the centre (code: fdtd 2d 2.m) 2. Wave hitting a dielectric surface (top right corner) (code: fdtd 2d 3.m) To simulate 1 or 2 above, modify the previous programme (fdtd 2d 1.m) as follows:
9-20
Specify the position of the dielectric surface (id=....., jd=.....) Choose a value of eps r = ...... Modify the constant value C1 according to that..... Run the program, you will see that on one side (free space) the wave is propagating freely and on the other you will notice reection and transmission of the incident wave at the interface. Figure 9.7 shows the result of case 1, where the pulse strikes the dielectric interface. Notice that the wave propagates more slowly in the medium on the right, and the pulse length is shorter.
2D EM propagation striking a dielectric slab on the right side
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Figure 9.7: 2-D. Time snapshot of the radiating pulse interacting with a dielectric interface. The reected and transmitted waves are seen on either side of the interface.
9-21
9.3.3 Multiple source 2-D wave propagation A last exercise it to add a second source in the 2D simulation. Run the code (code: fdtd 2d TM multi source.m). Radiation from an aperture antenna (e.g. a microwave horn antenna) can be simulated as a line of (closely spaced) radiating sources (Huyguns wavelets).
9.4 Solving Maxwells Equations in 3D

The FDTD concepts described for 1-D and 2-D space can be easily extended to 3-D. The main dierence is that all three components of the E and H elds must be updated within the time loop. The equations are more complicated, and the simulation is more computationally intensive. Details of 3-D FDTD implementation can be found in the references.
9.5 References
Yee, K.S., Numerical solution of initial boundary value problems involving Maxwells equations in isotropic media, 1966. Taove, A., Computational electrodynamics : the nite-dierence timedomain method, Boston, Mass. : Artech House,1995 Sullivan, D. M., Electromagnetic simulation using the FDTD method, New York : IEEE Press, 2000. Kunz, K.S. and Luebbers, R.J., The Finite Dierence Time Domain Method for Electromagnetics, Boca Raton, FL; CRC Press, 1993.
9-22
9.6 MATLAB CODE

These code segments will be placed on the course web page for download. 1-D code wave hitting a dielectric slab MATLAB file : fdtd_1d_2.m
KE = 201; kc = fix(KE/2) ; ex = zeros(1,KE); hy = zeros(1,KE); k_start=kc+kc/2; eps_r=4.0; cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; % number sample in z dirn % centre of the grid % initialize the Ex field % initialize the Hy field
cb(1,k_start:KE)=0.5/eps_r; % A Gaussian pulse t0 = 36.0 ; spread = 12 ; NSTEPS = 190; % number of time step for n=1:NSTEPS for k=2:KE ex(1,k) = ex(1,k) + cb(1,k).*(hy(1,k-1) -hy(1,k)); end %The Gaussian pulse pulse = exp(-0.5*((t0-n)/spread)^2.0); % adding the pulse at the centre of the grid ex(1,kc) = pulse; for k=1:KE-1 hy(1,k) = hy(1,k) + 0.5*(ex(1,k) -ex(1,k+1)) ; end plot(ex) pause(0.05); end %---------------------------------------------
9-23
1-D code : Reection at the boundary (Absorbing Boundary Condition(ABC)) % modied programme (use ABC) Solution: The MATLAB le : fdtd 1d 3.m
KE = 201; kc = fix(KE/2) ; ex = zeros(1,KE); hy = zeros(1,KE); cb = zeros(1,KE); cb(1,:) = 0.5; ex_left_m1 = 0.0; ex_left_m2 = 0.0; ex_right_m1 = 0.0; ex_right_m2 = 0.0; % A Gaussian pulse t0 = 36.0 ; spread = 12 ; %number of grid in z direction % centre of the grid % initialize the Ex field % initialize the Hy field
NSTEPS = 200 ; % number of time step for n=1:NSTEPS for k=2:KE ex(1,k) = ex(1,k) + cb(1,k).*(hy(1,k-1) -hy(1,k)); end %The Gaussian pulse pulse = exp(-0.5*((t0-n)/spread)^2.0); % adding the pulse at the centre of the grid ex(1,kc) = pulse; ex(1,1) = ex_left_m2; % left boundary ex_left_m2= ex_left_m1; ex_left_m1 = ex(1,2); ex(1,KE) = ex_right_m2; % right boundary ex_right_m2= ex_right_m1; ex_right_m1 = ex(1,KE-1); for k=1:KE-1 hy(1,k) = hy(1,k) + 0.5*(ex(1,k) -ex(1,k+1)) ; end plot(ex); pause(0.05); end %------------------------------------------------
9-24
Wave hitting a dielectric surface (right side), source at the centre Solution: The MATLAB le : fdtd 2d 2.m
% fdtd_2d_TM_2.m % Excercise .... % 2D FDTD free space propagation striking dielectric slab on right side % For EEE355F AJW clear all; cc=2.99792458e8; %speed of light in free space mu_0=4.0*pi*1.0e-7; %permeability of free space eps_0=1.0/(cc*cc*mu_0); %permittivity of free space ie = 200; %Grid pixels in Y direction je = 200; % Grid pixels in X direction is = floor(ie/2) ; js = floor(je/2) ; % Electric and Magnetic field Ez = zeros(ie,je); Hx = zeros(ie,je); Hy = zeros(ie,je); eps_r = ones(ie,je); jd = js+15; % Position of interface in X direction eps_r(:,jd:je) = 10.0; % dielectric constant nmax = 150; % number of time steps ddx = 1.0e-3; % X grid size ddy = ddx; % Y grid size dt = 0.98/(cc*sqrt( (1/ddx)^2 + (1/ddy)^2 )); %********************************************* tw = 26.53e-12; t0 = 4.0*tw; T = (0:1:nmax-1).*dt; source = -2.0*((T-t0)./tw).*exp(-1.0*((T-t0)./tw).^2.0); [Emax] = max(source); [Emin] = min(source); C1 = dt./(eps_r.*eps_0); C2 = dt/mu_0; for n = 1:nmax %---------------------update Ez-------------------for jj = 2:je for ii = 2:ie Ez(ii,jj) = Ez(ii,jj) + C1(ii,jj).*((Hy(ii,jj) - Hy(ii1,jj))./ddx -(Hx(ii,jj) - Hx(ii,jj-1))./ddy);
9-25
end end %-----------------------source----------------Ez(is,js) = source(n); %--------------------update Hx--------------------for jj = 1:je-1 for ii = 1:ie Hx(ii,jj) = Hx(ii,jj) - C2*((Ez(ii,jj+1) - Ez(ii,jj))./ddy); end end %--------------------update Hy-------------------for jj = 1:je for ii = 1:ie-1 Hy(ii,jj) = Hy(ii,jj) + C2*((Ez(ii+1,jj) - Ez(ii,jj))./ddx); end end imagesc(Ez, 0.4*[Emin Emax]); patch([jd jd],[1 ie],w); title(2D EM propagation -striking a dielectric slab on the right side) colormap(hot); pause(0.0002); end
9-26
Wave hitting a dielectric surface (top right corner) Solution: The MATLAB le : fdtd 2d 3.m
% fdtd_2d_TM_3.m % Excercise .... % 2D FDTD free space propagation striking dielectric slab on top right corner % For EEE355F AJW clear all; cc=2.99792458e8; mu_0=4.0*pi*1.0e-7;
% speed of light in free space % permeability of free space
eps_0=1.0/(cc*cc*mu_0); % permittivity of free space ie = 150; % Grid pixels in Y direction je = 150; % Grid pixels in X direction is = floor(ie/2); js = floor(je/2); % Electric and Magnetic field Ez = zeros(ie,je); Hx = zeros(ie,je); Hy = zeros(ie,je); eps_r = ones(ie,je); id = is-15; % dielectric interface jd = js+15; eps_r(1:id,jd:je) = 40.0; % dielectric constant nmax = 120; % number of time steps ddx = 1.0e-3; % X grid size ddy = ddx; % Y grid size dt = 0.98/(cc*sqrt( (1/ddx)^2 + (1/ddy)^2 )); %***************************************************** tw = 26.53e-12; t0 = 4.0*tw; T = (0:1:nmax-1).*dt; source = -2.0*((T-t0)./tw).*exp(-1.0*((T-t0)./tw).^2.0); [Emax] = max(source); [Emin] = min(source); C1 = dt./(eps_r.*eps_0); C2 = dt/mu_0; for n = 1:nmax %-------------------update Ez----------------for jj = 2:je for ii = 2:ie Ez(ii,jj) = Ez(ii,jj) + C1(ii,jj).*((Hy(ii,jj) - Hy(ii1,jj))./ddx -(Hx(ii,jj) - Hx(ii,jj-1))./ddy); end
9-27
end %--------------------source--------------------Ez(is,js) = source(n); %--------------------update Hx-----------------for jj = 1:je-1 for ii = 1:ie Hx(ii,jj) = Hx(ii,jj) - C2*((Ez(ii,jj+1) - Ez(ii,jj))./ddy); end end %---------------------update Hy----------------for jj = 1:je for ii = 1:ie-1 Hy(ii,jj) = Hy(ii,jj) + C2*((Ez(ii+1,jj) - Ez(ii,jj))./ddx); end end imagesc(Ez, 1.0*[Emin Emax]); patch([jd jd],[1 id],w); patch([jd je],[id id],w); title(2D EM propagation -striking a dielectric slab on the right corner); colormap(hot); pause(0.0002); end
9-28
Multiple source 2D wave propagation Solution: fdtd 2d TM multi source.m

clear all; cc=2.99792458e8; % Speed of light in free space mu_0=4.0*pi*1.0e-7; % Permeability of free space eps_0=1.0/(cc*cc*mu_0); % Permittivity of free space eps_r = 1.0; ie = 201; je = 201; is = floor(ie/2) ; % Dielectric constant in air % Grid pixels in Y direction % Grid pixels in X direction
js = floor(je/2) ; % Electric and Magnetic field Ez = zeros(ie,je); Hx = zeros(ie,je); Hy = zeros(ie,je); nmax = 400; % Number of time steps ddx = 1.0e-3; % X grid size ddy = ddx; % Y grid size dt = 0.98/(cc*sqrt( (1/ddx)^2 + (1/ddy)^2 )); %*********************************************** T = (0:1:nmax-1).*dt; f_int = 20.0e+9; %Frequency (20 GHz) of the incident pulse source = sin(2.0*pi*T.*f_int); %Sine wave % Plot injected pulse figure plot(source) title(Source pulse: 20 GHz Sine wave) pause(1); [Emax] = max(source); [Emin] = min(source); C1 = dt/(eps_0*eps_r); C2 = dt/mu_0; figure for n = 1:nmax %------------------------------ Ez ----------------for jj = 2:je for ii = 2:ie Ez(ii,jj) = Ez(ii,jj) + C1*((Hy(ii,jj) - Hy(ii-1,jj))./ddx (Hx(ii,jj) - Hx(ii,jj-1))./ddy); end end
9-29
%------------------ Inject source ----------------for ii = is-20:7:is+30 Ez(ii,js) = source(n); end %--------------------- Hx ------------------------for jj = 1:je-1 for ii = 1:ie Hx(ii,jj) = Hx(ii,jj) - C2*((Ez(ii,jj+1) - Ez(ii,jj))./ddy); end end %--------------------- Hy --------------------for jj = 1:je for ii = 1:ie-1 Hy(ii,jj) = Hy(ii,jj) + C2*((Ez(ii+1,jj) Ez(ii,jj))./ddx); end end imagesc(Ez, 0.5*[Emin Emax]); title(2D EM wave propagation: Multiple source) colorbar; colormap(gray); pause(0.0002); end
9-30
10 Power Considerations and the Poynting Vector

Electromagnetic waves carry energy (the capacity to do work) through space. At any point in space, the ow of energy can be described by a power density vector P, which species both the power density in watts per square metre, and the direction of ow. The vector P is called the Poynting vector, and is a simple cross product of electric and magnetic eld vectors, P=EH The units of E are Vm1 and the units of H are Am1 and thus the units of P are VAm2 or Wm2 or Js1 m2. The total power passing through a surface S1 is obtained by integration over S1, i.e. W =
S1
P dS watts
is The power dP passing through an elemental surface dS with normal n dS = P dS dP = |P| cos dS = P n To understand why P = E H represents power ow, we consider the rate of energy loss though from a volume V enclosed by closed surface S , and relate this to the electric and magnetic elds. If U is the total energy in V , the rate of energy loss is dU = dt P dS = PdV (by Divergence theorem)
We re-express the term P by substituting P = E H, and making use
10-1
of a vector identities1 and Maxwells curl equations: P = (E H) = ( E) H ( H) E E H H (J + ) E = t t 1 (H H) 1 E E = JE 2 t 2 t 1 1 = ( H 2 ) ( E 2) J E t 2 t 2 Thus

S
P dS =
PdV
V
1 2 1 ( H 2 )dV ( E )dV t 2 t 2 V V d 1 1 d ( H 2 )dV ( E 2)dV = dt V 2 dt V 2 d d J E dV = UM UE dt dt V
J E dV J E dV
where
1 UM = V ( 2 H 2 )dV is the energy in the magnetic eld within the vol2 3 ume V . The quantity 1 2 H is the magnetic energy density in Jm . 2 UE = V ( 1 2 E )dV is the energy stored in the electric eld within the 2 3 volume V . The quantity 1 2 E is the electric energy density in Jm .
J E dV is a term that represents either power dissipated through ohmic losses or power generated by a source inside V. If representing power dissipated, the term J E can be re-expressed as J E = E E = E 2 in Wm3.
V
Identity 1: (E H) = ( E) H ( H) E H 1 (HH) Identity 2: t H = 2 t

H t
x H = Hx H t + Hy
Hy t
z + Hz H t =
2 1 Hx 2 t
2 1 Hy 2 t
2 1 Hz 2 t
10-2
Thus
S
P dS = magnetic energy loss +electric energy loss +heat loss (in Js1)
We therefore conclude that S P dS = E H dS represents the outow of power from a volume, and P = E H is the power density vector, in Wm2. Example of Electric Energy stored in a Capacitor As an example of energy stored in a eld, let us consider the energy stored in the electric eld of a parallel plate capacitor, of surface area A, gap d, if and charged to a voltage V. The capacitance is approximately C A d the gap is small compared to the plate dimensions. The electric eld is concentrated in the gap between the plates, and has strength of E V /d. The energy stored in the electric eld is UE = 1 ( E 2)dV V 2 1 V2 2 Ad 2 d 1 A 2 V 2 d 1 CV2 2
a familiar result from circuit theory. The relationship is exact (i.e. UE = 1 2 2 C V ), and can be shown from rst principles for a capacitor of any shape.
10.1 Power in a Sinusoidal Plane Wave

A sinusoidal electromagnetic plane wave propagating in the z direction is described by the EM pair E(z, t) = Ex (z, t) x H(z, t) = Hy (z, t) y
10-3
where Ex (z, t) = E1 cos(t kz + 1 ) Ex (z, t) E1 = cos(t kz + 1 ) Hy (z, t) = The power density is 2 E1 P = E H = Ex Hy sin z = cos2 (t kz + 1) z 2 At observer or antenna at a stationary point would feel the power pulsating at twice the frequency of the source. The time averaged power density is
2 2 2 E1 1 1 E1 1 E1 2 P = |E H| = ( + cos(2t 2kz + 21) = cos ( ) = Wm2 2 2 2
10.1.1 Poynting Vector for Complex Notation Phasor notation is commonly used for treatment of steady state sinusoidal signals. The phasor representation of the sinusoidal wave EM plane wave is = E x x = E1ej 1 ejkz x E E1 j 1 jkz = H yy = e e y H The Poynting vector for complex phasor representation is dened as = 1E H P 2 is the time averaged power density, i.e. Re{P } = such that the real part of P P = E H. To see why the factor of 1/2 is required, we proceeding as before, but substituting the phasor forms of Maxwells curl equations: H ) dS = (E =
V
H ) dV (E ) H ( H ) E dV ( E )H (J jE ) E dV (jH H + jE E E J dV jH
10-4 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
=
V
=
V
In the non-phasor case, J E represents the instantaneous dissipated (or generated) power density in Wm3 - in other words J E is a function of J = E E equals twice the time averaged power density time. Here E 1 2 (= 1 2 E ). Hence P is dened as P = 2 E H in order that the real part equals time averaged power ow in Wm2. If we substitute the phasor representations for a plane wave, H = 1E P 2 1 1 = E1 ej 1 ejkz E1ej 1 ejkz sin( ) z 2 2 2 1 E1 Wm2 = z 2 which agrees with the result previously obtained with the real signal representation.
10.2 Power density from Radiating Antennas

An isotropic antenna is an idealised radiating source that radiates power uniformly in all directions. The power density at a distance r from the source is Pt Pd = Wm2 2 4r where Pt is the power in watts owing from the source and 4r2 is the surface area of a spherical shell of radius r.
Isotropic radiator
Figure 10.1: An isotropic radiator radiating in all directions.
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A physical antenna is usually designed to focus the energy in a particular direction, and hence the power density increases compared to an isotropic radiator. The increase in power density is specied by a parameter called the gain of the antenna, which is dened as the factor by which the power density is increased above that of an isotropic radiator. The power density in position (r, , ) is given by Pd = G(, ) Pt Wm2 2 4r
where G(, ) is the gain pattern of the antenna, which is a function of angle. A typical gain pattern for a directional antenna is shown in Figure 10.2. The radiated power is concentrated within the main lobe. Additional side lobes are visible which are usually undesirable, and antenna designers will often seek to minimise the side lobe levels. The beam pattern can be understood as an interference pattern. The signal radiated in a particular direction can be modelled as the sum of contributions from elemental radiation sources covering the aperture (imagine a regular grid of tiny sources). The radiation contributions sum coherently (in phase) in the main-lobe direction (constructive interference), whereas as the angle increases of the boresight, the relative dierences in path length results in destructive interferences, which reduces the total signal strength in the side lobes.
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Directional Beam radiator
Pt
3dB
Typical antenna gain versus angle
G( )
Main lobe
Sidelobe
180 deg
3dB
3dB Beamwidth (G drops to 1/2 of max)
180 deg
Figure 10.2: A directional antenna and a typical antenna gain pattern.
The width of a beam is usually measured between the half power points on the main lobe, i.e. where G drops to half its peak value, or equivalently 3 dB below the peak. A well known result from antenna theory is that the beamwidth from a radiating aperture (measured in a chosen plane) is approximately 3dB arcsin D D
where D is the diameter of the aperture in the plane, and is the wavelength. The approximation is valid for narrow beam antennas, for which the diameter of the aperture (measured in the plane) of the is several wavelengths wide.
10-7
Example An antenna radiates 100 watts. Calculate the electric eld intensity and the magnetic eld intensity at a distance r = 1000 m from the antenna assuming the antenna is: (i) an isotropic radiator (ii) a horn antenna with a peak gain of 10. Assume that the polarization is linear and the eld is locally approximated as a plane wave. Solution: (i) For an isotropic radiator, the power density Pd = 100 = 8.0 106 Wm2 2 4 1000
1 E2 2
The power density for a plane wave is P = E= 2P = H=
which implies
2 377 8.0 106 = 0.08 Vm1
0.08 E = = 2.1 104 Am1 377
(ii) For the horn antenna with a gain of 10, Pd = 10 E= 100 = 8.0 105 Wm2 2 4 1000
2P = 2 377 8.0 105 = 0.25 Vm1 0.25 E = = 6.5 104 Am1 H= 377
10-8
10.3 Power Flow in a Simple Circuit

Consider the circuit shown below consisting of a resistor connected to a battery via a pair of wires. The resistor is made of a cylinder of resistive material, placed between two metal plates as illustrated.
H I H into page
Battery Metal plate
P E E P Ez H
J P
Resistor
Length d
I H Figure 10.3: Power ow in a DC circuit.
The magnetic eld lines circulate around the wires and resistor as illustrated (apply right hand rule for direction). The electric eld lines extend from the wire at the positive voltage down to negative voltage wire. The power ow at any point in space is described by P = E H. Below is shown a top view of the circuit. The Poynting vector points from left to right.
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TOP VIEW (plane of battery and resistor)
P P H P=EH E into page P r
Integration surface for calculating total power entering load.
Figure 10.4: Top view showing power ow in a DC circuit,
Consider the region local to the resistor. The electric eld between the plates is vertically directed (z -direction), and is given by Ez = V IR = d d I 2r
and the magnetic eld surrounding the resistor is H =
The power ow at any point in space is described by the cross product P = EH = Ez H sin 90 r IR I r = d 2r I 2R = r 2rd which is a vector that points radially inwards as illustrated2. From this we observe that the power ows from the outside inwards towards the centre axis of the column.
2
You should verify the direction E H by considering the cross product at several points in space. Note that r points radially outwards from the centre axis.
10-10
the conductor will get warm; i.e. molecules vibrate more vigorously as electromagnetic energy is converted into kinetic energy. energy is re-radiated by the mechanisms of thermal radiation, also known as black body radiation (so called because objects that are dark in colour radiate energy eectively in the optical frequency range; dark objects are also good absorbers in the optical band). convection, i.e. kinetic energy transfer to the molecules of the surrounding air. conduction - i.e. through objects that are physically in contact with the resistor, e.g. metal plates and wires. The total power entering the resistor can be calculated by integrating the Poynting vector over a closed surface enclosing the resistor. Since E 0 in the top metal plates, we need only consider the contribution through the side walls of a cylinder of radius r (see Top View gure), which has surface area = circumf erence length = 2r d: P = P dS I 2R 2rd = I 2 R Watts 2rd
which is in agreement with circuit theory. Question: How much power ows through the wires to the load? Answer: For perfect wires, , and E 0 within the wires. Thus P = E H 0, within the wires, and we conclude that NO power ows through the wires. From a eld theory perspective, the power ows through the air. The power (i.e. the capacity to do work) is carried in the EM eld, which travels from source to load. Why then do we need wires? The pair of wires serve to guide the wave from source to load. Transmission line theory is used to predict the behaviour of such guided waves when the length of the transmission line is comparable to the wavelength.
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10.3.1 Transmission Lines for 50 Hz AC Mains Electricity Supply Wires pairs are used for getting EM power from a power station to a home, which may be many kilometres away. At 50 Hz, however, the wavelength = c/f = 3 108/50 = 6 106 m = 6000km, which is considerably greater than the transmission line lengths, and so circuit theory with appropriate lumped element models is more applicable for describing power transfer even over considerable distances like across a country. Below is depicted a cross section through a pair of wires: the conductor on the left is carrying current I into the page (in the direction of the load) and the conductor on the right is carrying the return current out of the page. Note the directions of the electric and magnetic eld lines at this instant in time. The Poynting vector P = E H points into the page, in the direction of the load. Since the current is alternating AC, what happens to the Poynting vector when the current reverses direction? (Answer: E H still points into the page - you should check this yourself).
H E
P=EH
points into the page
I into page
E H
I out of page
Figure 10.5: Electromagnetic eld surrounding a parallel wire transmission line. If the polarity of the current changes, the E and H eld lines reverse direction (although P = E H points always points in the same direction - into the page).
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10.3.2 Transmission lines for Microwave Circuits In microwave circuits, the wavelength (e.g. at 10 GHz, = 3 cm) is often comparable to circuit board dimensions, and so wires carrying signals must be treated as transmission lines. A common method of circuit construction is to use a ground plane on the underside of the printed circuit board (PCB), and the signals are routed via tracks on the top side (see gure). The wavelength of the guided wave and the characteristic impedance of the guiding structure are functions of the dielectric constant of the material, the width of the track, and the thickness of the PCB. For standard breglass PCB, a transmission line with a 50 Ohm characteristic impedance can be made by etching a track of about 2mm wide on the top side; the underside is a ground plane. Increasing the width of the line reduces the characteristic impedance; reducing the track width increases the characteristic impedance of the line.
Substrate material breglass or special low loss microwave board e.g. RT Duroid.
Copper track
Propagation direction
H E Ground plane
(copper)
Figure 10.6: Micro-strip microwave transmission line. The EM wave propagates as a guided wave towards a (matched) load.
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10.4 Electromagnetic safety considerations

The safe exposure level of EM radiation to humans is a function of radiation frequency, intensity and the particular organs exposed. Detailed guidelines have been drawn up by panels of experts, which specify maximum safe exposure levels under a wide range of conditions [1,2]. In this section, we shall briey summarise some of the key issues. The appropriate regulations should be consulted for details. EM Radiation is classied into two categories: 1) ionizing radiation (above visible frequencies f > 7.5 1014 Hz or < 0.0004 mm, including ultraviolet 1016 Hz, X-rays 1018 Hz, gamma rays 1023 Hz and higher). 2) non-ionising radiation (f < 7.5 1014 Hz or > 0.0004 mmfrom i.e. from the visible frequencies range right down to DC, which includes the infrared, microwave and RF ranges). Ionizing radiation can break chemical bonds (creating ions - hence the name), resulting in tissue damage and damage to DNA. Even low level exposure can lead to severe health problems. Non-ionizing radiation primarily causes heating in tissue, and is considerably less harmful than ionizing radiation. The safety to humans is a function of the B eld and E eld strengths to which one is exposed. Figure 10.7 contains an illustration of the frequency spectrum showing the eects on human tissue. In these lecture notes, we shall only discuss safety levels for non-ionizing radiation in the frequency range from DC to 300 GHz (i.e. wavelengths greater than 1 mm).
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Figure 10.7: [http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/ionize nonionize.htm, from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]. The border between ionizing and non ionizing radiation is at f 7.5 1014 Hz or = 0.0004 mm.
10.4.1 Non-Ionizing Radiation The International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) [http://www.icnirp.de/] is an organisation that provides guidelines [1] relating to exposure to non-ionising radiation. In the far eld from a radiating source, the ratio of E to B is a constant (E/H = ). Hence it is sucient to specify either the E eld strength, or the B eld strength, or conveniently, the power density P = EH , as a safety level. Usually the power density in Wm2 is specied. Closer to a radiating source, in the so called near eld, the ratio of E/H is not constant, varying considerably as a function of position in relation to the source, and the type of source itself (e.g. close to a dipole antenna, the E eld is comparatively stronger, whereas close to a loop antenna, the B eld is dominant. Thus specifying safety levels is more complicated in the near eld. Electric elds inside a human body cause currents to ow: J = E
10-15 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
Parameter Current density J Current I Specic Energy Absorption Rate (SAR) Specic Energy Absorption (SA) Power Density P (or symbol S )
Units Am2 A W or Wkg1
Frequency Range DC to 10 MHz up to 110 MHz 100 kHz to 10 GHz for pulsed elds 300 MHz to 10 GHz 10 GHz to 300 GHz
Jkg1
Wm2
Table 10.1: Parameters used for specifying maximum levels for exposure to ionizing radiation.
where is the conductivity in Sm1 in tissue and body uids. Below 100 Hz, typical values of are 0.4 Sm1 in muscle, 0.7 Sm1 in blood, and 0.04 Sm1 in fat. At higher frequencies, muscle in the tongue varies from 0.4 Sm1 at 10 MHz, to 1.0 Sm1 at 1 GHz, and to 10 Sm1 at 10 GHz. The degree of penetration of the eld is also a function of frequency (the skin depth phenomenon). The ICNIRP guidelines [1] are specied in terms of maximum levels of one or more of the parameters listed in Table 10.1. The guidelines cover the frequency range from 300 GHz to DC. 10.4.2
Coupling mechanisms between EM Fields and the Human Body
There are three identied mechanisms: 1. Coupling of low frequency E elds: E elds cause currents to ow in the body, as well as polarization of bound charge, and reorientation of electric dipoles in the tissue. 2. Coupling of low frequency E elds: Changing magnetic elds induce E elds and hence current ow. 3. Absorption of Energy from EM elds: for frequencies < 100 kHz, the energy absorption is minimal > 100 kHz can lead to signicant energy absorption and temperatures rises in the body.
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Four frequency ranges are described (Durney et al. 1985, in [1]): 1. From 100 kHz to 20 MHz 2. From 20 MHz to 300 MHz: high absorption can occur in the whole body. The adult human body resonance is between 70 MHz and 100 MHz depending on the height of a standing person, for vertical polarization. 3. From 300 MHz to 10 GHz: signicant local non-uniform absorption. 4. > 10 GHz: energy absorption is primarily at the body surface. (In this range, it is better to specify the incident power density and not the SAR.) 10.4.3 Guidelines for Limiting EM Exposure Consult the ICNIRP guidelines [1] (extract distributed as a class handout). In it you will nd the following tables listing reference levels for limiting EM exposure: 1. Table 4: Basic restrictions up to 10 GHz 2. Table 5: Basic restrictions for power density between 10GHz and 300 GHz. 3. Table 6: Reference levels for occupational exposure (i.e. people in a working environment). 4. Table 7: Reference levels for the general public. Plots of the E eld and B eld levels are shown in Figure 2 for the cases of general public exposure, peak general public, occupational exposure and peak occupational exposure. A rule of thumb for microwave engineers working above 10GHz, is to avoid exposure to radiation levels above about 10 W/m2. The reference level for the range 10 GHz to 300 GHz for occupational exposure is 50 W/m2 and for general public exposure is 10 W/m2.
10-17
To gain some feeling for the numbers, we can calculate the power density at a distance of one metre from a 50 Watt light bulb, assuming isotropic radiation. The radiation power density at a distance of 1m would be Pt G/(4r2) = 50 1/(4 12) = 3.9 W/m2. This of the same order as the 10 W/m2 specied for microwave radiation (although it is noted that most of the power emitted by light bulbs is in the optical to infrared region . References on EM radiation Safety: 1. Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic elds (up to 300 GHz), published by the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), reprinted in Health Physics, April 1998, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 494-522. Downloadable from http://www.icnirp.de 2. A Local Government Ocials Guide to Transmitting Antenna RF Emission Safety: Rules, Procedures, and Practical Guidance, Federal Communications Commission (FCC), June 2, 2000. 3. Compilation of the dielectric properties of body tissues at RF and microwave frequencies, C. Gabriel and S.Gabriel, Technical Report 1996, http://www.brooks.af.mil/AFRL/HED/hedr/reports/dielectric/Report/Report.html 4. Cellular Phone Antennas (Mobile Phone Base Stations) and Human Health, J. Moulder, Professor of Radiation Oncology, http://www.mcw.edu/gcrc/cop/cell-phone-health-FAQ/ 5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Website: [http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/ionize nonionize.htm].
10-18
11 Reection and Refraction at Boundaries

We shall consider the following cases: 1. Reection from a perfect conductor: wave normally incident. 2. Reection and transmission at a dielectric interface: wave normally incident. 3. Reection from a perfect conductor: wave incident at an arbitrary angle. 4. Reection and transmission (refraction) at a dielectric interface: wave incident at an arbitrary incident angle.
11.1 Reection of Normally Incident Plane Waves from a Perfect Conductor

Consider a plane wave normally incident on a at perfectly conducting plate ( = ). The pointing vector tells us that the energy does not pass through the conductor - why? P = E H and E = 0 so P = 0. All energy must therefore be reected. A good question is: Why should an incoming wave bounce o a conducting surface? What is physically going on on the surface? My explanation is that the incoming wave does not bounce at all - rather the electrons on the surface react to form an induced electric eld of the opposite polarity to that of the incident plane wave. Thus the reacting current sheet on the surface re-radiates the so-called reected wave (but with an inversion in polarity). The next question that arises is: Why does the incident wave not pass
11-1
straight through the metal? In a strict sense, yes it does on propagating forward, but it is also accompanied by a forward propagating wave arising from the surface currents. These two forward propagating waves are inverted, with respect to one another, and sum to zero. Thus in speech we say that the incident wave bounces o the surface - but more correctly, the phenomenon of reection is a re-radiation eect.
Incident wave x
z Reected Perfect conductor Figure 11.1: Reection from a perfect conductor.
We now analyse the steady state plane wave solution to the wave equation subject to the appropriate boundary condition: tangential components of E are zero at the boundary, i.e. Ex (0) = and Ey (0) = 0. The phasor forms of the incident and reected waves are x = E+ ejkz + Ee+jkz E y = 1 E+ejkz E e+jkz H Applying the boundary condition 0 = E+ejk0 + Ee+jk0 implies Thus the total eld in terms of E+ is E = E +
x = E+ejkz E+ e+jkz = E+ ejkz e+jkz = E+2j sin kz E
11-2
The instantaneous form is thus x ejt Ex (z, t) = Re E = Re {E+2j sin kz [cos t + j sin t]} = 2E+ sin kz sin t This sum of the forward and reected wave does not contain a z vt term and hence does not appear to move left or right - it is what is known as a standing wave. The peak amplitude |Ex (z, t)|peak = |2E+ sin kz | (or envelope) varies with distance from the interface, as plotted below.
2E+ Envelope of electric eld
z z=0
2E+ 0
Envelope of magnetic eld
34
4 z = 0
Figure 11.2: Standing wave resulting from reection of a sinusoidal wave by a perfect conducting surface.
The expression for the magnetic eld is similarly obtained by substituting y yielding E = E+ in the expression for H y = 1 E+ejkz Ee+jkz = 1 E+ ejkz + e+jkz = 1 2E+ cos kz H with instantaneous form y ejt = Re 1 2E+ cos kz [cos t + j sin t] Hy (z, t) = Re H 1 = 2E+ cos kz cos t Notice, that at the metal interface, the peak value Hy (z = 0, t) is in fact a maximum, as is shown in the plot of the resulting standing wave.
11-3
11.2 Transmission Line Analogy

The equations governing reection of plane waves are identical in form to those derived for transmission lines. The following table compares equivalent relationships. Fields x = E+ejkz + Ee+jkz E y = 1 E+ ejkz Ee+jkz H k = =

Transmission Lines Vx = V+ ejz + V e+jz 1 Iy = Z I+ ejz I e+jz 0 = LC Z0 =

L C
All transmission line concepts and formulas are applicable to the reection of plane waves, e.g. SWR, reection coecient, Smith chart calculations etc. The units of E are V/m, and the units of H are A/m, analogous to voltage and current in the transmission line. The wave impedance at a position z is dened as the ratio of total electric to magnetic eld in the plane (z ) = Ex (z ) Hy ( z )
Directly from the transmission line analogy, the impedance at a distance l from a load plane of impedance L is (l ) = L cos kl + j sin kl cos kl + j sin kl
and the reection and transmission coecients are E L = = E + L + and 2 L E2 = E+ L + where E2 is the amplitude of the wave in medium two. =
11-4
Example: Application of Transmission Line Analogy to Incidence on a Perfect Conducting Plane At the interface with a perfect conductor, the electrons on the surface move in such a way as to force the electric eld to zero. The load impedance as seen by the plane wave is L = Substituting, we get and and (l) = j tan kl which should be familiar results from transmission line theory. = 1 =0 0 Ex (0) = =0 Hy (0) Hy (0)
11.3 Normally Incident Plane Wave on a Dielectric Interface

Again we apply the results of transmission line theory with 1 = 2 =
2 2 1 1
and
to obtain = E 2 1 = E+ 2 + 1 E2 2 2 = E+ 2 + 1
|E |2 2 |E+ |
and =
The fraction of power that is reected is
power that is transmitted into the medium is therefore 1 ||2 .
= ||2 and the fraction of
11-5
Example Calculation Calculate the fraction of transmitted and reected power for the case of a 1mW laser beam normally incident from air ( = 0 and = 0 ) onto glass (r = 5 = 0 ). Solution The impedances in air is 1 and in the glass is 2 = 4 107 169 Ohms 5 8.85 1012 0 0 4 107 377 Ohms 8.85 1012
The reection coecient is =
169 377 2 1 = = 0.380 2 + 1 169 + 377
and hence ||2 = 0.145. The reected power is ||2 Pinc = 0.145 mW and the transmitted power is the balance being 0.855 mW.
11.4 Reection and Transmission (refraction) at a dielectric interface - arbitrary incident angle
(ref: Griths 1981, and Ramo et al. 1994) In this section, the relationships between incident, reected and refracted waves are studied for a wave incident on a dielectric interface. Consider a wave incident on a dielectric boundary on the plane z = 0 as depicted below.
11-6
Reected k + k+ Incident wave

Medium 1 Medium 2
Transmitted k2 2 z
Figure 11.3: Propagation directions of incident, reected and refracted waves at an interface between two media.
The problem is analysed as follows: 1. Boundary conditions are applied to the case of arbitrary linear polarization to establish a) the fact that the incident, reected and refracted waves lie in the same plane of propagation known as the plane of incidence ; i.e. +, k and k 2 all lie in the same plane. the vectors k b) Snells laws relating the angles of reection and refraction to the incident angle. 2. The amplitudes of the reected and refracted waves are analysed by resolving the incident wave into two orthogonal polarizations: a) Case where the electric eld is perpendicular to the plane of incidence, known as transverse electric polarization (or TE polarization). b) Case where the magnetic eld is perpendicular to the plane of incidence - referred to as transverse magnetic polarization (or TM polarization).
11-7
11.4.1 Derivation of Snells Laws We consider rst, a wave of arbitrary linear polarization incident on the z = 0 plane at an angle . We model the incident, reected and refracted waves in phasor notation as + (r, t) = E + ej k+ r ejt E (r, t) = E ej k r ejt E 2 (r, t) = E 2 ej k2 r ejt E + E +(r, t) = 1 k + (r, t) H 1 E (r, t) = 1 k (r, t) H 1 2 E 2 (r, t) 2 (r, t) = 1 k H 1
r is just k+ (the wave number) times the NOTE: The term k+ r = k+ k direction. Imagine dening an axis pointing in the component of r in the k r direction, and let the distance along this axis be . The term ejk+ k is k jk+ equal to e . The total electric eld in medium 1 is the sum of incident and reected elds 1 (r, t) = E + ej k+ r ejt + E ej k r ejt E The angles of incidence and reection are found by imposing the boundary conditions previously derived in Section 4, i.e. (a) Dn1 = Dn2 ous (b) Et1 = Et2 interface. (c) Bn1 = Bn2 uous. (d) Ht1 = Ht2 of interface. Normal component of electric ux density is continu-
Tangential components of E are equal on either side of
Normal component of magnetic ux density is contin-
Tangential components of H are equal on either side
11-8
It can be shown that imposition of all boundary conditions results in equations of the form ( )ej k+ r + ( )ej k r = ( )ej k2 r at z = 0 where the bracketed quantities ( ) are either parallel, perpendicular or normal components of the E or H elds. Consider, for example, the electric eld. At the interface plane, the boundary condition Et1 = Et2 becomes: + )x ej k+ r ejt + (E )x ej k r ejt = (E 2)x ej k2 r ejt at z = 0 (E and + )y ej k+ r ejt + (E )y ej k r ejt = (E 2)y ej k2 r ejt at z = 0 (E +)x is notation for the x component of E + etc. The other boundary where (E conditions result in similar equations. For the constraint ( )ej k+ r + ( )ej k r = ( )ej k2 r at z = 0 to hold true for all x, y in the z = 0 plane requires1 that k+ r = k r = k2 r at z = 0 or ( k+ ) x x + ( k+ ) y y = ( k ) x x + ( k ) y y = ( k2 ) x x + ( k2 ) y y This must hold along the line y = 0 in the xy plane, and so ( k+ ) x = ( k ) x = ( k2 ) x and similarly it must hold along the line x = 0 in the xy plane, and so ( k+ ) y = ( k ) y = ( k2 ) y
1
The only way this can hold true for all positions at z = 0 if the phase factors are equal.
11-9
Thus we can conclude that k+ , k and k2 lie in the same plane (known as the plane of incidence ). If we orientate the axes such that the plane of incidence is the xz plane as shown in the gure, then the y components of the k vectors are zero, and the remaining boundary condition ( k+ ) x = ( k ) x = ( k2 ) x implies k1 sin + = k1 sin = k2 sin 2 from which we obtain Snells laws of reection and refraction: k1 sin + = k1 sin and k1 sin + = k2 sin 2 + =
sin 2 k1 /v1 v2 = = = sin + k2 /v2 v1 Since for most dielectrics, 1 2 0 , the ratio 1 v2 c/n2 n1 2 sin 2 = = = sin + v1 c/n1 n2 2 1
where n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 are the refractive indexes of the dielectrics. To analyse the magnitudes of reected and transmitted waves, we need examine the two cases of a transverse electric (TE) incident wave, and a transverse magnetic (TM) incident wave. An arbitrary polarization can be split into the sum of these two orthogonal components. 11.4.2 Case Transverse Magnetic (TM) Incident Wave (also known as parallel polarization) If the electric eld is parallel to the incident plane (and the magnetic eld perpendicular), there exist only Ex , Ez and Hy components as shown in the illustration below.
11-10
x E
CASE Transverse Magnetic (TM)
H
(into)
k + k2
E2 2 H2 z
E+ H+
k+
(out) Medium 1
Medium 2
Figure 11.4: Denitions of vector quantities on either side of an interface for the case of a TM incident wave.
+ E H+ = y ej k+ r 1 E = y H ej k r 1 2 E H2 = y ej k2 r 2
+ )E + = (y +ej k+ r E k )E = ( ej k r E yk 2 )E 2 = (y 2ej k2 r E k
Take note of the directions of the vectors indicated: these represent the directions in which E and H point at the interface (i.e. at x = 0 and z = 0) at + , E , E 2 were all positive. Also, it is time t = 0, assuming the constants E is dened as pointing into the page, such that when + = 0, noted that H and E + will point in the same direction (for positive E + , E , E 2), to E allow comparison with the derivation in Section 9.1. The relationships be+ , E and E 2 will now be established by applying the boundary tween E conditions. The boundary conditions imposed on the x, y and z components of the electric and magnetic elds are (see diagram) are
11-11
+ sin + ) + 1 (E sin ) = 2E 2 sin 2 (a) Dn1 = Dn2 1 (E + cos + + E cos = E 2+ cos 2 (b) Et1 = Et2 E (c) Bn1 = Bn2 nothing useful as Hz = 0 + H = H 2 (d) Ht1 = Ht2 H
1 1 E+
1 1 E
1 2 E2
Thus (d) implies (so does (a) after substituting Snells law and some manipulation) + E = 1 E 2 E 2 and (b) implies + + E = cos 2 E 2 E cos + We solve these two equations to obtain the reected and transmitted amplitudes in terms of the incident amplitude: + = 2 cos 2 1 cos + E E 2 cos 2 + 1 cos + and 22 cos + 2 = + E E 2 cos 2 + 1 cos + The reection and transmission coecients are dened as 2 cos 2 1 cos + E = T M = + 2 cos 2 + 1 cos + E and 2 22 cos + E = T M = + 2 cos 2 + 1 cos + E For the special case of the incident angle being zero, i.e. + = = 2 = 0, we obtain, as in Section 11.3, 2 1 T M = 2 + 1 and 2 2 T M = 2 + 1
11-12
The Brewster Angle It is interesting2 to plot and as a function of incidence angle varying from 0 degrees (normal incidence) to 90 degrees. Is is noted that at a certain angle known as the Brewster angle, T M = 0 hence the no signal is reected. This angle occurs when the numerator (2 cos 2 1 cos +) = 0, i which, after substituting Snells law and i = i and some manipulation we obtain 2 1 1 1 2 sin2 + = 1 2 1 ( 2 ) For the case where 1 2 0 , the relationship simplies to tan + n2 2 1 n1
It is also noted that the sign of the reection coecient changes from negative to positive, implying that the phase of the reected wave jumps by 180 degrees as the incidence angle crosses the Brewster angle. 11.4.3 Case Transverse Electric (TE) Incident Wave (also known as perpendicular polarization) If the electric eld is perpendicular to the incident plane (and the magnetic eld parallel), there exist only Ey and Hx and Hz components as shown in the illustration below.
See example plot for Example: Plane wave air into glass
11-13
x H
CASE Transverse Electric (TE)
k + k2+
E2 2 H2 z
E+
(out)
k+ H+
Medium 1 Medium 2
Figure 11.5: Denitions of vector quantities on either side of an interface for the case of a TE incident wave.
+ = y +ej k+ r E E = y ej k r E E 2 = y 2ej k2 r E E
+ E H+ = (k+ y ) ej k+ r 1 E y = (k ) ej k r H 1 2 E 2 y 2 = (k H ) ej k2 r 2
The boundary conditions imposed on the x, y and z components of the electric and magnetic elds are (see diagram) are (a) Dn1 = Dn2 nothing useful as Ez = 0 + + E = E 2 (b) Et1 = Et2 E + sin + + 1 H sin = 2 H 2 sin 2 (c) Bn1 = Bn2 1 H
1 1 E+ sin +
1 1 E sin
2 2 E2 sin 2
11-14
+ cos + + H cos = H 2 cos 2 (d) Ht1 = Ht2 H + cos + + 11 E

1 E cos 1
2 cos 2 = 12 E
Thus we have from (b) and (and(c) after substituting Snells law and some manipulation) + + E = E 2 E and from (d) + E = 1 cos 2 E 2 E 2 cos + and E 2 we obtain Solving for E = 2 cos + 1 cos 2 E + E 2 cos + + 1 cos 2 22 cos + + E 2 cos + + 1 cos 2 The reection and transmission coecients are 2 = E T E and T E = 2 cos + 1 cos 2 E = = + 2 cos + + 1 cos 2 E 2 22 cos + E = + 2 cos + + 1 cos 2 E and
For TE polarization, it can be shown3 that for dielectrics with equal permeabilities, there exists no angle for which T E = 0. The Brewster angle only occurs for TM polarization. Thus the Brewster angle is sometimes called the polarization angle, as light with an arbitrary polarization incident at the Brewster angle is polarized on reection. The TM components are not reected, but the TE components are4.
3 4
Do this as an exercise by analysing the numerator of . See example plot for Example: Plane wave air into glass; compare TM and TE plots.
11-15
11.4.4 Angle of Total Reection Total reection occurs when || = 1. Analysis shows that for both TE and TM polarization this occurs only for the case of an EM wave incident from a medium of slower velocity to that of a higher velocity, i.e. for v2 > v1 . The critical incidence angle + = c occurs at sin c = v1 v2 2 1
At angles greater than this complete internal reection occurs. The interface behaves as a perfect mirror. Examples of the application of total reection include: (i) use of prisms as reectors in optics (ii) light propagates down optic bres, which are made of glass, as a consequence of total internal reection.
11-16
Example 1: Plane Wave from air into glass

Air: r = 1.0, r = 1.0 Glass: r = 5, r = 1.0 v1 = c = 3.0 108 ms1 1 = 377 ohms v2 = cr = 1.35 108 ms1 2 = 169 ohms
The transmitted wave is refracted towards the normal, as illustrated in the diagram below. The wavelength will be shorter in the glass than in air by the factor 1 1 = = 0.46 r 5
x
Reected Transmitted + 2 z
Incident wave
Medium 1 AIR Medium 2 GLASS
Figure 11.6: An incident wave going from air into glass.
11-17
The Brewster angle for TM polarization occurs at B = 65.9 degrees. NOTE: Compare the reection coecient || as the incident angle changes from 0 to 90 degrees. For TE polarization, |T E | increases smoothly from about |T E | = 0.4 to |T E | = 1. For TM polarization, as increases from 0, |T M | decreases smoothly and reaches |T M | = 0 at = B = 65.9 degrees; increasing the angle further increases |T M | until |T M | = 1 at = 90 degrees.
Magnitude of Reflection coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 |rho| TM |rho| TE
|T E | Brewster
angle
|T M |
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees 70 80 90 Magnitude of Transmission coefficient
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees 70 80 90 |tau| TM |tau| TE
|T E |
|T M |
CASE: Parameters for plane wave from AIR into GLASS.
Figure 11.7:
11-18
The set of gures below show T M , T M , T E , T E again for the air into glass case, but the signed values; it can be seen that the phase of T M ips by 180 degrees at the Brewster angle.
Angle of Refraction vs Angle of Incidence 30
Refraction angle (deg)
25 20 15 10 5 0
2 versus +
From Air into Glass

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees 70 80 90
Transverse Magnetic Incident Wave 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 10 20 rho tau
T M
Brewster
angle
T M
30 40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees 70 80 90
Transverse Electric Incident Wave 1
T E
0.5 0
rho tau
0.5
T E
Plots of various parameters for the case of AIR into GLASS as a function of the incident angle.
Figure 11.8:
11-19
Example 2: Plane Wave from glass into air

The transmitted wave is refracted away from the normal as it enters the air, as illustrated in the diagram below. The wavelength will increase as the wave enters by the factor 5 = 2.2, in the air.
x
Reected Transmitted + 2 z
Incident wave
Medium 1 GLASS Medium 2 AIR
Figure 11.9: An incident wave going from glass into air.
NOTE: Brewster angle for TM polarization occurs at B = 24.1 degrees. Angle of total internal reection occurs at c = 26.6 degrees. Reection coecient becomes complex for > c and an angle-dependent phase shift occurs (not plotted here). Below are plotted and for 0 < < c.
11-20
Angle of Refraction vs Angle of Incidence 100

Refraction angle (deg)
80 60 40 20 0
2 versus +
From Glass into Air
10
20
30
40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees
70
80
90
Brewster
Transverse Magnetic Incident Wave 4 3 2 1 0 1 rho tau
T M T M
Brewster
angle
10
20
30
40 50 60 Incident angle in degrees
70
80
90
Transverse Electric Incident Wave 2
1.5
T E
rho tau
0.5
T E
Plots of various parameters for the case of GLASS into AIR as a function of the incident angle.
Figure 11.10:
11-21
11.4.5 Power Considerations For a wave at an oblique angle, the power density (referred to as the intensity I ) crossing the dielectric interface is given by the component of the Poynting vector normal to the interface, i.e. Wm2 I =Pn = where P is the Poynting vector and n z is the surface normal.
x
P + P+
P2 2 n z
Medium 1
Medium 2
Figure 11.11: Poynting vectors on either side of an interface.
For the incident wave
2 1 E+ + P+ = k 2 1 2 1 E+ = cos + I + = P+ n 2 1
and thus
For the reected wave
2 1 E P = k 2 1 2 1 E cos 2 1
and thus = I = P n
11-22
For the transmitted wave
2 1 E2 2 k P2 = 2 2
and thus
2 1 E2 = I 2 = P2 n cos 2 2 2
= || E + and E 2 = | | E + it can be seen that By substituting E |I+ | |I | = |I2 | which is consistent with the fact that the net energy per second entering a surface from one side must balance with that leaving from the other side. Note: It should be understood that |P+ | |P | = |P2| unless the incident angle is zero.
11-23
12 Propagation in Conducting Media and the Skin Depth

In this chapter the following topics are covered 1. Wave Equation in conducting media 2. Skin depth 3. Skin eect in conducting wires carrying AC currents References: Electromagnetics by IS Grant and WR Phillips. Introduction to Electrodynamics by DJ Griths
12.1 Wave propagation in a conducting medium

Wave propagation in a conducting medium results in an exponential decay of the wave amplitude as it propagates. The following illustration shows an exponentially decaying sinusoidal EM wave. Notice that there exists a phase shift between E and B elds in such a medium. In the treatment that follows, the particular case of a propagation in a highly conductive material (known as a good conductor) is considered. 12.1.1 Conducting media (particularly good conductors) In a conducting medium, free electrons will move under the inuence of the electric eld i.e. Jc = E. A good conductor, is one for which the conduction current is signicantly greater than the displacement current, D , which allows us to neglect the displacement current i.e. |Jc | |Jd | = t term in Maxwells equations.
12-1
Figure 12.1: Exponentially decaying plane wave in a conducting (lossy) medium. Note E and H are not in phase in a lossy medium.
If all eld quantities are sinusoidal of form ejt , then |Jc | | E| E = |jE| t
D t
Thus for a physical material to be regarded as a good conductor, the frequency satises This requirement is satised for all metals from DC to 100 GHz (and considerably higher in frequency). 12.1.2 Derivation of the Dierential Equation Consider Maxwells equations in a conducting medium for which 0 D . The equations become inside the medium and J = E t
12-2
D = 0 B = 0 B E = t D H = J+ J t Let us derive an equation containing only E. We start by taking the curl of Faradays law B t into which we can substitute the good conductor approximation
B E = ( t ) =
B = J = E Additionally, we can use the identity and the approximation E = 0 E = 2E + E 2E Making these substitutions, we obtain a form of the wave equation governing propagation in good conductors: 2E = E t
12.1.3 Plane wave solution inside the conducting medium Consider a plane wave propagating in z direction. For this case, = 0, and the wave equation simplies to y E 2E = z 2 t which has a solution of the form E = E0 ej (tz )ez modelling a wave propagating in the forward direction. The factor ez represents a decaying amplitude in the z direction.
x
= 0 and
12-3
and
To obtain expressions for the constants and , substitute this solution back into the wave equation to obtain E = E0 ej (tz ) ez LHS = z z z z ( j ) E0 ej (tz ) ez = z = [( j ) E] z E = ( j ) z 2 = ( j ) E RHS = E t = j E
Equating LHS = RHS implies
Equating real parts gives
( j )2 = j 2 2 + 2j = j 2 2 = 0 2 = 22 =
which implies = (or = ). Equating imaginary parts gives substituting = implies or = = The physical sinusoidal signal is E = Re E0 ej (tz ) ez = E0 cos(t z ) ez
12-4 AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012
Figure 12.2: Exponentially decaying plane E (z, t = 0) wave in a good conductor medium. The E eld envelope is E0 ez/ .
A plot of one of the components of the electric eld is shown in the following illustration. Analysis of the H eld shows that H is is 45 degrees out of phase with the E eld - see tutorial example.
12.2 Skin Depth

The exponential decay ez , may be characterised by the decay constant 1/, known as the skin depth = 1 = 2
The skin depth is the distance at which the wave in the medium has decayed 1 i.e skin depth reduces to 1/e 0.707 of its original amplitude. Note rapidly as frequency increases.
12-5
Figure 12.3:
Example Consider a sinusoidal 50 Hz plane wave propagating inside copper (which is a very good conductor) = 5.96 107 r = 1.00 at 300 K. The skin depth at 50 Hz is = 2 = 0.0092 m 9.2 mm 4 107 5.9 107 2 50
At f = 50 MHz (radio frequency) 105 m 0.01 mm At f = 10 Gz (radar & microwave communications) = 6.5 107 m At RF and Microwave frequencies, the penetration into metal is small (less than a micrometre). Signicant currents ow on the surface of good conductors (i.e. concentrated mainly within skin depth) - we talk of the current as being a surface current. The table shows the skin depth for copper ( = 5.96 107) for a range of frequencies.
12-6
Frequency for Copper 50 Hz 9.2 mm 10 kHz 0.65 mm 100 kHz 0.21 mm 1 MHz 0.065 mm 10 MHz 0.021 mm 10 GHz 0.00065 mm
12.3 Skin Eect in Conducting Wires

At high frequencies, the AC current owing in a conducting wire is concentrated in thin outer layer or skin of the wire, as is illustrated in the cross sections below.
Figure 12.4:
This concentration of current density in a thin outer layer causes the resistance (per metre) to increase as frequency increases. A plot showing the variation in current density J across the diameter of a 1mm conductor is shown below [Ramo, Whinnery & van Duzer].
12-7
Figure 12.5:
DC Resistance The DC resistance of a piece of wire of length l and thickness 2r is R0 =

l A
l [] r2
where A = r2 is the cross sectional area.
Figure 12.6:
12-8
High Frequency AC Resistance The high frequency resistance of a length of wire of l metres can be crudely estimated by pretending that the current is uniform within an eective conducting area Askin = 2r . With this giant leap of faith, we obtain a formula for the high frequency resistance RHF l l 1 = = Askin 2r 2r 0 [] 2
which turns out to be not far out in practice for the case where r. The high frequency AC resistance can also be express as RHF Example Consider a the dierence in resistance per metre at DC and at 50 MHz of a copper wire of diameter 5 mm. r = 2.5 103 m At DC, R0 0.0008 m1 l r l = R0 [] 2r 2
At 50 MHz, RHF l R0 l
3 r 4 2.5 10 = 8 10 = 0.1 m1 5 2 2 10
which is 125 times greater, than at DC.
12-9
13 Radiation from Antennas

13.1 Hertzian Dipole 13.2 Dipole Antennas 13.3 Phase array pattern
eld pattern from a linear array. mention SAR [not covered 2009] explain the antenna pattern in terms of constructive and destructive interference. [see handwritten handout issued 2009]
13.4 Aperture Antennas [simplied treatment; lab session]

horn antenna
13.5 Discussion on why circuits that are small compared to the wavelength do not radiate
13-1
14 Thermal Radiation from Warm Objects

why warm objects radiate frequency spectrum (watts/Hz) good and bad radiators; black body radiators versus metalic objects. noise power received by an antenna aimed at a warm surface. (ekTB) demonstration of UCT radiomter (35 GHz or 10 GHz)
14-1

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UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING EEE3055F 2012 Module A: Electromagnetic Field Theory

Lecture Notes: Version 2.33

Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. A.J.Wilkinson Room: 6.09.1 Email: andrew.wilkinson@uct.ac.za

30th May 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eld and wave theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 The 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

7 Sinusoidal Waves 7-1 7.1 Signals as Sums of Sinusoidal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

1 Introduction and course objectives

1.2 Course outcomes

1.3 Examples of the applications of EM eld and wave theory:

1.4 Prerequisite Knowledge

1.5 List of Symbols and Units

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2 The laws of Electromagnetics

2.1 Forces between charges (Coulombs Law)

is a constant. The permittivity constant 0 = 8.854 1012

q1 Figure 2.1: Force on charge q2 owing to q1 .

2.2 The Electric Field

2.3 Forces on charges from Magnetic Fields

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

Figure 2.3: Magnetic eld surrounding a long straight current-carrying wire.

Figure 2.4: Force on a charged particle moving through a magnetic eld.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.4 Lorentz Force Law

2.5 Biot-Savart Law

Figure 2.5: Magnetic eld at point P owing to current I.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

by the vector quantity dl is found experimentally to be dB (r) = Idl sin 4R2

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.6 Work and Potential

Figure 2.6: Contour C joining points A and B.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.7 Magnetic Vector Potential

A dl (by Stokes theorem)

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.8 Energy stored in an Electrostatic Field

P2 q2 P3 q3 Figure 2.7: Collection of charges.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.9 Energy stored in a Magnetostatic Field

Figure 2.8: Energy is stored in the magnetic eld of the inductor.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

2.10 Other useful Vector Quantities

is called the magnetic eld intensity in Am1

2.11 Fields in Linear Isotropic Media

2.12 Electric Fields in Dielectric Media

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

Figure 2.9: Polarization of molecules caused by an applied electric eld.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

Table 2.1: Some permittivity values

2.13 Magnetic elds in Materials

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012

Figure 2.11: Permanent magnet modelled by an equivalent eld-generating current sheet.

AJW, EEE3055F, UCT 2012