Chapter 4 Electronic

CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC
4.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope
Thermionic emission

1. 2. 3.

Electrons are attracted to the nucleus of an atom. There is a strong attractive force between the electrons and the positive charges of the nucleus. In order to move these electrons to the surroundings, energy is needed. This can be done by heating a metal using electric current. This process involving the emission of electrons from a hot metal surface is known as thermionic emission. Some of the electrons gained enough energy and escape from its surface. Thermionic dioed as shown is used to demonstrate thermionic emission.

4.

Principle of thermionic diode: (a) Anode is a metal plate that connected to the positive terminal of 400 V dc supply. (b) Cathode is connected to the negative terminal. (c) A small current of 6 V dc supply is used to heat the filament. (d) Glass tube is a vacuum so that the electrons can move freely without having to collide with air molecules. (e) When the filament is heated, electrons are emitted from the surface of the filament and attracted to the anode as a narrow beam of fast electrons move to the anode. (f) The beam of electrons moving from the cathode to the anode is called cathode ray.

2 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Properties of cathode rays

1. The properties of cathode rays can be studied using apparatus such as the Maltese cross tube and cathode ray deflection tube.

Maltese cross tube

Step Only 6V dc supply is switched on

Observation

Explanation A cross-shaped shadow appears where no fluorescence occurs. The light rays from the bright filament are blocked by the Maltese cross. Green coloured cross-shaped shadow is observed at the same position and of the same size as the shadow formed by light rays. The green coloured shadow is shifted downwards.

Conclusion Light rays travels in a straight line.

Both 6V and 3kV dc supplies are switched on

Cathode rays travel in straight lines and produced fluorescence. Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic field.

Both 6V and 3kV dc supplies are switched on. The north pole of a bar magnet is brought close to the screen.

3 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Deflection tube

Step

Observation

Explanation

Conclusion

High pd supply to metal plates is switched off

Cathode rays move straight across the plates Cathode rays travel in a when there is no electric straight line. field between the plates.

High pd supply to metal plates is switched on.

Cathode rays are deflected towards the Cathode rays are positively charged plate. negatively charged. The path traced is a parabola.

High pd supply to metal plates is switched off. The north pole of a bar magnet is brought close to the screen.

Cathode rays are deflected downwards. The path traced is an arc of a circle.

Since cathode rays are deflected by a magnetic field, the rays must be electrically charged.

2.

The properties of cathode rays can be summarised as follow: (a) Consist of fast moving electrons. (b) Travel in a straight line in vacuum. (c) Possess momentum and kinetic energy due to the moving electrons and cause fluorescent effect. (d) Deflected by magnetic fields and electrical fields. (e) Negatively charged.

4 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

1. 2.

A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument that converts electronic and electrical signals to a visual display. The cathode ray tube consists of three main components: (a) electron gun (b) deflection system (c) fluorescent screen

Electron gun
The electron gun is used to produce a narrow beam of electron. Component Heating filament Function Heats the cathode to a high temperature

Cathode

Emit electrons from its surface after being heated to a high temperature. Control the number of electrons which reach the anode and control the brightness of the spot on the screen Focuses the electrons leaving the cathode to a narrow beam so that they arrive at the same spot on the screen. Accelerates the electron beam to a high velocity.

Control grid

Focusing anode

Accelerating anode

5 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Deflection system
The deflection system is used to deflect the electron beam. Component Y-plates X-plates Function To move the electron beam, vertically To move the electron beam horizontally.

Fluorescent screen
The fluorescent screen is coated on the inside surface with fluorescent material such as phosphor or zinc sulphide. When the electron beam strikes it the kinetic energy of the electron is converted to light energy. Graphite coating is used to channel the electrons striking the screen to the earth.

The working Principle of the CRO

6 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

3.

Figure 1, shows the observation when dc and ac is connected to the CRO.

Figure 1 4. A CRO can be used as: (a) a voltmeter to measure pd. (b) a timer to measure short time intervals (c) a tool to display wave forms.
7 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Measuring Potential Difference

1. The value of dc and ac voltage can be measured as; = [Number of division] x [V/div] Direct current power supply

Time base circuit switched off = +3 divs x 1 v/div = +3 V

Time base circuit switched on

Alternating current power supply

Time base circuit switched off = +2 divs x 2 V/div = +4 V

Timebase circuit switched on

8 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Measuring Short Time Intervals

1. 2. If the time-base is set to 1 ms/div, it means that one division represents a time interval of 0.001 s. The number of divisions is counted between the two pulses or two crests of a wave.

Length between two signals = 5 divs Time taken, t = 5 div x 10 ms/div = 50 ms Time intervals = 0.05 s

9 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

1. 2. 3.

Semiconductor is a material whose resistance is between conductors and insulator. A semiconductor behaves as an insulator at very low temperature and behaves as a conductor at room temperature. Silicon and germanium are some examples of pure semiconductors. Each atom in semiconductor has four electrons in its outer orbital as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1
10 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Each electron in the outer orbital can form a covalent bond with one electron in the outer orbital of another atom. Hence each silicon atom forms four covalent bonds with four neighbouring atoms. There are two types of charge carries in a semiconductor the electrons and hole. Electrons are the negative charge carries while holes are the positive charge carries. Pure semiconductors act as insulators at low temperature because there are no free electrons available to act as charge carriers. At room temperature the number of free electrons increases, therefore semiconductor act as conductor at high temperature. The process of adding a small amount of impurities into a pure semiconductor is called doping. The process of doping can be increased the conductivity of a semiconductor. Atoms of the impurities added should have almost the same size as the atoms of the pure semiconductor. There are two types of doping: (a) n-type doping (b) p-type doping p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

Doping
1. 2. 3. 4.

- When atoms with three electrons in the outer orbital (trivalent atoms) such as boron, aluminium or gallium are doped into the silicon, there will be one less electron. - Only three of the four covalent bonds are complete. - The vacancy is known as hole with positive charge. - The holes are the majority charge carries and electrons are the minority charge carries. - The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms because they accept any free electrons to fill the holes.

- When atoms with five electrons in the outer orbital (pentavalent atoms) such as phosphorus, arsenic and antimony are doped into the silicon, there will be one extra electron. - Four covalent bonds are complete and one extra electron. - The free electron act as a charge carrier. - The free electrons are the majority charge carries and the holes are the minority charge carries and the holes are the minority charge carries. - The pentavalent atoms are called donor atoms because they supply free electrons.

11 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Semiconductor Diodes
1. 2. The simplest semiconductor device is diode. A diode is made by joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor. The boundary between the p-type and n-type regions is called the p-n junction.

Structure of diode 3. 4.

Symbol of a diode

At this junction, electrons from the n-type material drift across the junction to fill in the holes in the ptype material. The holes from the p-type material drift in the opposite direction to unite with free electrons in the ntype material.

Figure 2 5. 6. 7. 8. AS a result of these movements, the p-type material becomes more negative and the n-type materials become more positive. This will result in potential difference acting from the n-type material to the p-type material across the junction. This potential difference is called the junction voltage. The effect of this junction voltage is to prevent charge carries from drifting across the junction. Figure 3 shows the depletion layer and junction voltage of a diode.

Figure 3 9. 10. In order for electric current to flow through the diode, the voltage applied across the diode must exceed the junction voltage. The junction voltage for germanium and silicon are approximately 0.1 V and 0.6 V respectively.

12 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Graf of current against voltage for germanium and silicon diode

The Function of Diodes Forward bias

Figure 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. There are two ways a diode can be connected in series to a battery, in forward bias or reverse bias. In forwards bias, the p-type (anode) of the diode is connected to the positive terminal, and the ntype (cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of a battery as shown in figure 4. When the potential difference supplied exceeds the junction voltage, a large current flows through the diode. In this arrangement, the depletion layer is narrow and the resistance of the diode decreases. The holes drift across the junction towards the n-type materials. Hence, the bulb lights up.

13 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Reverse-biased

Figure 5 1. 2. 3. Only a very small current flows through the diode. The electrons and holes are pulled away from the depletion layer. This widens the depletion layer and increases the resistance of the diode. The junction voltage will slowly build up until it reaches the same potential difference as the dry cell. When this occurs, current stops flowing completely. A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct current. Rectification is a process to convert an alternating current into a direct current by using a diode. There are two ways to convert an alternating current into a direct current: (a) Half-wave rectification (b) Full-wave rectification

Diode as a Rectifier
1. 2. 3.

Half-wave rectification

1. 2. 3. 4.

A half-wave rectifier circuit is made by connecting a diode in series with the resistor R. In the first half-cycle, the diode is forward-biased. The current flow through the resistor. In the second half-cycle the diode is reverse-biased. The diode blocks the current. The process of rectification using a diode which allows current to flow in the half-cycle is known as half-wave rectification.

14 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Full-wave Rectification

Figure 7 1. 2. 3. The circuit in figure 7 shows four diodes connected to form a bridge rectifier. The four diodes are connected in such a way that the flow of the current through the output resistor is always in the same direction. The output from a rectifier can be smoothed by connecting a capacitor across the load, as shown below.

4. 5.

During positive half-cycle the capacitor is charge up. Energy is stored in the capacitor. In between negative half-cycle, the capacitor releases its charge. The energy stored in the capacitor acts as a reservoir and maintains the potential difference across the load.

15 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

4.3 Transistors

1. 2. 3. 4.

Transistors are semiconductor devices that are used to amplify current. These devices are mostly made of silicon and germanium. Transistors can also form parts of the integrated circuits in microchips. There are two types of semiconductor transistors. n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

5.

The npn transistor has thin layer of ptype silicon sandwiched between two layers of n-type silicon. In the npn transistor, current flows from C to E.

- The pnp transistor has a thin layer of ntype silicon sandwiched between two layers of p-type silicon. - In the pnp transistor, current flows from E to C.

The terminals of a transistor have the following functions: (i) Emitter (E) supplies charge carriers to the collector. (ii) Collector (C) Receives charge carriers form E (iii) Base (B) Controls the flow of charge carriers from E to C.

16 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Function and Junctions in a Transistor

1. There are two parts to a transistor circuit, base circuit and collector circuit.

2. 3. 4.

The current which flows in the base circuit is called the base current, IB, while the current which flows in the collector circuit is called the collector current, IC. To connect an n-p-n transistor, the negative pole of one battery is joined to E and its positive pole to C. To connect a p-n-p transistor, the positive pole of one battery is joined to E and its negative pole to C.

5. 6. 7. 8.

When the circuit is switched on, the base-emitter, BE is forward-biased and the base-collector, BC is reversed-biased. The base, B layer is very thin and the potential diferece across the collector is more positive. Therefore most of the charge carriers (electrons or holes) are pulled across the base (B) to the collector (C), producing a current IC. This cause the majority charge carriers electrons in the n-semiconductor to flow from E to B. The number of holes in the depletion layer also decreases. Therefore, very few electrons combine with the holes. Some of the remaining electrons flow back into the base circuit producing a small current IB and the rest into the collector circuit.
17 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic 9. Thus, a small current IB flowing through the base B will combine with IC to produce a large current IE flowing through the emitter.

IE = IB + IC
If Ib = 0, then Ic = 0 If there is no IB flowing in the base circuit, no IC will flow in the collector circuit. The small increases in IB causes a greater increases in IC

Applications of Transistors The transistor as an Amplifier

1. 2. 3. 4.

A transistor can be used to amplify current. Sound waves are change into varying electrical signal. A small change in the base current, IB causes a large change in the collector current, IC. The varying collector current flows into the loudspeaker cause the diaphragm in the loudspeaker to vibrate and change it into sound wave.

The Transistor as a Switch

In a transistor, no current can flow in the collector circuit unless a current flows in the base circuit (IB = 0, IC = 0). This property allows a transistor to be used as a switch.

Light-operated switch
1. This circuit is designed to light the bulb in the dark and turn it off in daylight.

2.

RB is the resistor which controls the base current, IB.

18 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. R is a light-dependent-resistor (LDR). In darkness, the resistance of the LDR is very high. In bright light, the resistance of the LDR falls to a low value. The resistor R and LDR act as potential dividers. In darkness, resistance R of the LDR increases. The potential difference across LDR also increases. The base current IB flows and the transistor is switched on. The collector current IC flows through the bulb and it light up. In bright light, resistance LDR decreases. The potential difference across LDR drops and IB is zero. As no IB is flowing, the transistor is switched off. No collector current, IC flowing across M and does not light up.

A Heat-controlled Switch

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The circuit shows a heat-controlled automatic switch or a high-temperature alarm. A thermistor is a special type of resistor in which its resistance changes as the temperature changes. The resistance of a thermistor falls as the temperature rises. The thermistor and the resistor R form a potential divider across the 6V supply. When the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor falls significantly as compared to R. A large fraction of the voltage of the 6 V supply is dropped across R, hence increasing the base voltage, VB. The transistor is switched on and the collector current, IC flows through the relay coil. The alarm is activated when the relay is switched on.

19 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Integrated Circuit (IC)

An integrated circuit (IC) consists of transistors, resistors, diodes and capacitors combined together in one wafer-thin chip of silicon is called microchip. Logic Gate 1. Logic gates are electronic switches with one or more inputs and one output. 2. Logic gates operate on a binary input. This means each input is either 0 or 1. 3. Figure 1 shows circuits with different inputs and outputs.

Figure 1 Truth Table 1. A truth table shows the result of every possible output given every possible input. 2. The table uses two logic numbers 0 and 1. 3. The possible number of combinations, N for n inputs, can be determined using the formula:

N = 2n

20 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Types of Logic Gates

Circuit Diagram Function AND Input Input A AND B = 1, Output Y = 1 Boolean algebra Y = A B A 0 0 1 1 NOT Input A NOT = 1, Output Y = 1 Boolean algebra; Y= A OR Input A OR B = 1, OR both = 1, Output Y =1 Boolean algebra: Y=A+B Input A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Output X 0 1 1 1 Input A 0 1 Output X 1 0 B 0 1 0 1 Output X 0 0 0 1 Gate Truth Table

21 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic NAND Gate Input Input A AND B = 1, Output Y = 0 Boolean algebra: Y= AB A 0 0 1 1 NOR Gate Input Input A OR B = 1, OR both = 1 Output Y = 0 Boolean algebra: Y= A+B A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 C=A+B 0 1 1 1 Output X= C = B 0 1 0 1 C= A B 0 0 0 1 Output X= C =

AB
1 1 1 0

A+B
1 0 0 0

22 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic
Logic Gate Control Systems 1. Most of the electronic control systems consist of three parts as shown in figure below.

2.

Some examples of control systems are fire alarm system, automatic heater, automatic fan and car theft alarm system.

Fire Alarm System

1. 2. 3. 4.

When smoke is detected by the smoke detector, the input A is in the state of logic 1. The heat detector will also cause input B to be in the state of logic 1 when heat is detected. Since an OR gate is used, the siren will sound if one or both inputs are 1. Therefore, if either one or both detectors are activated, the siren will sound.

23 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Automatic Heater

1. 2. 3. 4.

The heater is automatically turned on when the surroundings is cold at night. However, the heater can also be turned on manually. The temperature detector produced input B=0 when cold and input B = 1 when hot. The light detector produces input C=0 in dark environment and input C=1 in bright light environment. The OR gate will give an output Y = 1 when input A = 1 or when the AND gate gives an output of 1.

24 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail

Chapter 4 Electronic

Automatic Fan

5. 6. 7. 8.

The light detector produced input A = 1 when it is bright and input A = 0 when it is dim. The heat detector produced input B = 1 when it is hot and input B = 0 when it is cold. The fan motor is turned on when the output Y = 1. Since and AND gate is used, the fan motor is turned on when the room is bright and hot, i.e. A= 1 and B = 1.

25 Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail