TREN 1F90 Lecture 1 / 2 / 3 September 13/20/27,2011

SUSTAINABILITY, ENVIRONMENT & TOURISM

Dave Fennell, Ph.D.
Office: 107, Shaver Building
Phone: 4663 dfennell@brocku.ca
Office hours: Monday, 12:00 - 2:00

ORGANIZATION OF COURSE MATERIAL

1. Understanding Tourism
ntroduction to tourism concepts
Origins of modern tourism
Tourist demand/motivation
The tourist as consumer

6. The Sustainability Imperative
Rise of environmental concern
Environmental thinking
Sustainable development
Tourism and sustainability
Case: Mountain regions (Everest)

2. The Tourism Industry
Tourism supply
Travel intermediaries (operators,
agents, CTs)
Attractions
Transportation
Accommodation

7. Marketing and Management
Marketing
Entrepreneurship
Public sector support
Heritage tourism
Case: Shetland

3. Tourism in the Environment
The Environment
Resources
Principles of Ecology
Resource Management
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Biosphere Reserves

8. Tourism in an Era of Global Change
Tourism and climate change
Tourism health and safety
Tourism and water
Case: Cruise line tourism.

4. Impacts of Tourism
Economic impacts
Socio-cultural impacts
Environmental impacts
Case: Galapagos slands

9. Tourism Alternatives
Alternative Tourism
Ecotourism
Case: Polar regions (Antarctica)

5. Tourism in Lesser Developed
Countries (LDCs)
Development & emergence of tourism
Small islands
mpacts of tourism
Case: resort tourism
10. The Ethical Imperative
Responsible tourism
Case: Slum tourism
Ethics in tourism
Case: Sex tourism


1. UNDERSTANDING TOURISM
Origins of modern tourism
ntroduction to tourism concepts
The tourist as consumer
Tourist motivation
Tourism demand

Origins of Modern Tourism
EtymoIogy
C. 1320 O.Fr... 'a turn, round, circuit', from tourner'to turn'.
1643: As journey
1780...tourist (En)
1811...tourism (En)

PeopIe have aIways traveIIed .
Greeks: for leisure and sport (stayed in tent encampments).
Romans: holidays/yr for leisured class (2
nd
homes, seaside resorts).
Middle Ages: pilgrimages, jousting tournaments
General pop. as day-trippers to event for holydays.
1600s: spas, Grand Tour and festivals for nobility and wealthy.
The Grand Tour
Cultural training of young aristocrats.
Started in 1630; term coined in 1670
British, French, Germans, Russians.
'Travel broadens the mind'.intellectually, socially, ethically, and
politically.

With John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1690) it was argued, and widely accepted, that knowledge
comes entirely from the external senses, that what one knows
comes from what physical stimuli one has been exposed to.
Thus one could 'use up' the environment, taking from it all it had
to offer, requiring a change of location. Travel therefore was an
obligation for the person who wanted to further develop the mind
and expand knowledge. The typical 18th century sentiment was
that of the studious observer traveling through foreign lands
reporting their findings on human nature for those less fortunate
who stayed at home. Traveling observation became a duty, an
obligation to society at large to increase its welfare. The Grand
Tour flourished in this mindset. http://grandtour.wordpress.com/

15,000 Britons/yr taking Grand Tour at peak.
Mixing with fashionable society.
Seasonal nature of the itinerary ('Venice in May').
3 years in length during 1600s, to 6 months by the 1800s

Declined in 1840s (rail, which lead to other forms of transportation
auto/plane).
Spa/seaside resorts started to pop up in Britain by the late 1600s
(Scarborough beach).
Curative powers of sea water (healthy for us to travel-recreate
themselves)
Masses following the lead of the elite.
A trend that continues in tourism today. Democratisation of travel.

If today's tourists are no longer satisfied with sun and tour
guides, history teaches us tourists never seem to be satisfied,
whether in 1799 or 1999. Restlessness, frustration, and
boredom are part of that great personal experience. A strange
and often insatiable longing for transcendence gives tourism an
element of secular religion, a quest for that fulfilment waiting out
there somewhere--in the elsewherelands. As soon as our
vacation is over we start to fantasise about the next one: the
perfect holiday (Lofgren, 2002: 282).


But.was it tourism?
mpossible to pinpoint exactly when tourism as we know it today began.
> the difference between a tourist (stereotypical picture taker) or traveler
(the anthropological drifting through the country) when did this idea
begin?
By 1400s accommodation and transportation were in operation for travel

Thomas Cook
credited as the father of modern tourism.
Left school at age of 10, later became a Minister.
1841 he took, by rail, 500 passengers from Leicester to Loughborough
> why was this called tourism? Bc it was organized travel (not just
travelling through the countryside)
He marketed and promoted his tours via...
He sold advertisements in his publications.
Sold 100,000 copies/month in1880s
1891: 84 offices, 2692 staff.
1890s he branched out to Siberia, West ndies, Egypt, and Europe.

Travel tied strongly to rail and steamship through 1800s and early 1900s.
E.g. National parks of US and Canada
> Banff National Park: the railway workers discovered the hot
springs while building the railroad. So, we invited the eastern
citizens and used it as money to finish the railroad
Displaced by.?

Tourism by post-WW was much different.

Disposable income and time.now with autos we can go where we want
when we want

Globalization of tourism
Changes in technology (1970: DC-10).
Legislative environment (development policies)
Political recognition of economic impact
> realizing the idea that we can attract people and make money

A rise in consumer spending
New consumers
Changes in products
Development of marketing
> all these lead to capital raise in spending


Introduction to Tourism Concepts
Since the 1950s, a leisure society has emerged.
A product of the Western developed world.
ncreased disposable income and time.
People placing value on travel to new places; new experiences
> the idea that others are travelling so we should too

Tourism is muItidiscipIinary
not a discipline though









Leiper's (1990) tourism system

Transit Route Region includes roads,
airports, railroads, cars, etc.

Tourist (visitor, traveIer)
Defined:
A person travelling to a place away from their usual environment;
for more than 1 night but less than 1 year; further then 80km
> therefore, cruise travelers are excursionists because they do not stay
at any of the locations for a night
for leisure, business or other purposes;
no remuneration (no pay) from the place visited

InternationaI tourism
Travel between countries by various modes of travel for the purpose of tourism
> Example: Canada to Columbia

Inbound tourism
Visits to a country by non-residents (importation of overseas currency)
> Example: Canadian money into France

Outbound tourism
Visits by residents of one country to another (exporting currency to another country).

InternaI tourism
Travel by residents of their own country
> Example: myself travelling to Nova Scotia (Canadian money spent in Canada)

Domestic tourism
nternal travel and inbound tourism in total

Excursionist
Visitors who begin and end their visit from the same base within the same 24-hour
period.
> the Caribbean Cruise Ship Travelers






Tourism Demand

1. ActuaI demand:
Observed tourism participation.
The aggregate number of tourists recorded at a location (social democratic
needs)

2. Suppressed demand:
Those who don't travel for some reason do not have the opportunity
due to lack of income or holidays
Accommodation shortages

Factors nfluencing Demand: GENERATNG Region
1. ncome: as prices rise, demand reduces (as prices go up, less people can afford it)
2. Distribution of income: few wealthy vs. many poor
> % who can't afford a week's holiday:
Portugal: 6 in 10
UK: 4 in 10
Germany: 1 in 10 (very wealthy lots of travel)
3. Exchange rates:
> U.S. and Canada.
4. Social determinants:
> age, education, occupation, family lifestyle (the reason seniors travel but
students don't)

Factors nfluencing Demand: DESTNATON Regions
1. Price:
> Lower prices in Spain increased demand.
2. Competition:
> Americans price substitute one country for another in Europe
> we want more 'bang for our buck'
3. Political:
> Bhutan limits tourist numbers. 17,000 last year, charged $200/day (meals,
accommodation, guide).
4. Health and safety:
> 9/11, SARS, bombings
> civil unrest makes us rethink our decisions to travel to places
5. Time and cost:
Faster = more popular.
6. Seasonal variations:
Balearic islands, 80% visit between May September

Measuring tourism demand
Volume of tourism
Value of tourism
By.
Frontier arrivals

Accommodation arrivals (hotel numbers)
Nights spent
Tourism receipts (how much money people spend when travelling)

InternationaI Figures
Which country has the highest number of international tourist arrivals?
> you would think the country with the highest number of tourist arrivals would
have the highest tourism receipts - but it is not true! Why not? value of our
money, time spent in countries (Europeans in other European countries for a
day verses a week in Canada)
Which has the highest international tourism receipts?

Arrivals (in millions) 2006:
France (79.1) middle of European nation, romantic tie
Spain (58.5)
U.S. (51.1)
China (49.6)* overtook US in 2008 due to the Olympics
taly (41.1)
UK (30.7)
Germany (23.6)
Mexico (21.4) water attraction as well as close to USA
Austria (20.3)
Russia (20.2)

Receipts (in billions) 2006 ($$ spent)
U.S. (85.7) often more time is spent in US because of its large size
Spain (51.1)
France (42.9)
taly (38.1)
China (33.9)
U.K. (33.7)
Germany (32.8)
Australia (17.8)
Turkey (16.9)
Austria (16.7)

> Europe is capturing the largest part of the tourism market, although Asia is
increasingly attracting visitors









%
Tourism Demand: Intrinsic Factors
> what drives us to travel??
Why people do certain things...rock climb, or go to rock concerts?
Motivation...derived from Latin to move. What moves us?
Motives observed from one's behaviour
Needs/motives are synonymous with drive.
Drive has a biological connotation (e.g., food/sex drive)
Consider the following model.

ModeI of motivation (ManneII & KIeiber, 1997)

> if goals are satisfied or not
satisfied , we go back to our needs and
motives
> Example: We love the game of hockey so we participate in a hockey tournament and
travel to the location, we evaluate our satisfaction and then move to our next need


Need emergence creates a disequilibrium in people (lack/desire of/for something).
People seek to reduce this.
> we know that we are inactive so something tells us to get up and do
something to balance and create a equilibrium
Certain actions will restore equilibrium.
f actions are not satisfying, this negative feedback results in activity modification
> example: we invite more people to our road hockey game bc playing with 2
isn't fun


Tourism example:
Over-worked at job (need)
Travel to destination for 1 week (behaviour)
Still tied to work, e.g., phoning, emailing (dissatisfaction)

Feedback

Need more relaxation (need)
Stay away for 2 weeks and get rid of phone/email (behaviour)
Proper rest (satisfaction)
and therefore, final feedback in the future, need to travel for two weeks!
%

Intrinsic Motivation
1. No external reward (no money, awards, receipts)
2. Personal interest
3. Optimally challenging activities
4. Competence and self-determination

Extrinsic motivation:
The activity engaged in because it leads to rewards external to the
activity.

money, trophy, impress boy or girl in participation,

so-Ahola (1982) on tourism motivation
believed we travelled for two reasons:
Seeking intrinsic rewards (novelty)
Escaping the everyday environment
rom personal and interpersonal perspectives
**Novel Experience = new experiences

Gray (1970): Two reasons for pleasure travel:
1. Wanderlust: human nature to leave things familiar to see the exotic.
Ex: the remote traveler
2. Sunlust: existence of better amenities elsewhere.than at home.
Ex: the tourist that wants to find the sun, beach, and service
** Key dea: we do not have to be just one or the other

Push actors vs Pull actors ?
Push factors that push us to the destination from home
Ex: issues at work with co-workers
Pull factors that pull us to something at the destination
Es: Cuba is beautiful and cheap to travel too
work together to draw us to these locations

Cohen's (1972) tourist typoIogy

1. Organized mass tourist:
O Least adventuresome people
O Confined to the environmental bubble (familiar environments)
O Fixed itinerary
O Guided tours
O Little flexibility
O No planning or organization just listen to others plan

2. ndividual mass tourist:
O Similar to 1.

O Tour not entirely preplanned
O More control over itinerary
O Trip still planned by tour agency
O Cruse liners are good tourist money makers

3. Explorer:
O Arranges trip alone
O Off the beaten track
O Comfortable accommodation and transportation
O Leaves environmental bubble

4. Drifter:
Shuns tourist establishment
as phony
Lives with local people (more bohemian, down to earth)
Takes odd jobs
No fixed itinerary
No travel goals.
The stereotypical 'hitch hiker' of the 80s

PIog's traveI types (1974)

1. Psychocentric:
Unsure and insecure about travel.
Go to places similar to their home environment.
Want the familiar
- do not leave the environmental bubble stay far away from the exotic
- Example Chicago

2. Mid-centric:
Majority of population go to known destinations.
Don't go for exploration or adventure.
May travel to places 'found' by allocentrics
- Example Britain (at the time)


3. Allocentric:
Enjoys independent travel
Cultural exploration
Seeks adventure
Above-average in income
- Example: African Safari, Papa New Geuni





Plog.
'We can visualize a destination moving across a
spectrum, however gradually or slowly, but far too
often toward the potential of its own demise.
Destination areas carry with them the potential seeds
of their own destruction, as they allow themselves to
become more commercilized and lose their qualities,
which originally attracted tourists.'


GottIieb (1982)
'Peasant for a day'
Upper class tourists slumming with lower class at the destination.
Example: Dubai

'King/Queen for a day'
Lower class tourists rubbing shoulders with upper class at destination.
Behaving outside one's social class.
Can't get this at home on a regular basis

** The difference between social class and social status ??
- social status can be earned by the way you act, wear, and hang out with

The Nature of PIeasure ArticIe
an article looking at taking it back and what is pleasure in terms of pleasure travel
Fulgosi (2006): Natural selection gave us the ability to link basic needs w/ feelings of
pleasure.
The rhythm of feasts and famines over 2 million years.
Gorging on fatty foods and sweet foods when these were found = pleasure.
More enjoyable than legumes, roots, etc.

New foods give us problems...
Brain evolved a complex reward circuit to things in the environment found to
pleasurable and painful.
Snakes and spiders...Why do we fear them? Do we learn or are we
predetermined to fear them
Learning and reasoning evolved as adaptive processes in mediating between
pleasure and pain.
Storing successful behaviors based on experience.
Used to increase our ...

Selection favours the need to reproduce optimal/pleasurable experiences in making
people feel alive
> why we choose to face our fears and get that outcome feeling of facing them
(emotional arousal)
> Football Players: never good to be over or under aroused
- if over aroused poor performance ex: take penalties
- if under aroused poor performance ex: less tackles

PhysioIogicaI: Positive reinforcers, like a good trip, increase the probability for their
consumption in the future.
*DOPAMNE* is the neurotransmitter that helps to stamp-in these experiences
(rewards).
> helps to remember these experiences in the future


What does sensory specific satiety mean?
> the aspect of noviety if we go to a new novel experience we stamp-in
these experiences due to our sensory specific response
> but if we get too much of something, experiences become less novel
What does it mean for tourism?
> if we travel too much we can get sick of it experiences are not novel
> although there has not been enough research done in this idea
> ** Activities that delight us initially, wear thin over time (Aristotle)
- Aristotle studied this many years ago

MacCanneII (1976)
Social structure of tourist space.
Front regions: readily open to the visitor; places where hosts and guests meet.
> where everyday tourist go
> the staged authenticity
Back regions: Preserve of residents, nontourism oriented
> the hidden culture / activities either for good areas or bad areas
> the real authenticity
> Example: Where dogs fight in Mexico


**Authenticity we are more often likely to get a better view of authenticity of that area
in the back area because tourism is often shaped and planned for tourists to see the
good not always the natural


The tourist gaze (Urry, 1990)
** Has had a huge impact**
Tourists observe the environment with curiosity and interest.
We gaze at what we encounter.
Visual consumption of the environment

5 types of gaze.

1. Romantic: object of awe, consumed in solitude (mountains)
2. Collective: social activity with shared encounters. The things we all see as a group
(coach tour).
3. Spectatorial: social activity, brief encounter, collecting symbols of the visit. Grand
Spectacle (Niagara Falls world's greatest 5 min attraction).
4. Environmental: study and inspection of the environment (rainforest holiday).
5. Anthropological: prolonged contact with object, involving study and interpretation
(studying culture)
> Ex: Giraffe Neck Women have become a tourist attraction (selling culture)


The traveI career Iadder (Pearce, 1993)
Travel motivation changes over time.
Change 'rungs' along the lifecycle.
Constrained by progressing by money, health and other people.
We can also 'retire' from travelling


FamiIy IifecycIe (Lumsdon, 1997)
Early childhood: Dependent on parents, classic sea and sand holidays.
Young adult: the beach, party, to get away traveler (This is you.!)
> Holiday dependent on time and resources, sun-lust, adventure, backpacking.
Early family stage: Financial and school constraints, seek family centered holidays,
and VFR (visiting friends and relatives)