Georadar Investigation of Karst

Georadar Investigation of Karst in a Limestone Quarry near Anna, Illinois

Harvey Henson, Jr.*, John L. Sexton, Melissa A. Henson and Paul Jones, Department of Geology Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901-4324
SUMMARY Clay-filled karst was encountered during normal operations of a limestone quarry near Anna, Illinois. Attempts to determine karst extent with a drill rig became too dangerous. Consequently, a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system was used to map karst extent and to determine any possible relationship to fractures observable along quarry walls. Georadar profiles were located adjacent to major fractures to intersect exposed portions of the karst feature. Reflector velocity information was obtained using the commonmidpoint (CMP) method at selected locations along the radar profiles. Radar profiles were collected using 50 and 100 MHz antennae. Karst features filled with sediment and air were imaged remarkably well on georadar data using both antennae. Stratigraphy associated with the karst includes 4 m of fine-grained limestone overlain by 5-6 m of interbedded chert and limestone. This vertical transition in stratigraphy is observable on the processed georadar data, as are several fractures which intersect the main cavity. Fractures served as conduits for local groundwater, which resulted in carbonate dissolution, and for sediment which later filled the void. Karst extent was determined quickly and efficiently using simple ground-penetrating radar methods, and quarry operators were provided with information necessary to continue production of limestone materials. INTRODUCTION Since the mid-1970s ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been utilized to solve an assortment of shallow subsurface problems in a variety of disciplines, such as civil engineering, geotechnical, archaeology, forensics, and many others. Recently many case studies have been published which detail GPR data acquisition and processing techniques and methods for successful high-resolution mapping of subsurface features buried within soil and bedrock stratigraphy (Clough, 1976; Ulriksen, 1982; Hara et al., 1983; Vaughan, 1986; Davis and Annan, 1989; Jol and Smith, 1991; Fisher et al., 1992; Huggenberger et al., 1994; Liner and Liner, 1995; Wyatt and Temples, 1996; Sexton et al., 1996a; Sexton et al., 1996b; Grasmueck, 1996). This paper describes a simple high-resolution groundpenetrating radar survey within a southern Illinois limestone quarry conducted to map karst features which interrupted quarry operations. A simplified map of the Hartline Pit, a limestone quarry near Anna, Illinois is shown in Fig. 1. The limestone quarried at the study area belongs to the St. Genevieve Limestone and St. Louis Limestone formations, which are middle Mississippian (Valmeyeran) in age. Locally these units consist of interbedded chert and fine-grained limestone layers. The cherty layers are typically clustered in 4-5 m thick bands. The limestone bench actively quarried before initiation of this study was located approximately 31 m below the surface, and consisted of 5 m of interbedded chert and limestone overlying approximately 5 m of interbedded fine-grained limestone units which apparently continue beneath the quarry floor. Two sets of fractures interrupt the hummocky surface of the cherty-limestone bench currently being quarried. Numerous fractures trending N 50 E are observable on the bench surface and on the quarry walls. Most of these fractures, which extend all the way from below the bench to the surface, are discontinuous laterally, exhibit nearly vertical dip, range in width from less than one centimeter to a couple of centimeters, and are occasionally mineralized with dolomite and/or calcite. Offset is not always apparent; however, two larger fractures (labeled HP1 and HP2) manifest vertical offsets of at least a few centimeters. The most obvious fracture (HP1) of this N 50 E trending system is marked by

Fig. 1 Map of the Anna quarry study area in southern Illinois. Locations of georadar profiles, fractures, and exposed karst area indicated.

Georadar Investigation of Karst

local oxidation (yellow staining) of the exposed chert surface. This fracture can be traced from the west quarry wall, across the chert surface, and onto the east quarry wall where it diffuses into several fractures, the most prominent of which are associated with vugs and larger dissolution features. The larger fracture crosscuts a more subtle N 5 E trending en echelon series of cracks, which are less than 1 cm in width and mineralized with calcite, dolomite and small amounts of fluorite. It is probable these small fracture systems are distal, more subtle, expressions of regional tectonic events which formed larger geologic features in the southern Illinois area, such as the St. Genevieve Fault Zone (Lumm and Nelson, 1985). A southern branch of the St. Genevieve Fault Zone, the Iron Mountain Fault Zone, is located less than 3 km east of the study area (Fig. 1). The larger fracture (HP1) intersects part of a broad clay-filled cavity, which was encountered during southward quarrying of the cherty-limestone bench. Attempts to determine karst extent utilizing typical drill rig investigation methods proved to be ineffective and far too dangerous. Consequently, normal quarry operations were interrupted until the extent and nature of the karst features could be identified. A ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system was employed to map karst extent and determine if a relationship exists between karst and numerous fractures observable along quarry walls. DATA ACQUISITION Six GPR profiles were collected parallel and perpendicular to the strike of the HP1 fracture system along the top of the remaining cherty-limestone bench in the southern half of the quarry (Fig. 1). A PulseEKKO IV GPR system, manufactured by Sensors and Software, Inc., was used to acquire the georadar data. The parameters used during this study were essentially the same for each dataset with the exception of antenna frequency and line length. After collecting test profiles with 50 MHz and 100 MHz antennae, it was determined that the 100 MHz setup provided much greater resolution of bench stratigraphy, while satisfactorily penetrating to depths of more than 12 meters. 50 MHz profiles were collected along profile locations A6, A5, A4 and part of A1 for comparison to the 100 MHz data, and for clarification of certain anomalies. Georadar line A1 was collected generally along the strike of the HP1 fracture in order to intersect the exposed karst feature. A portable computer provided preliminary processing and display of this and other GPR lines during acquisition and thereby assisted in the location of subsequent georadar profiles. To confirm anomalies observed on the computer display five additional profiles (A2-A6) were collected perpendicular to line A1 and the major fracture (HP1) trend. Common-midpoint (CMP) data were collected on top of the bench using the 100 MHz antennae to aid in the selection of recording parameters and to provide an electromagnetic velocity profile for this site (Fig. 1). CMP data should always be collected during any GPR reflection study, if at all possible. Information obtained from a CMP record is invaluable in the interpretation of the data. The common-

midpoint (CMP) setup used in this study involved recording a GPR reflection trace with the transmitting and receiving antennae separated initially by half a meter, then moving the antennae away from each other at half a meter intervals to record additional traces (Fig. 2). This procedure provides a set of traces with increasing offset distance. Antenna separation values which facilitate the recording of reflections important to the study are easily determined by observing the CMP data. (Fig. 3). The reflections on the CMP record appear as (half) hyperbolae. Velocity analysis of the CMP data provides RMS (root-mean-square) stacking velocities for correcting reflection moveout and for modeling and interpreting the georadar profiles.

Fig. 2 Illustration of CMP data collection method with increasing transmitter (T1) and receiver (R1) offset.

DATA PROCESSING
Each GPR profile (lines A1-A6) was identically processed on a Pentium based PC. Methods normally used for digital processing of

seismic reflection data, as well as georadar processing techniques outlined in recent publications were utilized (Yilmaz, 1988; Fisher et al., 1992). First, the data were filtered or dewowed to remove low frequency noise induced by the recording system. An automatic time zero adjustment was applied to each data set to compensate for instrument drift during recording, and also to correct small static (time) shifts in the direct wave first arrival. Next a trace equalizing AGC function was applied to scale the data, and to enhance deeper reflection signals. AGC scaling enhanced reflector continuity by increasing the amplitude of weak signals across small fractures and in karst areas. Since AGC scaling alters the amplitude information of the data and thereby obstructs stratigraphic interpretation, spherical and exponential compensation (SEC) was applied separately to examine the effects on amplitudes associated with certain stratigraphic anomalies. A velocity of .11 m/ns and an attenuation of 1 dB/m were used as estimates for limestone materials in order to compensate for spherical spreading and exponential attenuation of the electromagnetic energy. SEC scaling increased the amplitudes of weaker signals while maintaining

Georadar Investigation of Karst

a relative or nearly natural amplitude contrast down and across the traces. SEC scaling improved the stratigraphic interpretation, especially at chert and limestone interfaces. Processing of the CMP data (Fig. 3) included AGC scaling followed by a velocity analysis using a constant velocity stack method. A constant velocity function was applied to the CMP trace gather in an attempt to correct for moveout. The traces were then stacked to produce a single trace. The velocity which produces the largest reflection amplitude, also referred to as the largest coherency value, most effectively corrects for moveout and is used to represent the electromagnetic velocity of the reflector of interest.

below the bench surface is .11 m/ns, indicating that chert is not present in these limestone layers.

INTERPRETATION The final processed georadar profile A1 along with an interpretation is shown in Fig. 5. The intersections of georadar profiles A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 with profile A1 are identified, however, these profiles are not included in this paper. Interpretations from these profiles support the interpretations of profile A1. Interpretation of the georadar profiles identified two areas of karst which were present beneath the limestone bench (Fig. 1). A clay-filled karst feature was interpreted to exist between 90 and 125m, and a smaller air-filled segment of karst was interpreted near the 30 m position of profile A1 (Fig. 5). Initial exposures on the north side of the quarry bench support the interpretation that the larger karst feature was filled with dry (oxidized) and wet (reduced) clay. Numerous fractures were interpreted on georadar profile A1, and based upon interpretations of fractures on the other georadar profiles their general trend is northeast to southwest. The largest fracture system is coincident with both karst features, and probably represents the HP1 fracture system. The HP2 fracture system is observable on georadar profiles A3 and A5, however, there is no karst associated with this fracture system. A lithologic change from cherty to fine-grained limestone is observable in the bench wall and imaged as a change in reflection character and amplitude near about 90 ns two-way reflection time (approximately 4-5 m below the bench surface) on the georadar profiles (Fig. 2). Two-dimensional finite-offset ray trace models (McMechan, 1981) were generated to test the interpretations of clay and air-filled karst. Velocity information obtained from the CMP velocity analysis were used to construct geologic models.

Fig. 3 CMP record with various refraction and reflection events labeled, such as the cherty-limestone and fine-grained limestone interface. CMP data are useful in determining georadar acquisition parameters such as antennae separation as well as velocity information for use in the interpretation of profile data.

Results of the CMP velocity analysis (Fig. 4) include a semblance plot with maximum coherency picks for the electromagnetic velocity function of this study area. The horizontal scale is velocity ranging from .01-.30 m/ns, and the vertical scale is both two-way travel time in nanoseconds and depth in meters. Most of the velocities are easily within the expected range for limestone (~.12 m/ns). Minor fluctuations in the electromagnetic velocity function indicate subtle variations in the stratigraphy of the quarry bench. Geologic control obtained from numerous exposures along quarry walls was excellent. Comparison of the interpreted velocity function to the stratigraphic cross section along the west quarry wall adjacent to the bench illustrates excellent agreement. Many of the subtle velocity changes can be directly correlated with stratigraphic changes. A transition from .14 m/ns to about .115 m/ns occurs between 4 m (70 ns) and about 5 m (90 ns) below the surface of the bench. This corresponds to a minor unconformity which occurs at about 5 m below the surface of the bench. The average velocity at depths of 0-5 m is .12 m/ns, corresponding to interbedded chert and limestone layers. The average velocity from 5-9 m

Fig. 4 Velocity analysis of the CMP data produced from constant velocity stacks. The maximum coherency picks identify the electromagnetic velocity function for the limestone bench.

Georadar Investigation of Karst

Modeling results support the initial interpretation of wet clay overlain by dry clay with a thin layer of air near the top of the cavity. Subtle phase and amplitude changes, interpreted on the georadar profiles as transitions between limestone and wet and dry clay, were duplicated on the synthetic radar data. There were no exposures to substantiate the existence of a smaller air-filled karst feature as interpreted on profiles A1 and A6. Fig. 6 is an example of a zero-offset radargram generated from an air-filled karst model. This radargram shares many of the reflection characteristics of the air-filled karst interpreted from georadar profile A1 (Fig. 5). Most notably is an absence of reflections within the zone of karst. The exception is the weak reflection at about 125 ns (6.5 m) which represents a velocity pull-up of the strong reflection from about 180 ns (10 m). There is nearly a 60% reduction in reflection travel time from the top to the base of the cavity, because the electromagnetic velocity of air (.3 m/ns) is almost three times the velocity of electromagnetic waves in limestone (.12 m/ns).

GPR unit, and to Mamadou Coulibaly and Rector Koffi for assisting in the field. REFERENCES Clough, J.W., 1976, Electromagnetic lateral waves observed by earth-sounding radars. Geophysics, v.41, pp.1126-1132. Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P., 1989, Ground-penetrating radar for high-resolution mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy. Geophysical Prospecting, v.37, pp.531-551. Fisher, E., McMechan, G.A., and Annan, A.P., 1992, Acquisition and processing of wide-aperature groundpenetrating radar data. Geophysics, v.57, pp.495-504. Grasmueck, M., 1996, 3-D ground-penetrating radar applied to fracture in gneiss. Geophysics, v.61, n.4, pp.1050-1064. Hara, T., Ohkubo, H., Kanesaki, Y. and Cladwell, R., 1983, Application of ground-penetrating radar to detect cavities in limestone. Report TN-43, OYO Corporation. Huggenberger, P. Meier, E. and Beres, M., 1994, 3-D geometry of fluival gravel deposits from GPR reflection patterns; a comparison of results of three diferent antenna frequencies. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on GPR, v.2, pp.805-816. Jol, H.M. and Smith, P.G., 1991, Ground-penetrating radar of northern lacustrine deltas. Canadian Journal of Earth Science, v.28, pp.1939-1947. Liner, C.L. and Liner, J.L., 1995, Ground-penetrating radar: A near-face experience from Washington County, Arkansas. The Leading Edge, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, OK,, v.14, n.1, pp.17-21.

Fig. 6 Synthetic radargram generated from an air-filled karst model. The weak negative reflection is evidence of the velocity pull-up discussed in the text.

CONCLUSION Ground-penetrating radar was successfully utilized to map the extent of karst related features encountered at a limestone quarry. Digital processing and modeling of georadar data enhanced the structural interpretation of karst and related fractures, and provided detailed lithologic information useful for quarrying limestone. Needless delays, operational costs, equipment losses or damages, and personal injuries were avoided because georadar methods quickly provided quarry operators with information necessary to continue normal operations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Will Pyatt and E.T. Simonds Construction Co. for their cooperation and assistance in conducting this project. Thanks also to ATEC for use of a

Lumm, D.K. and Nelson, W. J., 1985, Structural geology of the Ste. Genevieve fault zone, southeastern Missouri and southwestern Illinois. In: The Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, North-Central Section 19th annual meeting, v.17, n.5, Pages 299-300. McMechan, G.A., 1981, Modeling of zero-offset profiles with asymptotic ray theory. Canadian Journal of Earth Science, v.18, pp.551-560. Sexton, J., Henson, H. Jr., Dial, P., Koffi, R. and Coulibaly, M., 1996a, Seismic reflection and georadar investigation of Sikeston Ridge in the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Seismological Research Letters Abstracts, v. 67, n. 2, March/April 1996, supplemental pages. Sexton, J., Henson, H. Jr., Koffi, R., Coulibaly, M. and Nelson, J., 1996b, Seismic reflection and georadar investigation of Barnes Creek area in southeastern Illinois. Seismological Research Letters Abstracts, v. 67, n. 2, March/April 1996, supplemental pages.

Georadar Investigation of Karst

Ulriksen, C.P.F., 1982, Application of impulse radar to civil engineering, Doctoral Thesis, Lund University of Technology, Sweden, published by Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., Hudson, NH, 175pp. Vaughan, C.J., 1986, Ground-penetrating radar surveys used in archaeological investigations. Geophysics, v.51, pp.595604. Wyatt, D.E. and Temples, T.J., 1996, Ground-penetrating radar detection of small-scale channels, joints and faults in the unconsolidated sediments of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Environmental Geology, v.27, pp.219-225. Yilmaz, O., 1988, Investigations in Geophysics: Seismic Data Processing, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, OK, Volume 2, 526pp.

Fig. 5 Georadar profile A1and interpretation.