EP301

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
FUNDAMENTAL
CHAPTER 2 ANALOG MODULATION
TECHNIQUE



Puan Akma Bt. Che Ishak

Names: Matrix No:


Muhammad Akmal Aiman B. Alias 16DEP 10F 1076
Woong Meng Fai 16DEP 10F 1040
Anbumugilan A/L Jayapargasan 16DEP 10F 1058
Noorul Atirah Bt. Osman 16DEP 10F 1094
Masliza Bt. Jamal 16DEP 10F 1004
Norazila Nadia Bt. Arifin 16DEP 10F 1022
Muhd. Al Muhaymin B. Md. Rashid 16DEP 10F 1130
Muhammad Fauzi B. Fadzil 16DEP 10F 1114











2.0 ANALOG MODULATION TECHNIQUES

2.1 Understand Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2.1.1 Define AM and Mathematical Expression
2.1.2 Explain AM Analysis and Frequency Spectrum with an Illustration
2.1.3 Define the Amplitude Modulation Index, m
a
and Power in AM
2.1.4 Determine m
a
and Power in AM.
2.1.5 Compare between the Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC), Single Sideband
Suppressed Carrier (SSB) and Vestigial Side Band (VSB)
2.1.6 Explain DSBSC and SSB with the Aid of a Diagram
2.1.7 Generalize AM Demodulation

2.2 Understand Frequency Modulation (FM)
2.2.1 Define FM
2.2.2 Use FM Equation to Solve Problem
2.2.3 Use Bessel's Function to Calculate the Sideband
2.2.4 Produce the Frequency Spectrum Base On Bessel-Function Table
2.2.5 Generalize the FM Signal with Respect to Carrier Frequency, Frequency Deviation and
Modulation Index, Bandwidth and Power
2.2.6 List the Advantages and Disadvantages of FM to AM

2.3 Know Phase Modulation (PM)
2.3.1 Define Phase Modulation
2.3.2 Compare between PM to FM






2.0 ANALOG MODULATION TECHNIQUES

2.1 Understand Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2.1.1 Define AM and Mathematical Expression

Amplitude Modulation (AM),
The amplitude of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal.
AM applications include broadcasting in medium- and high-frequency applications, CB
radio, and aircraft communications.
The predominant waveforms occur in AM;
i. carrier wave
ii. modulating wave
iii. modulated wave





Mathematical expression (based on the figure of AM modulator),


Information or Amplitude-modulated
Modulating signal output signal



Carrier signal


The unmodulated sinusoidal carrier signal,

C
= V
C
sin 2f
C
t
OR
e
C
(t) = E
C
cos 2f
C
t
OR
s
C
(t) = A
C
cos 2f
C
t
*sometimes 2f
C
=
C

where;
V
C
or E
C
or A
m
= the peak amplitude value of the constant unmodulated carrier sine
wave as measured between zero and the maximum amplitude either
the positive-going or negative-going alternations
f
C
= frequency of the carrier sine wave
t = a particular point in time during the carrier cycle


The sinusoidal modulating sine wave signal,

m
= V
m
sin 2f
m
t
OR
e
m
(t) = E
m
cos 2f
m
t
OR
s
m
(t) = A
m
cos 2f
m
t
*sometimes 2f
m
=
m

where;
AM Modulator
V
m
or E
m
or A
m
= the peak amplitude value of the constant modulating or information
signal as measured between zero and the maximum amplitude either
the positive-going or negative-going alternations
f
m
= frequency of modulating signal
t = a particular point in time during the modulating cycle
So, the amplitude-modulated output signal will be expressed mathematically as below
after the AM process in the Amplitude Modulator,

2
= V
C
sin 2f
C
t + V
m
sin 2f
m
t (sin 2f
C
t)
OR
e(t) = E
C
cos 2f
C
t + E
m
cos 2f
m
t (cos 2f
C
t)
OR
s(t) = A
C
cos 2f
C
t + A
m
cos 2f
m
t (cos 2f
C
t)

So, we can assume that,
Vm < Vc

2.1.2 Explain AM Analysis and Frequency Spectrum with an Illustration

AM analysis,
Amplitude modulation analysis delivers the envelope spectra of partial bands of an
analyzed signal.
This allows the user to recognize amplitude modulations including their frequency,
strength and change over time.
A continuous sound, whose amplitude varies sinusoidally around a mean value
carrier
,
called a sinusoidally amplitude-modulated signal.
The sound pressure,

p
a
(t) =
carrier

.
(1+m
.
sin(2f
mod
.
t))
.
sin(2f
carrier

.
t)
where;
f
mod
= modulation frequency
f
carrier
= carrier frequency
m = modulation depth
For a non-sinusoidal amplitude modulation, the first sine function in the formula must be
replaced, by replacing the second sine changes the shape of the carrier signal(as shown
in the figure below),



The modulation depth, m describes the strength of the modulation and is calculated as
the ratio of alternating component to constant component of the signal.

AM frequency spectrum,
Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new signals at different
frequencies are generated as part of the process.
These new frequencies, which are called side frequencies or sidebands occur in the
frequency spectrum directly above, f
C
+ f
m
and below, f
C
- f
m
frequency carrier, f
C
.
When only a single-frequency sine wave modulating signal is used, the modulation
process generates two sidebands.
By getting to understand the sideband calculation, the AM frequency spectrum can be
construe easily through your understanding on the spectrum.
Sideband calculations (as shown in the figure below),
f
USB
= f
C
+ f
m
AND f
LSB
= f
C
- f
m

where;
f
USB
= upper sideband
f
LSB
= lowest sideband
f
C
= frequency of the carrier sine wave
f
m
= frequency of modulating signal



For example, assume that a 400-Hz tone modulates a 300-kHz carrier. The upper and
lower sidebands are,
f
USB
= f
C
+ f
m
= 300,000 400 = 300,400-Hz
f
LSB
= f
C
- f
m
= 300,000 400 = 299,600-Hz
so, the frequency spectrum look much like this,



Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, we can see the amplitude variations of the
carrier with respect to time (as shown in the figure below),


Amplitude of spectral components of AM signal (1-sided plot),










The amplitude spectrum of the following signal m(t),
| | m t A m t m t m t
c
( ) cos cos cos = + +
1 1 2 2 3 3
e e e

If the frequency range of the message signal is from 0 to f
3
, then, the bandwidth of the message
signal ,
3 ) (
f BW
t m
=
.The corresponding AM modulated signal will occupy a frequency range
from
3
f f
c

to
3
f f
c
+
, and the bandwidth of the corresponding AM modulated signal is given
by,
f
0 f
2
f
3
f
1

m
1
A
c

m
2
A
c

m
3
A
c

f
c
+f
2

f
c
+f
3

f
c
+f
1

m
1
A
c
/2
m
2
A
c
/2
m
3
A
c
/2
carrier
f
c
-f
2

f
c
-f
3

f
c
-f
1

m
1
A
c
/2
m
2
A
c
/2
m
3
A
c
/2
AM

Upper
sideband
Lower
sideband
A
c

f
c

( ) ( )
) ( 3 3 3
2 2
t m c c AM
BW f f f f f BW = = + = .

2.1.3 Define the Amplitude Modulation Index, m
a
and Power in AM.

The amplitude modulation index, m
a
,
Also known as;
i. modulating factor
ii. coefficient
iii. the degree of modulation.
A method of transmitting signals, such as sound or digital information, in which the value
of the signal is given by the amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave.


Modulation Index Graph

Power in AM,
In terms of the positive frequencies, the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the
signal's original (baseband) bandwidthsince both the positive and negative sidebands
are shifted up to the carrier frequency.

2.1.4 Determine m
a
and Power in AM.

m
a
,
For undistorted AM to occur, the modulating signal voltage V
m
must be less than the
carrier voltage V
c
. Therefore the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating
signal and the amplitude of the carrier signal is important. This relationship known as the
modulation index, m
a
, is the ratio
m
a
= V
m
/ V
c

These are the peak values of signals, and the carrier voltage is the unmodulated value.


Power in AM,
Double-sideband AM (DSB-AM) is spectrally inefficient, meaning that fewer radio
stations can be accommodated in a given broadcast band.
The various suppression methods in Forms of AM can be readily understood.
The forms of AM with suppressed carriers are found to be 100% power efficient, since
no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information.

2.1.5 Compare between the Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC), Single Sideband
Suppressed Carrier (SSB) and Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier (DSBSC)
Single Sideband Suppressed
Carrier (SSB)
Vestigial Side Band (VSB)
i.

i.
I.
i.

ii. Does not suppress both
Upper and Lower Sideband.
ii. Suppress only one
Sideband either Upper or
Lower.
ii. Partial suppression of one
Sideband.
iii. For coherent detection, we
must have same frequency
and phase of carrier signal.
iii. Can also use phasing to
cancel the negative
frequencies.
iii. Phase must not be
important.
iv. Carrier frequency has to be
larger than twice the
bandwidth 2W.
iv. One way is to generate
DSB signal, and then
suppress one sideband with
filtering.
iv. Trade-off between the
simple detector configuration
and good exploitation of
frequency band.
v. Both Upper and Lower v. SSB assures the optimum v. Carrier is not transmitted
Sideband exist, consequently
the transmission bandwidth
B = 2W was not reduced and
thats mean problem of
wasted bandwidth still occurs.
exploitation of transmitted
power and transmission
bandwidth among the
Continuous Waveform (CW)
modulation schemes.
here, if transmitted the VSB
signal may be demodulated
by an envelope detector.
vi. The bandwidth is twice the
modulating signal bandwidth
vi. The bandwidth is equal to
the modulating signal
bandwidth
vi. The bandwidth of vestigial-
sideband systems is therefore
only slightly larger than that of
SSB systems but with the
increased low-frequency
performance of DSB systems.

vii. Because of the two
sidebands in the frequency
spectrum without carrier
frequency.
vii. Because of the only one
sideband in the frequency
spectrum without carrier.
vii. Filtering double-sideband
(DSB) so that one sideband is
completely passed and just a
trace, or vestige, of the other
sideband is included.

2.1.6 Explain DSBSC and SSB with the Aid of a Diagram

DSBSCs configuration,

DSB-SC Block Diagram

Audio Input,
The information of message transmitted.

Input Waveshape & Limit,
The information signal or intelligence signal will be limit and wave shaping in this
process. Consists a device which limits some part of a waveform from exceeding a
specified value. Limiting circuits are used primarily for wave shaping and circuit-
protection applications.

Balanced Modulator,
Signals from the carrier oscillator and audio processing stage both feed into the
balanced modulator, generating a DSB suppressed carrier signal as output on the
exciter frequency which can be anywhere from a few hundred kilohertz to ten megahertz
or so. Most balanced modulators have a balance control internally, which allows the user
to maintain carrier null as the circuit ages.

Carrier Oscillator,
This block consists of a crystal controlled oscillator. The stability of this oscillator is
critical both to the quality of the modulation and the accuracy of the dial calibration. If
your transmitter sounds good when you first get on the air but deteriorates as it warms
up check for drift in the carrier oscillator.

Buffer Amplifier,
A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical
impedance transformation from one circuit to another. Two main types of buffer exist: the
voltage buffer and the current buffer and it is used to transfer a voltage from a first
circuit, having a low output impedance level, to a second circuit with a high input
impedance level.


SSBs configuration,

SSB Block Diagram

Audio Input,
The information of message transmitted.

Input Waveshape & Limit,
The information signal or intelligence signal will be limit and wave shaping in this
process. Consists a device which limits some part of a waveform from exceeding a
specified value. Limiting circuits are used primarily for wave shaping and circuit-
protection applications.

Balanced Modulator,
Signals from the carrier oscillator and audio processing stage both feed into the
balanced modulator, generating a DSB suppressed carrier signal as output on the
exciter frequency which can be anywhere from a few hundred kilohertz to ten megahertz
or so. Most balanced modulators have a balance control internally, which allows the user
to maintain carrier null as the circuit ages.

Carrier oscillator,
This block consists of a crystal controlled oscillator. The stability of this oscillator is
critical both to the quality of the modulation and the accuracy of the dial calibration. If
your transmitter sounds good when you first get on the air but deteriorates as it warms
up check for drift in the carrier oscillator.

Buffer Amplifier,
A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical
impedance transformation from one circuit to another. Two main types of buffer exist: the
voltage buffer and the current buffer and it is used to transfer a voltage from a first
circuit, having a low output impedance level, to a second circuit with a high input
impedance level.

Sideband Filter,
To generate an SSB signal we first create a DSB signal then use a narrow band pass
filter to remove one of the sidebands. Which one is removed is irrelevant since an
appropriate choice of oscillator frequencies in the heterodyne system will invert the
sideband when necessary. Sideband filters require very high Q and a flat passband with
steep skirts.



2.1.7 Generalize AM Demodulation

When an amplitude modulated signal is received, it must be demodulated in order to
recover the original information.
The AM demodulation occurs in demodulators and detectors, that act as a circuit that
accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating information.
The demodulator circuit is the key circuit in any radio receiver.
In fact, it can be used alone as simple radio receivers.
The AM signal to be demodulated is (as shown in the figure below) as a 35-kHz carrier
modulated by a 5-kHz tone. (Notice that there are 7 RF cycles per audio amplitude
variation of the AM envelope).
The question is, how can the 5-kHz tone can be recovered from the AM signal?
- The answer is to use a peak-amplitude detector or rectifier. Such a circuit shown
below, the diode can be connected as shown or reversed because the positive
and the negative peaks follow the (5-kHz) information signal although all the
power in the signal is at 30, 35 and 40 kHz as shown below.



Amplitude-modulated signal;
i. generating the AM signal
ii. the AM signal (time domain)
iii. the envelope
iv. one-sided frequency spectrum of the AM signal (frequency domain)
The peak detector is considered in two steps;
i. without the capacitor
ii. with the capacitor
A diode detector AM demodulator,



Mechanism functioning;
i. AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and
ii. applied to a basic half-wave rectifier circuit consisting D
1
and R
1
;
a) the voltage across R
1
is a series of positive pulses whose amplitude
varies with the modulating signal
iii. a capacitor, C
1
is connected across R
1
;
a) C
1
effectively filtering out the carrier thus recovering back the original
modulating signal
Diode detector / demodulator waveforms,


2.2 Understand Frequency Modulation (FM)
2.2.1 Define FM

Frequency Modulation (FM),
The classic definition of FM that the instantaneous output frequency of a transmitter is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

2.2.2 Use FM Equation to Solve Problem

FM equation,

FM
= V
c
sin [2f
c
t + m
f
sin (2f
m
t)]

where;

FM
= the instantaneous value of the FM signal
m
f
= the modulation index

2.2.3 Use Bessel's Function to Calculate the Sideband

Bessel-function equation,

FM
= V
c
{ J
0
(sin
c
t) + J
1
[sin (
c
+
m
) t sin (
c

m
) t]
+ J
2
[sin (
c
+ 2
m
) t + sin (
c
2
m
) t]

+ J
3
[sin (
c
+ 3
m
) t sin (
c
3
m
) t]
+ J
4
[sin (
c
+ 4
m
) t + sin (
c
4
m
) t]
+ J
5
[sin . . .] + . . .}

where;

c
= 2f
c
= carrier frequency

m
= 2f
m
= modulating signal frequency
V
c
= peak value of unmodulated carrier

Allow us to determine the frequency component of an FM wave. Bessel-function appears
as solution in numerous physical problems, quiet often involving cylindrical or spherical
geometrics. In the practice, you do not have to know and calculate these coefficients,
since tables giving them are widely available,



The modulation index, m
f
is in the first column, the carrier is in the second column while
the sidebands start from the J
0
to J
16
.

To calculate the sidebands using Bessel-function,
The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the modulation index
and using the table given above. For example assume that,

The highest modulating frequency of a signal = f
m
= 3 kHz
The maximum deviation

= f
d
= 6 kHz
The modulation index = m
f
= 6 kHz / 3 kHz = 2

Referring to Bessel-function table above, you can see that this modulation index
produces four significant pairs of sidebands, N, so the BW can be determined with the
simple formula,

BW = 2f
m
N

where N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal. According to this formula,
the BW of our FM signal is,

BW = 2(3 kHz) (4) = 24 kHz

So, in general terms, an FM signal with a modulation index of 2 and a highest
modulating frequency of 3 kHz will occupy a 24-kHz bandwidth.
Example of a graph of Bessel coefficients for carrier and first 5 sidebands,



2.2.4 Produce the Frequency Spectrum Base On Bessel-Function Table

Examples of FM signal spectra;
i. modulation index of, 0 (no modulation nor sidebands)
ii. modulation index of 1
iii. modulation index of 2
iv. modulation index of 0.25 (NBFM);
a) narrowband FM
b) which the modulation index, m
f
< /2



i.


ii.
.
iii.


iv.


2.2.5 Generalize the FM Signal with Respect to Carrier Frequency, Frequency Deviation and
Modulation Index, Bandwidth and Power

Modulation Index, m
f

This ratio of frequency deviation to frequency of the modulating signal is useful because
it also describes the ratio of amplitude to tone for the audio signal.
These factors determine the number and spacing of the side frequencies of the
transmitted signal.
The modulation index formula is shown below,






Carrier Frequency
The frequency of harmonic waves that are modulated by signals in order to transmit
information.
A wave at the carrier frequency is sometimes called a carrier wave, or a carrier.
Waves at the carrier frequency do not, in themselves, contain any information; they only
carry the information.
In addition to the carrier frequency, the spectrum of modulated waves also includes the
side frequencies, which contain the information being transmitted.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a contiguous set
of frequencies and it is typically measured in hertz, and may sometimes refer to
passband bandwidth, sometimes to baseband bandwidth, depending on context.
Passband bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies
(which energy flowing through the system begins to be reduced (attenuated or reflected)
rather than passing through.) of, for example, an electronic filter, a communication
channel, or a signal spectrum.
In case of a low-pass filter or baseband signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper cutoff
frequency.
The term baseband bandwidth always refers to the upper cutoff frequency, regardless of
whether the filter is bandpass or low-pass.
Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in many fields, including electronics, information
theory, radio communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy.
A key characteristic of bandwidth is that a band of a given width can carry the same
amount of information, regardless of where that band is located in the frequency
spectrum (assuming equivalent noise level).



Frequency deviation,
Frequency deviation (f) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum instantaneous
difference between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier frequency.
The term is sometimes mistakenly used as synonymous with frequency drift, which is an
unintended offset of an oscillator from its nominal frequency.
The frequency deviation of a radio is of particular importance in relation to bandwidth,
because less deviation means that more channels can fit into the same amount of
frequency spectrum.
The FM broadcasting range (88108 MHz) uses a channel spacing of 200 kHz, with a
maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz, leaving a 25 kHz buffer above the highest and
below the lowest frequency to reduce interaction with other channels.

Power,
Recall that for an FM wave the amplitude of the signal, and hence the power, remains
constant.
This means that the power in the individual frequency components of the wave must add
up to the transmitter output power.
Furthermore, if the modulation index changes, the total power must redistribute itself
over the resulting frequency components.
If there is no modulation, then m
f
= 0 and J
0
= 1.0. Mathematically, this can be shown by
the following,

P
rest freq
= J
0
2
P
trans

OR
P
rest freq
= P
trans


To determine the power for any individual frequency component, we can use the
following relation,
P
n
= J
n
2
(m
f
) P
trans
Furthermore, the total signal power will be given by,
P
total
= (J
0
2
+ 2J
1
2
+ 2J
2
2
+ 2J
3
2
+ ) P
trans


2.2.6 List the Advantages and Disadvantages of FM to AM

Frequency Modulation (FM)
Advantages Disadvantages
i. Very portable, easy to set up and use. i. Receivers are required for everyone.
ii. Offers great flexibility of movement. ii. Receivers vary in quality and durability.
iii. Used outdoor or indoor and receiver can be
covered or put in the pocket.
iii. Transmitter must be on the same channel.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Advantages Disadvantages
i. Testing, troubleshooting and repairing the
AM based equipment can be done easily.
i. AM does not use power efficiently.
ii. Mathematical analysis of the AM process is
relatively simple.
ii. Complexity of the suppression circuitry at
the transmitting end.
iii. Provide a straightforward way of getting
signals in different frequency bands
(sidebands)
iii. AM signals are easily corrupted by any
electrical noise that is picked up by the
channel, when the signal is demodulated from
the true modulating signal the receiver
recovers (demodulate) not the original signal
but a corrupted version.



2.3 Know Phase Modulation (PM)
2.3.1 Define Phase Modulation

Phase Modulation (PM),
Phase modulation is a method of impressing data onto an Alternating Current (AC)
waveform by varying the instantaneous phase of the wave. This scheme can be used
with analog or digital data.

2.3.2 Compare between PM to FM

Phase Modulation (PM) Frequency Modulation (FM)
i. The phase of the carrier signal varies with the
information/modulating signal.
i. The frequency of the carrier signal varies
with the information/modulating signal.
ii. The waveform.

ii. The waveform.

iii. Altering the phase with a desired signal -
works when the bandwidth of the desired signal
is very small - e.g. digital communications - but
reflections of phase modulated signals can be
easily corrupted.
iii. Imposing a signal by altering the
frequency - it takes a very high frequency to
modulate either audio or video signals - e.g.
megahertz, so it eats up bandwidth.
iv. The frequency spectrum.

iv. The frequency spectrum.

v. Used in radio transmission. v. Used in synthesizers.

































Questions & Answers

1. Modulation process is defined as
a) the shift of a signal spectra to higher frequencies to reduce the antenna size.
b) some characteristics of a carrier is varied in accordance with a modulating signal.
c) the modifying the modulating signal in away to be transmitted through a long distance.
d) all answers (a), (b) and (c) are correct.

2. For amplitude modulation process, the carrier signal
a) Consumes greater than two third of the transmitted power although it not carry any
information.
b) Consumes half of the transmitted power but it carries information.
c) Not consume any power, it just transmitted to be helpful at demodulation process.
d) Both answers (a) & (b) are wrong but (c) is correct.

3. In PM, the carrier frequency deviates with changes in what parameter(s) of the message
signal?
a) Modulation index.
b) Frequency only.
c) Amplitude only.
d) Frequency and amplitude.

4. Why can a limiter circuit be used to cut off the peaks and valleys of an FM or PM signal?
a) The message signal is contained in the frequency and phase deviations of the carrier,
noting the amplitude variations.
b) The message signal causes only small changes in the amplitude of the carrier.
c) FM or PM signals do not require much transmission power.
d) All of the above.

5. In amplitude modulation carrier frequency is much higher than the modulating signal (the
signal which is to be transmitted). What will happen if carrier frequency is equal to or
less than modulating signal?

If the carrier frequency is less than or equal to the modulating frequency then there
would be requirement of long antennas (of the order of km) to radiate the signal and one
cannot translate different signals to different spectral locations thus disabling the
receiver to select the desired signal. Hence, to accomplish ease of radiation and
multiplexing, the need for higher carrier frequencies.

6. A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up to 5-
kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a frequency of 980-kHz, compute the maximum
and minimum upper and lower sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM
station.

f
USB
= 980 + 5 = 985-kHz
f
LSB
= 980 - 5 = 975-kHz
BW = f
USB
- f
LSB
= 985 - 975 = 10-kHz
BW = 2(5-kHz) = 10-kHz

7. A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915-MHz. The maximum FM deviation is +-
12.5-kHz. What are the maximum and minimum frequencies that occur during
modulation?

915-MHz = 915, 000-kHz
Maximum deviation = 915, 000 + 12.5 = 915, 012.5-kHz
Minimum deviation = 915, 000 - 12.5 = 914, 987.5-kHz

8. If A = 100-V and B = 20-V, determine the percent of modulation, the peak carrier
voltage, and the peak value of the information voltage.

i. The modulation percent:

m
a
= 100-V - 20-V / 100-V + 20-V = 0.667, which is expressed as 66.7% AM.

ii. The average of the two peak-to-peak measurements is the peak-to-peak
amplitude of the unmodulated carrier 2Ec. Hence, the peak carrier voltage can
be computed for measurements of A and B as follows:

2E
c
= 100-V + 20-V / 2 = 60-Vpk-pk, and E
c
= 30-Vpk
E
m
= m
a
E
c
= 0.667 x 30-Vpk = 20-Vpk

iii. If more than one sinusoid, such as a musical chord (that is, a triad, three tones),
modulates the carrier, then we get the resultant AM index by RMS-averaging the
indices that each sine wave would produce. Thus, in general,



9. What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25-kHz and the
maximum modulating frequency is 15-kHz?

m
f
= f
d
/ f
m
= 25 / 15 = 1.667

and with the same formula, this question also can be solve, what is the maximum
modulating frequency that can be used to achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a
deviation of 7.48-kHz?

f
m
= f
d
/ m
f
= 7480 / 2.2 = 3400-Hz = 3.4-kHz

10. State the amplitude of the carrier and first four sidebands of an FM signal with a
modulation index of 4. (Use Figure of Bessel-function Table)

J
0
= - 0.4
J
1
= - 0.07
J
2
= 0.36
J
3
= 0.43
J
4
= 0.28





References

o Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 3
rd
Edition
o Louis E. Frenzel Jr., Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, 3
rd
Edition
o Paul H. Young, Electronic Communication techniques, 5
th
Edition
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation
o http://www.edaboard.com/thread86386.html
o http://www.argospress.com/Resources/CommunicationsSystems/vestigsidband.htm
o http://dj4br.home.t-link.de/ssb4e.htm
o http://www.edaboard.com/thread194395.html
o http://www.scribd.com/doc/50645011/23/Exercise-1-%E2%80%93-Frequency-and-
Phase-Modulation
o http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20B/AMTX%20Intro.htm
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation
o http://www.marcradio.org/re-09-1993/a-weaver-method-ssb-modulator-using-dsp.html
o http://www.scribd.com/doc/45088953/dsbsc#
o http://www.users.cloud9.net/~stark/ct8.pdf
o http://www.scribd.com/doc/6612094/Frequency-Fm-and-Phase-Pm-Modulations
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_modulation

why modulation needed `
Clearly the concept of modulation can be a little tricky, especially for the people who don't like
trigonometry. Why then do we bother to use modulation at all? To answer this question, let's
consider a channel that essentially acts like a bandpass filter: The lowest frequency
components and the highest frequency components are attenuated or unusable, in some way. If
we can't send low-frequency signals, then we need to shift our signal up the frequency ladder.
Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If every signal gets its
own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single
channel, all using different frequency ranges.
Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna. A baseband (low
frequency) signal would need a huge antenna because in order to be efficient, the antenna
needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength. Modulation shifts the baseband signal up
to a much higher frequency, which has much smaller wavelengths and allows the use of a much
smaller antenna.