Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

Ponderosa Protective Coatings

V. APPLICATION-RELATED FAILURES
Application-related failures are undoubtedly the cause
of the majority of diffculties encountered with protective
coatings or paints of all types. Paints and coatings are
failure-oriented, particularly on large structures, bridges,
off-shore platforms, ships, nuclear energy plants and
similar structures, for a number of reasons.
'The painting or coating operation is the last item of work
on most large projects. The contractor, the owner and the
engineers are pushing to have the job completed. Many
times their completion deadline may be passed, which
puts pressure on to complete the coating job as rapidly
as possible. This get the job done fast philosophy is a
source of many coating failures.
There is also a natural tendency on the part of people
to overlook and resist the proper cleanliness and the
proper surface preparation that is needed for an effective
coating job. There are untold examples of this where
chewing tobacco, cigarettes, small rocks, mud, steel shot
and similar trash have been carefully coated over.
Most of the defects that occur in applied coatings are not
related to the coating manufacturer, a poor formulation or
the selection of a wrong material, but are people-related.
This is caused by lack of knowledge, lack of training
and lack of understanding of the consequences of a
poorly applied coating. Other contributing factors are a
lack of proper coating application specifcations and a
lack of proper inspection. Care in writing the application
specifcations, proper training of applicators, care in the
application itself, care in the inspection of the fnished
coating are essential for a proper coating application and
for an effective coating result.
1. Mixing
Paint, as supplied by the manufacturer for a specifc use,
is usually ready for application by brushing or by spraying
when received by the applicator. Such paint will have been
formulated to have more than suffcient durability in the
environment where it is to be used, and no change should
be made in the composition or in the adjustment of the
consistency of the liquid coating unless specifed by the
manufacturer.
For proper application, a paint must be a homogeneous
mixture, as it was when manufactured. n the mixed
state, the consistency of the formulation is uniform and
the pigments are evenly dispersed. During prolonged
warehouse storage, pigments tend to settle to the bottom
of containers. Also, the surface of some paints may be
covered with a tough skin. t is essential that a paint be
carefully remixed before application is attempted. All
settled pigment must be redispersed and any surface skin
must be removed. Failure to effect such complete mixing
can cause early failure of the paint system.
2. Thinning
As previously stated, the consistency of a paint or coating
is usually correct as it is received from the manufacturer.
Most manufacturers attempt to provide the liquid coating
at the proper consistency in order to prevent failures
related to thinning. There is no universal thinner for the
wide range of sophisticated coatings that are necessary
today. Improper thinning can cause many different types of
failure. As an example, mineral spirits can be tolerated by
liquid vinyl coatings in certain amounts; however, if added
excessively to a vinyl coating poor adhesion will result.
Improper thinning of an epoxy coating can increase the
viscosity rather than reduce it. An alcohol type solvent for a
polyurethane could cause immediate jelling. While thinners
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Ponderosa Protective Coatings
are an essential part of any coating, they are incorporated
in the manufacture for proper application, proper leveling
on the surface and proper drying.
It is occasionally necessary to decrease the viscosity
of a paint by the addition of thinners. Such adjustment
of the consistency should be made only as directed or
advised by the manufacturer, by means of the proper
specifed thinners and at ratios specifcally recommended.
Substitution of other thinners for the specifed ones
should not be undertaken without consultation with the
suppliers; for none of the many thinners available are
generally adaptable for all paint formulations.
Thinners should be added slowly and with constant
stirring. Adding a large amount all at once may result in
local over-dilution and may cause curdling of the paint or
focculation of the pigment. This precipitation may appear
to stir in, but that portion of the mix that has curdled or
focculated is never restored to its original condition,
causing early failure.
3. Atmospheric Conditions
Painters normally determine the time of application,
which can contribute to the success or failure of the
coating, depending on the condition of the atmosphere.
Certainly, it is a poor decision to apply a coating before
an approaching rain squall, and yet this is often done.
Painters have also been observed wiping condensed
moisture from the surface of the steel structure and then
applying the coating. Inorganic zinc coatings have been
applied to steel surfaces which were suffciently cold
to freeze the water from the liquid coating, making the
coating useless. Water base coatings do not evaporate
properly when the humidity is too high or the temperature
too low, and the coating will not form properly under these
conditions.
The condition of the atmosphere while the paint is being
applied and cured can contribute to its success or failure.
Paint should be applied during relatively dry conditions.
The relative humidity should be 80% or less with the dew
point at least 3C (5 F) less than the ambient metal or
surface temperature. When the metal temperature is above
38C (100F), precautions must be taken to make certain
that the paint or coating does not dry too rapidly. Organic
coatings tend to overspray or surface dry and blister.
norganic zinc coatings may form a powdery soft flm that
does not harden properly.
Temperature is critical for the cure of many coatings,
particularly epoxies and coal tar epoxies. Because they
are internally reactive, unless the temperature is proper,
they will not cure to a satisfactory coating. Such materials
should not be applied at temperatures less than 25C
(60F) except on recommendation by the manufacturer.
t is wise not to paint if the ambient temperature is below
5 C (40 F), or less than 3C (5 F) above the dew point.
Application should be restricted to those hours when the
temperature is suffciently high to offset the possibility of
condensation of moisture during application and the drying
period.
4. Coating Thickness
A coating is a relatively thin flm or barrier separating two
reactive materials: the atmosphere on one side and the
substrate on the other side. This barrier must have an
even thickness over the entire surface to be protected;
otherwise, there will be areas prone to early failure
because they are too thin to separate properly the two
reactive elements. Thickness, therefore, is extremely
important. Each coating should have optimum thickness,
depending upon the surface over which it is applied and
the atmosphere in which it is to operate. This optimum
thickness can be determined only by actual experiment or
by consulting the manufacturer of the coating.
While too thin a coating can cause early failure, an
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
excessively thick coating can also cause early failure.
This is particularly true of inorganic zinc coatings.
Where they are applied too thickly, they tend to mud-
crack. Internally reactive coatings, such as epoxies
and polyurethanes, tend to crack and disbond due to
internal stresses within the coating because of shrinkage
during the curing reaction. Many such coatings have
literally pulled themselves off the surface due to excess
thickness. Any painter or coating applicator should
understand the problems arising from either too thin a
coating or one which is considerably over the optimum
thickness for proper use.
It must also be recognized from a practical standpoint
that the coating applicator cannot apply a completely
uniform coating, particularly to complicated structures.
Coating specifcations often give a minimum thickness,
such as "the coating shall be applied in two coats to
a minimum of 10 mils. Such a specifcation does not
recognize the excess thickness that may result. A proper
specifcation should recognize the practical aspects
of application and provide the applicator with a range
of thickness which, if followed, will provide the proper
average coating thickness for the use involved.
The thickness of a coating can be measured during
the application process by a wet flm thickness gage.
While this is not a positive instrument, it does indicate
what the thickness of the coating will be after it has
dried. A number of instruments provide the thickness of
the coating after it has dried. Such an instrument is an
essential part of the equipment of any paint foreman or
inspector who is doing a proper job.
5. Overspray
Overspray is a major cause of pinpoint rusting of steel
surfaces. Many modern, high-performance coatings have
a tendency to overspray unless properly applied. These
include coating types such as solvent-based inorganic
zincs, organic zincs, solvent-dry vinyls, chlorinated
rubbers, acrylics, heavy-bodied epoxies, and other similar
formulations. Overspray is the adherence of semi-dried
coating particles to the surface to be coated. The dust or
coating particle dries partially in the air between the spray
gun and the surface, and does not then fow together with
or join other particles to form a continuous coating. There
are bare or very thin areas between these discrete coating
particles. These bare areas act the same as pinholes, and
pinpoint rusting results.
Because overspray is the result of incorrect spray
technique or improper adjustment of spray equipment, it
can occur in any coat from the primer to the fnal top coat.
t may be caused by the spray gun being held too far away
from the surface to be coated, being held at a long angle
to the surface rather than perpendicularly, or having been
adjusted with too little material pressure and too much air
pressure.
With airless equipment, overspray can be caused by
too small a gun tip or one with too wide a spray pattern.
Airless equipment is preferred for application of a material
with a tendency to overspray because there is no air
atomization involved.
The proper technique to prevent overspray requires
optimum spray gun adjustment for both air and liquid
volume and the application of an even, wet coat over the
surface, with each pass of the coating being overlapped
50 percent. This method ensures that any minor dry
particles at the edge of the fan are incorporated into a wet
coating surface.
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Ponderosa Protective Coatings
Existing overspray on a surface being coated must be
removed or pinhole failure will almost surely occur. At
best, an unsightly coating application will result. The dry,
adherent particles should be wiped, scraped or sanded
from the surface before a proper wet coat is applied, or, if
pinholing of the coat applied over existing overspray has
already taken place, the overspray area should be given
a wet brush coat to work the coating into the existing
porous overspray area.
6. Pinholes
Pinholing is a common type of application failure. It
may result from several causes. The formulation of the
coating itself can cause pinholes, primarily because
of improper solvent balance when solvents evaporate
too rapidly at one stage of the drying process. Another,
more common cause is Improper application, usually
during spraying. The spray gun may be held too close
to the surface with excessive atomization pressure, or
excessive material pressure may be combined with low
atomization pressure.
A third cause of pinholes may be the surface itself.
Concrete may already contain innumerable bugholes that
must be flled if an impervious coating is to be obtained.
Pictorial descriptions of bugholes in concrete are found
in the ASTM Manual of Coating Work for Light Water
Nuclear Power Plant Primary Containment and Other
Safety-Related Facilities.
One cause of pinholing is the top coating of inorganic
zinc primers with organic top coats. During a period
shortly after the inorganic zinc coating has been applied,
it remains a porous flm and solvents from the organic
top coats can easily penetrate into the inorganic coating.
When the top coat is applied in the sun or under warm
conditions, the penetrated solvent evaporates rapidly
causing vapor pressure within the inorganic zinc and
under the organic top coat. This vapor pressure may
create small blisters or bubbles which, when they break,
cause pinholes to form. Top coats with slow drying
characteristics or with high solids and a low solvent
content help to alleviate this condition.
Pinholes are an immediate problem. Once they occur,
they will persist no matter how many subsequent coats
are applied. As one coat is sprayed over another, or over
pinholes in the substrate, the existing pinholes will act as
a reservoir for solvent vapor from the following coat. The
vapor pressure in the pinholes will then cause a bubble
in the following coat that will eventually break, leaving
a passage to the original pinhole and the underlying
surface.
Mechanical force is necessary to fll the pinholes with
liquid coating. This flling is accomplished by brushing
a coat into the pinholed area. Several passes over the
same area may be required to fll all pinholes.
Pinholing occurs most readily in lacquers and solvent-dry
coatings. Extra care should be taken during application of
these coatings to prevent pinholes from forming.
7. Spatter Coating
Spatter coating is caused during the spraying process
where the liquid coating particles hit the surface, but the
number of particles is insuffcient to form a complete and
continuous wet coat. This is often caused where a painter
does not suffciently overlap each pass of the spray gun,
or where he tends to fick the spray gun at a long angle
to the surface at the end of his spray pass. Oftentimes,
particularly under poor lighting conditions, the surface
may look as though it is completely coated. On the other
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
hand, once the coating has been exposed for a short
period of time, particularly on steel, general pinpoint
rusting will occur over the area where the spatter coating
exists. These pinpoints of rust will take place wherever
there is an opening between the droplets of the coating.
While it doesnt seem like this type of coating failure
should be common, it is one which is quite prevalent on
many steel structures.
The answer to this, like many other application related
failures, is care during the application process, making
certain that each pass of the spray gun is overlapped
at 50% with the coating going on as a wet flm, making
sure that the spray gun is held perpendicular to the
surface and that the gun is not ficked at an angle at the
end of the spray pass. Cross spraying is also a method
of application which helps to provide an even, uniform
coating.
8. Holidays
A painters holiday is any place on a structure the
painter has missed. This can be behind angles, around
rivets, longitudinal areas on pipe, or any area where
the coating has failed to be applied. Spatter coating is
related to holidays in that, as previously indicated, some
areas of the coating appear fnished, even though the
coating is not continuous in that area. Holidays can be
overcome only by care on the part of the painter during
the application.
9. Cratering
Cratering in a coating can be a most diffcult application
problem. Most cratering is encountered during the
application of slow drying or baked coatings, such
as pure phenolics, epoxy phenolics, pure epoxies,
polyurethanes, etc. The internal cure coatings appear
more susceptible to this phenomena than faster drying
coatings such as vinyls and chlorinated rubbers. Cratering
can be caused by several different conditions.
D One of the most common causes is oil in the blasting
or atomizing air. Here the condition will be general and
caused by minute droplets of the incompatible oil on the
surface or incorporated into the liquid coating during
application.
E Minute particles of dust or contamination from the
atmosphere may cause pinholes. They can fall on the
surface either before or during the application and may
come from steam blow off, dust or soot from boiler stacks,
fall out from paper mills, fertilizer plants or other similar
operations. Fallout from jet aircraft around airports may
cause problems.
F Some cratering has been found which is due to
the various protective skin creams used by workmen
during the surface preparation or other sources during
application of the coating. Silicone creams are particularly
diffcult. Cratering in these instances is usually localized
and due to contamination of the surface by those
materials. Most silicone resins are incompatible with other
coating vehicles thereby causing craters to occur.
Cratering can be defned as the formation of small bowl
shaped depressions at a point of contamination on the
surface. The craters are caused by the surface tension of
the coating being greater than the surface tension of the
contaminant. A repelling of the coating away from a point
due to a difference in static charge between a particle
at the point and the coating itself will cause a crater. At
times, the coating itself may be the cause of the diffculty,
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
having suffcient surface tension so that heavy areas of
the coating will tend to pull together.
Irrespective of the cause, failure of the coating can be
expected in the low areas of these craters, usually in the
form of pinpoint rusting starting at that point.
Once the cratering has occurred, it is diffcult to
overcome inasmuch as a second coat applied over
the same area may again crater in the same spot. The
procedure suggested in these cases is to physically
roughen the cratered area by hand sanding or other
means, and then apply the coating over the area by
brush, working the coating into the cratered areas in
order to physically coat the bottoms of the craters and
make sure that the coating thoroughly wets the surface.
Where this is not practical or it does not prevent the
cratering, the coating must be removed and the surface
reprepared, making sure that the cause of cratering is
eliminated before applying the repair coating.
10. Bleeding
This is the transfer of a soluble colored pigment or
vehicle in a dried flm to a subsequently applied topcoat.
It may also be the discoloration caused by the diffusion of
soluble ingredients in the substrate.
To correct this situation, coat the flm containing the
bleeding ingredient with two coats of a sealer in which
the bleeder is insoluble. An aluminum or emulsion fnish
over asphalt vehicles or solvent type primers over wood
substrates are examples. For areas of serious corrosion
any sealing material must be selected with care to make
sure of compatibility and proper adhesion.
11. Blushing
This is the hazing or whitening of a fnish as the result
of absorption and retention of moisture formed on the
flm during or immediately after spraying. t is normally
restricted to lacquers. Correction of this problem is not
always possible without reducing humidity; however,
recoating using a mist coat of retarder or a slower
evaporating reducing thinner may help. Correct air
pressure at the gun is important. Avoid using higher air
pressure than needed as this will cause rapid evaporation
and thereby increase moisture condensation.
12. Lifting
This usually occurs when the solvents in a top coat attack
and swell the previously applied flm resulting in distortion,
blisters or the formation of a wrinkled fnish. t may also
be caused by wax on the surface, use of incorrect thinner,
poor dry of undercoats or poor adhesion of old flm.
To correct, remove fnish from affected areas and refnish.
Make sure surface is clean and dry. Allow longer drying
time before recoating the undercoat. Make sure the
solvent in the topcoat is compatible with the previous coat
or undercoat before recoating.
13. Orange Peel
This is a bumpy pattern inherent in nearly all sprayed
flms, caused by either the spray pattern or the drying
characteristics of the fnish. t is an appearance problem
and should not cause coating failure.
If the degree of orange peel is objectionable, then
improvement in fow can be obtained from better spraying
technique, application of a good wet flm, or addition of a
small amount of slower solvents.
14. Runs or Sags
Runs are downward movements of a paint flm resulting
when excess material continues to fow after the
surrounding surface has set.
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
Sags are downward movements of a paint flm between
the times of application and setting resulting in a curtain
appearance.
Both of these problems may be caused by the use of too
much wet paint. Coatings failure can occur because of
thin coating above the sag or run.
Reduce material according to label directions, apply
thinner coat if rolled or brushed on. Regulate fuid
adjustment on the spray gun to cut down fow of material.
Make sure temperature of surface and coating are at
acceptable level.
If runs or sags are objectionable, the surface should be
removed with solvent or sanded smooth and refnished.
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
VI. DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE
Many coating failures occur because of the design of the
structure. Unfortunately, most structures are not designed
with the painting or coating process in mind. This being
the case, many failures are due not to the coating or its
application, but merely to diffcult problems of application
created by the design. Where there are design problems
that make a structure diffcult to coat adequately,
proper selection of the coating and careful and proper
application can overcome many of the inherent problems
created by the design.
Following are a number of typical areas, primarily on
steel structures, where coating problems are much more
prevalent than on plain surfaces.
1. Edges
Edges are always a problem on structures using
steel shapes, where the number of lineal feet of edge
compared to the plain surface is large. The edges of
sheared plate are one of the worst areas because they
are very sharp. The rounded edges of steel shapes,
such as on I-beams, H-beams and angles are less of a
problem; however, almost invariably where failure occurs
on a steel shape, it will be on the edge frst.
One cause is that many of the more sophisticated
coatings, such as vinyls, epoxies or polyurethanes, have
a high surface tension and also tend to shrink during
curing. A high surface tension of the coating tends to pull
the coating away from an edge, in many cases leaving
an extremely thin coating at that point. This being the
case, failure is inherent along the edge. On I-beams,
angles and similar shapes, the applicator more often
than not sprays on the plain surface while the edge is at
a tangent to the spray and only becomes spatter coated,
even though it may look well covered.
Horizontal surfaces on structural shapes (I-beams, H-
beams, etc.) tend to accumulate dust, dirt and chemical
fumes that fow toward an edge when any condensation
or precipitation occurs. As a result, a relatively strong
chemical deposit forms and remains on the edge. Such
a situation makes the edge even more susceptible to
coating failure.
There should be a direct application of the coating to
edges prior to applying an overall coat to the structure.
Edges should be double coated with each individual
coat. This procedure will help to maintain a full coating
thickness in these areas.
2. Deep square corners
These areas are on the interior of angles and on the
interior angle of H-beams, I-beams and very often on
built-up, complicated steel sections. There are two
problems. The frst is that these areas will accumulate dirt
and dust, and even though the surface is well prepared
by abrasive blasting, dust seems to accumulate in these
areas to a greater degree than on the plain surfaces. It is
also more diffcult to remove. When a coating is applied
over dust or dirt in these areas shrinkage and oftentimes
actual cracking of the coating occurs, creating an area for
immediate failure.
Second, even though the surface is thoroughly clean and
free from dust, these areas more often than not receive
a heavy coat because of the application of the coat to
the fat areas with the spray overlapping into the corner.
This can create the coating thickness on the interior
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
corner which is greater than recommended for the fat
surface. During curing and when shrinkage occurs, the
coating may tend to pull itself away from the interior
corner, creating a very thin flm or a void underneath the
coating. Although the coating may look continuous, if it
is exposed to serious corrosive conditions or immersion,
failure occurs by moisture penetration into this area. The
ultimate cracking and breaking of the flm occurs at this
point.
To overcome this design diffculty apply thin, multiple
coats to the deep corner, allowing each coat to dry before
a second coat.
3. Discontinuous areas
These areas are located around rivets, boltheads,
threads and similar areas. The cause of failure is similar
to that of sharp edges and corners. Careful application
can eliminate discontinuities in these areas.
A brush coat should be applied on all sides and edges of
the discontinuous area prior to applying the overall spray
coat. A brush coat is preferable to spray for the initial
application as the physical action of brushing forces the
coating into crevices and other small openings where the
spray coat will not reach.
4. Welds
There are literally millions of lineal feet of welds in many
structures. Relatively smooth machine welds create few
problems. Even so, there can be undercuts along edges
that should be watched.
Hand welds, in particular, require more care than plain
surfaces. These welds are much rougher than machine
welds and may have deep undercuts and holes along
the edges, with weld spatter on adjacent surfaces and, in
some cases, very rough, sharp protrusions. All of these
are focal points for corrosion and for coating failure.
Weld spatter, small balls of metal are spattered away from
the weld proper during the welding process. They are
always focal points for failure. Many times they are lightly
adherent and provide not only protrusions, but undercuts
as well. Weld spatter must be removed from the surface
for a proper coating job. These are not always removed
by sandblasting. Once the surface is prepared, however,
it is the recommended procedure to brush coat a weld,
working the coating into all of the rough areas before
applying the overall coat to the plain surface. This aids
materially in preventing premature failure at that point.
Where welds are treated in this manner, oftentimes the
plain surface of a coating will fail before the area of the
weld.
5. Skip welding
Overlapping plates and roof plates are often skip welded.
The reinforcing ring around the top of a tank may be
skip welded. Angles and similar shapes are skip welded
where a continuous weld is not necessary for ultimate
strength. From a coating standpoint, wherever serious
corrosive conditions exist, skip welds are an invitation to
coating failure and very inadequate surfaces for proper
coating even in mild environments. Water and moisture
accumulate between the plain surfaces of the plates. The
skip weld does not keep out the moisture. t is almost
impossible to apply a coating to the crevice between the
skipwelds and to obtain a satisfactory corrosion resistant
coating at that point.
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The only practical answer is complete welding of all the
seams to insure proper coating life in corrosive areas
and to maintain good appearance without rust stains
even under milder conditions. Caulking may even be
necessary in some cases.
6. Back to back angles
Many steel buildings have trusses, lattice work, and
similar areas constructed from angles which are
placed back to back. In some instances, the angles
are precoated by galvanizing or with inorganic zinc.
However, in any severely corrosive environment, even
this procedure is prone to failure and extremely diffcult
to protect properly by the use of coatings. The area
between the angles is diffcult to clean and impossible
to coat properly. Where such designs exist and where
corrosion dictates, the only practical answer is to fll all of
the void spaces between the angles with a plastic mastic
or caulking compound and then apply a compatible
coating over it. This, at best, is a stop-gap measure
and is no substitute for the use of T shapes or pipe for
structures where corrosive conditions exist.
7. Storage tanks
Many storage tanks are constructed with cone or
umbrella type roofs where there is usually a center pole
with -beam rafters extending out to the edge of the tank.
n addition to the many corners, edges, welds, bolts and
rivets, there are two particularly diffcult areas from the
standpoint of the interior coating of such tanks. The frst
is the steel between the -beam rafter and the steel roof
plate. Here the steel plate is merely laid on the rafter, and
unless the coating is applied to the underside of the plate
and the top-side of the rafter prior to installation, this area
will fail even under mild conditions. f the coating is to be
applied after construction, it is necessary to raise the roof
by wedges and prepare the surface to coat in the best
manner possible. This area is particularly vulnerable due
to moisture condensation.
The second area is the crevice between the lapped
roof plates. Generally, the roof plates are welded on the
exterior with the lap on the interior. n this reservoir for
corrosive solutions failure takes place rapidly.
A coating cannot prevent corrosion with this type of
construction. Where a coating is required on the interior of
such a tank, roof plates should be butt welded or should
be welded on each side of the lap so that a continuous
coating is possible.
8. Pipe structures
Much of the construction of off-shore platforms is done
with pipe to minimize coating failure and corrosion. Pipe
provides a plain surface with no sharp corners or edges
subject to early failure. t would seem, therefore, that pipe
would be an ideal type of surface to coat. There can be
problems, however, primarily ones of application.
If failure occurs, other than at a joint, it is usually
longitudinal with the pipe. This is caused by insuffcient
overlapping of the spray passes during the coating
process. In coating pipe, it is essential that each spray be
overlapped at least 50%. With large pipe, this means that
there are numerous passes required in order to obtain a
holiday-free coating.
n addition to areas where pipe is used as the principal
construction member, there may be hundreds of miles of
pipe used in a single industrial plant, all of which require
coating. Here, in addition to the cylindrical structure,
there are pipe fanges, valves, threaded joints, bolts,
pipe hangers and pipe racks. These areas have all of the
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focal points for corrosion which have been previously
discussed, and wherever corrosion is a factor , care must
be taken to make sure that all of the diffcult areas are
fully coated. Much pipe used for new construction comes
with a factory applied temporary coating. This must be
removed by abrasive blasting for proper coating adhesion
and performance. Care in the surface preparation and
care in the application of the coating are the only answers
to a satisfactory coating job.
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VII. FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
In almost all coating failures exterior forces are involved,
since the environment in which the coating operates is
the primary cause of failure. f there were no exterior
corrosive environment, then no coating failure could
occur, even though there were coating imperfections. n
this section however, ordinary atmospheric conditions are
not considered, since it is taken for granted that coatings
must withstand most exterior conditions, including marine
conditions.
1. Chemical failure
Chemicals are the most obvious exterior force that can
cause the failure of coatings, since the chemical industry,
considered in its broadest scope, is one of the largest,
if not the largest, industry where severe coating failures
can occur. There are literally thousands of different
chemicals to which a coating may be exposed and, this
being the case, it is understandable that there are also
hundreds of specialty coatings that have been developed
to resist attack by these chemicals.
The attack may be by simple solution of the coating,
reacting with the coating to render it useless, or
chemicals may actually penetrate the coating and cause
corrosion to the steel underneath. Attack by volatile
acids, such as hydrochloric and nitric, often cause the
latter failure. The caustic chlorine industry and the rayon
industry can cause coating failures both by actual coating
attack and by penetration and under-flm corrosion. The
interior and exterior of tank cars, specialty tankers and
storage tanks in terminals are all areas where chemical
attack of coating is common.
There is no universal solution to the problem. Each
condition must be considered on its own. The proper
coating must be selected. The best surface preparation
must be used and a defect-free application obtained. An
improper coating selection or improper application of the
right coating can be disastrous.
2. Erosion and abrasion
These are exterior forces that can cause coating failure.
One example is erosion by sand and wave action of
coatings applied to steel piling on beaches.
Sand erosion by wind is another example. Other
examples are the abrasion on the interior of hopper cars,
interior abrasion in pipe lines due to particulate matter in
the liquid, or abrasion on foors by wheeled traffc. The
moving and handling of many fertilizers can cause both
abrasion failure and chemical failure of the coating. In
such cases, specialty coatings must be selected to resist
the abrasion and erosion as well as the normal corrosion
which might be expected should the coating wear through.
3. Faying surfaces
Coating failures can occur where joints in steel structures
are formed by riveting or by the use of high strength bolts.
Such joints are common on bridges and in many open
steel work plants such as refneries and chemical plants.
If there is a crevice at the joint, the coating applied to the
surface can fail at that point, allowing access to moisture
or chemicals, with resulting corrosion. Most coatings are
unsuitable for use within the joint itself as they do not
provide the proper coeffcient of friction to maintain the
joint in a static condition. Even galvanized surfaces do not
have suffcient coeffcient of friction to provide a proper
joint.
In the past, most joints have been made on a steel to
steel basis in order to obtain the proper friction resistance.
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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure
Ponderosa Protective Coatings
Recently, however, it has been determined that inorganic
zinc silicate coatings have adequate friction resistance
and can be used as a coating between the contact
surfaces in riveted and bolted joints. The use of the
inorganic zinc coating as a base coating within and
outside of the joint provides an excellent corrosion
resistant answer for coating bolted or riveted structures.
When there is liquid penetration at such joints, crevice
corrosion can occur due to the oxygen concentration
cell effect, especially if dissimilar metals make the steel
surface cathodic to the bolt of high-strength steel.
VIII. SUMMARY
Coating failures may be caused by the coating
formulation or the materials from which it is made; by the
basic characteristics of the surface coated; by improper
surface preparation; by the design of the structure
coated; or by poor coating application procedures.
Coating failures can be prevented only by using the
proper material for the job, and by care in the application
to achieve complete, uninterrupted coating coverages
irrespective of the built-in problems of the design and
materials of construction. On any coating job, the following
procedures are recommended to assure coating success.
1. Analyze the exposure and the structure, and specify
the material which will properly meet the conditions. Do
not compromise on price or quality. The material is the
least costly item of a coating application.
2. Use a detailed specifcation covering the method of
surface preparation and the application of the coating. A
general specifcation is not adequate.
3. Make a detailed inspection of the surface preparation
and the application procedures to assure conformity with
the specifcation in numbers 1 and 2 above.
Irrespective of the structure or the corrosive conditions, a
strong specifcation and good follow-up inspection are the
two most important keys to a successful and failure-free
coating job.

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