Superconductors Superconductors are substances which have the ability to conduct electricity without resistance.

First observed in Hg by Kamerlingh Onnes (1853-1921) in 1911.

4.2 K is the critical temperature (TC) for Hg. Material Zn Ae Sn Pb Nb Nb3Sn Nb3Ge YBa2Cu3O7 HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 TC (K) 0.88 1.19 3.72 7.18 9.46 18.05 23.2 92 134

Breakthrough Discovery of high-temperature copper oxide-based superconductors by J. Georg Bednorg and K. Alex Muller, scientists at the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory in Switzerland. Material: an oxide of barium, lanthanum and copper with TC : 30K Nobel Prize in physics (1987) Theory of conventional superconductors in metals was advanced by John Bardeen, L.N. Cooper and J.R. Schrieffer in 1957 and is generally called BCS theory. The trio was awarded Nobel Prize in physics in 1972. In theory, 2 electrons can interact via distortions in the array of lattice ions so that there is on a net attraction between the electrons. As a result, the two electrons are bound into an entity called Cooper pair. Besides zero electrical resistance, superconductors also show diamagnetic property (in diamagnetism, the magnetization is in the opposite direction of the applied field) As the material which is placed in a uniform magnetic field (where value is smaller than the critical magnetic field HC), is called below TC, the magnetic flux inside the material is excluded from the material. This is called Meissner Effect.

a) Normal state b) Superconductivity state

Effect of a magnetic field Below TC superconductivity can be destroyed by the application of a strong magnetic field. At any temperature, the minimum field required to destroyed superconductivity is called the critical field (HC) of the material. Thus the value of the critical field depends on the temperature of the superconductivity material.

HC = HO{

Tayns law

Ho : critical field at 0K (absolute zero, typically at the value of 5000A/m

Isotope effect It is found that the transition temperature TC are inversely proportional to the square roots of the atomic weight of the isotope of a single superconductor. Thus, M TC = constant where is a constant and is approximately equal to 0.5. For example the atomic weight of isotope of Hg are from 199.5 to 203.4 atomic mass units. Therefore their transition temperature/critical temperature are from 4.185K to 4.146K respectively. Effect of pressure By applying very high pressure, we can bring TC of a material nearer to room temperature. TC pressure at high pressure

Effect of heavy current The superconductivity properties of conductors disappear when a sufficiently heavy current is passed through them. Since when current flows through a conductor it will set up the magnetic field this destroys the superconductivity state. According to Silsbees Rule, for a superconducting wire

IC = 2

when IC is the critical current and r is the radius of the wire.

Application: Superconductivity materials are used for a) MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) b) Maglev train (Magnetic Levitation) c) Squid (superconducting quantum interference device)