NEW PHENOMENA UBLIC ADMINISTRATION SIAN COUNTRIES

eding Book I ternational Conference on Public Organization (ICON PO) a ized by International Public Organization Association (IPOA) February 21st, 2013

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THE NEW PHENOMENA OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

A Proceeding Book By International Public Organization Association For the 3rd International Conference on Public Organization

IN ASIAN COUNTRIES

Editor: Prof Or. Sunhyuk Kim, Korea University Prof Or. Jin-wook Choi, Korea University Prof Or. Christope Behrens, Center of Good Governance Prof. Or. Ahmed Murtadha, Universiti Utara Malaysia Prof. Or. Ampom Tamrolak, Thammasat University Prof. Dr. Darwin Manubag, Mindanau State University Dr. Achmad I urmandi, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta Dr. Dyah Mutiarin, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta Prof. Or. Azhari Samudra, Universitas Ngurahrai, Bali Or. Tirka, Universitas Ngurahrai Prof. Dr. Wirman Syafri, Institut Pemerintahan Oalam Negeri Or. Abdullah Sumrahadi, Universitas Ngurahrai, Bali Cover & Layout: AksaraBumi Jogjakarta aksarabumi.jogja@gmail.com

Special Edition 150 exp, February 2013 Printed on Book Paper 200x280 mm ; 860 p. ISBN: 978-947124-6

Published by: International Public Organization Association For the 3rd International Conference on Public Organization

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GOVERNING THROUGH COMPETITION: ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO TRANSFORM BUREAUCRACY

(A CASE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF PROGRAM PENDANAAN KOMPETISI INDEKS PEMBANGUNAN MANUSIA IN WEST JAVA PROVINCE, INDONESIA)

Caroline Paskarina, S.IP., M.Si.

Lecturer, Universitas Paqjaqjaran, cpaskarina@ylhoo.com

Abstract In various studies on governance practices, the discussion of approaches to govern public interest usually described in normative or technical sense. Formal authority or legitimacy is the basis for the state to regulate the relationship between humans and to manage various resources for public interest. This conceptualization ignores the political process behind the emergence of a regime and reasons underlying the choice of a particular way to govern. In this context, the idea of governing through knowledge offers an alternative to understand how the various systems of knowledge used as a technology to create more effective governance. To reveal the practice of governing through knowledge, this paper uses the concept of governmentality to analyze the implementation of PPK-IPM (Competition-based Budget Allocation Programme to Accelerate Human Development Index) as a case study in which bureaucracy is transformed through the institutionalization of the competition regime in development The program was implemented during the period 2005-2010 with the aim of accelerating the achievement of HDI in \\esr Java Province to reach 80 in the year 2010. Competition discourse disseminated by this program offers a new approach to manage development programs. Typically, development programs are formulated and implemented in bureaucratic and technocratic approaches, but with the idea of competition, government officials are introduced to a selection system in determining the allocation of grants. Through this discursive process, the workings of bureaucracy was problematized and deconstructed by reference to the principles of competition. At the end, bureaucrats were disciplined to become innovative and creative subjects, so that the achievement of HDI score can be accelerated. Keywords: Governmentaliry, competition, bttreattcrary transformation

A. INTRODUCTION
People used to think structure 'government' and procedure as formal to conduct and authoritative public affair. Despite institution, with specific organization the debate of the scope

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vernment intervention in public affairs, the presence of government remains pervasive ,2001). More recently, as the effect of democratization, most of the government have red the same premises about the need to reduce the size of government and have made ted attempts to reduce the role of government in the live of their citizens, while at the rime, using government as an instrument to improve the lives of their citizens. These es in values have been accompanied by radical transformations both in the public sector - bureaucracy. The changes have included privatization, downsizing employment, Iernentation of performance indicators, and restructuring bureaucracy organization. Those changes are part of bureaucracy reform, generally defined as process to transform _ ucracy into more effective and efficient apparatus. Nevertheless, this process usually arded as technical or managerial matter. In conventional perspective, authority or formal ~:irnation is a basis for government to regulate relationship between human and various of , including to manage various resources for public interest. Meanwhile, in managerial ective, mode of governing is understood in technical sense, to use various tools and dures to achieve goals effectively and efficiently. Although these perspective could be used derstand how government perform their functions, but they tend to ignore the political whereby the process of government is held. Government is a practice of power, because --..,rrlent is an activity that undertakes to conduct individuals throughout their lives by placing der the authority of a guide responsible for what they do and for what happens to them nlr in Rose, O'Malley, and Valverde, 2006, p. 83). Government means more than just a organization structure or state management, because the activities held by government red to shape individuals according to certain norms. ~-evertheless, the idea of governing as political process is not completely original. In classic -:==::::a1literatures,governing is identified with the activities held by the state as a sovereign body c.zims a monopoly of independent territorial power and means of violence, that inheres in behind the apparatuses or institutions of organized and formal political authority and .s separate from the rulers and the ruled (Dean, 1999, P: 9). Central concerns of such ways '==:1kl'n,g involve the search for a source of the power held by the state, the attempt to identify agents hold that power, and whether that power is legitimate or not. In this perspective, dy of government remains normative, and the analytics of political process reflects a .:;o::=':::l.allt set of power relations. Foucault (1978) criticized this way of thinking and suggested framework to analyze governing as rational activity, undertaken by a multiplicity of riries and agencies, employing a variety of techniques and forms of knowledge (Dean, . 11). This perspective offers an alternative approach to understand governing process by ~ the reason behind the emergence of various techniques and forms of knowledge to ::::X:x::;:::i::l other's behaviours. To understand why people are regulated in certain norms, one should '=:~UlIld the system of knowledge behind the mode of governing. ~,,- analysis of government then, is concerned with the forms of knowledge and techniques --'-~_"pd to deliberate on and to direct human conduct. Knowledge is used to regulate, control, and turn human conduct to specific ends. The government of human conduct entails an Z::~)I~ to affect and shape in some way who and what we are and should be. In other words, ~ is essentially the practice to create a set of identity as basis to regulate human conduct. . iea of governing through knowledge offers an alternative to understand how the various .....,...-,-,,~ of knowledge used as a technology to create more effective governance. To reveal the - e of governing through knowledge, this paper uses the concept of governmentality to e the implementation of PPK-IPM (Competition-based Budget Allocation Programme to ----",-",-, . te Human Development Index) as a case study in which bureaucracy is transformed ==~_P the institutionalization of the competition regime in development. 171

A Proceeding Book By Intemational Public Organization Association For the 3rd Intemational Conference on Public Organization

To reveal how the idea of competition could transform bureaucracy, this paper will proceed by 6.rsdy outline the framework of governmentality as analytic tool to understand how governing is practiced through discursive process to produce and reproduce regime of truth. The paper will continue by explaining how the implementation of PPK-IPM could transform bureaucracy through the idea of competition, how this idea subjected bureaucracy into new identity as innovative bureaucracy. The paper will be closed by examining the impact of competition regime as mode of governing bureaucracy.

B. KNOWLEDGEBASED GOVERNING
The idea of Foucault (1991; 1994/2002) about productive power offers an alternative to manage power in a positive way in order to empower and achieve humanitarian objectives, namely happiness, prosperity, freedom. Through this concept, the act of govern is linked to power, not in term of shifting power into authority, but in the creation and use of technologies to regulate behavior. Governmentality concept interpretate power as a set of strategies, programs, calculations, techniques, tools, documents, and procedures through which authorities manifest and create an impact to the ruled. Power is not only practiced by formal institutions that have the authority, but take in all dimensions of life, including social relations which are informal and personal for individual. Questions about the legitimacy of power are replaced by a focus on technique and rationality as the basis of the operation of power. For Rose (1999), governmentality is understood as a range of formal and informal technologies, programmes and strategies for regulating and shaping the 'conduct of conduct'. Such technologies arise out of and gain their legitimacy through certain 'regimes of truth' whereby political, social and cultural norms become the taken-for-granted and normative foundation of social systems. Governmentality studies thus pursue a 'distinctive family of questions' (Rose, 1999, p. 19), which examine the emergence and effect of regimes of truth. This examination focuses on how knowledge and truth come into being in particular historical circumstances, and how this knowledge becomes applicable. Governmentality studies unravel particular hierarchies of power in which conduct is regulated and shaped according to the authority of some system of truth or of some authoritative individual. Rose's approach to the study of governmentality lends itself to the construction of genealogies. Foucauldian genealogies are an account of the emergences of contemporary norms. The genealogy looks for key moments, key discursive shifts that seem to have shaped the taken-for-granted; key moments when prior norms ceased to be normal and new languages and new truths emerged. Unlike veridical investigations of the past, Foucauldian genealogies do not search for a singular definitive cause or moment of origin as such, nor do they assume that the past has unfolded inevitably towards the present - there is no assumption that we are embedded in a teleological unfolding of time that can be understood necessarily as 'progress' or evolution (and the concomitant movement from worse to better or less to more that is thus implied - see discussion in Dean, 1992; Rose, 1999; McKinnon, 2008). Rationality of power is established by various actors that have the capacity to undertake the formation of discourse, so that power relations understood as a strategy practiced to establish truth claims underlying the discourse. The contention, which took place in the relations of power not in terms of the ownership of the resource, but the struggle to create a regime or rules that direct human behavior on the basis of certain system of knowledge'. In this view, to analyze the
Knowledge is a construction of reality that shape perceptions, agenda, and policies to response the reality (pie terse, 2010). System of knowledge is not limited as product of academic, but include the whole construction about reality, which determine how reality is defined, managed, and explained in relation to other realities.

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=~;;e of power is basically to understand the interaction of the various systems of knowledge --"..- mterrelated or opposite each other. ystem of knowledge is practiced through the producing and reproducing the categories identify subjects, which region can intervene, who is entitled to regulate, subject as to o want to set up, and so on. The creation of truth through a discursive process is a ==~:.on of the workings of power. Conversely, system of knowledge also provide justification reproduction of the meaning of a reality, which determines how the subject is treated. this interaction, system of knowledge forms the power, and revers ely, power has m:z:=red a system of knowledge. This process leads to new ways to manage and organize the --'-: =yhere.Thus, the main objective of the exercise of power through knowledge is not simply ___ .,.,~of behavior, but to reshape the entire system of social relations that determine how rganized. Discursive process to establish system of knowledge can be traced to identify ..,...,..".."..,nous interests gathered and compromised. Therefore, the sensitivity to the emergence idea behind the new programs in the management of public affairs needs to be raised to -=::e:~nd how identity and subjectivation reshaped. _ - understanding of the operation of power can help analyze whether the practice is ::D:==:S_ or closing the possibility of establishing the identity of the subject (Brigg, 2001). This ~--~~.nwer is productive, when it leads to subjectivation. Subjectivation is basically the process =::S:1i>llS hing the identity of a particular subject, how the subject represented or displayed. This -...,-.;-,,-' a practice of power because of the representation of identity is formed on the basis method or order of a particular regime of truth. Subjectivation process is what needs to ed to find out how the mechanism works and what interests behind the process. :::';~ter, governmentality does not provide analytic framework to reveal resistance expressed et. Butler (1993) argued that rationality and subject are two things that cannot be :e:::~~ in the construction of reality. Subjects could respond to system of knowledge that received and reinterpretate it according to the local context . . ecognition of the various responses, including resistance indicates that power is not always ~e to knowledgeable actors, such as administrators or technocrats in the case of lI5~P. ment process. Most of the development process consist of technology and technical - ....:~"T from development agencies to recipients, and through this process the power relations shed based on expertise. As a consequen~y, subject or recipient must be re-educated to ce and implement new knowledge. In this context, power relations contained in such :edge led to a dependency on the agent who has knowledge of something . .tics of the hegemony of bureaucracy and technocracy is important because of the use ~:>eru:. se to justify state intervention in reshaping the subject, as well as redefine the political ~ for subjects to participate in development. In this paper, it is assumed that bureaucracy ectivated externally through normalization and internally through performativity. This puts discursive practices of power as an ongoing process, in which the subject is formed s+stem of knowledge while also deconstructing system of knowledge that are considered :::,.;. .... hshed or hegemonic.

-.;..,-._---h

E EMERGING OF NEW IDENTITY FOR BUREAUCRACY

opment is an arena of discourse to debate on how resources should be managed to achieve _ rity. The first argument emphasizes the hierarchical mechanism, the centrality of the rity of, and compliance with various normative procedures set by the state. While the d argument turns to the market mechanism works on the basis of an exchange, the price and the autonomous individual rationality. Although both discourses are fighting each 173

A Proceeding Book By International Pu~ic O'ganization Association For the 3rd International Conference on Pu~ic O'ganization

other in the scramble truth claims, but they still take seriously the existence of bureaucracy. discourse forms a system of knowledge about how the bureaucracy should play a role development. Discourse centered on the authority founded on the conception of bureaucracy as a mo organization that serves as a tool to implement state policies. In carrying out its functions, bureaucracy assumed to be neutral, not bound by any political power. The workings bureaucracy tied to the discipline rules, procedures, and chain of command to make bureaucracy as an institution depends on the orders of the higher hierarchy. The successperformance of the bureaucracy is measured from its ability to achieve the standards set by authorities to maintain the loyalty of the bureaucracy. In this system, the orientation bureaucratic work is the higher leader, not the public who should be served, which in turn the bureaucracy as an instrument of power to shape the public in compliance with the s authority. Critics of the performance of the slow bureaucracy in response to changing deman ~ become the root of bureaucratic problematization in pro-market discourse. This is due to compliance with procedures and mechanisms of normative hierarchy in decision-making, led bureaucracy into unability to compete with private organizations in managing resour Therefore, role of bureaucracy needs to be limited, even the way it works needs to be chaJJgec to resemble private organizations. Bureaucracy subjectivation to the pro-market disco directed to change the hierarchy mechanism into a network mechanism, the instruction into initiative, centralized to decentralized authority, standardization of norms as a means of con be converted into performance measures, while instrument of control be replaced with coordination mechanism based on collaboration resource exchange. The contention between the two discourses implicated to the decontruction of the sourc of authority for bureaucracy. Pro-market discourse is questioning the claims of truth bureaucracy is the only actor who has the authority to determine the resource management behalf of the state. The inability of the bureaucracy to be proactive coping to the chang=~ dynamics is the basis of the argument for pro-market discourse to de construct the bureauc ~ by delegitimizing bureaucratic capacity to manage resources effectively and efficie Problematization of bureaucracy capacity is what started the reconstruction of the bureaucra as the subject of a pro-market, with new values and ways of working that adapting the prin . of pro-market. Adaptation is part of the exercise of power because there is new system knowledge generated by various international donors and technocrats (academics) to legi . subjectivation of bureaucracy. The notion of subjectivity is informed by available and legitimate discourses embed . ~ within particular conditions and consequences (Winkler, 2012). As the mode of gove shifted to governance, the identity of bureaucracy is reformed by the emergence of new min that bureaucracy is not part of the problem but part of the solution to a range of social conce and objectives (Styhre, 2007). This point of view argued that the negative images of bureaucracwas legitimized by the documented study, academic literature, and publications played mainstream's discourse. Therefore, bureaucracy could be reformed by defamiliarized what 0 already knows by creating new identity differs from the mainstream. In order to defamiliarize what is, one needs to conceive of images of wba: mqy be; thinking emerges through concepts therefore new images, vocabularies and metaphors may help us to think along new routes (Sty 2007). Rather than reproducing trite mechanistic images of bureaucracy, an organic image of organization form maintaining its form, yet responding to external changes and influences be enacted.

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ubjectivation of bureaucracy as part of the discursive process begins with the formation - -identity that distinguishes subject from the other. Developing a notion of who we are is ~ ssible through defining who we are not. This means self[] identity is accomplished through - es of differentiating the self from others within a particular social environment (Ybena _009). This identity contains statements about how subject should have certain frame of !III:;:Jg and behaviour to fit the reality created by those statements. Identity of bureaucracy ed in the PPK-IPM understood as part of discursive practices to establish, maintain, and the reality of the working mechanism of bureaucracy in development. This practice is - rral because behind the deconstruction of reality, there is an interest to oppose the con of the previous reality. On the other hand, the deconstruction of identity is also a =-.A .... of control to steer the subject to think and behave as desired by the formation of a reality. emergence of competition into development planning discourse establishes a new ---'::orthe bureaucracy. In this paper, identity is understood as being formed, maintained, ed by making self[] otherlJ world differentiations (Deetz, 1992). Deconstruction of :a:~:=S:::::::ICYbegun with the identification of 'what is the subject', in this case, 'what is bureaucracy'. _007) made a classification of what bureaucracy is. According to Styhre (2007, p. 5): ::rst, the image of bureaucracy is unnecessarily negative in terms of efficiency, performance, sromer satisfaction and work-life experiences among eo-workers. Second, the view of ucracy as some kind of primordial organization form, an instituted benchmark for what supposedly proven to function poorly. Third, since the notion of bureaucracy is closely . ted with social formations favouring large public sectors and other forms of administration - exposed to market forces and the pressure of competition, some authors tend to invoke _ ucracy when criticizing "predatory capitalism" and the emergence of an ideology of an ~rising self, emphasizing individualism, careerism and meritocracy. In this debate, bureaucracy is playing the role of a safe haven providing predictable careers, nably meaningful job opportunities and other increasingly valued and praised qualities and ~-life opportunities. Taken together, bureaucracy becomes cast as what is either failing to ane mechanisms enabling continuous improvement and adaptation to external changes, or t is representing supposedly past virtues and social formations: Therefore, bureaucracy is ved as a supplement, as what is always already different and less accomplished than other , of organization. -:-'nosecharacteristics of bureaucracy always be put as opposite as ideal type of bureaucracy eberian thinking. Meanwhile, deconstruction is focused to critized the conceptual --,... ~'lction that assume bureaucracy only has a single identity. Bureaucracy is not a simple =-.nity,therefore it can be viewed as a set of principles and practices that may be articulated rhers in particular organizational settings (Du Gay, 2005; Newton, 2005). New identity of cracy can be formed by combining features of bureaucracy and professionalism, of cracy and managerialism, and even bureaucracy and entrepreneurship. In other words, ~cracy is not primarily regarded a fixed, immutable structure but is instead treated as the .E:::::c:ne from a rule-governed process of organizing complex undertakings.

__ =....
A

OVERNING THROUGH COMPETITION: THE CASE OF PPKIPM IN WEST VAPROVINCE

_- part, a case will be disscused as an example of the implementation of governing through _eririon, The case is about Program Pendanaan Kompetisi Indeks Pembangunan Manusia --:PM) or Competition-based Budget Allocation Programme to Accelerate Human 175

A Proceeding Book By International Public Organization Association For the 3rd International Conference on Public Organization

Development Index, implemented in West Java Province, during the period of 2005-2010. This was the prominent programme of the West Java Province to accelerate the achievement of HD in West Java Province to reach 80 in the year 2010. Since the beginning of reformation era in 2001, the Government of West Java Province had adopted human development as model 0 development in West Java, including the Human Development Index (HDI) as the indicator of progress in education, health, and economic development (Strategic Plan of West Java Provinc 2001). The vision of achieving HDI 80 in the year 2010 was not just the parameter to evaluate development, but also embedded as part of identity projected as the most advanced province in Indonesia. On the contrary to the vision, the fact shown that West Java's position in HDI rank continues to drop among other provinces in Indonesia. In 1996, West Java was at the position of 14, an' then drop to position 17 in 2002 (Regional Development Planning Board of West Java Province, 2007). This condition motivated the government to find the root of the problem and solve .; immediately in order to achieve the vision at the time determined. The discursive process started from the problematization of development in West Java which resulted to the evaluation of the performance of local government bureaucracy as the strategic institution that plan and implemenr development programmes. Bureaucracy is accustomed to work according to the normative regulations and considered development as part of the routine administrative work. Standar of performance that created as a measure turned into formalism, so that compliance with the standards and procedures are considered to be part of the performance itself. This condition r, the basic argument to change the workings of bureaucracy in development. For more than 3 (three) decades, bureaucracy plays dominant role in planning, implernen . and controlling development. With its authority as a planning board, Badan Perencanaan Dae (Regional Development Planning Board) is positioned at a higher position than the other regio organizations. Bappeda has authorities to formulate macro plan that are further described by organizations of other sectors, including the authority to make decision to determine wich = the propo ed program would be funded. Funding is allocated based on the budgeting parr normarivelv regulated. This practice continued for decades to form the minds et that developm m:3l.Ilagocnen belong to Bappeda. Bappeda considered to have more knowledge than the 0 e organization, so the attitude is formed obedience what is decided by the Plarui::; this context, the opportunity for the emergence of alternative ideas, innovation, G'eaill:1~. '- ,ery limited. The idea of the competition emerged as an alternative to break the routine and for1llill!s::::. development planning. In the initial discussions that took place among the membe Komire Perencana (planning Committee)", appeared critique of bureaucratic procedures and hierarchical structure of the bureaucracy that is considered as a barrier to innovate and creaz; in designing development programs. Although there were some government officials, inch inside the Bappeda, which has progressive ideas but often has no impact on the change the hierarchical organizational structure. The idea of the competition offers a different way to managing development because are aspects of the innovation and creativity that allows new programs to emerge differs the routine of bureaucracy. PPK-IPM is a kind of shortcut to change the workings of bureaucracy through the introduction of the values of innovation, creativity, and competirs X:.~I!:
2 Komite Perencana established by Governer Danny Setiawan (2003-2008), with a mission to invoke a changing bureaucracy toward more innovative and creative organization. This Committee consisted of various p stakeholders in West Java Province, such as academicians, private sectors, pers, civil society activists, and comrnunirThe Committee played a role as consultant that give second opinion or critics to development programs p.--.. .... .:. bureaucracy. In other word, this Committee is a 'sparring partner' of Bappeda to design development program.; Java Province.

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elopment planning. PPK-IPM adopted a competitive grant formulated by the Directorate eral of Higher Education Ministry of National Education as part of its strategy to enhance competitiveness of higher education in Indonesia (Natsir, 2010). In 2004, the Directorate eral of Higher Education published a Long-Term Strategy for Higher Education (Higher cation Long Term Strategy) 2003-2010. This document is a reference to the changing role : higher education institutions in Indonesia in order to strengthen the competitiveness at the allevel. The key assumptions used in preparing the 2003-2010 HELTS is that the nation's etitiveness can be enhanced when healthcare organizations of higher education, both at national and university can be realized (Tadjudin, 2007). Efforts to achieve a healthy ~ation of higher education is implemented through organizational restructuring that ins with the changing role of higher education organizations. Higher education organizations ed from the regulator and executor to a regulator, facilitator and enabler, while universities given autonomy in managing their respective institutions. These changes are to response the higher education management paradigm shift from zralized to decentralized. Management of education, including higher education, is a public that needs to be held in a transparent and accountable way, so the chances to participate various stakeholders element should be expanded. In addition, the economic crisis in 1997 ed the National Government to formulate a sustainable policy that enhances the efficiency - effectiveness of the development funds in various sectors, including higher education. ~r>rIntnent begun to identify other funding sources outside the government budget that can sed to fund education. Various schemes of participation, partnership with the private sector e community, as well as granting greater autonomy to universities developed to support a _~effective allocation and efficient. This system introduces college management scheme participatory, involving a variety of ~ olders. Through changes in the higher education institutions and patterns of relationships stakeholders, will be an exchange of knowledge that leads to strengthening the titiveness of higher education at the global level. Competitiveness is then indicated by the -::Z:=:~of universities in Indonesia compared to other universities in the world. Rank system repared with a variety of indicators related to university governance. To be able to get into position, the universities must make improvements and capacity building, so that in this ~e universities are subjected to the standar4s established by the rank system. ument of HELTS 2003-2010 includes the basic framework of system development and :::::~:.:ement of higher education which basically encourages universities to develop their '---_-~ without having to rely on the resources of the government. The idea of the competition _. - ... oduced not only as an outcome to produce human resources with high competitiveness == oballevel, but also a motivation for universities to develop creativity and innovation in :::::.magementof the resources within them. Thus, the reduced role of government was ~=rl by the enhanced capabilities of universities management. _-~:ltonomyor freedom played as an incentive for universities to develop excellence that _ .......... tiate one university to another in competing with others at the local; national, and global - Universities need to do a self-evaluation process that is transparent and accountable uously.It is necessary for the university to assess the capacity of its own, in the organization educational process in accordance with the outputs and outcomes to stakeholders sed. Based on this regime, since the beginning of 1990, efforts to develop the capacity of .ties has been attempted by the Directorate General of Higher Education. The approach - develope the capacity of higher education has also changed from an investment-based ~--. ..." to outcomes-based approach designed through a competitive funding mechanism. s of disparity of quality due to the centralized approach in the past, has also been 177

A Proceeding Book By International Public Organization Association FOf the 3rd International Conference on Public Organization

considered in the competitive funding mechanism with the tiered system of competition. Competitive funding schemes in universities are generally used to determine the allocation of funding for activities, programs, or specific units. One of the initial competition-based programme is competition for funding research activities for individuals or groups. The idea of competitive funding for higher education was initially implemented in the United States in 1980, by the National Science Foundation and in England in the 1990s by the University Funding Council (Tadjudin, 2007). In Indonesia, the scheme was implemented in 1994 through the University Research for Graduate Education (URGE), the allocation of funds for the provision of higher education institutions that implement programs of graduate education. Although successful in strengthening the capacity of individuals or research groups, but the scheme does not have much effect on the development of human resources and the relevance for solving social problems in society. Competitive grants that are specifically given to the course of study was first conducted in 1996 through a scheme of the Development of Undergraduate Education (DUE) project using evaluation indicators are likely to be more complex and use qualitative performance indicators. The idea of competition is used in the university introduced a number of principles that determine the success of the program, such as the specificity of purpose; autonomy and decentralization; consistency in execution; competition on an equal scope; objective selection process; evaluation and monitoring, as well as incentives and disincentives. Shifting patterns of university management opened an opportunities for the participation of stakeholders, as well as the widespread decentralization and autonomy of universities to form a context similar to the change in the pattern of governance, which is also characterized by increased participation, decentralization and autonomy. The problem faced is also relatively common, namely budget constraints and the tendency of program implementation as routine. The need to produce subject who has competitive skills apparently made the adoption of Higher Education Grant Program Competition easily accepted by the Governor of West Java Province and later implemented as PPK-IPM. The transfer of knowledge from different stakeholders shows the power circuit that took place in the course of an idea is not limited by the boundaries of sector. The inclusion of ideas from different agencies is not separated fron: the presence of agents that transfer the idea, but these agents do not determine the acceptan of the idea by the other agents. The flow of an idea is more determined by the context tha; trigger the emergence of key moments in favor for the idea or otherwise reject the idea. In the context of West Java, transfer idea of competition can get a positive response &01:: the Governor because there was a key moment in the political context. Since established as indicator of the performance of development in 2003, HDI achievement did not incr significantly, while the target IPM 80 must be achieved by 2010. Meanwhile, the term of ofJlJ of the governor will be ended in 2008, or approximately 3 (three) years later. Failure to achie . HDI as targeted would be a bad record for the performance of the governor, who wants running for the office next period. Even so, it is not easy to introduce the idea of competition to the bureaucrats. In vari forums of socialization and discussions with bureaucrats, the question generally asked by apparatus is why there should be acceleration for over the years, similar programs had faced obstacles, especially if it is associated with the absence of sufficient regulatory policy as a 1 basis. Resistance also emerge as indicated by the argument that the usual programs re implemented proven to be successfully applied, the funds were adequate, so no need to corn for the allocation of funds for each regent or municipal. The usual transfer scheme to r and municipal have also been suited to the conditions of the population in their each Questions about the use of HDI as an indicator also faced a resistance that this indica 178

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nt from other indicators that are commonly used, such as macroeconomic indicators that considered to be more easily calculated. Discussion to operationalize ideas of competition also takes place internally' in the Komite _ cana's meetings. The members of the Komite Perencana continued to discuss the challenges - may arise in the implementation of the program, such as how to convince the various olders, particularly decision-makers in the executive and legislative branches to support - program, whether its human resources, such as personnel, the community, the educators, me private also have the same passion for implementing this program, and how commitment essfully built across sectors. Discussions to answer these questions are recorded as ideration given to the Governor of West Java Province at the time. _-\lthoughthe Komite Perencana was formed by the Governor and he also initially requested Komite to design an accelerated program for improving HDI, but this does not mean that considerations delivered by the Komite would automatically accepted by the Governor. In context of regional autonomy at that time, there was no hierarchical relationship between provincial and regent or municipal, so there always be possibility of rejection from regent or icipal against the policies or programs of the province. On the other hand, an increase in HDI is not possible without the participation of regent and municipal, so the design of the am should also be able to motivate the regent and municipal to participate in the program use the regent and municipal is the authority that directly serve the public. The discursive process takes place through a variety of dialogue forums with stakeholders est Java, including by the regional organizations in the Provincial Level of Government, the ncy and Municipal Level of Government, and the Parliament of West Java Province. With ~ organization of local government in the province, the Komite discussed the urgency of petition to accelerate HDI, technical implementation, and the difference between this am with other routine program. With the Regent and Municipal Level of Government, the 'ogue leads to the issue of budget allocation. Regent and Municipal Government questioned hould compete, because as usual the allocation of budget will continue to grow each year specific multiplier coefficients, why should more funding be given to the regent or municipal dy achieve high HDI score. While dialogue with the Provincial Parliament, discussion is ciallygeared to mobilize political commitment and support to approve the budget allocation - z: this program. To convince Parliament and bureaucrats, Governor formed a task force (Satuan Pelaksana --IPM) consist of bureucrats from Bappeda West Java and team of reviewer consist of ber of Komite Perencana, Bappeda, and other stakeholders from society, namely pers, . t, and academicians. These academicians are also reviewer in the Council for Higher cation Directorate General of Higher Education which has long been involved in Higher cation Competitive Grant Program. One of the main media used to carry out the transfer - - owledge and introduce a new culture different from the culture of bureaucracy is through sion in the meeting held by PPK-IPM task force and reviewers' team. By adopting the patterns commonly used in universities, such as decision-making through zrocess of discussion, bureaucrats in the task force were introduced to the academic culture, as freedom to give opinion, freedom to be different in a matter of opinion, equality in sion, how to communicate ideas with a good argument, ete. The introduction of academic e is used to reinforce the operation of the competition because competition can only cion optimally in a state of openness, equality, and there is freedom for the ongoing exchange ~ s. In the bureaucratic regime, these preconditions are not available'because of bureaucratic through hierarchical mechanism, based on the authority of, and adherence to procedures,
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so that innovation or the freedom to come up with ideas is not compatible with the workings 0 ~ the bureaucracy. PPK-IPM'mainly designed to change the minds et of leaders and bureaucrats in planning development. This means that the PPK-IPM is a technology of power that is used to constru a new identity in the planning process, as opposed to an established identity that planning can only be prepared based on the existing budget pIafond. There are alternative systems that generated through PPK-IPM whose orientation is changing the way government bureaucracy works to be more open and responsive to the changes, The initial source of the idea 0 competition similar to the context of early human development, namely the context 0 ~ liberalization. Strengthening competitiveness and vision of the most advanced province equallv be achieved through the idea of competition. Both of the ideas contruct problematizatio discourse about the condition of West Java, on the one hand, this province has the potential b on the other hand the capacity to manage this potential is limited. Through this problematization. raised areas of new interventions to improve the capacity, through changes in resource management institutions, which was originally dominated by bureaucratic institutions amended by opening opportunities for the inclusion of other institutions, such as markets anc the public, in this case the academicians. Interactions between market institutions and academicians have been going ahead with the transfer of knowledge in the university environment, thro discussion forums, and through a network of partnerships as contained in the higher education strategy that has already begun the process of institutionalization before PPK-IPM. The presence of academicians in Komite Perencana and then as the reviewer team in PPK-IPM becomes the entry point to introduce alternative ways of working to overcome the institutional inertia 0bureaucracy. Thus, the introduction of the idea of competition through the PPK-IPM is the beginninz of the deconstruction of bureaucratic institutions, Deconstruction has become an exercise o; power because you want to deconstruct the mindset and work mechanism of bureaucracy as institution. Target for subjectivation is not individuals but bureaucratic organizations. Thro the reshaping of the subject, control over the subject behavior is also changing. However, process does not take place in a linear method as when the subject behaves according to identity that they represent, they are also involved in the exercise of power to reproduce thee identity through the repetition of behavior, which eventually turn them into new subjects. exercise of power, as such, does not stop the formation of a new identity but lead to institutionalization of values, minds et, and behavior to reproduce the system of knowledge reinforce the new identity. In this process, circuit of powers takes place continuously and beco institutionalized. The influence of the competition idea borrowed from the academic environment not 0 provides power to form the subject, but also offers the values that had been considered lost bureaucratic practice, that is integrity and honesty. In this context, the concept of Competi . Research Grant become the disciplinary institution perform the deconstruction of bureaucrarwhile creating a new identity for bureaucracy through the internalization of the values of integritt credibility, and honesty through the system and standards to control the behavior of bureaucracr The values are expressed through changes in the criteria defining the desired figure of sub' and organizes through the implementation of PPK-IPM. In the PPK-IPM Implementa . Guidance (2005), the criterions of the members of task force must fit these preconditi namely: (1) to implement the program properly (according to plan), (2) be accountable administration and finance programs, and (3) there is a system for recording and repor . writing, These criterions are a form of direct definition of the subject who want to be set and also criticized the identity of the other that are assumed to be the inverse of the three crit 180

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:-!le three criteria are not different from the criteria of bureaucracy in general, but with the ounce of these criteria, is a confirmation of the weakness of the working mechanism of eaucracy. The new thing that emerged from the above three criteria is a process to go through by ucrats to plan the program. By adapting Competitive Research Grant, PPK-IPM implement lanning process based on self-assessment or evaluation, followed by a comprehensive planning _ ess and the planning process implementation. In this process, the actual and validity of data zn important element that should be used to plan a program that meets the criteria of innovative creative. This is difference from the routine practice whereas data does not become necessary, use what is important is the sustainability of the plan in the past. This practice is prone to rition that lead to institutionalization of certain regime or way of working. Accustomed to routine, the choice of program is determined by habit, not by data processing as part of owledge management. In PPK-IPM, data serve as evidence that reinforces the strategic ortance of the program argument executed to accelerate the achievement of HD!. In paring self-evaluation, a comprehensive and actual data base is one of the main components : the assessment with the highest score (30%) than other assessment components. This scoring em requires bureaucracy in regent and municipal who write the proposals to seek actual and evant data. The data form the basis for identifying the root of the problems in the region, and -0 been used to formulate the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and thread OT), and formulate alternatives of problem-solving. This approach is a new thing for ~ucracy because usually technocrats who play an important role in managing database as --ormation input for the formulation of the program. Database serves as an important pillar e PPK-IPM component's selection that has similarities with the concept of reform of higher .:. cation institutions as contained in HELTS 2003-2010. In this document, revamping the _- .tutions started by revamping the database through a mechanism called Evaluasi Program berbasis Evaluasi Diri or Self-Evaluation for Evaluating Study Program. This mechanism es university to collect, process and store data and information about the management of _ er education. Government (in this case the Directorate General of Higher Education -try of Education) used the result to supervise higher education management. With this ~ Government can also map the quantity and quality of lectures, as an input to determine Kindof intervention that is required to form lectures who meet the standards expected, either - e form of institutional and individual sta~dardso These standards were then becomes a ory to deconstruct the higher education institutions to institutions that are competitive !::::E!1llati 0nally. Deconstruction begins with by tearing down bureaucratic red tape to form a new identity posed to the old way of working that emphasizes routines. Therefore, by adopting the - ciples of education to establish a subject, the identity of bureaucratic red tape being con tructed to create innovative and creative bureaucrats. PPK-IPM is a program to promote etition as new rules in the practice of development, but, the program is facing obsticles executive of the bureaucracy that is still working with the old paradigm, which works on basis of habit or routine. Without a change in subject, the identity of which is to be built ugh this program will not be realized because subject is also played a role in shaping the iry. Despite the efforts of institutions outside subject to reshape the identity of the ucracy, this process will not work well when there is resistance from the subject itself.

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E. CONCLUSION
PPK-IPM as a technology of power creates a new discourse about the ideal planning pr which is characterized by measurement performance, scientific rationality, the proc discussion, creativity, and innovation. This discourse criticized the formalistic planning pra normative-based, and just being a part of the routine affairs of government. GovermI:lC::r: bureaucracy as an actor who played an important role in development planning problematized as the cause of the 'failure' of development. The workings of the bureau that relies on hierarchical and procedural regime can not respond to the dynamic change place rapidly, therefore to cope with the dynamic, bureaucracy must be reformed. Discourse of competition brings new identity for bureaucracy, namely the innovative creative bureaucracy. By establishing a justification in the context of democratiza decentralization, and governance, the discourse of competition stand against the claim of used to be the domain of technocracy in practice development. Deconstruction of identity becomes the exercise of power because in this process th an attempt to control the thinking and behavior of the subject. PPK-IPM drive change in workings of bureaucracy which was originally based on the authority then converted into on the standard. The conventional technology of power in the old bureaucratic tradition on authority, hierarchy mechanisms and centralized decision making. Even if there is involv of non-bureaucratic elements, but their role is limited to the functions of technocracy. the PPK-IPM is applied, there is a new way of working which threatens the existence bureaucracy who works on the basis of authority. New power technology introduced thJ:oc~ the idea of competition works on the basis of standardized measures. Standardization established to ensure an objective selection method works, therefore various measures have created as a guide in the implementation of the program. When the standard was more d . than the authority, this could reshapes the area of bureaucratic action and resistance. Resis ~ arising from the use of such standards has intervened conventional basis of bureaucratic po but on the other hand it also creates a new action areas for bureaucracy to take advantage of knowledge acquired through the learning process with the various stakeholders to formulate development program that can solve the problems faced in the area. The identity of the innovari and creative bureaucracy realized through, instrument of control in order to comply bureaucratic requirements and procedures that have been developed for each phase of ac . . By adopting the method of selection as commonly applied in university, PPK-IPM standardization as a critical assessment of the program. Although the final decision is in hands of the governor, but by presenting the results of the selection in the form of scores rankings, then the decision-making process aimed at an objective rationality, rather than on rationality of political or bureaucratic. Through objective rationality, recognition of the crea . and innovation is established, and power could be accessed not only through bureau procedures as in previous planning and budgeting regime. Resistance of the bureaucratic apparatus to PPK-IPM is a symptom that arises as a r of the contention between the new system of knowledge based on competition with the system of knowledge base on authority. However, the biggest obstacle for the competition of governing is the consistency in system implementation, financial management, and bureau management which often conflict with the desire to run a program in an accountable Barriers in the disbursement of funds due to the different time budgeting system with an obs course planning system that can disrupt the course and might jeoperdize the sustainability program implementation in accordance with a planned and expected quality. This means the construction of the new system cannot be separated from the support of other syst
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~~:l1c interconnectedness becomes necessary precondition to ensure the sustainability of a --~ s+stem. Significant deficiencies in the construction of the new system based on competition lack of capacity building program to ensure the sustainability of the rules that have been - - ransfer of ideas that took place among the task force and reviewer team is unadequate as ~rrument to produce and reproduce the idea of competition as the basis of development '-''-~o-,ement. As well as the spread of modernization theories involving the government, donor cies, and companies that collaborate with universities to produce research that gives truth - of modernization, the idea of competition in development is also needs to be supported cross-sectoral collaboration. Capacity building is not only intended to form the subject who _ the regime, but mainly to establish technological instruments to reproduce the truth claims - - tified the idea of competition for more effective and efficient development management.

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