First year uid mechanics

Lectures 8-9: Flows in pipes and pipelines

The steady ow energy equation
Bernoullis equation is an energy equation derived for frictionless (inviscid) conditions with no energy input or extraction. It is a special form of more general steady flow energy equation, which includes viscose losses and work transfer to the uid. These eects are accounted for by introducing additional terms into Bernoullis equation. Let us consider the balance of energy inside volume abcd (gure 1), which is bounded by the walls of a stream tube and two cross sections 1 and 2 at heights z1,2 from an arbitrary datum level. In this derivation we assume that the uid velocity does not change across the streamtube. The uid velocities at the inlet 1 and outlet 2 are V1,2 and the areas of the cross sections are A1,2 . External work is applied to the uid inside the control volume with power P (e.g. pumps or turbines operate there), and Pf is the power of frictional forces inside the control volume and on its boundaries. During the small time period t the uid inside the volume a add enters the control volume and the uid inside the volume bcc b leaves the control volume. According the the continuity principles for a steady ow these volumes are the same: A1 V1 t = A2 V2 t = Q t, where Q is the volumetric ow rate of uid. The energy entering the control volume with the uid through the cross section 1 is V12 + g z1 ) Q t, 2 and includes the kinetic energy of moving uid and the potential energy of uid in the gravitational eld. Analogously, the energy leaving the control volume through the cross section 2 is E1 = ( V12 + g z2 ) Q t. 2 Pressure P1 acting on the moving boundary a d produces work P1 A1 V1 t = P1 Q t, which should be added to the incoming energy E1 , and similarly E2 = ( 1

P t
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V1 A1 d

b V2 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 A2 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 b1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 2 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 P2 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 E2 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 c 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 0000000000000000000000000000000 1111111111111111111111111111111 c
V2 t

P1 z1 d

z2

Pf t

V1 t

Fig. 1: the pressure work P2 Q t should be added to the outgoing energy E2 . The energy of the uid in the control volume will also be increased by the work of external forces P t and dissipated due to the work of friction Pf t. For a stationary ow the energy of the uid inside the control volume does not change, and the total gain of energy is equal to the total energy loss: V12 V22 ( + g z1 ) Q t + P1 Q t +Pt = ( + g z2 ) Q t + P2 Q t +Pf t. 2 2 This gives the steady ow energy equation in the following form: P1 + P V22 Pf V12 + g z1 + = P2 + + g z2 + , 2 Q 2 Q (1)

which represents conservation of energy per unit of uid volume. It should be noted that the sign of the external power P is positive if the work done on the uid (pumps, compressors) and negative when work done by the uid (turbines). In engineering it is conventional to use the energy equation per unit of uid weight, which can be obtained dividing (1) by g . The energy of uid per unit of weight has dimensions of meters (Joules/Newtons) and is called head. The value P V2 H= + +z g 2g is called total head and represents the total energy of a unit weight of owing uid. It consists of pressure head, velocity head and potential head. The steady ow energy equation can now be formulated in terms of change of total head: P hf , (2) H2 H1 = gQ

R P1 d U V(r) x P2

Fig. 2: where hf = Pf /( g Q) is head loss. Therefore, the total head of a steadily owing uid is increased by external work transfered to the unit of uid weight, and decreased by the head loss due to viscous dissipation.

Application to ow in a straight horizontal pipe

The steady ow energy equations is widely applied in engineering for specifying ows of viscous uid through pipes and pipe systems. In this section we consider a steady ow through a straight circular pipe of the internal radius R, diameter d (gure ). The ow in the pipe is parallel (this means that pressure is constant across the pipe), and the velocity prole does not change along the pipe. Such ow is called fully developed, and occurs far enough from the pipe inlet. The pipe wall is the boundary of a stream tube, and using one-dimensional approximation we take the mean velocity of the uid through the pipe as the ow velocity. From the last term you should remember that the mean velocity U is a uniform velocity, which would provide the same ow rate Q through the pipe as the actual velocity prole V (r ):
R

Q = R2 U = 2
0

r V (r ) dr.

z2

z1

For viscous uid hf > 0, which means that steady ow of such uid in a pipe is possible only if the pressure gradient is applied along the pipe. The head loss hf along the pipe can be conveniently measured by tube manometers. Referring to gure we can see that Pa = P1 g z1 = P2 g z2 , and hf = z1 z2 . The head loss along the length L of the pipe is due to the friction on the pipe walls. We chose a cylindrical uid particle as shown on gure . The particle is moving with a constant velocity, that is the total force acting on it is zero. This means that the pressure force on the vertical surfaces of the particle is balanced by the friction on the pipe wall. We can write:

Taking an average velocity as the ow velocity we make a mistake in determining the exact value of the kinetic energy of the ow because the mean of the square of velocity in the kinetic head does not equal to the square of the mean velocity. The factor by which the term U 2 /2g must be multiplied to get the exact value of the kinetic head is known as kinetic energy correction factor. Fortunately, for many practical ows this factor is close to 1. See the recommended literature for more details. For a pipe with constant cross-section area U is constant along the pipe. Then, for a horizontal pipe the steady ow energy equation (2) takes the form: P1 P2 = g hf . (3)

d2 (P1 P2 ) = d L w , (4) 4 where is the frictional shear stress on the pipe wall, which can be expressed in terms of the non-dimensional friction coecient or friction factor of the pipe: w . f= U 2 /2 Substituting back into (3) and (4) we obtain the Darcy equation for head loss in a pipe: L U2 hf = 4 f . (5) d 2g Classical investigations of ows in pipes was performed by Osborn Reynolds who published his classical experimental results in 18831. In one of his experiments Reynolds studied the dependence of pressure gradient along a pipe
O.Reynolds (1883) An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174, 93582. Available online via JSTOR: http://www.jstor.org/view/03701662/ap000029/00a00170/0
1

Fig. 3: The experimental apparatus and results of experiments on ow in pipes from the original Reynolds paper.

from the pipe ow rate. The sketch of experimental apparatus and an example of the obtained results are illustrated on gure 3. Reynolds found the linear dependence for low ow rates, when the ow in the pipe is laminar. In logarithmic coordinates used on the gure this dependence is represented by the straight line with the slope 1. After the ow rate reaches some critical value rapid changes of ow characteristics occurs in the narrow region of ow rates (critical region), and the line inclination decreases. This new behaviour roughly corresponds to a power low with an exponent n < 1. For these larger values of ow rates ow in the pipe becomes turbulent leading to signicant changes of ow characteristics. Reynolds found that the divergence from the laminar behaviour for a pipe ow always starts when the nondimensional parameter known now as Reynolds number Ud , (6) reaches a certain critical value Rec . This value was found to be about 2300 and does not depends on pipe diameter and could be slightly lower for pipes with a rough surface. Extensive experiments for determination of friction factor f for circular pipes of dierent diameters and wall roughness carrying ows of various mean velocities had been carried by L.F.Moody in 1944. The results of these experiments are represented in the form of Moody diagram (gure 4), which is widely used for calculating ows trough pipes. It turns out that friction factor depends on the Reynolds number and on the relative roughness of the pipe wall k/d. Regions with dierent behaviour of f can be observed on the Moody diagram. For small values of the Reynolds number (laminar ows) the friction factor does not depends on the wall roughness, and is specied by a simple formula 16 f= . (7) Re In the narrow critical zone ow becomes turbulent and for larger Reynolds numbers f depends on both Re and k/d (transition zone). For very large Reynolds numbers (complete turbulence) f depends on k/d only. Moody diagram can be used to nd the ow rate through a given pipe, when a given pressure dierence is applied to pipe ends. For a laminar ow, using (3), (5), (6) and (7) we obtain the Poiseuille equation: Re = Q= R4 P , 8 L

where = is dynamic viscosity. In the case of complete turbulence, keeping in mind that f does not depend on Re and therefore is constant for

Fig. 4: Moody diagram

a given pipe, we get: Q= R5 P . f L

Note dierent dependence of ow rate on pressure gradient in the pipe for laminar ow and complete turbulent ow. In the former case, the ow rate is proportional to pressure gradient, and in the latter case the ow rate proportional to the square root of pressure gradient.

Head losses in pipe systems

The steady ow energy equation and the theory of pipe ows with frictional losses considered on the previous lecture provide the basis for calculation of ows through systems of pipes and for designing of pipelines. The Darcy equation (5) can be used to specify the value of the head loss in a pipe which should be compensated by a certain amount of energy transfered to the uid (pumping, height or pressure dierence between the pipe ends) to provide the required mean velocity U and therefore the required ow rate through that pipe. In the most of practical cases the ow in pipelines is turbulent, when the friction coecient f depends only on the relative wall roughness as can be seen from the Moody diagram (gure 4) Then the equation (5) for each pipe in a pipeline can be rewritten as: hf = Kf U2 2g (8)

where the loss coecient Kf depends only on the properties of a particular pipe in the pipeline and does not depend on the ow rate. Pipes are not the only elements of pipelines where head loss is possible. The head loss can also occur in pipe ttings, bends, contractions, etc. Flow rate through a pipeline can be regulated by changing a head loss in valves. Equation (8) provides the general form of equations used to calculate head loss in various elements of a pipeline, with a specic empirical (that is found from an experiment) loss coecient Kf for each such an element. Examples of pipe line elements with loss coecients can be found in the literature. Pipes in series If pipes or other elements are connected in series, that is from end to end, the total head loss is the sum of losses in all individual elements. It is convenient to express equations (5) and (8) for each element by using the ow rate Q = A U , which is the same for all elements connected in series. Then the

9
1
.

hf
2
.

z1

Fig. 5: head loss for an individual element i can be written as hi = i Q2 , with a suitable coecient i for each element. Then the head loss of the entire system is hf = Q2 i .
i

Example: Water ows between tanks with water levels z1 and z2 trough two identical pipes of length l and diameter d (gure 5). The pipes are connected by an elbow with the loss coecient K1 = 0.1. Sharp edged inlet and outlet have the loss coecients K2 = 0.5 and K3 = 1 respectively. The friction coecient f of the pipes is constant for given ow conditions. Find the ow rate of uid in the pipes. For a steady ow the head loss along the path 12 should be balanced by the dierence of the total head at points 1 and 2. Pressure at points 1 and 2 is the same, and velocities there are negligibly small. Therefore, only the potential head contributes to the total head dierence. That is hf = z1 z2 . The head loss along the pipes is the sum of individual losses hf = 4f l l + 4 f + K1 + K2 + K3 d d U2 , 2g

and the corresponding ow rate is Q= d2 4 2 g ( z1 z2 ) . 4 f (l/d) + K1 + K2 + K3

z2

10

B
1

C
2

A
Fig. 6: Parallel pipes The ow divides between two or more pipes and then comes together again. For such pipe systems the sum of ow rates through individual components is the entire ow rate through the system Q=
i

Qi .

For each element of the parallel pipe system the dierence of the total head between its ends is the same, which means that all elements have the same head loss i Q2 i = hh . For an N -element system (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . N ) we usually have an unknown head loss hf and N unknown ow rates Qi . To nd these N + 1 values we can use N + 1 equations above. Example: Two identical pipes A and B have length L and cross section area A. The pipes are connected in parallel to a pipeline with a constant ow rate Q (gure 6). A valve C is used to regulate ows through the pipes. When the valve is fully opened its loss coecient is K = 0.3. Friction coecient f of the pipes is constant under the given ow conditions, and the losses in ttings are negligible. Find the minimal and the maximal ow rate trough pipe A. Head loss in each pipe between 1 and 2 is equal to the dierence in the total heads between these points: H1 H2 = hA = hB .

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Head losses in A and B are: hA,B = 4 f L Q2 L Q2 B A = (4 f + K ) d 2 A2 g d 2 A2 g

and the sum of ow rates in A and B is the total ow rate of the system: QA + QB = Q. For the ow rate QA we obtain the following quadratic equation Q2 A 2 Q(1 + with solutions QA = Q 1+ 4f L dK 4f L 4f L (1 + ) dK dK . (9) 4f L 4f L ) QA + Q2 (1 + )=0 dK dK

The ow rate QA should be less then Q, therefore we should take the solution with the minus sign. Maximal QA corresponds to the closed valve (K = ), when all uid ows through the pipe A: QA = Q. The minimal QA corresponds to the fully opened valve, and its value can be found by substituting the value of K into the formula (9). Note, that if K = 0 (no extra valve resistance) both parallel branches are identical, and have the same ow rate QA = QB = Q/2. Equation (9) gives value QA = Q/2 in the limit K 0. Pipe branches A classical problem with a branching pipeline is the three reservoir problem illustrated on gure 7. Three reservoirs with dierent water levels are connected by three pipes with a junction point 0 and unknown ow rates. One of the diculties of the problem is that we usually do not know the ow direction in one of the branches (branch 3) before solving the problem. General principles applied for solving the three reservoir problem and other problems with branching pipes are: 1. The uniqueness of the total head. This means that at each point of a pipeline the total head have only one value. The important subsequence of this property is that the value of the total head at a junction point is the same for all pipes. 2. The continuity principle is applied to a junction point. That is the ow into the junction is the same as the ow from the junction.

12
1
.

3
.

Q1
0

Q3

z1

Q2
2
.

z0

Fig. 7: 3. Darcys equation is applied to each pipe with additional losses in ttings. Note, that for long pipelines the frictional losses in pipes provide the major contribution to the total head loss and minor losses in tting can often be neglected. As before, we represent the head loss in each branch in the form hi = i Q2 i. Assuming originally the direction of the ow in the pipe 03 as shown on the gure 7 and using the principles stated above we can write: z1 H0 = 1 Q2 1 H0 z2 = 1 Q2 2 H0 z3 = 1 Q2 3 Q1 = Q2 + Q3 . Thus, we have 4 equations to specify three unknown ow rates Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , and the unknown total head H0 at the junction. The algebraic solution of these equations is tedious and not possible for more than 3 pipes. However, we can use the trial and error method, taking some value of H0 as an initial guess, calculating the ow rates and then checking the continuity condition.

z2

z3

13

P s

Fig. 8: I is useful to use trial points to plot the graph of Q1 Q2 Q3 as function of H0 . The required solution will be an intersection of this graph with the horizontal axis. If the original choice of the ow direction in the pipe 03 is wrong, the solution will not be possible. For an opposite ow in 03 the equations become: z1 H0 = 1 Q2 1 H0 z2 = 1 Q2 2 z3 H0 = 1 Q2 3 Q1 + Q3 = Q2 . The two systems of equations become identical if H0 = z3 in which case Q3 = 0. It is convenient to chose H0 = z3 as an initial guess to specify the ow direction in 03. If Q1 > Q2 , then the ow is from 0 to 3, and if Q2 > Q1 , the ow is from 3 to 0.

Pumping
A pump can can deliver water to a higher level by transmitting energy tho the ow. Pumps are characterised by the total head H applied to the uid, discharge Q and the shaft horsepower Ps . A particular pump can provide a head increase H for a discharge Q and requires power Ps on the shaft. The curve expressing the relationship of the pump discharge and the head is called the characteristic curve or head curve, and the curve specifying the required power is the power curve. A typical example of pump characteristics

H0

1 2

H0

14

Fig. 9: Typical pump characteristics. c BJM Pumps http://www.bjmpumps.com

15

is given on gure 9, where B.H.P. stands for brake horsepower, that is the power of an engine driving the pump shaft. The power transmitted by a pump to water ow or water horsepower is specied as Pw = g Q H, and the pump eciency is = Pw /Ps , that is the ratio of utilised power to the total power required by a pump, and the value of is always less then 1. To specify the working regime of a pump in a pipeline we have to equate the head provided by the pump at a specic ow rate with the pumping head H0 (gure 8) and head losses in the pipeline for that ow rate: H = H0 + Q2 , where the value of can be regulated by the valve, which will change the ow in the pipeline. The problem can be solved graphically, by plotting the parabola of the required head H0 + Q2 on the pump diagram and nding its intersection with the characteristic curve of the pump.

Quasi-steady ows
The energy equation have been derived for the case of a steady ow. For a ow in a pipeline this means that ow rates and heads at dierent points of the pipeline do not depend on time. However, if ow changes very slowly and unsteady eects can be neglected, we can apply the steady ow energy equation with sucient accuracy at any instant during the process. Unsteady ows with slowly changing parameters which can be assumed steady at each time moment are called quasi-steady ows. For example, if a tank with a large area of water surface A (gure 10) is drained through a pipe of a much smaller cross section a the water level in the tank will change very slowly and we can calculate the ow rate Q through the pipe at each time instant t by taking the current value of the water level Z (t) and applying the steady ow energy equation as if Z was constant: H1 H3 = K U2 , 2g

where the total heads of the water surface in the tank of the jet at the pipe outlet are Pa U2 Pa H1 = Z + and H3 = + g 2g g

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Z1

1
.

2
Z2

Q ( t ) = A dZ / dt

a
Fig. 10:

respectively, and K is the total loss coecient of the pipeline including friction losses in the pipe, ttings losses, entry losses, etc. This gives Z (t) = (1 + K ) Q2 , 2 a2 g

and using the relation between the ow rate and the water level Q = A dZ/dt we obtain the following dierential equation describing the evolution of the water level in the tank: dZ a = dt A 2g 1+K Z (t) .

We can see that when the value of the area ratio a/A is small and the water level Z (t) is not too big, then the non-stationary term dZ/dt is small and the application of the steady ow energy equation is justied. This equation can be used to calculate the time required to change the level of water in the tank from the initial level Z (0) = z1 to any given level Z (t) = z : A t= a 1+K 2g
z

z1

dZ A = a Z

1+K ( z1 z ) . 2g

This equation can also be used to determine the level z left after a given time t has elapsed.

Z(t)