CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

With the developments of power electronic equipments and nonlinear loads, the power quality has been deteriorating in distribution system. Current harmonics can cause serious harmonic problems in distribution feeders for sensitive consumers. Some technology options have been reported in order to solve power quality issues. Initially, lossless passive filters have been used to mitigate harmonics and compensate reactive power in nonlinear loads. However, passive filters have the demerits of fixed compensation, large size and resonance with the supply system. Active filers have been explored in shunt and series configurations to compensate different types of nonlinear loads; nevertheless, they have some drawbacks. As a case in point, their rating is sometimes very close to load, and thus it becomes a costly option for power quality improvement. Many researchers have classified different types of nonlinear loads and have suggested various filter options for their compensation. In response to these factors, a series of hybrid filters has been evolved and extensively used in practice as a cost effective solution for the compensation of nonlinear loads. State-of-the-art power electronic technology has enabled engineers to put active filters into practical use. Many shunt active filters consisting of voltagefed pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters using IGBT or GTO thyristors are operating successfully in all over the world. These filters have provided the required harmonic filtering, reactive power compensation. An important technology on active filters is the detecting method of harmonics to reduce the capacity of the energy storage components. Various control strategies have been proposed in recent publications for this type of active filters. The control strategy presented in is based on the calculation of the real part of the fundamental load current while this is useful in some configurations such as hybrid series active filter, since it cannot compensate reactive power completely and needs many complicate calculations. The active power filter proposed in uses a dc capacitor voltage closed loop control; the author uses an adaptive method with Kalman filter to predict reference current; in and the authors use a modified phase-locked loop for extraction of the reference current.
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In the cited references, the computation involves various control parameters or needs complex calculations. Also, the dynamic performance of the compensator is not desire in the case of fast-changing loads. The least compensation current control method presented is based on detection of the harmonics and reactive current of the active power filter. Genetic algorithm and extended analysis optimization techniques were applied for switched capacitor active filters. A combined genetic algorithm conventional analysis control technique has been considered as a recent control approach. These control strategies have a common drawback concerning the global stability of the closed-loop system. The control method is based on the calculation of average power; this needs to know some information about system and requires intense calculation. The sliding-mode control method proposed solves the stability problem; however, the calculation technique for compensation of current reference is complicated and switching frequency is variable. A digital repetitive control approach is presented to obtain high gain for the current loop; nevertheless, the control strategy in this approach is based on a linear zed model of the active filter and does not lead to global stability. A deadbeat control strategy is introduced for the current loop of singlephase active filters. Although this method has a fast current control due to the deadbeat nature, it dependency on parameters is a basic disadvantage. Furthermore, the need for prediction of the current reference requires adaptive signal processing techniques, complicating the implementation of this technique. Passivity based controllers based on phasor models of system dynamics have also been proposed in an attempt to improve the stability properties of active filters.

CHAPTER 2: POWER QUALITY

The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing: Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our natural resources. As we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double the total average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future. 2.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS: For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as: Any power problem that results in failure or mis operation of customer equipment, manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the environment.

When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality include: Power Factor Harmonic Distortion Voltage Transients Voltage Sags or Dips Voltage Swells The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility or enginealternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment

It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on investment. However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely will not be delivered. Power quality can be improved through: Power factor correction, Harmonic filtering, Special line notch filtering, Transient voltage surge suppression, Proper earthing systems. In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be fully aware of the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness. In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings , or consider it someone elses concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality
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criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of those specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria. Early in the process of preparing the crane specification: Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be satisfied, if any. Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles that can be expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific project. Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for the terminal. 2.2 THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY: Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs. 1. ECONOMIC IMPACT The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways: A. POWER FACTOR PENALTIES Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the next. Some utility companies actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the
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power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak demand charges. A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If the power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penalized, or required to take corrective actions at the users expense. One utility company, which supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service contract with the terminal reads as follows: The average power factor under operating conditions of customers load at the point where service is metered shall be not less than 85%. If below 85%, the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the Power factor of the entire installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may require special power conditioning equipment or filters. The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce requirements such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal growth plan should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of utility deregulation. B. SYSTEM LOSSES: Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the distribution system.
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These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. Based on the typical demands of todays high speed container cranes, correction of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation. C. POWER SERVICE INITIAL CAPITAL INVESTMENTS: The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal. Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system which does not address power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality equipment. 2. EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY: Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power quality problems and are all interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power
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factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters. 3. POWER SYSTEM ADEQUACY When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be connected. In other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a workable scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of problems. 4. ENVIRONMENT No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to encourage conservation of our natural resources and support measures which improve our air quality

CHAPTER 3:HARMONICS
The typical definition for a harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or \ quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.Some references refer to clean or pure power as those without any harmonics. But such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. Harmonics have been around for a long time and will continue to do so. In fact, musicians have been aware of such since the invention of the first string or woodwind instrument. Harmonics (called overtones in music) are responsible for what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a clarinet. Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform has only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North America, this frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other parts of the world, this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as the fundamental frequency. At 60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage waveform increases to a maximum positive value, then decreases to zero, further decreasing to a maximum negative value, and then back to zero. The rate at which these changes occur is the trigometric function called a sine wave, as shown in figure 1. This function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the speed of a pendulum as it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a violin vibrates when plucked.

Fig 3.1 Sine wave The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the fundamental frequency. For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second
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harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz.300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system. how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-type display, which some power quality analyzers provide.

Fig 3.2 Fundamental with two harmonics In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have many different frequencies present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of the more popular is called the Fourier Transform. However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a microprocessor or computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible processes, called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform, are used. These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the fundamental and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the Nyquist frequency, which is onehalf of the sampling frequency). The frequency values must not change during the measurement period. Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in mis-information. For example, if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200 Hz signals, the FFT cannot directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,..., which are often called bins. The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the 180Hz bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin. An FFT-based processer could show a voltage value of 115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it really should have been 30 V at 200 Hz.

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These in-between frequencies are called inter harmonics. There is also a special category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental frequency value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal in an electric arc furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the fundamental , inter harmonic, and sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power grid. These levels can be quite high during the melt-down phase, and usually effect the voltage waveform. 3.1 WHY WORRY ABOUT THEM? The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run properly. Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the stiffness of the power distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below, there are a number of different types of equipment that can have mis operations or failures due to high harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one factory may be the source of high harmonics but able to run properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the electric utility distribution system, and may effect facilities on the same system which are more susceptible. Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: - Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triplen harmonics in three phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral. This is because the harmonic number multiplied by the 120 degree phase shift between phases is an integer multiple of 360 degrees. This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase legs in-phase with each other in the neutral. Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging type current meters. Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA. Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplen harmonics generated on the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type of losses go up as the square of harmonic value (such as skin effect and eddy current losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and lighting ballasts.
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Fig 3.3 Additive Third Harmonics Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced system, voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,...), negative (2nd, 5th, 8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th,...) sequencing values. This means that the voltage at that particular frequency tries to rotate the motor forward, backward, or neither (just heats up the motor), respectively. There is also heating from increased losses as in a transformer.

Table3.1 Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems

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Nuisance operation of protective devices, including false tripping of relays and failure of a UPS to transfer properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-crossing sensing circuits. Bearing failure from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric motors. Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from resonance with line impedance. Mis-operation or failure of electronic equipment If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most sensitive, and just 0.5% variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of lighting. 3.2 WHERE THEY COME FROM? How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an effect on purity of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and current waveforms to lose this pure sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may consist of predominately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system impedances. Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources. The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled rectifiers and inverters. These are often called static power converters. These devices take AC power and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC power at the same or different frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the controlling mechanism that determines how and when current is conducted. One major variation is the phase angle at which conduction begins and ends. A typical such converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal computers and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits in size,

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weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past fifteen years is largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics. Figure shows below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is converted into a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the equipment needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes) that only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the one end must be greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor, where the voltage value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is being taken out by the rest of the power supply. When the input voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will conduct current through it. This results in a current waveform , and harmonic spectrum in Figure 6. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform with only a 60 Hz frequency component.

Fig 3.4: Current Waveform

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Fig 3.5 Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform Shown If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier, the waveform would only have every other current pulse, and the harmonic spectrum would be different, as shown in Figure. Fluorescent lights can be the source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear inductors. The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. As previously mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire wye or star system will be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some of the newer electronic ballasts have very significant harmonic problems, as they operate somewhat like a switching power supply, but can result in current harmonic distortion levels over 30%.

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Table 3.2 Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting Low power, AC voltage regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors adjust the phase angle or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power converters are used for motor control in manufacturing and railroad applications, and include such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable frequency drives). Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high voltage DC transmission employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating. This type of 3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality problems. When the semiconductor device is suppose to turn-off, it does not do so abruptly. This happens under naturally commutated conditions, where the voltage that was larger on the anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite. This occurs each cycle as the voltage waveform goes through the sine waveform. It also happens under forced commutation conditions, where the semi-conductor device has a gate-type control mechanism built in to it. This commutation period is a time when two semiconductor devices are both conducting current at the same time, effectively shorting one phase to the other and resulting in large current transients. When transformers are first energized, the current drawn is different from the steady state condition. This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics during this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the time, and then increase
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for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced transformer (where either the output current, winding impedance or input voltage on each leg are not equal) will cause harmonics, as will overvoltage saturation of a transformer. 3.3 WHERE TO LOOK FOR THEM? Wherever the aforementioned equipment is used, one can suspect that harmonics are present. The amount of voltage harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic currents being drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the wiring and transformers back to the source of the electricity. Ohms Law says that Voltage equals Current multiplied by Impedance. This is true for harmonic values as well. If the source harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a stiff system) then the harmonic currents will result in lower harmonic voltages than if the source impedance were high (such as found with some types of isolation transformers). Like any power quality investigation, the search can begin at the equipment effected by the problem or at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC), where the utility service meets the building distribution system. If only one piece of equipment is effected (or suspected), it is often easier to start the monitoring process there. If the source is suspected to be from the utility service side (such is the case when there is a neighboring factory that is known to generate high harmonics), then monitoring usually begins at the PCC. The phase voltages and currents, as well as the neutral-to-ground voltage and neutral current should be monitored, where possible. This will aid in pinpointing problems, or detecting marginal systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic value, indicating the presence of non-linear loads in the facility. 3.4 HOW DO YOU FIND THEM? Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools for making spot checks for known harmonic problems. However, harmonic values will often change during the day, as different loads are turned on and off within the facility or in other facilities on the same electric utility

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distribution system. This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or power quality monitor with harmonic capabilities, which can record the harmonic values over a period of time.

Fig 3.6 Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis Typically, monitoring will last for one business cycle. A business cycle is how long it takes for the normal operation of the plant to repeat itself. For example, if a plant runs three identical shifts, seven days a week, then a business cycle would be eight hours. More typically, a business cycle is one week, as different operations take place on a Monday, when the plant equipment is restarted after being off over the weekend, then on a Wednesday, or a Saturday, when only a Skelton crew may be working. Certain types of loads also generate typical harmonic spectrum signatures that can point the investigator towards the source. This is related to the number of pulses, or paths of conduction. The general equation is h = ( n * p ) +/- 1, where h is the harmonic number, n is any integer (1,2,3,..) and p is the number of pulses in the circuit, and the magnitude decreases as the ration of 1/h (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9,...).

Table. 3.3 Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters.

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3.5 WHEN ARE THEY A PROBLEM? Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the waveform looks like a mirror image of the negative half. This results in only odd harmonic values being present. Even harmonics will disrupt this half-wave symmetry. The presence of these even harmonics should cause the investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the circuit. This also results from a full wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has blown or damaged components. Early detection of this condition in a UPS system can prevent a complete failure when the load is switched onto back-up power. To determine what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No sinusoidal Load Currents is a useful document for determining how much a transformer should be derated from its nameplate rating when operating in the presence of harmonics. There are two parameters typically used, called K-factor and TDF (transformer dereading factor). Some power quality harmonic monitors will automatically calculate these values. IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits are. The harmonic limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC) at PCC (or how stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, as illustrated. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and increases with larger ratios.

Table3.4 Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE

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For voltage harmonics, the voltage level of the system is used to determine the limits. At the higher voltages, more customers will be effective, hence, the lower limits.

Table 3.5 Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE The European Community has also developed susceptibility and emission limits for\ harmonics. Formerly known as the 555-2 standard for appliances of less than 16 A, a more encompassing set of standards under IEC 1000-4-7 are now in effect. 3.6 HOW DO YOU GET RID OF THEM? Care should be undertaken to make sure that the corrective action taken to minimize the harmonic problems dont actually make the system worse. This can be the result of resonance between harmonic filters, PF correcting capacitors and the system impedance. Isolating harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of harmonic filters are typical ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be relocated to try to balance the system better. Neutral conductors should be properly sized according to the latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the neutral may have been undersized in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that is the same size as the phase conductors. This is particularly important with some modular office partition-type walls, which can exhibit high impedance values. The operating limits of transformers and motors should be derated, in accordance with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and NEMA on such. Use of higher pulse converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate lower harmonic values, but at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.

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3.7 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION:Harmonic problems are almost always introduced by the consumers equipment and installation practices. Harmonic distortion is caused by the high use of non-linear load equipment such as computer power supplies, electronic ballasts, compact fluorescent lamps and variable speed drives etc, which create high current flow with harmonic frequency components. The limiting rating for most electrical circuit elements is determined by the amount of heat that can be dissipated to avoid overheating of bus bars, circuit breakers, neutral conductors, transformer windings or generator alternators. 3.7.1 DEFINITION: THD is defined as the RMS value of the waveform remaining when the fundamental is removed. A perfect sine wave is 100%, the fundamental is the system frequency of 50 or 60Hz. Harmonic distortion is caused by the introduction of waveforms at frequencies in multiplies of the fundamental ie: 3rd harmonic is 3x the fundamental frequency / 150Hz. Total harmonic distortion is a easurement of the sum value of the waveform that is distorted.

Fig 3.7 3x harmonics in waveform 3.8 POWER MEASUREMENT: Despite the use of good quality test meter instrumentation, high current flow can often remain undetected or under estimated by as much 40%. This severe underestimation causes overly high running temperatures of equipment and nuisance tripping. This is simply because the average reading test meters commonly used by maintenance technicians, are not designed to accurately measure distorted currents, and can only provide indication of the condition of the supply at the time of checking. Power quality conditions change continuously, and only
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instruments offering true RMS measurement of distorted waveforms and neutral currents can provide the correct measurements to accurately determine the ratings of cables, bus bars and circuit breakers. 3.9 NEUTRAL CURRENTS: High harmonic environments can produce unexpected and dangerous neutral currents. In a balanced system, the fundamental currents will cancel out, but, triple- Ns will add, so harmonic currents at the 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. will flow in the neutral. Traditional 3 phase system meters are only able to calculate the vector of line to neutral current measurements, which may not register the true reading. Integra 1530, 1560 and 1580 offer a 3 phase 4 wire version with a neutral 4th CT allowing true neutral current measurement and protection in high harmonic environments. 3.10 HARMONIC PROFILES: There is much discussion over the practical harmonic range of a measurement instrument, however study of the harmonic profiles of typically installed equipment can guide the system designer to the practical solution. A typical harmonic profile graph will show a logarithmic decay as the harmonic frequency increases. It is necessary to establish the upper level at which the harmonic content is negligible.

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CHAPTER 4.PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most effective means to achieve constant voltage battery charging by switching the solar system controllers power devices. When in PWM regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according to the batterys condition and recharging needs Consider a waveform such as this: it is a voltage switching between 0v and 12v. It is fairly obvious that, since the voltage is at 12v for exactly as long as it is at 0v, then a 'suitable device' connected to its output will see the average voltage and think it is being fed 6v exactly half of 12v. So by varying the width of the positive pulse - we can vary the 'average' voltage.

Fig 4.1: positive pulse Similarly, if the switches keep the voltage at 12 for 3 times as long as at 0v, the average will be 3/4 of 12v - or 9v, as shown below and if the output pulse of 12v lasts only 25% of the overall time, then the average is

Fig 4.2: positive pulse varying average voltage

Fig 4.3: overallvoltage

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By varying - or 'modulating' - the time that the output is at 12v (i.e. the width of the positive pulse) we can alter the average voltage. So we are doing 'pulse width modulation'. I said earlier that the output had to feed 'a suitable device'. A radio would not work from this: the radio would see 12v then 0v, and would probably not work properly. However a device such as a motor will respond to the average, so PWM is a natural for motor control. 4.1 PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR: So, how do we generate a PWM waveform? It's actually very easy, there are circuits available in the TEC site. First you generate a triangle waveform as shown in the diagram below. You compare this with a d.c voltage, which you adjust to control the ratio of on to off time that you require. When the triangle is above the 'demand' voltage, the output goes high. When the triangle is below the demand voltage, the

Fig 4.4 pulse width modulator

When the demand speed it in the middle (A) you get a 50:50 output, as in black. Half the time the output is high and half the time it is low. Fortunately, there is an IC (Integrated circuit) called a comparator: these come usually 4 sections in a single package. One can be used as the oscillator to produce the triangular waveform and another to do the comparing, so a complete oscillator and modulator can be done with half an IC and maybe 7 other bits. The triangle waveform, which has approximately equal rise and fall slopes, is one of the commonest used, but you can use a saw tooth (where the voltage falls quickly and rinses slowly).

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You could use other waveforms and the exact linearity (how good the rise and fall are) is not too important. Traditional solenoid driver electronics rely on linear control, which is the application of a constant voltage across a resistance to produce an output current that is directly proportional to the voltage. Feedback can be used to achieve an output that matches exactly the control signal. However, this scheme dissipates a lot of power as heat, and it is therefore very inefficient. A more efficient technique employs pulse width modulation (PWM) to produce the constant current through the coil. A PWM signal is not constant. Rather, the signal is on for part of its period, and off for the rest. The duty cycle, D, refers to the percentage of the period for which the signal is on. The duty cycle can be anywhere from 0, the signal is always off, to 1, where the signal is constantly on. A 50% D results in a perfect square wave.

Fig 4.5: Duty cycle waveforms

A solenoid is a length of wire wound in a coil. Because of this configuration, the solenoid has, in addition to its resistance, R, a certain inductance, L. When a voltage, V, is applied across an inductive element, the current, I, produced in that element does not jump up to its constant value, but gradually rises to its maximum over a period of time called the rise time . Conversely, I does not disappear instantaneously, even if V is removed abruptly, but decreases back to zero in the same amount of time as the rise time.
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Fig 4.6: current steady state waveform Therefore, when a low frequency PWM voltage is applied across a solenoid, the current through it will be increasing and decreasing as V turns on and off. If D is shorter than the rise time, I will never achieve its maximum value, and will be discontinuous since it will go back to zero during Vs off period (Figure 3).* In contrast, if D is larger than the rise time, I will never fall back to zero, so it will be continuous, and have a DC average value. The current will not be constant, however, but will have a ripple.

Fig 4.7: low frequency pwm with discrete time

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At high frequencies, V turns on and off very quickly, regardless of D, such that the current does not have time to decrease very far before the voltage is turned back on. The resulting current through the solenoid is therefore considered to be constant. By adjusting the D, the amount of output current can be controlled. With a small D, the current will not have much time to rise before the high frequency PWM voltage takes effect and the current stays constant. With a large D, the current will be able to rise higher before it becomes constant.

Fig.4.8: waveform I versus t in pwm

4.2 WHY THE PWM FREQUENCY IS IMPORTANT: The PWM is a large amplitude digital signal that swings from one voltage extreme to the other. And, this wide voltage swing takes a lot of filtering to smooth out. When the PWM frequency is close to the frequency of the waveform that you are generating, then any PWM filter will also smooth out your generated waveform and drastically reduce its amplitude. So, a good rule of thumb is to keep the PWM frequency much higher than the frequency of any waveform you generate. Finally, filtering pulses is not just about the pulse frequency but about the duty cycle and how much energy is in the pulse. The same filter will do better on a low or high duty cycle pulse compared to a 50% duty cycle pulse. Because the wider pulse has more time to integrate to a stable filter voltage and the smaller pulse has less time to disturb it the inspiration was a request

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to control the speed of a large positive displacement fuel pump. The pump was sized to allow full power of a boosted engine in excess of 600 Hp. At idle or highway cruise, this same engine needs far less fuel yet the pump still normally supplies the same amount of fuel. As a result the fuel gets recycled back to the fuel tank, unnecessarily heating the fuel. This PWM controller circuit is intended to run the pump at a low speed setting during low power and allow full pump speed when needed at high engine power levels. 4.3 MOTOR SPEED CONTROL (POWER CONTROL): Typically when most of us think about controlling the speed of a DC motor we think of varying the voltage to the motor. This is normally done with a variable resistor and provides a limited useful range of operation. The operational range is limited for most applications primarily because torque drops off faster than the voltage drops. Most DC motors cannot effectively operate with a very low voltage. This method also causes overheating of the coils and eventual failure of the motor if operated too slowly. Of course, DC motors have had speed controllers based on varying voltage for years, but the range of low speed operation had to stay above the failure zone described above. Additionally, the controlling resistors are large and dissipate a large percentage of energy in the form of heat. With the advent of solid state electronics in the 1950s and 1960s and this technology becoming very affordable in the 1970s & 80s the use of pulse width modulation (PWM) became much more practical. The basic concept is to keep the voltage at the full value and simply vary the amount of time the voltage is applied to the motor windings. Most PWM circuits use large transistors to simply allow power On & Off, like a very fast switch. This sends a steady frequency of pulses into the motor windings. When full power is needed one pulse ends just as the next pulse begins, 100% modulation. At lower power settings the pulses are of shorter duration. When the pulse is On as long as it is Off, the motor is operating at 50% modulation. Several advantages of PWM are efficiency, wider operational range and longer lived motors. All of these advantages result from keeping the voltage at full scale resulting in current being limited to a safe limit for the windings.
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PWM allows a very linear response in motor torque even down to low PWM% without causing damage to the motor. Most motor manufacturers recommend PWM control rather than the older voltage control method. PWM controllers can be operated at a wide range of frequencies. In theory very high frequencies (greater than 20 kHz) will be less efficient than lower frequencies (as low as 100 Hz) because of switching losses. The large transistors used for this On/Off activity have resistance when flowing current, a loss that exists at any frequency. These transistors also have a loss every time they turn on and every time they turn off. So at very high frequencies, the turn on/off losses become much more significant. For our purposes the circuit as designed is running at 526 Hz. Somewhat of an arbitrary frequency, it works fine. Depending on the motor used, there can be a hum from the motor at lower PWM%. If objectionable the frequency can be changed to a much higher frequency above our normal hearing level (>20,000Hz). 4.4 PWM CONTROLLER FEATURES: This controller offers a basic Hi Speed and Low Speed setting and has the option to use a Progressive increase between Low and Hi speed. Low Speed is set with a trim pot inside the controller box. Normally when installing the controller, this speed will be set depending on the minimum speed/load needed for the motor. Normally the controller keeps the motor at this Lo Speed except when Progressive is used and when Hi Speed is commanded (see below). Low Speed can vary anywhere from 0% PWM to 100%. Progressive control is commanded by a 0-5 volt input signal. This starts to increase PWM% from the low speed setting as the 0-5 volt signal climbs. This signal can be generated from a throttle position sensor, a Mass Air Flow sensor, a Manifold Absolute Pressure sensor or any other way the user wants to create a 0-5 volt signal. This function could be set to increase fuel pump power as turbo boost starts to climb (MAP sensor). Or, if controlling a water injection pump, Low Speed could be set at zero PWM% and as the TPS signal climbs it could increase PWM%, effectively increasing water flow to the engine as engine load increases.

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This controller could even be used as a secondary injector driver (several injectors could be driven in a batch mode, hi impedance only), with Progressive control (0-100%) you could control their output for fuel or water with the 0-5 volt signal. Progressive control adds enormous flexibility to the use of this controller. Hi Speed is that same as hard wiring the motor to a steady 12 volt DC source. The controller is providing 100% PWM, steady 12 volt DC power. Hi Speed is selected three different ways on this controller: 1) Hi Speed is automatically selected for about one second when power goes on. This gives the motor full torque at the start. If needed this time can be increased ( the value of C1 would need to be increased). 2) High Speed can also be selected by applying 12 volts to the High Speed signal wire. This gives Hi Speed regardless of the Progressive signal. When the Progressive signal gets to approximately 4.5 volts, the circuit achieves 100% PWM Hi Speed. 4.5 HOW DOES THIS TECHNOLOGY HELP? The benefits noted above are technology driven. The more important question is how the PWM technology Jumping from a 1970s technology into the new millennium offers: LONGER BATTERY LIFE: reducing the costs of the solar system reducing battery disposal problems MORE BATTERY RESERVE CAPACITY: increasing the reliability of the solar system reducing load disconnects Opportunity to reduce battery size to lower the system cost GREATER USER SATISFACTION: get more power when you need it for less money
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CHAPTER 5: FILTERS
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both. Electronic filters can be: Passive or Active Analog or Digital High-pass, Low-pass, Band pass, Band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-pass. Discrete-time (sampled) or Continuous-time Linear or Non-linear Infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type) The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis. 5.1: CLASSIFICATION BY TECHNOLOGY: 5.1.1 PASSIVE FILTERS: Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as passive filters, because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do not contain active components such as transistors. Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in which a capacitor provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-frequency signals than highfrequency signals and is a low-pass filter. If the signal passes through a capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency signals and is a high-pass filter.
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Resistors on their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to inductors and capacitors to determine the time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the frequencies to which it responds. The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of elements determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit being used in a band-pass or band-stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of two components. At high frequencies (above about 100 megahertz), sometimes the inductors consist of single loops or strips of sheet metal, and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of metal. These inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs. 5.1.2 SINGLE ELEMENT TYPES: A low-pass electronic filter realised by an RC circuit The simplest passive filters, RC and RL filters, include only one reactive element. 5.1.3 L filters: An L filter consists of two reactive elements, one in series and one in parallel. 5.1.4 T and filters: Three-element filters can have a 'T' or '' topology and in either geometries, a low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop characteristic is possible. The components can be chosen symmetric or not, depending on the required frequency characteristics. The high-pass T filter in the illustration, has a very low impedance at high frequencies, and a very high impedance at low frequencies. That means that it can be inserted in a transmission line, resulting in the high frequencies being passed and low frequencies being reflected. Likewise, for the illustrated lowpass filter, the circuit can be connected to a transmission line, transmitting low frequencies and reflecting high frequencies. Using m-derived filter sections with correct termination impedances, the input impedance can be reasonably constant in the pass band.

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5.1.5 Multiple element types: Element filters are usually constructed as a ladder network. These can be seen as a continuation of the L,T and designs of filters. More elements are needed when it is desired to improve some parameter of the filter such as stop-band rejection or slope of transition from passband to stop-band. 5.1.6 Active filters: Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying) components, and require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used in active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the amplifiers used. 5.1.7 Digital filters: A general finite impulse response filter with n stages, each with an independent delay, di and amplification gain, Digital signal processing allows the inexpensive construction of a wide variety of filters. The signal is sampled and an analog-to-digital converter turns the signal into a stream of numbers. A computer program running on a CPU or a specialized DSP (or less often running on a hardware implementation of the algorithm) calculates an output number stream. This output can be converted to a signal by passing it through a digital-to-analog converter. There are problems with noise introduced by the conversions, but these can be controlled and limited for many useful filters. Due to the sampling involved, the input signal must be of limited frequency content or aliasing will occur. 5.1.8 Quartz filters and piezoelectric: In the late 1930s, engineers realized that small mechanical systems made of rigid materials such as quartz would acoustically resonate at radio frequencies, i.e. from audible frequencies (sound) up to several hundred megahertz. Some early resonators were made of steel, but quartz quickly became favored. The biggest advantage of quartz is that it is piezoelectric. This means that quartz resonators can
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directly convert their own mechanical motion into electrical signals. Quartz also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion which means that quartz resonators can produce stable frequencies over a wide temperature range. Quartz crystal filters have much higher quality factors than LCR filters. When higher stabilities are required, the crystals and their driving circuits may be mounted in a "crystal oven" to control the temperature. For very narrow band filters, sometimes several crystals are operated in series. Engineers realized that a large number of crystals could be collapsed into a single component, by mounting comb-shaped evaporations of metal on a quartz crystal. In this scheme, a "tapped delay line" reinforces the desired frequencies as the sound waves flow across the surface of the quartz crystal. The tapped delay line has become a general scheme of making high-Q filters in many different ways. 5.1.9 SAW filters: SAW (surface acoustic wave) filters are electromechanical devices commonly used in radio frequency applications. Electrical signals are converted to a mechanical wave in a device constructed of a piezoelectric crystal or ceramic; this wave is delayed as it propagates across the device, before being converted back to an electrical signal by further electrodes. The delayed outputs are recombined to produce a direct analog implementation of a finite impulse response filter. This hybrid filtering technique is also found in an analog sampled filter. SAW filters are limited to frequencies up to 3 GHz.

5.2 The transfer function: The transfer function of a filter is the ratio of the output signal to that of the input signal as a function of the complex frequency .The transfer function of all linear time-invariant filters, when constructed of discrete components, will be the ratio of two polynomials in , i.e. a rational function of . The order of the transfer function will be the highest power of encountered in either the numerator or the denominator.

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5.3 ACTIVE FILTER: An active filter is a type of analog electronic filter, distinguished by the use of one or more active components i.e. voltage amplifiers or buffer amplifiers. Typically this will be a vacuum tube, or solid-state (transistor or operational amplifier). Active filters have three main advantages over passive filters: Inductors can be avoided. Passive filters without inductors cannot obtain a high Q (low damping), but with them are often large and expensive (at low frequencies), may have significant internal resistance, and may pick up surrounding electromagnetic signals. The shape of the response, the Q (Quality factor), and the tuned frequency can often be set easily by varying resistors, in some filters one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others. Variable inductances for low frequency filters are not practical. The amplifier powering the filter can be used to buffer the filter from the electronic components it drives or is fed from, variations in which could otherwise significantly affect the shape of the frequency response. Active filter circuit configurations (electronic filter topology) include: Sallen and Key, and VCVS filters (low dependency on accuracy of the components) State variable and biquadratic filters Twin T filter (fully passive) Dual Amplifier Band pass (DABP) Wien notch Multiple Feedback Filter Fliege (lowest component count for 2 op amp but with good controllability over frequency and type)
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Akerberg Mossberg (one of the topologies that offer complete and independent control over gain, frequency, and type) All the varieties of passive filters can also be found in active filters. Some of them are: High-pass filters attenuation of frequencies below their cut-off points. Low-pass filters attenuation of frequencies above their cut-off points. Band-pass filters attenuation of frequencies both above and below those they allow to pass. Notch filters attenuation of certain frequencies while allowing all others to pass. Combinations are possible, such as notch and high-pass (for example, in a rumble filter where most of the offending rumble comes from a particular frequency), e.g.Elliptic filters. 5.3.1 DESIGN OF ACTIVE FILTERS: To design filters, the specifications that need to be established include: The range of desired frequencies (the pass band) together with the shape of the frequency response. This indicates the variety of filter (see above) and the center or corner frequencies. Input and output impedance requirements. These limit the circuit topologies available; for example, most, but not all active filter topologies provide a buffered (low impedance) output. However, remember that the internal output impedance of operational amplifiers, if used, may rise markedly at high frequencies and reduce the attenuation from that expected. Be aware that some high-pass filter topologies present the input with almost a short circuit to high frequencies. The degree to which unwanted signals should be rejected. In the case of narrow-band band pass filters, the Q determines the -3dB bandwidth but also the degree of rejection of frequencies far removed from the center frequency; if these two requirements are in conflict then a staggered-tuning band pass filter may be needed.

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For notch filters, the degree to which unwanted signals at the notch frequency must be rejected determines the accuracy of the components, but not the Q, which is governed by desired steepness of the notch, i.e. the bandwidth around the notch before attenuation becomes small. For high-pass and low-pass (as well as band-pass filters far from the center frequency), the required rejection may determine the slope of attenuation needed, and thus the "order" of the filter. A second-order all-pole filter gives an ultimate slope of about 12 dB per octave (40dB/decade), but the slope close to the corner frequency is much less, sometimes necessitating a notch be added to the filter. The allowable "ripple" (variation from a flat response, in decibels) within the pass band of high-pass and low-pass filters, along with the shape of the frequency response curve near the corner frequency, determine the damping factor (reciprocal of Q). This also affects the phase response, and the time response to a square-wave input. Several important response shapes (damping factors) have well-known names: Chebyshev filter slight peaking/ripple in the pass band before the corner; Q>0.7071 for 2nd-order filters Butterworth filter flattest amplitude response; Q=0.7071 for 2nd-order filters Paynter or transitional Thompson-Butterworth or "compromise" filter faster fall-off than Bessel; Q=0.639 for 2nd-order filters Bessel filter best time-delay, best overshoot response; Q=0.577 for 2nd-order filters Elliptic filter or Cauer filters add a notch (or "zero") just outside the pass band, to give a much greater slope in this region than the combination of order and damping factor without the notch. 5.4 ACTIVE POWER FILTERS: Active Filters are commonly used for providing harmonic compensation to a system by controlling current harmonics in supply networks at the low to medium voltage distribution level
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or for reactive power or voltage control at high voltage distribution level. These functions may be combined in a single circuit to achieve the various functions mentioned above or in separate active filters which can attack each aspect individually. The block diagram presented in section shows the basic sequence of operation for the active filter. This diagram shows various sections of the filter each responding to its own classification. 5.4.1 Classification of active power filters: The block diagram shown in figure represents the key components of a typical active power filter along with their interconnections. The reference signal estimator monitors the harmonic current from the nonlinear load along with information about other system variables. The reference signal from the current estimator, as well as other signals, drives the overall system controller. This in turn provides the control for the PWM switching pattern generator. The output of the PWM pattern generator controls the power circuit through a suitable interface. The power circuit in the generalized block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or parallel/series configurations, depending on the transformer used.

Fig 5.1 Generalized block diagram for active power filters. Active power filters according to can be classified based on the following criteria: 1. Power rating and speed of response required in compensated systems; 2. Power-circuit configuration and connections;
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3. System parameters to be compensated; 4. Control techniques employed; and 5. Technique used for estimating the reference current/voltage. 5.4.2 Classification according to power rating and speed of response in compensated system: The block diagram shown in figure shows the classification based on this criterion. The size of nonlinear loads play a major role in deciding the way different control methods are implemented. The filter required for compensation must be practical for the load and this decision affects the speed of response. In general a reciprocal relationship exists between the cost of a particular system to the required speed of response.

Fig 5.2 subdivision of active filters according to speed response and power rating 5.4.3 Low power applications: Low power applications govern applications with a power rating below 100kVA. Applications of these sizes are generally associated with residential areas, commercial buildings, hospitals and for a wide range of medium sized factory loads and motor drive systems. Active filters chosen for this power range employ sophisticated techniques catering with high pulse number PWM voltage or current source inverters. The response time for smaller applications is
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relatively much faster than other sizes ranging from ten microseconds to ten milliseconds. This type comprises the following two categories. 1. Single-phase systems: Low power rating loads generally require single phase active filters. They are generally most employed in commercial buildings with a large number of computers. This application means that current harmonics can be treated at the point of common coupling (PCC). It is often economical and practical to install single phase active filters on distribution based sites of reduced size capacity than a larger rated filter installed upstream. This is due to the large number of the single-phase loads within one building and the harmful consequences associated with the presence of large amounts of harmonic in the neutral line. This allows for more selective compensation as the operating conditions vary. Due to the load capacity drawn from residential loads, it is rare for a high concentration of harmonics, and thus the impacts on the neutral lines are not significant. Residential customers tend not invest in purchasing active filters because there are no compulsory harmonic regulations however, the main advantage of such an installation are that operating frequencies can be increased moving to improved performance since only low ratings are employed. 2. Three-phase systems: The installation of three-phase filters is used for three-phase applications. Different filter configurations can be tested and installed based upon whether the loads are balanced or unbalanced. At levels below 100kVA, a three phase filter can be reconfigured to compensate for three individual single phases in one unit or for a single three-phase supply. When nonlinear loads are balanced, meaning all three phased impedances are equal, a single three-phase-inverter configuration is employed. This choice of inverter is used when the objective is to eliminate as many current harmonics as possible, assuming that the magnitudes and respective phase angles in each phase are the same. In the situation when nonlinear loads are unbalanced, or supply voltages are unsymmetrical, three single phase inverter circuits are used.

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5.4.4 Medium power applications: Power systems ranging between 100kVA to 10MVA fit the class of a medium power application. Due to the fact that phase unbalances are reduced on this sized system, the major objective is to eliminate current harmonics. In general, capacitive and inductive static

compensators, line-commutated thyristor converters, synchronous condensers and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators, are often more economic as reactive power compensation using active filters often is not viable. This is due to the high voltage as well as problems with isolation and series/parallel connection of switches. The speed of response expected in this range is of the order of tens of milliseconds. 5.4.5 High power applications: At high power ratings, the use of active filters becomes very uneconomical. This is because of the lack of high switching frequency power devices that can control the current flow. Thus, this is a major disadvantage for such systems. In addition, even the latest advances in semiconductor technology still fall short as extra high voltages of a few hundred kilovolts cannot be tolerated. The series-parallel combination is possible however; implementation is difficult and also cost-ineffective. Harmonic pollution upstream affecting high power ranges above 10MVA is not such a problem compared against low power systems. The implementation of single and three phase filters downstream at the low voltage system provides suitable compensation such that significant harmonic pollution upstream is minimal. The static-VAR compensation is then the major concern and is usually compensated for by using traditional static power conditioners/filters as well as several sets of synchronous condensers connected in parallel and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators. The required response time for such cases is in the range of tens of seconds, which is sufficient for contactors and circuit breakers to operate after taking the optimal-switching decision. Power fluctuations in the range of a few seconds are, on the other hand, treated by the generating stations' ancillary devices. Classification according to power circuit, configurations and connections

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The choice of power circuit chosen for the active filter greatly influences its efficiency and accuracy in providing true compensation. It is therefore important that the correct circuit configuration is chosen. 5.5 Shunt active filters: Shunt active filters are by far the most widely accept and dominant filter of choice in most industrial processes. Figures show the system configuration of the shunt design. The active filter is connected in parallel at the PCC and is fed from the main power circuit. The objective of the shunt active filter is to supply opposing harmonic current to the nonlinear load effectively resulting in a net harmonic current. This means that the supply signals remain purely fundamental. Shunt filters also have the additional benefit of contributing to reactive power compensation and balancing of three-phase currents. Since the active filter is connected in parallel to the PCC, only the compensation current plus a small amount of active fundamental current is carried in the unit. For an increased range of power ratings, several shunt active filters can be combined together to withstand higher currents. This configuration consists of four distinct categories of circuit, namely inverter configurations, switched-capacitor circuits, latticestructured filters and voltage-regulator-type

Fig 5.3 shunt active filters used alone.

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Fig 5.4 shunt active filters network configuration.

5.6 Series active filters: The objective of the series active filter is to maintain a pure sinusoidal voltage waveform across the load. This is achieved by producing a PWM voltage waveform which is added or subtracted against the supply voltage waveform. The choice of power circuit used in most cases is the voltage-fed PWM inverter without a current minor loop. The active filter acts as a voltage source and thus it is often a preferred solution of harmonic producing loads such as large capacity diode rectifiers with capacitive loads. In general, series active filters are less commonly used against the shunt design. Unlike the shunt filter which carries mainly compensation current, the series circuit has to handle high load currents. This causes an increased rating of the filter suitable to carry the increased current. Series filters offer the main advantage over the shunt configuration of achieving ac voltage regulation by eliminating voltage-waveform harmonics. This means the load contains a pure sinusoidal waveform.

Fig 5.5 series active filter configuration

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Fig 5.6 series active filter used alone 5.7 Other combinations: In some cases, the combinations of shunt and series active filters provide a greater effectiveness in eliminating harmonic pollution from the system. Combination of both shunt and series active filters: The diagram shown in figure shows the combination of both parallel and series active filters. This system combines both the benefits of the shunt and series and is often used to achieve the demanding power system requirements. The control of active filters can be complex. A combination of the two provides an even greater complexity. The higher cost involved in a more complex design has shown a reduced demand for the combined structure. As a result of the increased cost and complexity, this combination has received less attention than other configurations. Flexible AC transmission systems, commonly abbreviated as FACTS regularly make use of the arrangement.

Fig 5.7 combination of shunt and series active filters

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Combination of series active and shunt passive filters: The combination of the active parallel and active series filters in 3.4.3.1 was seen to be very complex in control yielding a high cost. One method of reducing these problems was to replace the parallel active filter with a passive structure. The series active filter, which constitutes high impedance for high-frequency harmonics, is accompanied by a parallel passive filter to provide a path for the harmonic currents of the load. This combination, represented by figure, permits an improvement over the characteristics of plain series active filters and the extension of their capabilities to include current- harmonic reduction and voltage- harmonic elimination. Passive filters are often easier and simple to implement and do not require any control circuit. This, this deserves to be most beneficial.

Fig 5.8 series active and shunt active filter combination Combination of shunt active and passive filters: Shunt active filters are best suitable to compensate for lower order harmonics thus only requiring low power rating which serves most economical. This configuration makes use of a passive filter which serves to compensate for the high order load current harmonics. This combination, represented by figure presents this important configuration. Combinations such as this can be designed to compensate for higher powers without excessive costs for high-power switching. The major disadvantage of this configuration is the fact that passive filters can only be tuned for a specific predefined harmonic and thus cannot be easily changed for loads which have varying harmonics.

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Fig 5.9 shunt active and passive filter combination Active filter in series with shunt passive filters: The combination of an active filter in series with a shunt passive filter is considered a significant design configuration for medium and high voltage applications. The passive filter is designed to reduce the voltage stress applied to the switches in the active filter. This design is in its infancy of development however, further research is still needed to assess the effectiveness of the configuration.

Fig 5.10 active filter in series with shunt passive filter combintation 5.8 Classification according to compensated variable: Active filters are designed to provide suitable compensation for a particular variable or a multiple of sorts in cases of combination structures. Figure shows the variety of compensated variable that active filters can provide for.

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Fig 5.11 subdivision according to compensated variable 5.8.1 Reactive power compensation: The shunt active filter does provide reactive power compensation however; they rarely treat the problem of power-factor correction on its own owing to the fact that other quasidynamic, cheaper and slower-in-response reactive-power compensators are available in the market. When this technique is applied, lower power applications are more suited since the currents needed for reactive-power compensation are of the same order of magnitude as the rated current of the load. It would be a waste of sophisticated equipment to tackle them without the use of other power factor-correction devices, such as thyristor-controlled reactors and capacitors; especially in single-phase systems, where in certain specific applications the requirement is for accurate compensation without harmonics generation. 5.8.2 Harmonic compensation: Within the system, active filters can be used to provide suitable harmonic compensation for voltage harmonics and current harmonics. These harmonic are the most important variable requiring compensation.

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5.8.3 Compensation of voltage harmonics: In general, the concern for compensating voltage harmonics is not high due to the fact that power supplies usually have low impedance. Generally, at the point of common coupling, ridged standards are implemented to ensure a correct level of total harmonic distortion (THD) and voltage regulation is maintained. The problem of compensating for voltage harmonics is to ensure the supply to be purely sinusoidal. This is important for harmonic voltage sensitive devices such as power system protection devices and superconducting magnetic energy storage. Voltage harmonics are related to current harmonics by the impedance of the line. Although compensation of voltage harmonics helps to provide a reduction in current harmonics, this however, does not negate the necessity to current harmonic compensation. 5.8.4 Compensation of current harmonics: Current harmonic compensation strategies are exceptionally important. Current harmonics are greatly reduced by the compensation of voltage harmonics at the consumers point of common coupling. The reduction in current harmonics is not only important for reasons such as device heating and reduction in life of devices but also in design of power system equipment. One of the major design criteria covers the magnitude of the current and its waveform. This is to reduce cable and feeder losses. Since the root mean square (RMS) of the load current incorporates the sum of squares of individual harmonics, true current harmonic compensation will aid system designers for better approached power rating equipment. 5.8.5 Balancing of three phase systems: In most low and medium voltage distribution systems, it is frequent to find situations where the currents and voltages in the three phases are not balanced and are not evenly distributed by 120 degrees.

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5.8.6 Multiple compensation: To target a variety of variables requiring compensation, often it is usual to combine different combinations to improve the effectiveness of the filter. The following are the most frequently used combinations. Harmonic current with reactive power compensation One very common filter design makes use of combining aspects of reactive power compensation together with harmonic current elimination. This ensures the supply current remains purely fundamental free from distributing harmonics whilst making certain the current is in phase with the supply voltage. This approach is very cost effective because only one device is used for all aspects rather than including multiple circuits for each individual objective. The active filter used here however, suffers from poor power switching limits and thus can only serve as a compensator for low powered applications.

Harmonic voltages with reactive power compensation This combination, however rare, takes place in certain configurations for controlling the voltage harmonics, which would normally affect indirectly (using suitable feedback) the reactive-power compensation. This compensation system is only suitable for low-power applications. Harmonic current and voltages To compensate for both current and voltage system harmonics, a shunt and series active filter configuration must be used respectively. Integrating this filter serves to eliminate load harmonics whilst ensuring the supply remains fundamental. This type of design contains very complex control algorithms and is normally used only for very sensitive devices such as powersystem-protection equipment and superconducting magnetic-energy storage systems.

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Harmonic current and voltages with reactive power compensation This filter design incorporates all three compensating variables into one unit. It controls all harmonics and reactive power within the system. This is achieved by implementing of a parallel/series active filter combination. The control for this design is very complex and difficult to maintain and thus is not often employed. 5.9 Classification based upon control technique: Figure presents the basic control structure for active power system filters. The two main techniques are open look control and closed loop control.

Fig 5.12 classification of active power filters according to control technique.

5.9.1 Open loop systems: Open-loop systems sense the load current and the harmonics it contains. They inject a fixed amount of power in the form of current (mainly reactive) into the system, which may compensate for most of the harmonics and/or reactive power available. Since there is no feedback loop on this system, there is no reference to check the performance and accuracy of the filter. This is a traditional technique and in present day is not often used. 5.9.2 Closed loop systems: Closed loop control systems incorporate a feedback loop providing greater accuracy of current injection for harmonic compensation as well as reactive power reduction well over the open loop design. This feature enables true sensing of the required variables under consideration. Almost all new techniques in use are of this type.
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1. Constant capacitor voltage technique: In this technique, the DC link contains a capacitor and once charged, this capacitor voltage is the voltage source which controls the current waveform by PWM techniques. The voltage across the terminals of the capacitor often fluctuates due to the fact that energy is either supplied or expelled. To regulate and maintain terminal voltage levels, a reference voltage is chosen. The difference between the actual capacitor voltage and the predefined reference voltage determines the active component of power required to compensate for losses in the filter. This error difference is added to the current-controller error signal to determine the overall system error to be processed by the current controller. This technique is widely accepted and is very popular. 2. Constant inductor current technique: The control replaces the use of the capacitor in the DC link with an inductor. The system operates much the same as mentioned in 3.6.2.1 however; the capacitor voltage is replaced with the inductor current. This is achieved in two ways: (i) current pulse-width modulation where like in the PWM provides the required pulses to represent the average current signal and (ii) current pulse amplitude modulation which is a new control method provides the active filter with a basis for amplitude modulation rather than solely the width. 3. Other techniques: Other control techniques exist that simply provide small changes to the aforementioned techniques, providing simply newer or better performance over their predecessors. These techniques may include the use of state of the art adaptive, predictive and sliding-mode controllers, which are normally difficult to implement without the use of Digital Signal Processing (DSP). These techniques can be implemented in either the time domain or the frequency domain. 5.10 Active filters harmonic detection and extraction: A shunt active filter acts as a controllable harmonic current source. In principle, harmonic compensation is achieved when the current source is commanded to inject harmonic currents of
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the same magnitude but opposite phase to the load harmonic currents. Before the inverter can subtly inject opposing harmonic currents into the power system, appropriate harmonic detection strategies must be implemented to efficiently sense and determine the harmonic current from the nonlinear load. 5.10.1 Types of harmonic detection strategies: There are 3 different types of harmonic detection strategies used to determine the current reference for the active filter. These are 1. Measuring the load harmonic current to be compensated and using this as a reference command; 2. Measuring source harmonic current and controlling the filter to minimise it; and 3. Measuring harmonic voltage at the active filter point of common coupling (PCC) and controlling the filter to minimise the voltage distortion. 1. Load current sensing: This method involves measurement of the load current and subsequent extraction of its harmonic content using a high pass filter scheme. The harmonic components, so extracted, are adjusted for polarity and used as reference commands for the current controller. This is explained with the help of equation 3.1 and figure 3.14. Denoting the harmonic components of the load current by, the describing equation for this strategy is lhi

Fig5.12 load current sensing compensation schematic.

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2. Source current sensing: In this strategy, the source current is measured and its harmonic component extracted. This is scaled by a suitable controller, generally of the proportional type. The output of the proportional controller is provided as a reference to the current controller. This is schematically represented in figure and analytically expressed by equation. Denoting the harmonic components of the source current byshi, the describing equation for this strategy is

Fig 5.13 source current sensing compensation schematic. 3. Point of Common Coupling (PCC) voltage sensing: This method requires measurement of the harmonic component of the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) voltage e(t). The harmonic component is then used to generate the current reference, after passing it through a proportional controller. Schematically, it is represented in figure and analytically expressed by equation denoting the harmonic components of the PCC voltage by, the describing equation for this strategy is

Fig 5.14 PCC voltage sensing compensation schematic.

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Load current sensing and supply current sensing are suitable for shunt active filters installed in the vicinity of one or more harmonic producing loads by individual high-powered consumers. PCC voltage sensing is suitable for shunt active filters, which will be installed on distribution systems by utilities. Supply current detection is the most basic harmonic detection method for series active filters acting as a voltage source. 5.11 Classification based upon current/voltage reference estimation technique: There are numerous techniques each sub classified in figure which propose methods to calculate and determine the appropriate compensating reference current used for the active filter to pass to the PWM inverter.

Fig 5.15 subdivision according estimation technique. 5.11.1 Current/voltage reference synthesis (continuous time-domain): In this method, an analogue signal filter is applied at the supply side to determine the current harmonics from the supply. This technique is very simple and easy to implement however introduces major amounts of magnitude and phase errors.

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1. High pass filter method: This method uses a high pass filter to pass high ordered frequencies effectively removing low order components in the load current signal. The filtered frequencies constitute the reference portion. This technique however, is susceptible to noise as this is undesired. 2. Low pass filter method: This method is favored in terms of reference synthesis because unlike the high pass filter method, the effects of noise in the filtered portion are suppressed. The desired reference value is the harmonic component found in the load current. This is determined by subtracting the low order frequency component found from implementing a low pass filter from the total load current. This presents the harmonic portion from the load current waveform. This technique however, introduces large magnitude and phase errors. 5.11.2 Current/voltage reference calculation (discrete time or frequency domain): The techniques mentioned have many disadvantages to their use namely, phase and magnitude errors as well as the effects of noise. The calculation of harmonics therefore provides the most appropriate alternative. Two major techniques are classified in either time domain or frequency domain. 1. Time domain approaches: The following seven subdivisions of time-domain approaches are mainly used for threephase systems except for the fictitious-power-compensation technique which can be adopted for single- or three-phase systems. The time-domain methods are mainly used to gain more speed or fewer calculations compared to the frequency-domain methods. Instantaneous reactive power algorithm: Instantaneous power theory determines the harmonic distortion from the instantaneous power calculation in a three-phase system, which is the multiplication of the instantaneous values of the currents and voltages.

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The values of the instantaneous power p and q, which are the real and respective imaginary powers, contain dc and ac components depending on the existing active, reactive and distorted powers in the system. The dc components of p and q represent the active and reactive powers and must be removed with high-pass filters to retain only the ac signals. The ac components converted by an inverse transformation matrix to the abc-frame represent the harmonic distortion, which is given as the reference for the current controller. These processes are depicted in figure.

Fig 5.15 Calcultation for the constant instantaneous supply power control strategies This operation takes place only under the assumption that the three-phase system is balanced and that the voltage waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If, on the other hand, this technique is applied to contaminated supplies, the resulting performance is proven to be poor. Synchronous detection algorithm: This technique relies in the fact that the three phase currents are balanced. The average power is calculated and divided equally between the three phases. The signal is then synchronised relative to the mains voltage for each phase. This technique, however easy to

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implement, suffers from the fact that it depends to a great extent on the harmonics in the voltage signal. Constant active power algorithm: The instantaneous and average powers of the load are calculated. The active power component of the system is controlled to keep the instantaneous real power constant, while maintaining the imaginary power to zero. This technique performs fairly well under ordinary conditions. However, the performance deteriorates when the supply is contaminated. Constant power factor algorithm: This technique forces the instantaneous current signal to track the voltage-reference waveform. This implies that the power factor is fixed to unity and the system would only be suitable for the combined system of VAR and current-harmonic compensation. Fictitious power compensation algorithm: System controller is designed to minimise the undesired component of power. In this aspect, it is similar to the instantaneous-reactive-power algorithm but with a different definition of power. This approach is suitable for both single and three phase systems. However it involves a large amount of computation. Synchronous frame based algorithm: This algorithm relies on Park transformations to transform the three phase system from a stationary reference frame into synchronously rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence components. These can easily be analysed since the fundamental- frequency component is transformed into DC quantities. The active and reactive components of the system are represented by the direct and quadrature components, respectively. The high-order harmonics still remain in the signal; however they are modulated at different frequencies. These are the undesired components to be eliminated from the system and they represent the reference harmonic current. The system is very stable since the controller deals mainly with

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DC quantities. The computation is instantaneous but incurs time delays in filtering the DC quantities. This method is applicable only to three-phase systems. Synchronous flux detection algorithm: This technique applies Park transformations to transfer the system into synchronously rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence frames of reference. However, it applies the transformation on the flux linkage of the filter inductance, which is then controlled using the output voltages and currents in separate integral loops. The presence of these integral loops incorporates time delays, which depend on the frequency response of the special feed forward and feedback integrators. 2. Frequency domain approaches: The frequency-domain methods are mainly identified with Fourier analysis, rearranged in such a manner that this provides the result as fast as possible with a reduced number of calculations, to allow a real-time implementation in DSPs. Once the Fourier transform is taken, the APF converter-switching function is computed to produce the distortion canceling output. With this strategy the inverter switching frequency must be more than twice the highest compensating harmonic frequency. This strategy has a poorer dynamic response and it not as widely used. Conventional Fourier and FFT algorithms: Using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), the harmonic current can be reconstructed by eliminating the fundamental component from the transformed current signal and then the inverse transform is applied to obtain a time-domain signal. The main disadvantage of this system is the accompanying time delay. This technique needs to take samples of one complete cycle (or an integral number of cycles) to generate the Fourier coefficients and it is therefore suitable for slowly varying load conditions. Sine multiplication technique: This method relies on the process of multiplying the current signal by a sine wave of the fundamental frequency and integrating the result. This results in a loss of all the high-order
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harmonics using a simple low-pass filter. The performance is still slow (more than one complete mains cycle). This technique is similar to the Fourier techniques presented above; it is, however, differently implemented. Modified Fourier series techniques: The principle behind this technique is that only the fundamental component of current is calculated and this is used to separate the total harmonic signal from the sampled load-current waveform. The practical implementation of this technique relies on modifying the main Fourier series equations to generate a recursive formula with a sliding window. This technique is adapted to use two different circular arrays to store the components of the sine and cosine coefficients computed every sampling sub cycle. The newly computed values of the desired coefficient are stored in place of the old ones and the overall sums of the sine and cosine coefficients are updated continuously. The computation time is much less than that of other techniques used for single-phase applications. This technique is equally suitable for single- or three-phase systems. 3. Other algorithms: There are numerous optimization and estimation techniques, and all the utilities and libraries for estimation can be used to perform this task. However some new methods arise, such as the neural network and adaptive-estimation techniques which are fairly accurate and have, of course, much better response. Unfortunately, presently available control hardware is not suitable for implementation of these techniques. 5.12 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTERS: Shunt active power filters compensate current harmonics by injecting equal-but-opposite harmonic compensating current. In this case, the shunt active power filter operates as a current source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase shifted by 180. As a result, components of harmonic currents contained in the load current are cancelled by the effect of the active filter, and the source current remains sinusoidal and in phase with the respective phase to neutral voltage. This principle is applicable to any type of load considered as an harmonic source. Moreover, with an appropriate control scheme, the active power filter can also
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compensate the load power factor. In this way, the power distribution system sees the non-linear load and the active power filter as an ideal resistor.

Fig 5.17 shunt active power filter 5.13 Compensation characteristics of a shunt active power filter: Shunt active power filters are normally implemented with PWM voltage-source inverters. In this type of application, the PWM-VSI operates as a current-controlled voltage-source. Traditionally, 2 levels PWM-VSI have been used to implement such system connected to the ac bus through a transformer. This type of configuration is aimed to compensate nonlinear load rated in the medium power range (hundreds of kVA) due to semiconductors rated values limitations. However, in the last years multilevel PWM voltage-source inverters have been proposed to develop active power filters for medium voltage and higher rated power applications. Also, active power filters implemented with multiples of VSI connected in parallel to a dc bus but in series through a transformer or in cascade have been proposed in the technical literature. The use of VSI connected in cascade is an interesting alternative to compensate high power nonlinear loads.
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The use of two PWM-VSI with different rated power allows the use of different switching frequencies, reducing switching stresses and commutation losses in the overall compensation system.

Fig 5.18: The block diagram of a shunt active power filter control scheme Effectiveness of an active power filter depends on its ability to follow with a minimum error and time delay the reference signal calculated to compensate the distorted load current. Finally, the dc voltage control unit must keep the total dc bus voltage constant and equal to a given reference value. The dc voltage control is achieved by adjusting the small amount of real power absorbed by the inverter. This small amount of real power is adjusted by changing the amplitude of the fundamental component of the reference current. 5.14 Current Reference Generation: There are many possibilities to determine the reference current required to compensate the nonlinear load. Normally, shunt active power filters are used to compensate the displacement power factor and low frequency current harmonics generated by nonlinear loads. One alternative to determine the current reference required by the voltage-source inverter is the use of the instantaneous reactive power theory, proposed by Akagi. This concept is very popular and useful
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for this type of application, and basically consists of a variable transformation from the a; b; c reference frame of the instantaneous power, voltage and current signals to the a; b reference frame. The transformation equations from the a; b; c reference frame to the a; b coordinates can be derived from the phasor diagram. The instantaneous values of voltages and currents in the a; b coordinates can be obtained from the following equations

Transformation diagram from the a; b; c reference frame to the a; b coordinates Where A is the transformation matrix, derived and is equal to

This transformation is valid if and only if va.t. . vb.t. . vc .t. is equal to zero, and also if the voltages are balanced and sinusoidal. The instantaneous active and reactive power in the a b coordinates are calculated with the following expressions:
P (t) = q (t)= + 63 (t) (t)

It is evident that p.t becomes equal to the conventional instantaneous real power defined in the a; b; c reference frame. However, in order to define the instantaneous reactive power, Akagi introduces a new instantaneous space vector defined by expression or by the vector equation:
=

The vector q is perpendicular to the plane of a; b coordinates, to be faced in compliance with a right-hand rule, and va is perpendicular to ib, and vb is perpendicular to ia. The physical meaning of the vector q is not instantaneous power because of the product of the voltage in one phase and the current in the other phase. On the contrary, vaia and vbib in obviously mean instantaneous power because of the product of the voltage in one phase and the current in the same phase. Akagi named the new electrical quantity defined instantaneous imaginary power, which is represented by the product of the instantaneous voltage and current, but cannot be treated as a conventional quantity.The expression of the currents in the a b plane, as a function of the instantaneous power is given by the following equation:

and the different components of the currents in the a; b plane are shown in the following expressions:

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the values of p and q can be expressed in terms of the dc components plus the ac components, that is:

Where Dc component of the instantaneous power p, and is related to the conventional fundamental active current. The ac component of the instantaneous power p, it does not have average value, and is related to the harmonic currents caused by the ac component of the instantaneous real power. The dc component of the imaginary instantaneous power q, and is related to the reactive power generated by the fundamental components of voltages and currents.The ac component of the instantaneous imaginary power q, and is related to the harmonic currents caused by the ac component of instantaneous reactive power. In order to compensate reactive power (displacement power factor) and current harmonics generated by nonlinear loads, the reference signal of the shunt active power filter must include the values of ~p, _q, and ~q. In this case the reference currents required by the shunt active power filters are calculated with the following expression:

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Fig 5.19: The block diagram of the current reference generator using p q theory Where the zero sequence current component i0 is equal to 1/3 ( .ia . ib . ic ). The block diagram of the circuit required to generate the reference currents defined . The advantage of p q theory is that real and reactive powers associated with fundamental components are dc quantities. These quantities can be extracted with a low pass filter. Since the signal to be extracted is dc, filtering of the signal in the a b reference frame is insensitive to any phase shift errors introduced by the low pass filter, improving compensation characteristics of the active power filter. In this case transformation from a; b; c axes to d q synchronous reference frame is done. There are other possibilities to generate the current reference signal required to compensate reactive power and current harmonics. Basically, all the different schemes try to obtain the current reference signals that include the reactive components required to compensate the displacement power factor and the current harmonics generated by the nonlinear load. Figure shows another scheme used to generate the current reference signals required by a shunt active power filter. In this case the ac current generated by the inverter is forced to follow the reference signal obtained from the current reference generator. In this circuit, the distorted load current is filtered, extracting the fundamental component. The band-pass filter is tuned at the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz), so that the gain attenuation introduced in the filter output signal is zero and the phase-shift angle is 180_. Thus, the filter output current is exactly equal to the fundamental component of the load current but phase shifted by 180_. If the load current is added to the fundamental current component
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obtained from the second order band-pass filter, the reference current waveform required to compensate only harmonic distortion is obtained. The amplitude of this sinusoidal waveform is equal to the amplitude of the fundamental component of the load current plus or minus the error signal obtained from the dc voltage control unit. In this way, the current signal allows the inverter to supply the current harmonic components, the reactive power required by the load, and to absorb the small amount of active power necessary to cover the switching losses and to keep the dc voltage constant. Technical Specifications The standard specifications of shunt active power filters are the following: Number of phases: 3-phase and three wires or 3-phases and four wires. Input voltage: 200, 210, 220_10%, 400, 420, 440_%, 6600_10%. Frequency: 50=60 Hz_5%. No. of restraint harmonic orders: 225 th. Harmonic restraint factor: 85% or more at the rated output. Type of rating: continuous. Response: 1 ms or less. For shunt active power filter the harmonic restraint factor is defined as .1 . IH2 =IH1 . _ 100%, where IH1 are the harmonic currents flowing on the source side when no measure are taken for harmonic suppression, and IH2 are the harmonic currents flowing on the source side when harmonics are suppressed using an active filter.

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CHAPTER 6: MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

6.1 HARMONIC ELIMINATION USING A HYBRID SERIES ACTIVE FILTER (HSAF):

The active filters can be classified into pure active filters and hybrid active filters in terms of their circuit configuration. Most pure active filters as their power circuit can use either a voltage-source pulse width-modulated (PWM) converter equipped with a dc capacitor or a current-source PWM converter equipped with a dc inductor. At present, the voltage source converter is more favorable than the current-source one in terms of cost, physical size, and efficiency. Hybrid active filters consist of single or multiple voltage-source PWM converters and passive components such as capacitors, inductors, and/or resistors. The hybrid filters are more attractive in harmonic filtering than the pure filters from both viability and economical points of view, particularly for high-power applications. However, single-phase active filters would attract much less attention than three-phase active filters because single phase versions are limited to low-power applications except for electric traction or rolling stock.

Fig 6.1: System configuration The configuration of the HSAF and nonlinear load proposed in this paper and, its parameters. The HSAF consists of a series active filter and two parallel single tuned passive filters in series with the active filter. Two passive filters are tuned in dominants harmonic frequencies of 3rd and 5th. The effectiveness of the proposed method in harmonic elimination and reactive power compensation is shown using HSAF for a nonlinear load. In the following sections, the control method, the design process and simulation results are given.
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6.2 COMPENSATION STRATEGY: One of the key points for proper implementation of an APF is to use a reliable method for current/voltage reference generation. Currently, there is a large variety of practical implementation supported by different theories (either in time or frequency domain). The control method should extract the harmonic components with minimum phase shift and attenuate the fundamental component. In this paper discrete Fourier transformation (DFT) is used to extract the source current harmonics with assuming N samples in a cycle, as:

Where (1) is DFT and (2) is inverse DFT. After extracting the fundamental component, it is subtracted from source current to extract harmonic components as:

The control circuit, method was proposed by Akagi to control the dc voltage capacitor. Based on this method, if active filter is along the passive filter, an extra voltage reference should be added to q component. As seen in this figure, a component with 90 degree lead the load terminal voltage is added to reference voltage in order to control the dc link voltage capacitor.

Fig.6.2: Control circuit of hybrid series active filter

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6.3 SYSTEM STABILITY ANALYSIS: The figure Shows whole system block diagram. Active filter shows zero impedance against fundamental component of the source current while it shows high impedance against harmonics. In analog to digital converters in control circuit give rise to some delays in system. Also, it takes some time to extract harmonic components by the microcontroller. Assuming all the delays in the system as shows the system control diagram. So, the open-loop transfer function will be as:

Represents that if is zero, the system will always be stable. However, the existence of noise is unavoidable. Fig. 5 shows the relationship between system critical time () and system impedance in different values of K. As seen in this figure, as K increases, the system critical time decreases to avoid instability; however, the source current THD decreases. Fig. 6 shows the system frequency response. As this figure shows, the system is stable and its phase margin is about 90 degree.

Fig.6.3: Block diagram of the whole system

Fig.6.4: Control diagram of the system with constant delay

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Fig.6.5: Relationship between system critical time and system impedance

Fig.6.6: System frequency response 6.4 FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SYSTEM: Single phase harmonic equivalent circuit of the power system, is demonstrated. In this figure, the voltage source harmonics are modeled by Vsh, and it is in series with the Thevenin impedance (Zs) of the power system. Also, nonlinear load is a diode rectifier by a resistive capacitive load on its output. This load has usually a voltage source characteristic because an inductor is on rectifier input, and this makes it as a current source type load characteristic. The load is modeled by harmonic voltage VLhv in series with inductor LAC. The series active filter behaves as a damping resistor which can eliminate resonance between the parallel passive filter and the source impedance. It also prevents flowing of harmonic currents to the power source by

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presenting zero impedance at the fundamental frequency and a high resistance K at the power source or load harmonics.

Fig.6.7: Harmonic equivalent circuit of single phase system So, the series active filter can be modeled by a resistor, K, and its output reference voltage as:

Where Ish is the harmonic current flowing from the power source, produced by both the load harmonic current (ILh) and the power source harmonic voltage (VSh). Consequently, from the model shown in Fig. 7, the harmonic current of the power source is calculated as:

Where Zs and Zpf are power source and passive filter equivalent impedance, respectively Based on (6), when K is large enough greater than Zs and Zpf, the power source harmonic currents will be equal to zero (ISh=0). In fact, in this case the source impedance (Zs) has no impact on the parallel passive filter characteristic, and the power source current harmonics will completely be eliminated. If the power source voltage harmonics (VSh) is not considered, the load current will be divided between the passive filter and the power source; in this case, the ratio between the power source harmonic current and the load harmonic current is:
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Fig. 8 shows the frequency response for different values of K. As seen in this figure, when the passive filter is used alone (K=0), two resonances occur between the parallel passive filter and the power source impedance at about 130 Hz and 240 Hz. Also, when the series active filter is used along with the pass ive filter, since the series active filter behaves as a damping resistor there is no resonance in the system.

Fig.6.8: Frequency response of the hybrid series active filter for different values of K

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CHAPTER.7: MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

Fig 7.1: Simulink model of Hybrid Series Active Filter (HSAF)

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Fig 7.2: Simulated waveforms of compensated system with passive filter.

Fig 7.3: Simulated waveforms of the compensated system with the hybrid series active filter
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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION This paper presents a fully digitally controlled HSAF for harmonic elimination and reactive power compensation in a single phase system with a control method for series active filter. This method is applicable in both single and three phase systems. The main advantage of the presented series active filter is that its filters power rating is 10% of the load making it a cost-effective solution for high power applications. The performance of the proposed control method is simulated for a HSAF. The simulation results show the effectiveness of the presented method. Also, to investigate the effectiveness of this method reality, a laboratory prototype 220 V 2.2 kW HSAF is implemented.

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REFERENCES: 1) B. Singh, A. Chandra and K. Al.haddad, Hybrid Filters for Power Quality Improvement, IEE Proc. Gener. Transm. Distrib., vol. 152, pp. 365 -378, no. 3, May 2005. 2) Fang Z. Peng, harmonic sources and filtering approaches, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 7, pp. 18 25, Jul. /Aug. 2001. 3) J. C. Wu and H. J. Jou, Simplified control method for single -phase active power filter, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 143, pp. 219 - 224, no. 3, May 1996.

4) H. L. Jou, J. C.Wu, and H. Y. Chu, New single-phase active power filter, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng.Electr. Power Appl., vol. 141, pp. 129134, no. 3, May 1994. 5) C. Y. Hsu and H. Y. Wu, A new single-phase active power filter with reduced energystorage capacity, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng.Electr. Power Appl., vol. 143, pp. 2530, no. 1, Jan. 1996. 6) J. Barros, E. Perez , An Adaptive Method for Determining the Reference Compensating Current in Single-Phase Shunt Active Power Filters, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 18, pp. 1578 1580, no. 4, Oct. 2003. 7) M. Karimi-Ghartemani, H. Mokhtari, and M. R. Iravani, A signal processing system for extraction of harmonics and reactive current of single phase systems, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, pp. 979986, no. 3, Jul. 2004. 8) M. K. Ghartemani and M. R. Iravani, A nonlinear adaptive filter for online signal analysis in power system: application, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, pp. 617622, no. 2, Apr. 2002.
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