SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES Mohamad Nagi and Robert Kilgour GHD Global Pty Ltd, Dubai,

U.A.E

Synopsis: Methodologies and computer models for predicting the service life of reinforced concrete structure were developed over the years. Methods were mainly used to define the remaining service life of existing structures based on the durability characteristics of concrete. Currently, these technologies were adopted to define the service life at the design stage. In the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf region, authorities are requesting extended service life (75 to 100 years) of their key infrastructures such as bridges and towers with minimum maintenance and life cycle cost. Since the Gulf is considered the most corrosive place in the world, corrosion of reinforcement is the main durability element controlling the service life of structures in this region. Prediction models were used to assess the service life of reinforced concrete towers and bridges and provide guidance to achieve such targeted life. High performance concrete, corrosion resistant steel and inhibiting admixtures are currently used in the region to enhance concrete durability and extend the service life of structures.

Keywords: Service life, diffusion coefficient, corrosion, concrete durability

INTRODUCTION During the first construction booming in the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula in the early 1970s, many concrete structures marine structures were built based on foreign codes without paying attention to the unique environment in the region. As a result, the high temperature and severe environment have lead to a major durability-related deterioration, in some of these structures within 10 to 15 years (1). Currently, the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula region is on the top of the worlds list in concrete construction and the daily consumption of concrete is probably the highest in the world. From super tall towers to marine, industrials and highways structures, reinforced concrete stands as the main material used in construction. In the last decade, Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCM) such as fly ash, silica fume and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) made their way to the Gulf and are commonly used to produce high strength and high performance concretes. Considering the high initial construction cost, Developers and authorities are demanding much longer service life of their structures (75 to 100 years or more) with minimum maintenance and life cycle cost. Due to the harsh and severe environments in the Gulf region, durability characteristics of concrete control its service life. Production of durable and good quality concrete is the key to extend the service life of the structures. Designers are now looking into durability modeling to assess the service life of the designed facilities. SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION In general, service life is the period of time during which a structure meets or exceeds the minimum requirements set for it. The requirements limiting the service life can be technical, functional or economical. (2). The technical requirements are related to the structural functions of the structure.

As mentioned above, the main deteriorating factors affecting the service life of concrete structures are durability related ones. Durability by definition is the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. Concrete ingredients and their proportions, and interaction among ingredients, curing and placing of concrete control its ultimate durability (3). Alkali-aggregate reaction, sulfate attack, and corrosion are the main factors affecting the performance of concrete structures. In the Gulf region, while other factors exist, the corrosion of reinforcing steel is the main factor controlling the service life of reinforced concrete structures. Mechanism of corrosion is well covered and understood. Steel reinforcement is usually protected in concrete as far as the passivated layer (protective iron oxide film) formed in the concrete high-alkali environment is existed (4, 5). Whenever this layer is damaged either due to carbonation or the presence of chloride ions, and in the presence of oxygen, corrosion will start. The chlorideinduced corrosion is the common form of corrosion in the region. The Gulf area is predominantly ex-seabed sand. There is a very high chloride content in the sand and ground water. Salt content can be several times the seawater combining with the high ambient temperature and high humidity, making the Gulf one of the most corrosive location in the world. Service life prediction models Service life models can be divided into two groups: deterministic and probabilistic. Deterministic models are based on empirical relationship, while probabilistic models are based on stochastic behavior of structures (2,6). It is based on the idea that the service life cannot be accurately predicted. All models developed over the years are based on the idea that the service life is the total of the initiation time and the propagation time of corrosion. Figure 1 illustrates the principle of service life analysis. It is assumed that corrosion is initiated when chloride content at the level of reinforcing steel reaches the defined corrosion threshold. The estimated time for corrosion initiation can be calculated using Ficks second law of diffusion, assuming diffusion is the main mechanism of chloride ingress into concrete

DC/dt = D. d2C/dx2 C T X D Chloride content time depth (form exposed surface) apparent diffusion coefficient

The general solution of the above-mentioned equation is as follows:

C x ,t
with

Cs

Cs

Ci

ERFC

x 2 Dt

Cx,t = the chloride concentration at concrete depth x and at time t, Cs = the projected chloride concentration at the surface, Ci = D= the initial chloride concentration, the apparent chloride diffusion coefficient (m2/sec, in.2/year), and

ERFC is an error function. One of the earliest and simplest model for predicting service life of structures was the one developed by Tutti in the early 1980s (2, 8). The propagation time is considered to be a constant period of time. Tuttis model analysis was supported by experimental data. A more complicated model combining both deterministic and probabilistic models was developed by Gannon and others (9) using Monte Carlo statistical simulation. The Monte Carlo simulation is used to generate values for an equation whose variables have a specified distribution. Variables such as reinforcing cover and diffusion coefficient are used to solve the diffusion equation.

Determination of Diffusion Coefficient. As mentioned above, diffusion coefficient is a key factor in predicting the time to corrosion. For existing structures, concrete cores are taken and tested to establish chloride profile. Following the procedures of ASTM C 1556 Standard Test Method for Determining the Apparent Chloride Diffusion Coefficient of Cementitious Mixtures by Bulk Diffusion the diffusion coefficient can be determined. Ligozio and Nagi (10), as part of their study to determine the remaining service life of Chamberlain Bridge over the Mississippi river in the U.S. measured the diffusion coefficient of concrete in different parts of the bridge. The diffusion coefficient for the 50-year old concrete elements ranged from 0.8 to 2 x10-12m2/s. For new constructions, concrete samples can be prepared and tested in accordance to ASTM C 15556 or NT Build 443. These tests require an average of two months to be completed. Recently, a rapid test (NT Build 492) has been introduced in the region to measure the chloride migration coefficient. The test is based on applying an external electrical potential to force chloride ions into the samples. It was reported by Tang (11) that this test has a good correlation with the diffusion coefficient measured using the NT Build 443. Determination of Surface Chloride Concentration The surface chloride concentration to which an element may be exposed is not quantified. Codes often provide broad qualitative exposure classifications such as submerged, spray or splash zones but these do not provide adequate information to determine the surface chloride level. For sulfate-bearing ground, a more quantitative approach has been adopted. For example, AS 2159 refers to five exposure classifications based on the actual level of sulfate present in the ground. For coastal structures, Bamforth (12) suggested the following number of exposure classes and associated surface chloride concentrations .

PC Extreme exposure Severe exposure Moderate exposure Mild exposure Csn = Csn = Csn = Csn = >0.75% 0.5% to 0.75% 0.25% to 0.5% < 0.25%

Blended Cement >0.9% 0.6% to 0.9% 0.3% to 0.6% <0.30%

PRE-CONSTRUCTION SERVICE LIFE ASSESSMENT (CASE STUDY) A large-scale reinforced concrete structure with nominal design life of a 100 year is under construction in the Gulf region. Assessment of the durability of the concrete elements of the structures subjected to defined deterioration scenarios was required prior to finalizing the design and commencing construction. Recommendations were made for the mix designs, protective measures and construction quality assurance. The main concrete elements of the structure considered in the durability design were: Bored piles and piles caps Retaining walls Raft slab Ground floor slabs Exposed superstructures elements The durability and serviceability of concrete in aggressive environment is addressed at the design stage by the selection of appropriate mix designs and the specification of additional protective measures and construction quality assurance measures. The deterioration scenarios assessed in the project were sulfate attack, carbonation of concrete and chloride induced corrosion of

the reinforcement. A durability plan that outlines the requirements for durability and the assessment of compliance with final requirements was prepared. The assessment of service life based on chloride-induced corrosion is presented in this paper. Ground Conditions Chemical testing undertaken on soil and ground water indicated high level of chlorides, up to 21 g/L. Groundwater pH was reported to be between 7.1 and 7.6. The structure foundations are located below groundwater table. Basis of Analysis The study was based on the assumption that the diffusion process governs chloride ingress into the concrete over the longer term. The diffusion coefficient for concrete is generally influenced by the permeability and porosity of the concrete, which in itself is influenced by the cement content, the aggregate grading, the use of cement replacements, the water cement ratio compaction and curing. Data of measured diffusion coefficients for various concrete mixes using blends of OPC with GGBS, and OPC with PFA as well as ternary blends that include silica fume was used to show the possible diffusion coefficient variability, prior to measurement of diffusion coefficient of the trial mixes conducted prior to construction. Minimum Requirements for Atmospherically Exposed Concrete The following requirements are based on the guidance from AS 5100.5 (2004) and assume the concrete will have a minimum strength of 45 MPa. The requirements apply to formed slabs, beams, walls and columns. Exposure classification Cover 55 mm Probabilistic Corrosion Model The acceptable degree of deterioration considered in the study of the buried and atmospherically exposed elements is to avoid spalling of concrete. In this case, corrosion initiation is allowed, B2

with progression of corrosion sufficient to just cause cracking of the concrete after the required service life The in-house probabilistic model determines the probability that sufficient corrosion will occur to cause cracking of the concrete over a range of diffusion coefficients, surface chloride levels, concrete covers, activation thresholds and corrosion rates. The reliability index is the number of standard deviations from the mean of the failure equation: P(t) = (- ) = {CCx(t) Xc 0} Where CCx(t) is the cumulative corrosion (in microns) at reinforcement depth at time t Xc is the amount of corrosion necessary to induce cracking at the reinforcement depth is the standard normal distribution function is the reliability index (no. standard deviations from the mean) In the elements of many structures, loss of cover and minor section loss do not in themselves constitute any significant loss of structural capacity or serviceability. Significant loss of section would be required for structural safety to be compromised. Accordingly the limiting value of Beta for design does not need to be the same as in structural considerations, where 3.8 is often used (e.g. Eurocode). The study considered a value of 1.65 (5% probability of cracking) was an appropriate minimum value to adopt for a long service life (50 years plus) for civil engineering structures. A reliability index of 2.3 was used where cracking itself carried a safety risk (I.e., for atmospherically exposed concrete n above pedestrian and vehicular access ways. Data Analyses The probabilistic model assesses the risk of deterioration due to the ingress of chlorides. The following scenarios (Table 1 and 2) are considered for the various possible configurations of concrete mix design, concrete cover to reinforcement as well as bar size (based

on the design development documentation). The diffusion coefficients (determined by bulk diffusion tests such as those described by NT Build 443 or ASTM C 1556) are assumed based on what could be achieved with a carefully designed mix and good batching and construction quality control. It is possible that these mixes could achieve much lower diffusion coefficients. Cover to the reinforcement is taken as the cover to the external bars of the reinforcing cage typically identified as ligatures/stirrups/hoops depending on the element in question. Main bars will have additional cover equivalent to at least the diameter of the ligature/stirrup/hoop reinforcement. For piles it is assumed that the coefficient of variability (CoV) of the cover will be significant (the model assumes CoV is 25% as evidenced on various foundation projects in the region. The variability of cover for elements such as slabs, columns and beams should be less (the model assumes CoV is 10%. The model assumes a target cover of 100 mm for piles, 75 mm for slabs (all faces exposed to soil). In either case, normal code tolerances for cover to the reinforcement should not be exceeded. Table 3 and 4 summarise the outputs of the model. The acceptable reliability index will be influenced by the structural impact of cracking (if any) typically a minimum reliability index of 1.65 is considered acceptable, however higher values (> 2.3) may be more appropriate where cracking and spalling presents a risk to safety. Typical time to corrosion and time to cracking charts for the selected rebar sizes and type of steel are shown in Figures 2 and 3 for GGBS and PFA concretes. Actual cover required for these elements would be subject to the type of formwork used and the application of coatings and cladding systems. For inaccessible elements, a minimum of 65 mm cover will be required to surfaces where CPF is not used or where coatings are not applied. Where coatings are applied, they should be able to provide the equivalent protection of at least 10 mm of concrete and be maintained in accordance with manufacturers recommendations.

The model is based on a service-ability limit state of sufficient corrosion to just cause cracking, i.e. approximately 100 microns. This amount of corrosion will not affect the structural performance in any way. If the analysis had assumed a greater degree of corrosion to cause say loss of 20% bar section, or more, which may affect structural integrity, then a much higher reliability index would be appropriate, however the model considers a conservative service-ability limit state therefore we consider that the minimum RI=1.65 is adequate (5% of the element affected), as achieving such an amount of corrosion will not cause failure.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Service life prediction of concrete structures based on concrete durability characteristics is well-established methodology. Computers models were developed to predict remaining service life of existing structures taking into consideration exposure conditions, design issues (e.g., concrete cover) and concrete properties. Diffusion coefficient of concrete is the essential property used in the service life assessment. In the Arabian Peninsula and Gulf region, due to harsh and severe environments, chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcing steel dominates the durability factors leading to deterioration of concrete structures. Foundations, raft slabs and piles are the critical elements of the structures since they are buried with contaminated soil and ground water and cannot be repaired. Due to the high initial cost of massive structures being built in the Gulf region, developers and authorities are demanding extended service life of the structures with minimum life cycle cost. The authors used in-house probabilistic model to assess the service life of large-scale tower to be built in the region at the design stage.

Using the recommended concrete mix design with the designrelated inputs, the structure could be expected reach the 100-year design life with minimum repair or maintenance. The use of other corrosion protection system such as ASTM A 1035 steel will add assurance to the owner that structure will reach its service life even if there were changes in the input items (e.g., covers) occur during construction. Measurement of diffusion coefficient of concrete trial mixes was added to the specification of the project. Authors fond that rapid migration coefficient test can be used as indication for assessing the finding of the model.

REFERENCES 1. Guide to the Maintenance and Repair of Reinforced Concrete Structures in the Arabian Peninsula, Concrete Society, presented at the Bahrain 6th International Conference, November 2000. Vesikari, E, Service Life of Concrete Structures with regard to Corrosion of Reinforcement, Technical Research Centre of Finland, ESPOO 1988.

2.

3.

Kosmatka and et.al, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Fourteenth Edition, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, U.S.A Nagi, M and Whiting, D, Corrosion of Prestressed Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Bridges, State-of-the-Art, Concrete Bridges Aggressive Environments Symposium, SP 151, 1994 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A. Broomfield, J., Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, 1997 E & FN Spon, U.K. Chloride Penetration into Concrete, State-of-the-Art, HETEK, Report No. 53, 1996, Road Diroctorate, Denmark. Weyers, et al, Concrete Bridge Protection and Rehabilitation: Service Life Estimates, SHRP-S-668, Transportation Research Board, Wahsingtion, D.C., 1994 Tutti, K., Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute, Report No. 4-82, 1982. Gannon, et.al, Deterioration Model for Corrosion in Concrete Using Monte Carlo Simulation, Structural Engineering in the 21st Century. ASCE, 1999.

4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. Ligozio, C. and Nagi, M., Remaining Service Life Evaluation, Chamberlain Bridge Substructures, South Dakota Department of Transportation, U.S.A. 2004 11. Tang, L and Sorensen, H.E., Precision of the Nordic Test Methods for Measuring the Chloride Diffusion/Migration Coefficients of Concrete, Materials and Structures, Vol. 34, October 2001. 12. Bamforth, P.B and Pocock, D.C. (2000) Design for durability of reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides Workshop on Structures with Service life of 100 years- or more, Bahrain

TABLES

Table 1. Scenarios Buried concrete Scenario Mix Diffusion coefficient (10-12 m2/s) CoV Cover (mm) Bar size (mm)
a b

BG 1 40% PFA + SF 1.5 15% 75, 100

BG 2 70% GGBS + SF 2.0

12, 16, 16 (ASTM A 1035 steel)a, 32b

Assumes ASTM A1035 steel corrosion threshold is increased assumes main bars with additional cover due to tie bars (typically T12) Table 2. Scenarios Atmospheric concrete Scenario Mix Diffusion coefficient (10-12 m2/s) CoV Cover (mm) Bar size (mm) AC 3 (Exterior columns) 25% PFA + SF 2.0 15% 55, 65, 75 16, 32

Table 3 Calculated Reliability Index for Time to Cracking Buried elements

Scenario

Mix basis

Bar diameter (mm)

RI 100 y (Piles 100 mm cover) (wet) 3.1 2.7 5.7

RI 100 y (Slabs, Rafts 75 mm cover) (wet) 2.6 2.1 8.5

BG 1

40% PFA + SF D=1.5x1012 2 m /s

12 16 16 (ASTM A 1035 steel) 32

3.8 4.3 3.7 8.5

7.5 (100 mm cover) 4.2 3.6 8.5

BG-2

70% GGBS + SF D=2.0x1012 2 m /s

12 16 16 (ASTM A 1035 steel)* 32

5.5

2.7

Table 4 - Calculated Reliability Index for Time to Cracking Atmospherically exposed elements

Scenario

Bar diameter (mm)

RI 100 y (55 mm cover) (dry) D=2.0 10-12m2/s 0.9 0.3

RI 100 y (65 mm cover) (dry) D=2.0 10-12m2/s 2.3 1.6

RI 100 y (75 mm cover) (dry) D=2.0 10-12m2/s 4.2 3.2

AC 3

16 32

FIGURES

Fig. 1 - Principles of Concrete Service Life (Chloride-Induced Corrosion)

Fig. 2 - Time to Corrosion and Time to Cracking (GGBS Mix)

Fig. 3 - Time to Corrosion and Time to Cracking (PFA Mix)