Movingparts

motion Angular
If a spanner is used to tighten a bolt' one end remains in the same position on the bolt, while the other end turns' This type of motio.t, where one end of a component pivots while the other end follows the arc of a circle, is called angular motion' An example is a flap on an aircraft wing, which can be moved to different positions. The point at rhe centre of angular motion is called the axis of rotation (or axis). We say that the motion occurs about the axis (around it).
axls

\,
motion Anoular

The speed of angular motion is measured as angular velocity, and increasesin angular velocity are measured as angular acceleration.

]|
l,

it is calleda revolution(or rotation).\7hen When angularmorion is through 360 degrees, ,.r. wheeli, turn through completerevolutions once'several p.t, of machines, m.rrri.rg ", velocity of The rotational (or rotate)' periods we say they revolve
d-.r, i for continuous in revolutions per minute (rpm) - often called revolving parts, or rotating parts, is -."ror.d ,.u, p.rlirrute. The motion of revolving parts is called rotary motion' away from Rotary motion generatescentrifugal force - that is, force which pushes outwards, force. centrifugal higher the axis of rotatio.r. An increasein rotational velocity results in a

motion and reciprocatng Rotary

1
E
I

reciprocating Some components move backwards and forwards. This type of motion is called reciprocating motion (oi reciprocating action) - the component reciprocates.In machines, (seeUnit 40)' motion is often convertJd (changed)to rotry motion. An example is a piston

revs Engine
The abbreviation for revolution - rev - is widely used to talk about engines.For examPle: I The rotational velocity of an engine is measured by a rev counter. I I r High and low engine speedsare described as high revs and low revs. Maximum engine speedcan be controlled by a rev limiter' If an engine'srev limit is exceeded,we say the engine is over-rewed.

r I I

is a high-rewing engine' to run at high speed An enginedesigned momentaril we saythe engineis rewed (or rewed up)' is increased When enginespeed 'sfe - for example, rewed to 6,000rpm. to a certainspeed is relryed can sayan engine

Friction
slide against Moving parts cause friction. Friction is the force of resistancewhen two surfaces force is the This friction. of coefficient as the is measured .a.h olh.r. Frictional resistance to slide material a specific of made object an allow to required to overcome friction in order material' along the surface of another specific frictional There are rwo types of friction. Static friction - sometimescalled stiction is the needed to force the measures It (not moving). rest at are resistancebetween fwo surfacesthat already are that surfaces two between friction is the start a sliding action. Dynamic friction More going. action sliding a keep to needed force the sliding againit each other. It measures friction. dynamic to overcome than force is needed to overcome static friction

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Englishin Use Engineering Professionol

Engines and motors

Types andfunctions of engines andmotors
The term engine usually refers to petrol engines, dieselenginesand jet engines(or lets).In engineering, motor usually means electric motor - but in general language,'motor' can also refer to petrol and diesel engines.Engines and motors power (or drive) machines by generating rotary motion - for example, to drive wheels. In jet engines,compressorsand turbines rotate to generatethrust - pushing force, produced by forcing air from the back of the engine at high velocity. As an engine produces a couple - rotary force - the moving parts of the machine it is driving will produce resistance,due to friction and other forces. As a result, torque (twisting force) is exerted on the output shaft of the engine.Torque - calculated as a turning moment, in newton metres - is therefore a measure of how much rotational force an engine can exert. The rate at which an engine can work to exert torque is the power of the engine, measured in watts. Although engineersnormally calculate engine power in watts, the power of vehicle enginesis often given in brake horsepower (bhp). This is the power of an engine'soutput shaft measured in horsepower (hp) - a historic measurement of power (seeAppendix III on page100). N o t e :S e et h e f o l l o w i n gu n i t sf o r m o r ei n f o r m a t i o nU : n i t3 3 ( t u r n i n g moments) U , nit34 (rotary , n d U n i t4 1 ( s h a f t s ) . m o t i o n )U , n i t 3 5 ( p o w e da

I f| Internal combustion engines

petrol; gasoline BrE: AmE: petrol gasoline BrE: AmE: engine; engine

Petrol and diesel engines are internal combustion engines.This means they are driven by the combustion (burning) of fuel in enclosed,sealedspacescalled combustion chambers. In petrol and diesel engines,the combustion chambers are cylinders surrounded by a rylinder block and closed at the top by a cylinder head. Each cylinder contains a piston. The number of piston cylinders in an engine varies - enginesin small motorcycles have only one, while sports car enginesmay have twelve. Fuel is supplied to each cylinder from a tank. In most engines,the flow of fuel is generated by a pump, which forces it - at high pressure- through fuel injectors. These vaporize the fuel, allowing it to mix with air. Using this mixture (of fuel and air), most enginesfunction as four-stroke engines.This means they work on a cycle of four stages- or four strokes.A stroke is an upward or downward movement of a piston. 1 Induction or intake The intake valve opens.The mixture entersthe cylinder through a port (opening) in the cylinder head while the oiston moves downwards.
t
t:

!. p

r.
r: r r.

2 Compression The intake valve i, t. closes.The piston t> moves upwards, compressing the I ; mixture.

il

t:

Thecycleof a four-stroke petrolengine Notes: S e ee x e r c i s4 e0 . 2o p p o s i t e f o r a n i l l u s t r a t i oo nf a c y l i n d e r . SeeUnit 42 for moreon cam,camshaft, connectingrod and crankshaft.

Professionol English in UseEngineering

44.1

Complete the text about diesel engines using words from A and B opposite. Diesel enginesdiffer from (1) ....... ... .. ........... engines in one key respect: they are not fitted with a (2) ........ ... ................ it each cylinder, to ignite the fuel. This is becausewhen a , (3)....-.-..-,........-......... of dieseland air is compressed inside a hot (4) ..-, it will explode spontaneousl without the need for a spark to provide (5) ........--.--.................. A diesel engine must therefore work in a way which prevents the diesel from exploding before the piston is at the top of the cylinder. To achieve this, the engine takes in only air during the (6) ............................ stage of the cycle. Therefore, during the (7) ...srage,only air - and not an air-fuel mixture - is pressurized.lt is only at that last instant, when full compressionhas occurred,that the (8) --... .....-............ above each cylinder forces vaporzed diesel into the combustion chamber, where it ignites. Diesel enginesoperate at lower speedsthan petrol engines,making them less suitable for high-speed applications. Flowever, they are more able to (9) .............. heavy vehicles, as they can produce gteatet amounts of (10) ...than petrol engines.

4O.2

Look at the cross-sectionof an engine, and label it using words and expressionsfrom B opposite.

camshaft
rralrro cnrinn

cooling water

connecting rod

crankshaft

One cylinderof a four-strokeinternalcombustion enqine

Professionol English in Use Engineering

87

Transm ission1
Gears
Gear wheels, or gears, are wheels with teeth (or cogs).The teeth interlock (fit together) with those of other gear wheels. \flhen one gear wheel revolves, the other revolves with it - in the opposite direction - as their teeth mesh together. Gears are normally fitted to shafts. They transmit rotary motion from one shaft to another - that is, they transmit drive. Drive, usually supplied by an engine or motor, causesa shaft to revolve. A shaft connected directly to an engine or motor is called a driveshaft - or an input shaft. A gear wheel on a driveshaft is called a driver. The second gear wheel, which mesheswith the driver, is called a follower - the driver drives the follower. An assembly of several shafts and gear wheels is called a gear train or transmission system. It begins with an input shaft and ends with an output shaft. The system may contain idler gears (or idlers). These chanee the direction of a follower.

Gears can provide a mechanical advantage (seeUnit 33) by using different gear ratios. In the diagrams above, the driver has 20 teeth and the follower has 60 teeth. Therefore the driver rotates three times to make the follower rotate once. So the gear ratio is 3:1 (three to one). This means thatif, for example, the input speed- that is, the speed of the driver - is 3,000 rpm, the output speed (of the follower) will be 1,000 rpm. In some machines, a gearbox is used to provide a number of different gear ratios. A gearbox has a gear selectionsystem,which allows gears to be changed (or shifted) while the transmission is running. This may be a manual gearbox, where gears are changed by a person, or an automatic gearbox, which automatically selectsa higher gear or lower gear, as needed.

re

Types ofgear wheel

r
t Spur gearsare the simplestgears.The teeth run straight acrossthe wheel. Helical gears have curved teeth, so that they mesh together more smoothly. Bevel gears allow drive to be transmitted through an angle - often 90". t Crown gears transmit drive through 90', often to a small gear called a pinion. Worm gears transmit drive through an angle.They also allow a low output speedrelative to the input speedof the worm. They can provide a'one way' drive, as a worm can drive a gear but a gear cannot drive a worm (the mechanismwill lock).

gears spur

worm gears

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Professionol English in Use Engineering

Transmission 2
Chains, sprockets andpulleys
Drive can be transmitted from one shaft to another, across a distance, by roller chains (or chains).Chains drive, or are driven b toothed wheels called sprockets. Pairs of sprockets with different numbers of teeth can provide different gear ratios. A bicycle is an example of a m a c h i n ew i r h c h a i n d r i v e . Belt drive works in a similar way to chain drive. Belts are usually smooth and are fitted around smooth pulley wheels (or sheaves). However, toothed belts and toothed pulley wheels can be used in applicationswhere a smooth belt could slip. A combination of severalpulleys can give a mechanicaladvantage- for example,in cranesto lift heavy loads. In this case, cables- also called wire ropes - are used insteadof belts. N o t e s :P u l l e y m a y r e f e rt o p u l l e y wheels w h e e lo n l y . a n d b e l t st o g e t h e ro , r to a pulley S e eU n i t 3 3 f o r m o r eo n m e c h a n i c a ald v a n t a o e .

EConversionbetweenreciprocatingandrotarymotion
The reciprocating linear motion of pistons is converted to rotary motion by connecting rods (or conrods) and a crankshaft. The shape of the crankshaft allows the connecting rods to exert force at a distance from its centre. This increasesthe turning moment they generate. Bicycle pedals are an example of a simple crank.

crankprovides leverage

prsto n
centreof shaft The principleof a crank connecting rod

ft cranksha

In an engine, a heavy wheel - called a flywheel - is fitted to the end of the crankshaft. This provides momentum, giving the pistons more constant motion. As well as driving a machine or vehicle, the motion of an engine'scrankshaft is used to open and close the valvesin the cylinder head. Rotary motion is transmitted,often via a toothed belt or chain, to the camshaft at the top of the engine.The cams fixed on the camshaft cause followers - which are connectedto the valves- to move up and down as the cam revolves. As they move) they open and close the valves.

Notes: See thefollowing units for more information: Unit33 (momentum andturning moments), Unit34 (rotary andreciprocating motion), andUnit40 (internal combustion engines). '113 See Appendix Xl on page for more on mechanisms with rotary motion. used
90 Professiono/ English in L)seEngineering

Managing rotarymotion
The following mechanisms are often used in machines that have rotating shafts and wheels. allows a shaft, such as a driveshaft or an axle (a shaft to which a vehicle'swheels are fixed) to revolve inside a hole may require a lubricant - oil or grease- to help reduce friction a universaljoint used to connect the ends of rwo shafts rhat are at an angle to each other, allowing drive to be transmitted, through the angle, between two shafts allows drive to be transmitted progressively(by friction), from a constantly revolving driveshaft,to wheels that are not yet revolving may be operated manuall or may be an automatically operated centrifusal clutch r I I used to slow down and stop rotary motion, usually by friction in disc brakes,a pair of brake pads is pressedagainst the sidesof a metal brake disc which is fixed to the shafr in drum brakes,brake pads are pressedagainstthe inside of a hollow cvlinder.called a drum

joint A universal

Professional English in Use Engineering

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