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INTRODUCTION

Kohat Plateau constitutes the westernmost part of the Himalayan foreland fold-thrust belt in Pakistan, the tectonically imbricated Indian continent foredeep which is being underthrust beneath the Himalaya. It is about 70 km wide in the north-south (cross-strike) direction, and is narrow, highly deformed and structurally elevated as compared to the adjoining Potwar Plateau. The stratigraphic formations exposed in the northern part of the Kohat Plateau range from the Upper Paleocene Patala Formation (shale), through the Panoba Shale, Mami Khel Clay and Kohat Formation (carbonate) to the Lower Miocene Murree Formation (clastic), all of which are underlain by Mesozoic-Paleocene carbonate strata, while in the south the Eocene Jatta gypsum and Bahadur Khel Salt and Miocene-Pleistocene clastic rocks of the Rawalpindi and Siwalik groups dominate. The thrust sheet geometry and fold-fault relationships in Kohat Plateau are complex, characterized by E-W-trending tight anticlines and broad synclines with variable plunge. The structural complexity and plunge reversals may be due in part to mobility of salt during folding and thrusting, possibly enhanced by buoyant diapirism. The area has recently received much attention because the adjacent Potwar Plateau is being exploited for oil and gas reserves. The Dakhni oil field in the Potwar area, situated about 10 km east of Kohat Plateau, is producing oil from Eocene limestone. Features such as oil seeps, the Panoba oil shale, and common diapiric structures make the Kohat Plateau attractive for further investigation. Several distinct and controversial tectonic models that have been published in the literature (Abbasi and McElroy, 1991; Sercombe et al., 1998; Ahmad, 2003) highlight the fact that there are uncertainties about the structural style of the area. The structural complexity and inadequate seismic resolution have hindered accurate interpretation. In view of the scientific and commercial importance of the area, further study is needed to resolve the structural complexities. The goal of this Ph.D dissertation project (commenced in January 2007) is to improve our understanding of the structural geometry and kinematic and tectonic evolution of the area based on geological mapping, inerpretation of available seismic and well data and satellite imagery, physical analog (centrifuge) modelling and construction of balanced crosssections.

REFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF FOLD-THRUST STRUCTURES IN KOHAT PLATEAU, NW PAKISTAN


Shah Faisal, John M. Dixon,

Abbasi, I.A.; McElroy, R., 1991. Thrust kinematics in the Kohat Plateau, Trans Indus Range, Pakistan. Journal of Structural Geology 13(3), 319-327. Ahmad, S., 2003. A comparative study of structural styles in the Kohat Plateau, NW Himalayas, NWFP, Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. Bird, P., 1978. Initiation of intracontinental subduction in the Himalaya. Journal of Geophysical Research 83, 4975-4987. Coward, M.P.; Windley, B.F.; Broughton, R.D.; Luff, I.W.; Petterson, M.G.; Pudsey, C.J.; Rex, D.C.; Khan, M.A., 1986. Collision Tectonics. Geological Society of London, Special Publication 19, 203-129. Davis, D.M.; Lillie, R.J., 1994. Changing mechanical response during continental collision: active examples from the foreland thrust belts of Pakistan. Journal of Structural Geology, 16(I), 21-34.

FOLD-FAULT RESEARCH PROJECT


KOHAT PLATEAU
The western deformed portion of the Himalayan foreland basin is known as the Kohat-Potwar fold thrust-belt. The Kohat Plateau contains deformed sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Paleocene to Pleistocene (Table 1) that were originally deposited on the northern Indian plate (Meissner et al., 1974; Pivnik and Wells, 1996). Geologically, the Kohat area is bounded by the Main Boundary Thrust to the north, which uplifts Mesozoic-Paleocene sediments over the Tertiary of the Kohat Plateau, and by the Surghar Range Thrust to the south (Kazmi and Rana, 1982), which is is separated from the Salt Range Thrust by the Kalabagh strike-slip fault. The Kohat Plateau merges to the southwest with the Bannu Basin, a depression mostly occupied by flat-lying Siwalik sediments (Fig. 3). The Indus River marks the eastern limit of Kohat Plateau, separating it from the Potwar Plateau, and to the west the Kohat Plateau is limited by the NNE-SSW oriented Kurram fault (Fig. 3). In order to test geometric models of fold-thrust system evolution in the Kohat Plateau, an area in the western part of the Plateau is selected for investigation. The proposed Ph.D. project will focus on a portion of the Kohat Plateau located between N 33o 15'00 - 33o 38' 00 and E 71o 05' 00 - 71o 26' 00, which lies within the Survey of Pakistan topographic maps 38O/2, 38O/3, 38O/6 and 38O/7 (Fig. 4).

PREVIOUS WORK ON KOHAT PLATEAU


Kohat Plateau has been the focus of attention by geoscientists since 1832, when Burnes reported the occurrence of salt in the area. According to Abbasi and McElroy (1991) the Kohat Plateau shows greater internal deformation as compared to the western Potwar because its basal detachment has a shallower dip. It has higher structural relief as compared to Potwar Plateau and two detachment zones are inferred to lie beneath it. The upper detachment zone is localized along the Eocene Bahadur Khel Salt and Jatta Gypsum and is estimated to be at depth of about 1.5-2km. The lower detachment zone is inferred to occur along the Eocambrian Salt Range Formation below the Mesozoic-Paleozoic sequence (Fig. 5). This geometry forms a blind duplex beneath the Kohat Plateau. Sercombe et al. (1998) demonstrated the absence of duplexes, passive roof thrusts, and antiformal stacks in this region. They argued against the conventional interpretation of south-verging thin-skinned thrust faults and interpreted the Kohat Plateau has having undergone significant transpressional deformation expressed as highly oblique reverse faults with considerable strike-slip components, positive flower structures, and basement-involved deformation (Fig. 6). Ahmad (2003) presented yet another interpretation. In his model the Kohat Plateau is a thin-skinned deformed fold and thrust belt over its major part, superimposed by thick-skinned structures in the south. He divided the Kohat Plateau into northern, central and southern parts on the basis of the structural style (Figs 7-9).

PROBLEMS
Based on the previous work outlined above it is apparent that questions such as the following should be addressed: 1. What is the style of deformation? Is Kohat Plateau a typical foreland fold and thrust belt and how it can be compared with other thrust belt of the world? There is apparently a major contrast in the structural style and the pattern of thrust propagation in the Kohat Plateau relative to the adjacent Potwar Plateau. What is the role of salt in the structural style and tectonic evolution of the area? Salt has the potential to create dishormonic structures (surface & sub-surface) and localize detachment horizons. All the faults in the southern part of the proposed study area apparently place gypsum over the molasse only. Is the Karak fault a strike-slip or a thrust fault? There is about 6 km of throw (extensive vertical relief) along this fault in a short horizontal distance. 5. 4. 5. 6. What is the exact location of the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the study area? What is the reason of doubly-overturned folds and other small structural features in the Kohat Plateau? Does the contrast in the lithology and stratigraphy from north to south in the Kohat Plateau have any effect on the structures of the area? The northern part of the Plateau is comprised of carbonate whereas in the south a thick sequence (5-6km) of clastic sediments occupies the area. What is the structural/geometric relationship between basement and overlying sediments? There are different views about the nature of basement rocks i.e Precambrian slate/argillites. What is the cause of the strong plunge variations exhibited by the folds and faults in central Kohat Plateau? This characteristic, which may be due to salt mobility and/or diapirism during folding and thrusting, makes it difficult to draw accurate cross sections and consequentially hinders hydrocarbon exploration. Centrifuge modeling can be used to address this issue.

METHODOLOGY
This study will be based on field mapping at 1:50,000 scale, integrated with analysis of available seismic, well and satellite-imagery data and supported by physical analog (centrifuge) modeling. Different methods which will be employed in this research project are: 1. 2. Landsat image data of the Plateau will be acquired and interpreted in the lab to serve as a base map for the field traverses. Field mapping at 1:50,000 scale will be done to check the validity of published maps and acquire new data. Seismic and well data for the area will be acquired from Pakistan government and industry sources to relate the subsurface structures with surface geology. Scaled physical analogue modeling will be conducted using the centrifuge technique to understand the structural evolution of the area. Balanced and restored cross-sections will be constructed using 2DMove.

Dixon, J.M.; Liu, S., 1991. Centrifuge modeling of the propagation of thrust faults. In: McClay, K.R. (ed.), Thrust Tectonics. London: Chapman & Hall, 53-70. Dixon, J.M.; Spratt, D.A., 2004, Deformation at lateral ramps and tear faults: centrifuge models and examples from the Canadian Rocky Mountain foothills, Chap. 13 in K.R. McClay, ed., Thrust Tectonics and Petroleum Systems: AAPG Memoir 82, p. 239-258. Dixon, J.M.; Summers, J.M., 1985. Recent developments in centrifuge modeling of tectonic processes: equipment, model construction techniques and rheology of model materials. Journal of Structural Geology, 7 83-102. Gee, E.R., 1989. Overview of the geology and structure of the Salt Range, with observations on related areas of northern Pakistan. In: Malinconico, L.L and Lillie, R.J. (Eds.), Tectonics of western Himalayas. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 232, 95-112. Jacob, K.H.; Quittmayer, R.L., 1979. The Makran Region of Pakistan and Iran: Trench-arc system with active plate subduction. In Farah, A. and DeJong, K.A. (eds), Geodynamics of Pakistan, 305-317. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Special Publication. Jaswal, T. M.; Lillie, R. J.; Lawrence, R. D. 1997. Structure and evolution of the northern Potwar deformed zone, Pakistan. American Association of Petroleum Geologist 81, 308-328. Kennett, J., 1982. Marine geology. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 813p.

2.

3. 4.

TECTONIC SETTING
The collision of the Indian plate with Asia (Fig. 1), which is continuing at a rate of 5 mm/a (Patriat and Achache, 1984), has produced a remarkable variety of active fold-and-thrust wedges within Pakistan. These zones extend from the Kashmir fold-and-thrust belt in NE Pakistan, southwestward through the Salt Range-Potwar Plateau fold belt, the Sulaiman fold belt, and the Makran accretionary wedge (Fig. 2). This collision between the Indian and Eurasian plats began during the middle to late Eocene (Yoshida et al., 1997) in association with Late CretaceousCenozoic spreading along the Carlsberg-southeast Indian Ocean Ridge (McKenzie and Sclater, 1971). Sea-floor reconstruction indicates that about 2000 km of convergence has occurred between India and Eurasia since the collision began (Patriat and Achache, 1984). In northern Pakistan, the Himalayan ranges are divided into four major subdivisions (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984). North of the Main Karakoram thrust lie the Karakoram Range and Hindu Kush, terranes of Gondwana affinity sutured to Eurasia (Turan block) in the Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic (Sengr, 1979). South of the Main Karakoram thrust and north of the Main Mantle thrust lies the Kohistan block (Fig. 2), a terrane believed to have been formed as an island arc (Tahirkheli, 1982), which docked with Eurasia in the Late Cretaceous (Windley, 1983) to early Eocene (Kennett, 1982). Zeitler et al. (1982) suggest that the Main Mantle Thrust locked approximately 15 Ma ago, subsequent to rapid uplift north of the fault between 30-15 Ma). During the early Miocene, deformation propagated southward near the Main Boundary thrust (Bird, 1978), where unmetamorphosed lower Tertiary rocks are thrust over Neogene molasse. In the latest phase in Pakistan, thrusting transferred to the Salt Range thrust, where deformation as young as 0.4 Ma has been documented (Yeats et al., 1984). In the Lesser Himalaya of northern Pakistan (Hill Ranges), detachments at upper crustal levels occur along a series of south-verging thrust (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984).

Figure 8.Cross section across central Kohat Plateau (Ahmad, 2003).

3.

CENTRIFUGE MODELING
Fold-thrust deformation can be simulated using models constructed of laminae of Plasticine modeling clay and silicone putty, which are suitable mechanical analogues for limestone (or sandstone) and shale, respectively (Dixon and Summers, 1985). Each stratigraphic unit is constructed of finely interlayered sheets of Plasticine (representing competent rock such as carbonates and coarse clastics) and silicone putty (representing incompetent rock such as shale or salt). Because the individual stratigraphic units are internally laminated they retain a mechanical anisotropy that simulates bedding. With appropriate model materials considerable geometric and dynamic similarity between the models and the natural prototype system can be achieved (Dixon & Summers 1985; Dixon and Liu, 1991; Dixon & Spratt, 2004). The model is placed in a large-capacity centrifuge, which can hold specimens of 76X127 mm in plan and up to 50 mm (but typically 5-10 mm) in depth (Fig. 4). The radial centrifugal force field simulates the Earth's gravitational field. The experiment is run at an acceleration (typically 4000g) selected to achieve correct scaling of body forces. In this study, centrifuge modeling will be performed at Queen's University to investigate the structural evolution of Kohat Plateau. This will help us to understand the nucleation and propagation of folds and faults, the interplay between folding and thrusting, the influence of gravity on the structures in the study area, as well as the influence of salt and other weak layers on the geometry and kinematic evolution of the structures. Applying this technique in the study area for the first time will help us to test existing geological models in order to develop a proper understanding of the structural style in of the Kohat Plateau.

7.

McKenzie, D.P.; Sclater, J.G., 1971. The evolution of the Indian Ocean since the Late Cretaceous. Geophysical Journal 25, 437-528. Meissner, C. R.; Master, J. M.; Rashid, M. A.; Hussain, M., 1974. Stratigraphy of the Kohat Quadrangle. USGS Professional Paper no. 716, 1-30. Patriat, P.; Achache, J., 1984. Collision chronology and its implications for crustal shortening and the driving mechanisms of plate India-Eurasia. Nature 311, 615-621. Pivinik, D. A.; Well, N. A., 1996. The transition from Tethys to the Himalaya as recorded in northwest Pakistan. Geological Society of America Bulletin 108(10), 1295-1313. Sercombe, W. J.; Pivnik, D. A.; Wilson, W. P.; Albertin, M. L.; Beck, R. A.; Stratton, M. A., 1998. Wrench faulting in the northern Pakistan Foreland. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 82(11), 2003-2030. Sengr, A.M.C. 1979. Mid-Mesozoic closure of Permo-Triassic Tethys and its implications. Nature 279, 590-593. Tahirkheli, R.A.K, 1982. Geology of Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindukush in Pakistan. Geological Bulletin of the University of Peshawar 15, 1-15. Windley, B.F., 1983. Metamorphism and tectonics of the Himalaya. Journal of Geological Society of London 140, 849-865. Yeats, R.S.; Lawrence, R.D., 1984. Tectonics of the Himalayan thrust belt in northern Pakistan. In: Haq, B.U. and Milliman, J.D. (Eds.), Marine geology and oceanography of Arabian Sea and coastal Pakistan. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 177-198.

8.

Figure 9.Cross section across the southern part of the Kohat Plateau (Ahmad, 2003).

AGE

GROUP

FORMATION No formation name Soan /Chaudhwan Formation


Quaternary alluvial

DESCRIPTION

Figure 1. Tectonic sketch map showing the Himalayan collision zone and motion of India relative to Asia (in cm/year, (Jacob and Quittmeyer 1979). AF Alltyn Tagh Fault, BD Bangladesh, CF Chaman Fault, CLR Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Reunion Hotspot), HF Herat Fault, KF Karakoram Fault, MBT Main Boundary Thrust, MCT Main Central Thrust, MKT Main Karakoram Thrust, MMT Main Mantle Thrust, MR Murray Ridge (Kerguelen hotspot track), NER Ninety-East Ridge, OFZ Owen fracture zone, SL Sri Lanka, SR/PP Salt Range/Potwar Plateau, SRT Salt Range Thrust, TS Tsangpo suture. Modified after Davis and Lillie (1994).

Figure 5. N-S cross-section through Kohat Plateau, based on surface data and measured stratigraphic thicknesses, showing passive roof duplex (blind duplex) geometry between the MBT and Shakardarrra area (Abbasi and McElroy, 1991). Location of the cross section is shown in the Fig. 4 (line A-B) Figure 3. Tectonic map of Northern Pakistan, showing major structural boundaries. Abbreviations: AB Abbottabad, ACR Attock-Cherat Range, BB Bannu Basin, CB Campbellpore Basin, CF Cherat Fault, H Hassanabdal, HTF Hisartang Fault, KCR Kalachitta Range, KF Kurram Fault, KFZ Kalabagh Fault Zone, KR Khyber Range, KSR Koh-e-Sofaid Range, KTR Kohat Range, M Murree, MA Muzaffarabad, MBT Main Boundary Thrust, MH Margalla Hill Range, NB Nizampur Basin, P Peshawar, PB Peshawar Basin, SR Samana Range, SRT Surghar Range Thrust. (Modified after Hylland et al. 1988). The insert map shows the outline of the main figure and the box to the west of Kohat shows the area that will be the focus of the present study. The shaded area shows recent sediments/Rawalpindi group.

QUATERNARY

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY


The main objective of this research work is to determine the thrust belt geometry and document the kinematic evolution of the area. During this research work the following studies are proposed to be conducted: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. To carry out detailed field investigation in order to prepare a geological map of the area at 1:50,000 scale. To understand the stratigraphy of the area including any lateral variation. To define the geometry and kinematics of the structures and determine their interrelationship. To check variations in thrust wedge geometries along strike. To analyse the mechanisms and relative timing of thrusting and folding.

Cobble-boulder conglomerate with casts of quartzite, metavolcanic, igneous rock and limestone.

Computer Modeling
The revolution in computer technology has provided a powerful tool for 2D and 3D structure evaluation. Software packages such as Midland Valley's 2DMove facilitate the visualization and modeling of structural data and allow interpreters to attack more complicated problems. Computer modeling will be used for the construction of balanced and restored cross sections of the study area.

PLIO-PLEISTOCENE

Siwalik Group

Alternating cycles of sandstones (light grey-white) and clay beds (orange). Conglomerates occur in the upper part. Sandstone (light grey-greenish grey) with subordinate Nagri Formation clay and conglomerate. Chinji Formation Claystone, mudstone, siltstone and sandstone (red).

Dhok Pathan Formation

MIOCENE

Rawalpindi Group

Kamlial Formation Murree Formation (Plate 1)

Sandstone (purple grey - dark red), interbedded shale and pseudo-conglomerate. Sandstone, claystone and siltstone alternate beds.

To develop a structural and tectonic model of the area and compare it with that for the adjacent Potwar Plateau (Jaswal et al. 1997). To construct balanced and restored cross-sections using 2DMove software in order to constrain the amount of horizontal shortening across the fold-thrust belt. To use physical analog (centrifuge) modeling to test hypotheses regarding the structural and kinematic evolution of the Kohat Plateau, and in particular the influence of the mechanical stratigraphy on the deformation style.this issue.

51 mm

EOCENE

Eocene Sequence

c) Habib Rahi Member Hard, dense, thick bedded - massive limestone (cream). b) Sadkal Member Kohat Formation Calcareous shale (greenish grey) and limestone (light (Plate 2) grey). a) Kaladhand Member Hard, dense, thin-bedded limestone (light grey) with thin shale beds. Mami Khel Clay Siltstone (maroon) interbedded with thin beds of sandstone and occasionally conglomeratic beds. (Plate 3) Shekhan Nodular, bioturbated limestone (yellowish-grey) with interbedded shale. Formation Jatta Gypsum The gypsum (light-gray, white and greenish-gray), massive, and has light dark color bandings. (Plate 4) The salt (dark gray black), bedded - massive with Bahdur Khel Salt clear salt crystals. Panoba Shale Calcareous shale (greenish-grey) interbedded finely laminated silt (dark gray) (Plate 5)

mm 6 7

lan r e t Hin

ge d e W

12

m m 86

To understand the style of deformation and define different tectonic deformation stages in the area in relation to the regional tectonics.

d n a l e For
Rig id Ba se

Yoshida, M.; Zaman, H.; Khadim, I.M.; Ahmad, M.N.; Akram, H., 1997. Paleoposition of the Himalaya-Karakoram belt and surrounding terranes since Cretaceous Paleomagenetic reconstruction of three phases collision history. In: Khadim, I.M., Zaman, H. and Yoshida, M. (Eds.), Paleomagnetism of Collision Belts.
Internally Layered Foreland Sequence Plasticine Hinterland Wedge

me

nt

Aluminum substrate

PALEOCENE

Paleocene Sequence

Patala Formation (Plate 6) Lockhart Limestone

It is comprised of light grey to greenish brown marl with interbeds of pale grey limestone and calcareous shale. Consists of limestone, marl and rare shale. The limestone is dark grey, nodular, massive, shelly and fossiliferous.

Figure 6. Cross of Tolanj anticlinorium based on surface transect data, formation tops, and dipmeter data from Tolanj 1 well (after Sercombe et al., 1998). Location of cross section is shown in Fig. 4 (line C-D).

Table 1. Stratigraphic framework of Kohat Plateau (Modified after Meissner et al. 1974)

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of model assembly for fold-thrust modeling in the Queen's centrifuge. The basement block is composed of aluminum plates, each 3 mm thick, which can be separated so that the model can be cut into transverse serial sections at that spacing. Shortening of the foreland stratigraphic succession is caused by the gravitational collapse of the hinterland wedge.
psym Jatta Gy

lik Siwa

Figure 2. Generalized tectonic map of Pakistan showing tectonic elements of the active Himalayan foreland thrust belt and the location of the Makran accretionary wedge. MKT Main Karakoram Thrust, MMT Main Mantle Thrust, MBT Main Boundary Thrust, CMF Chukhan Manda Fault, IB Islamabad, K Karachi, Kt Kohat, KF Kingri Fault, KFTB Kirthar foreland-and-thrust belt, KMF Kurram Fault, KRF Kirthar Fault, NR Nagarparkar ridge, ONF Ornach Nal Fault, P Peshawar, PF Pab Fault, Q Quetta, S Sargodha, SFTB Sulaiman foreland fold-and-thrust belt, SH Sargodha basement high, SR/PP Salt Range/Potwar Plateau, SRT Salt Range Thrust, ST Sibi Trough. The dotted box shows the location of the map of Meissner et al. (1974) see Fig. 4. Modified from Davis and Lillie (1994).

Figure 4. Geological map of the Kohat area (Meissner et al., 1974), published at a scale of 1:250,000.The box outlines the area of focus of the proposed study. Section line A-B shows the location of the Shakardarrra cross section (Abbasi and McElroy, 1991; see Fig. 5). Section line C-D shows the location of the Tolanj anticlinorium cross section (Sercombe et al., 1998; see Fig. 6).

Figure 7.Cross section across the northern part of the Kohat Plateau (Ahmad, 2003). Plate 1. Cross bedding in Murree Sandstone (Rawalpindi Group) Plate 2. Thinly bedded Kohat Formaton Plate 3. Mami Khel Clay with conglomerate beds in upper part. Plate 4. Jatta Gypsum, massive, light dark color Plate 5. Panoba Shale, greenish-grey calcareous Plate 6. Patala Shale, with micor-conglomerat lense Faulted contact? between Jatta Gypusm and Siwalk group sediments

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