MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

ACTINOLITE: Composition: Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2; a double-chain inosilicate; an amphibole group mineral;

forms a solid solution series with tremolite in which < 10% iron (Fe+2 ) substitutes for magnesium (Mg+2); iron-rich varieties of actinolite (>50% Fe+2 substituting for Mg+2) are called ferro-actinolite

Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.87, b = 18.12, c = 5.30; = 90o, = 105o, = 90o Crystal Habit: slender, bladed prismatic to acicular with diamond-shaped cross-sections; crudely radiated to foliated to massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5-6 Specific Gravity: 3.2 3.3 Cleavage/Fracture two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110} not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good; splintery Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent Colors: various shades of medium to dark green; darker for iron-rich varieties Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: commonly alters to chlorite, talc and carbonate Diagnostic Properties: the hardness and cleavage are distinctive of amphibole; actinolite possesses a darker green color than most tremolite and a lighter green color than most hornblende; ferro-actinolite and hornblende can be difficult to distinguish, although slender prismatic-acicular crystals and a radiated habit is suggest ferro-actinolite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.613-1.628; n = 1.627-1.644; n = 1.638-1.656; increasing with increasing iron content Relief: moderate to moderate-high; positive

Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale green: pleochroism increases with iron content, also pale brown, pale yellow, yellow-green, green, dark green and bluish green Birefringence: moderate (0.024-0.028); lower to upper second order colors Twinning: simple paired twins are common Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2V = 73-88o; high to very high 2V; decreases with increasing iron (Fe) Other: Cross-sections display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length slow; maximum extinction angles are 12-17o Diagnostic Properties: the diamond-shaped cross-section and two cleavages at 56o and 124o distinguish actinolite as an amphibole; tremolite is colorless and has lower refractive indices; anthophyllite has lower birefringence and is orthorhombic, so has parallel extinction in longitudinal sections; cummingtonite has higher refractive indices, paler, brown colors and is less pleochroic; actinolite can be difficult to distinguish from hornblende, but usually has smaller extinction angles Occurrences/Associations: Actinolite occurs primarily in low-grade mafic and, less commonly calcareous, metamorphic rocks such as schist, skarn and calcsilicate rocks formed in the greenschist and, less commonly albite-epidote hornfels, facies where it is associated with minerals such as calcite, dolomite, albite, epidote, chlorite, anthophyllite and talc. It also occurs in rocks of the blueschist facies where it is associated with glaucophane, pumpellyite and lawsonite. Uses: compact aggregates, called nephrite, are used as an ornamental stone and in jewelry

AEGERINE: formerly also called ACMITE Composition: NaFeSi2O6; forms a solid solution series with calcic clinopyroxenes such as augite in which significant amounts of calcium (Ca+2) substitute for sodium (Na+1) and aluminum (Al+3), ferrous iron (Fe+2) and/or magnesium (Mg+2) substitute for ferric iron (Fe+3); intermediate varieties with between 20 - 80% ferric iron (Fe+3) are called aegerine-augite Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.7, b = 8.8, c = 5.3; = 90o, = 105-l08o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs as stubby prismatic crystals with 4- to 8-sided cross-sections or as slender prismatic to acicular crystals; occurs divergent aggregates or in fibrous aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties:

Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.4 3.6; moderate to moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: two cleavages {110}, near 90o (87o and 93o); good only; prominent parting may bisect the cleavages Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent to barely translucent Colors: typically various shades of dark green to black; also yellow green, brown or reddish brown Streak: white to pale green-gray Luster: vitreous Other: commonly alters to uralitic chlorite and uralitic amphibole Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from amphiboles by the crude, right angle cleavage and in crystals by the squarish 4- 8-sided cross-sections; cannot be distinguished from other calcic clinopyroxenes such as augite in hand sample Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.751 1.776; n = 1.785 1.820; n = 1.801 1.836; aegerineaugite has lower indices Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: distinctly pleochroic in pale to dark green, bright emerald green to blue-green, olive green, yellow-green, yellow-brown and honey-yellow brown; aegerineaugite possesses paler colors, mostly in yellow and green hues Birefringence: 0.040 0.060; high; upper second to fourth order colors are somewhat obscured by the strong colors of the mineral; aegerine-augite possess lower, moderate to high birefringence with upper first to upper second order colors Twinning: simple paired twins and lamellar twins occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (), 2Vx = 60-90o; high to very high 2V; aegerine-augite is generally (+) with a large 2V = 70-90o Other: cross-sections (showing near right angle cleavage) display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length fast; maximum extinction angles are 2-20o; aegerine-augite is 15-38o

Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from green amphiboles by its 2 orientations of cleavage near right angles and squarish 4- 8-sided cross sections; green amphiboles are also length slow and possess larger extinction angles; the darker colors, strong pleochroism and () optic sign distinguish aegerine from augite and the transitional mineral aegerine-augite which also possess larger extinction angles, lower refractive indices and lower birefringence Occurrences/Associations: Aegerine and aegerine-augite typically occur in alkali-rich igneous rocks, both silica oversaturated rocks such as alkali felsdspar granite, approximately saturated rocks such as syenite and silica undersaturated rocks such as foid syenite. They are commonly associated with potassic feldspars, sodic amphiboles and either quartz or felspathoids. Aegerine also occurs in some high P/T Franciscan trajectory blueschist facies metamorphic rocks formed in subduction zones, where it is associated with glaucophane, riebeckite, garnet and albite-rich plagioclase. Uses: Neither aegerine nor aegerine-augite have commercial value.

AGATE: see CHALCEDONY ALBITE: see PLAGIOCLASE ALMANDINE(ALMANDITE): see GARNET ANALCIME: (ANALCITE) Composition: NaAlSi2O6H2O; a tectosilicate mineral; a zeolite mineral; some substitution of potassium (K+1) and sodium (Ca+2) for calcium (Na+1) commonly occurs; the latter is balanced by substitution of aluminum (Al+3) silicon (Si+4) Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 13.72, a2 = 13.72, a3 = 13.72; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs as equant, trapezohedral crystals that resemble soccer balls; may possess cubic modifying faces; often as granular aggregates of such crystals or as more finely-crystalline massive aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 5; hard Specific Gravity: 2.2 2.3; low Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernable

Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically colorless to white; also shades of gray, green, yellow and pink Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The white color, hardness and trapezohedral crystals that resemble soccer balls are diagnostic; finely crystalline aggregates generally require XRD analysis for accurate identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.479 1.493 Relief: moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: none, since isotropic Twinning: none Optic Sign: none, since isotropic Diagnostic Properties: the rounded cross-section of euhedral trapezohedral crystals and the negative relief are useful; leucite has similar crystals, but much lower refractive indices and higher negative relief; sodalite possesses similar refractive indices and dodecahedral crystals; other zeolites are anisotropic; finely crystalline analcime requires XRD or other analytical methods for proper identification Occurrences/Associations: Analcime is a relatively widespread zeolite mineral. Coarse crystals are especially common in cavities, including vesicles, in mafic/basic rocks such as basalt and, less commonly, intermediate volcanic rocks such as andesite. It also occurs as phenocrysts in foid-bearing basalts. Analcime is a common mineral in very low-grade regional metamorphic rocks of the zeolite facies, typically associated with heulandite and also occurs in some contact metamorphic aureoles. Analcime is also reported from alkaline soils formed in desert environments, as an authigenic mineral in sedimentary rocks and as an alteration product of tuff. Uses: Analcime, like most natural and synthetic zeolites, is used, after heating and dehydration, to produce materials that remove water vapor from carbon dioxide, from refrigerants such as Freon and from many organic chemicals used in industrial applications. It is also used as a molecular sieve used to separate molecules of different sizes as in separating nitrogen from air to produce nearly pure oxygen gas. Because zeolites can selectively absorb selected molecules, they are widely used in applications that include reducing the hardness of water for cleaner

laundry by the removal of calcium, removing heavy metals from mine waters and industrial waste and radioactive isotopes from nuclear waste, in the treatment of wastewater by the removal of undesirable dissolved species such as ammonia and in the cleaning up of oil spills.

ANDESINE: see PLAGIOCLASE ANDALUSITE: Composition: AlAlOSiO4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral, polymorphic with kyanite and sillimanite; small amounts of iron (Fe+3) or manganese (Mn+3) may substitute for aluminum (Al+3) Crystal System: Orthorhomibc (2/m2/m2/m): a = 7.79, b = 7.91, c = 5.56; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically in prismatic to stubby prismatic crystals with roughly square crosssections; mostly as disseminated crystals; less commonly as granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 7; very hard Specific Gravity: 3.1 3.2; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two cleavages {110}, near 90o (89o and 91o); good only Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent; rarely transparent Colors: most commonly reddish brown to reddish gray; also pinkish, violet, greenish Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: carbonaceous inclusions in cross-like or rectangular forms occur in the variety called chiastolite; commonly alters to sericite or chlorite Diagnostic Properties: the prismatic crystals with square cross-sections are characteristic and the chiastolite inclusions, where present, diagnostic; the hardness and reddish toned colors are also typical Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.629 1.640; n = 1.633 1.645; n = 1.638 1.650

Relief: moderately high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless; less commonly, very slightly pleochroic; pale pink or red, pale green or pale yellow Birefringence: 0.009 0.013 low; maximum first order gray to yellow colors; higher for manganese (Mn) rich varieties Twinning: rarely observed Optic Sign: Biaxial (-), 2Vx = 71-88o; high to very high 2V Other: square cross-sections display symmetrical extinction and may display near right angle cleavages parallel to faces; longitudinal sections are length fast, display parallel extinction and one cleavage; Diagnostic Properties: the combination of color, moderately high relief, nearly square cross-sections with 2 sets of near right angle cleavage, low birefringence, length fast character and parallel extinction, with biaxial () optics and large 2V are characteristic; chiastolite inclusions of symmetrical carbonaceous graphite are diagnostic; sillimanite is length slow, has higher birefringence, only one orientation of cleavage and has a typically fibrous to swirled habit; topaz can possess similar color, but is optically (+) with a smaller 2V, possesses 8-sided cross-sections, and only one basal cleavage, not visible in basal cross-sections; hypersthene (see orthopyroxene) often possesses 8-sided crosssections and somewhat more color and pleochroism and has a different association, in mafic-ultramafic igneous and metamorphic rocks; enstatite (see orthopyroxene) is optically (+) Occurrences/Associations: Andalusite is the low pressure polymorph of aluminum silicate and typically forms in pelitic metamorphic rocks at temperatures below 700oC and pressures of less than 4kbars and is associated with chlorite, chloritoid, biotite, muscovite, almandine garnet, cordierite and staurolite. It is therefore abundant in rocks formed by contact metamorphism in the albite-epidote hornfels and hornblende hornfels facies. It is also common in regional metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss produced in the greenschist and amphibolite facies along Buchan trajectories where T/P ratios are fairly high. Andalusite also occurs in peraluminous igneous rocks including granitoids and pegmatite, although whether or not it is a primary mineral in such rocks is controversial. Uses: Andalusite is mined extensively to be refined for use as a refractory material used in the manufacture of the porcelain used spark plugs and high alumina bricks for lining blast furnaces and kilns. It may also be used as an abrasive.

ANDRADTITE: see GARNET ANHYDRITE: Composition: CaSO4; a sulfate mineral Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 6.99, b = 7.00, c = 6.24; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals thick, tabular; less commonly stubby prismatic; most commonly in granular or massive aggregates; sometimes acicular-capillary crystals in fibrous or even radial aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.9 3.0; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: three cleavages at 90o; all pinacoidal {010} and {100} very good and {010} good, so can resemble the cubic cleavage in many isometric minerals Diaphaneity: generally quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly pale purple to white or gray; may be pale blue, red or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: commonly alters, by hydration, to gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and forms by the dehydration of gypsum Diagnostic Properties: The three distinct orientations of cleavage at right angles and lack of effervescence in HCl distinguish anhydrite from calcite and other rhombohedral carbonates and it is harder than gypsum which is soft Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.569 1.573; n = 1.572 1.579; n = 1.613 1.618 Relief: moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.042 0.045; so moderate-high, with maximum lower third-order colors, but most sections display lower birefringence, so examine several crystals

Twinning: simple, paired twins occur, as do lamellar sets at right angles Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 36-45o; moderate Other: extinction is parallel to cleavage traces Diagnostic Properties: the right angle cleavage and high birefringence are characteristic; gypsum has lower, negative relief, much lower birefringence, and a larger 2V Occurrences/Associations: Most anhydrite occurs in marine evaporite sequences where it precipitates from sea water that is undergoing significant desiccation by net evaporation in a restricted sea in a warm, dry climate or by the dehydration of gypsum precipitated under similar conditions. Anhydrite is an important constituent of the cap rocks of salt domes. In both the preceding cases, anhydrite is associated with gypsum, halite and calcite and in salt domes with native sulfur. Smaller amounts of anhydrite form by the hydrothermal alteration of carbonate sedimentary rocks such as limestone and dolostone, in the oxidized portions of hydrothermal sulfide vein and replacement deposits and in amygdules in volcanic rocks. Uses: Ground up anhydrite is used as a soil conditioner; it is also used in cement to slow down the setting time where that is desirable

ANTHOPHYLLITE: Composition: (Mg,Fe)2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2; double-chain inosilicate; an amphibole group mineral; forms a solid solution series with gedrite [(Mg,Fe)2(Mg,Fe)2Al2 Al2Si8O22(OH)2] in which aluminum (Al+3) substitutes both for magnesium (Mg+2) and/or ferrous iron (Fe+2) in octahedral sites and for silica (Si4+) in tetrahedral sites; related to cummingtonite, but larger amounts of iron (Fe+2) in cummingtonite cause it to crystallize in the monoclinic, rather than the orthorhombic, system Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 18.54, b = 18.03, c = 5.28; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: slender, bladed prismatic; crudely with diamond-shaped cross-sections; in foliated-lamellar to massive aggregates; also as acicular crystals in fibrous to radiated aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6 Specific Gravity: 2.9 3.2; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110}, not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good

Diaphaneity: somewhat to slightly translucent Colors: typically clove brown; also gray-brown, brownish green and yellow brown to white; color may vary within single aggregate Streak: white Luster: vitreous to silky; also subvitreous Other: commonly alters to chlorite, talc and/or serpentine Diagnostic Properties: Distinguished from most amphiboles by the clove brown (to gray brown to brownish green) color and commonly; the fibrous to lamellar-foliated habit are also distinctive; difficult to distinguish from cummingtonite which is usually a darker brown; pyroxenes possess near right angle cleavage (when it is discernible) Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.587 1.694; n = 1.602 1.710; n = 1.613 1.722 Relief: moderate to high; positive Color/Pleochroism: weakly pleochroic; pale tan, clove brown, greenish yellow, pale gray brown, pale yellow brown, gray green, dark brown Birefringence: 0.13 0.24; low to moderate; maximum colors from first order yellow to second order reds and blues Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial (+) or (); mostly positive; 2Vx = 65-90o; 2Vz = 58 90o; high to very high 2V Other: cross-sections display symmetrical extinction; displays extinction parallel to cleavage traces in longitudinal sections Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from pyroxenes by 2 sets of cleavage not at right angles; cleavage may not be visible in fibrous aggregates; all monoclinic amphiboles possess angular extinction; the pleochroism and pale colors in shades of tan, clove brown, greenish-yellow, gray-green and brown is somewhat similar to cummingtonite, but cummingtonite has angular extinction, as do all monoclinic amphiboles Occurrences/Associations: Anthophyllite is common in medium- to high-grade mafic metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss, where it is associated with cordierite, plagioclase, and garnet. It also occurs in some magnesian (ultramafic) metamorphic rocks, often by the

retrograde metamorphism of olivine and pyroxene, where it is associated with serpentine and talc. Uses: Anthophyllite has been used as a substitute for chrysotile asbestos which was long used in fireproofing and insulation. However, it turns out to have similar negative health implications.

ANTIGORITE: see SERPENTINE APATITE: Composition: Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH); but complex, with complete substitution of F-1, Cl-1 and OH-1 possible between three end members: fluorapatite, clorapatite and hydroxylapatite; phosphate may be partially substituted for by sulfate, hydroxylcarbonate, chromate, or silicate with sodium replacing some of the calcium to maintain electrical neutrality; the sedimentary apatite called collophane is mostly chlorapatite and hydroxylcarbonate apatite Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m): a1 = 9.32 9.65, a2 = 9.32 9.65, c = 6.78 6.90; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: typically in stubby to elongate hexagonal prisms or columns {11bar20} which are commonly terminated by basal pinacoid {0001} and dipyramidal {10bar11} faces; often in granular to massive aggregates; the cryptocrystalline, sedimentary apatite called collophane occurs as ooids, colloform masses, encrustations and disseminated material in sedimentary rocks called phosphorites Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5; upper end of moderate Specific Gravity: 3.1 3.3; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernible, one poor basal cleavage; uneven to conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: variable; typically shades of green to blue-green, but also yellow-green, brown, purple, blue, pink and yellow-orange; collophane is typically brownish Streak: white Luster: vitreous to resinous

Diagnostic Properties: the hexagonal crystals, greenish color and hardness are characteristic; beryl is harder and lacks dipyramidal faces Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.633 1.650; n = 1.629 1.647; due to variable composition; carbonate-rich varieties possess lower indices Relief: moderate to moderately high; positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to very pale shades of green; not pleochroic; surface has a distinctive stippled appearance in plane light; collophane is brownish Birefringence: 0.003 0.005; very low; first order white to gray; collophane is nearly isotropic; carbonate-rich apatite possesses somewhat higher birefringence (upper first order colors) Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: euhedral cross-sections are hexagonal; longitudinal sections are length fast Diagnostic Properties: the moderate relief, very low birefringence, uniaxial () optics and length fast character, lack of recognizable cleavage and, where present, hexagonal cross-sections are diagnostic Occurrences/Associations: Apatite is widely distributed in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is a common accessory mineral a wide variety of igneous rocks that range from granitoids and alkali syenites through gabbroic rocks; large crystals occur in some granitic pegmatites. Apatite is especially common in sedimentary rocks, especially in phosphorites composed of collophane; it is the major component of bones and teeth which may directly or indirectly contribute to such deposits where it is associated with carbonate rocks, siliceous rocks and mudrocks. Apatite is also common in metamorphic rocks, especially marbles, skarns and calcsilicate rocks; large crystals are quite common in skarns. Uses: Apatite, especially in the form of collophane, is a major source of phosphate which is widely used in agricultural fertilizers, especially now that deposits of guano have been largely exhausted. It is also a source of fluoride used in drinking water and mouthwashes to help prevent dental cavities. Fine quality, transparent apatite can provide gemstones, but it is too soft to be of high value for this purpose.

ARAGONITE:

Composition: CaCO3; a carbonate; polymorphic with calcite; isostructural with witherite, strontianite and cerrusite, all members of the orthorhombic (aragonite) group of carbonate minerals; strontium (Sr+2) commonly substitutes for some calcium (Ca+2) Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 4.95, b = 7.96, c = 5.73; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: acicular-prismatic or tabular-bladed crystals; divergent to radiating aggregates; penetration twins commonly produce columnar pseudohexagonal crystals with striations parallel to long axes; also in stalactitic and banded aggregates in cavestones Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.94; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one cleavage; pinacoidal {010} fair; another poor, so both difficult to discern; subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent Colors: colorless to white; impurities can produce other colors including yellow and reddish tones Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: effervesces readily in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); commonly inverts to its polymorph calcite; may also be replaced by dolomite; so becomes rarer with age in the geologic record Diagnostic Properties: Resembles calcite in occurrence and ready effervescence in HCl, but lacks rhombohedral cleavage; also has different crystal forms, is marginally harder and possesses a somewhat higher specific gravity Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: Relief: very low negative to moderate-high positive; most sections produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.155; very high-extreme; high order faded colors (creamy white)

Twinning: alternating penetration twins common; some polysynthetic twinning Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 18 - 19o (small 2V) Other: cross-sections may be psuedohexagonal; longitudinal sections are length slow; parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from rhombohedral carbonates (e.g., calcite and dolomite) by the lack of rhombohedral cleavage and by being biaxial (), rather than uniaxial (); witherite is similar and difficult to distinguish without XRD, but it is a much less common mineral and possesses a markedly higher specific gravity; strontianite has a lower 2V, lower refractive indices and better cleavage Occurrences/Associations: Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is reflected by its occurrence in high P/T metamorphic rocks of the blueschist facies where it is associated with minerals that include lawsonite, pumpellyite, glaucophane, muscovite, pyrophyllite and kyanite. Despite this, aragonite is also a common mineral in surface environments where it is used by organisms to secrete shells and precipitated in caves and around hot springs. It also precipitates from warm sea water as fine aragonite needles and as ooids. Less common aragonite occurs with zeolites in amygdules in volcanic rocks and with siderite in some sedimentary iron deposits. Uses: Aragonite can be used in the same way as calcite, but because it is scarcer and deposits are smaller, aragonite has limited commercial value except as a local source of lime for whitewash

ARSENOPYRITE: Composition: FeAsS; a sulfarsenide mineral Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.57, b = 5.68, c = 6.43; = 90o, = 90+o, = 90o; nearly orthorhombic Crystal Habit: slender prismatic crystals common; crudely foliated to massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6 Specific Gravity: 6.07; high to very high Cleavage/Fracture: none easily discernible Diaphaneity: opaque

Colors: silver white Streak: black Luster: metallic Other: smells of garlic when crushed or powdered Diagnostic Properties: the garlic smell when crushed is distinctive; the silver white color distinguishes arsenopyrite from pyrite and marcasite which are pale brass yellow; the prismatic habit with rhombic cross-sections help to distinguish it from cobaltite Microscopic Properties: opaque; white in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Arsenopyrite occurs most commonly in high temperature (hypothermal) vein and replacement deposits. It also occurs in contact metamorphic rocks such as skarns and in a few pegmatites. Commonly associated minerals include cassiterite, wolframite, scheelite, gold, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. Uses: Arsenopyrite is not an important economic mineral; it can be used as a source of arsenic, but this is typically obtained from the smelting of other minerals. Arsenic is used in herbicides, pesticides and insecticides, in some pharmaceuticals and with lead in the production of shot metal.

AUGITE: Composition: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Fe,Al,Ti)Si2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene; shows extensive solid solution with diopside (CaMgSi2O6) and hedenbergite (CaFeSi2O6) and, at high temperatures, with pigeonite (Fe,Mg,Ca)2Si2O6 Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.75, b = 8.90, c = 5.25; = 90o, = 106o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as stubby prismatic {210} crystals with squarish four- to eight-sided cross sections; commonly in granular aggregates or coarse cleavable aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.3 3.4; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two prismatic cleavages {210}, near right angles (87o and 93o); prominent parting in some examples

Diaphaneity: moderately translucent to barely translucent Colors: typically medium to dark green to greenish black; also brownish black Streak: pale gray-green Luster: vitreous to subvitreous Other: commonly alters to chlorite, biotite, limonite, hematite and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: augite cannot be distinguished in hand specimen from other clinopyroxenes with similar colors; the crude, nearly right angle cleavage and/or four- to eight-sided squarish crystals distinguish it from amphiboles with similar color Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.674 1.724; n = 1.686 1.732; n = 1.708 1.752 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to rather pale shades of green, grayish green, brownish green, blue green, yellow green and purple brown; very slightly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.022 0.030; moderate; maximum second order green to second order red colors Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 35 60o; moderately low to moderate 2V Other: squarish, 4-8 cross-sections (showing near right angle cleavage) display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length slow; maximum extinction angles are 39 - 52o; aegerine-augite is 15-38o; exsolution lamellae of orthopyroxene or pigeonite are common; phenocrysts commonly zoned Diagnostic Properties: the squarish 4-8 sided cross-sections and two orientations of cleavage near right angles distinguish augite from most amphiboles; pigeonite is similar, but has a lower 2V (< 32o) and often displays pinkish colors in addition to green and brown; orthopyroxenes show parallel extinction in all longitudinal sections; olivine lacks cleavage and color and has much higher birefringence and generally higher 2V; iron-rich orthopyroxene (hypersthene) and iron-rich olivine are also optically () Occurrences/Associations: Augite is an important rock-forming mineral. It is an essential primary constituent of many mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks including gabbro, basalt, peridotite (lherzolite and wehrlite) and pyroxenite (websterite and clinopyroxenite). Mafic/basic rocks are important constituents of oceanic crust and of intrusive

rocks in continental crust, including large layered gabbroic intrusions (LLGI). Ultramafic/ultrabasic rocks are the dominant rock type in the upper mantle. Augite, often ironrich also occurs as an accessory mineral in diorite, andesite, granodiorite and tonalite. Augite also occurs in relatively high-grade mafic and magnesian metamorphic rocks such as hornfels, amphibolite, gneiss and granulite produced in the pyroxene hornfels, upper amphibolite and granulite facies. It is often the product of dehydration reactions that involve hornblende, as metamorphic temperatures increase. Augite is not very chemically stable in weathering environments, so is not an important constituent of detrital sediments. Uses: Augite has no commercial value. It is a constituent of some dimension stone used for countertops.

AZURITE: Composition: Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2; a hydrous carbonate; Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.97, b = 5.84, c = 10.29; = 90o, = 92o, = 90o Crystal Habit: short prismatic to tabular individual crystals; acicular crystals, commonly in radiating, banded, colloform (botryoidal) aggregates; also as drusy encrustations Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 -4 Specific Gravity: 3.77 Cleavage/Fracture: 2 orientations of prismatic cleavage not at 90o; perfect; a third orientation of fair cleavage is generally not discernible; in finely crystalline aggregates no cleavage is visible macroscopically Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: various shades of deep blue; often intense azure blue Streak: lighter shades of blue Luster: vitreous to resinous Other: effervesces in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); commonly alters to malachite Diagnostic Properties: The deep blue color, blue streak and effervescence in HCl are diagnostic Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n= 1.730; n = 1.756; n = 1.836 Relief: high to very high positive Color/Pleochroism: blue Birefringence: 0.011; low Optic Sign: biaxial (+); 2Vz = 67o (moderately large) Diagnostic Properties: The blue color, high relief, low birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with a large 2V are diagnostic; the association with other oxidized zone minerals is helpful Occurrences/Associations: Azurite most commonly occurs in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits that contain copper-bearing sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite and bornite that are oxidized by descending, acidic (CO2-rich) meteoric water. It is typically associated with malachite, cuprite, limonite (goethite), smithsonite and cerussite, among others. Uses: a minor ore of copper; large masses are prized by collectors as decorative pieces; when powdered azurite provides blue pigments

BARITE: Composition: BaSO4; a sulfate mineral; isostructural with celestite; a complete solid solution series is possible and Sr typically substitutes for Ba to some degree producing variable specific gravity, refractive indices and birefringence Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 8.88, b = 5.45, c = 7.15; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are typically tabular to bladed; less commonly prismatic; most commonly divergent aggregates; in barite rose tabular crystals occur in roseiform aggregates; also occurs in granular or massive aggregates; also in oolitic, pisolitic and concretionary aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 4.5; high

Cleavage/Fracture: four cleavage orientations; one pinacoidal {001} perfect cleavage is at right angles to two prismatic {210} very good cleavages that are not at right angles to each other (78o and 102o); a fourth cleavage is pinacoidal {010} fair, so not readily discerned Diaphaneity: generally quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly colorless to white or gray; may be pale blue, green, red or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: commonly alters to witherite; may be replaced by calcite, dolomite or quartz Diagnostic Properties: Barite has an unusually high specific gravity for a non-metallic mineral; the three cleavages in anhydrite are at 90o; celestite has a lower specific gravity and commonly a more bluish color Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.634 1.637; n = 1.636 1.638; n = 1.646 1.648 Relief: moderate to moderately-high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.010 0.013; so low-moderate with maximum first-order yellow colors, but most sections display low birefringence Twinning: usually not twinned, but lamellar twins do occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 36-40o; moderate Other: many orientations display two sets of cleavage at 90o; others display a single cleavage; acicular, tabular and bladed crystals are length slow Diagnostic Properties: the right-angle cleavages, moderate relief and low birefringence are characteristic, as are the length slow cross-sections; very difficult to distinguish from celestite in thin-section Occurrences/Associations: Most barite occurs in low-temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, fluorite, pyrite, calcite and other carbonates. Some barite occurs as concretions and veins in sedimentary rocks such as limestone, mudrock and sandstone and as a cement in the latter. Rare barite occurs as a primary igneous mineral in carbonatites associated with silica undersaturated rocks such as foid syenite.

Uses: Barites principal use to increase the density drilling muds used in the recovery of petroleum from wells and which helps to prevent blowouts; also used as a source of barium in the manufacture of glass, paper and ceramics products and in the production of rubber and plastics; for x-ray images of the stomach and intestinal tract

BAUXITE: (technically a rock or soil type, but commonly discussed with minerals) Composition: bauxite is typically a mixture of at least three minerals: gibbsite [Al(OH)3], diaspore (AlOOH), and boehmite (AlOOH); in addition clay minerals, especially kaolinite, limonite and hematite can be significant constituents of such mixtures as well; bauxite is analogous to limonite mixtures for iron oxides and oxyhydroxides. Crystal System: Gibbsite is monoclinic (2/m), whereas diaspore and boehmite are orthorhombic (2/m/2m2/m): Crystal Habit: bauxite mineral crystals are typically very small, sometimes capillary, and occur in pisolitic, tubular and massive, earthy aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 - 7; soft to hard; variable hardness in part due to hardness of constituent minerals; Gibbsite = 2 -3 , Boehmite = 3 - 4, Diaspore = 6 - 7; also generally softer in less cohesive finer grained aggregates Specific Gravity: 2.0 3.5; low to moderate; due in part to compactness (porosity) and in part to the different specific gravities of the three minerals Cleavage/Fracture: each mineral has cleavage, but it is generally not discernible in crystal aggregates Diaphaneity: typically somewhat to slightly translucent in aggregates Colors: typically white, but also pale gray, green or brown; yellow brown where mixed with limonite and reddish where mixed with hematite Streak: white when mostly aluminum minerals Luster: typically dull to pearly Diagnostic Properties: The pisolitic habit, dull to pearly luster and white color (tinged with yellow-brown or red) are highly suggestive, but the variability of bauxite mixtures makes generalizations challenging; calcite and aragonite pisoids effervesce readily in HCl, whereas bauxite does not

Microscopic Properties: the aluminum minerals in bauxite typically are colorless, have moderate to high relief and low to moderate birefringence; typically, XRD methods are required to identify them accurately Occurrences/Associations: Bauxite occurs most commonly in severely leached soils (oxisols) produced in warm, humid environments. In such soils, acidic waters leach silica from clay minerals to produce concentrations aluminum oxides and hydroxides. These are commonly associated with iron oxide and iron hydoxyoxide minerals and mineraloids including hematite, and limonite and, less commonly, manganese oxides and hydroxides in the form of wad. Uses: Bauxite deposits constitute the principal source for aluminum (Al) used in the manufacture of household goods including cans, bottle caps, pots and pans, aluminum foil and table ware. Aluminum finds widespread use in the transportation industry in alloys for automobiles, aircraft and railway cars. Large amounts are used in electrical transmission lines, as well as in medical packaging, baseball bats, gutters and aluminum siding. Aluminum oxide is used in the production of various refractory materials, for example in the manufacture of spark plugs and refractory bricks.

BERYL: Composition: Be3Al2Si6O22; a cyclosilicate mineral; chromium (Cr+3) substitutes for aluminum (Al+3); lithium (Li+1) commonly substitutes for beryllium (Be+2) or aluminum (Al+3) with the charge difference balanced by the incorporation of other +1 ions (Li+1, K+1, Na+1, Cs+1) in the spaces inside rings (ring channels); water is also so incorporated in many examples; other substitutions exist Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a1 = 9.20 9.27, a2 = 9.20 9.27, c = 9.19 9.25; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: typically as six sided, columnar prismatic {10bar10} hexagonal crystals, commonly with pinacoidal {0001} terminations; less commonly as tabular crystals with hexagonal outlines; in divergent aggregates and radiating aggregates of acicular crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 - 8; very hard Specific Gravity: 2.63 2.97; moderate; increases with increasing sodium, potassium and cesium content Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernible; a weak basal cleavage exists Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent

Colors: typically green, greenish blue, greenish yellow; also blue, yellow, colorless Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The common hexagonal crystals, high hardness and greenish color are sufficient to identify beryl; quartz crystals are softer and typically possess pyramidal terminations; apatite is softer Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.560 -1.610; n = 1.557 1.599 Relief: low to moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.003 0.009; very low to low; maximum first order yellow colors Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Other: tangential sections have hexagonal outlines and symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length fast with parallel extinction; long sections of tabular crystals, perpendicular to the c-axis, are length slow, with parallel extinction; crystals may be zoned Diagnostic Properties: the very low birefringence, low relief, uniaxial () optics, lack of recognizable cleavage and, where present, hexagonal cross-sections are diagnostic; apatite is distinguished by its significantly higher indices of refraction and relief, its stippled appearance in plane light and generally much clearer optic axis figures Occurrences/Associations: Beryl most commonly occurs, sometimes in large crystals, in alkali granite pegmatite where it is associated with tourmaline, muscovite-lepidolite, K- feldspar, albite-rich plagioclase and quartz. It also occurs as an accessory mineral in many granitoids and in foid syenite. Beryl also occurs in some high temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits and contact metamorphic rocks including skarn where it is associated with wolframite, scheelite and cassiterite. Uses: Beryl is the major source of beryllium (Be). Its low specific gravity and strength allows it to be used for the production of light weight alloys for high-speed aircraft, missiles, communications satellites and spacecraft. It is alloyed with copper to improve its strength and hardness for use in springs, electrical contacts and many tools. Ultrathin beryllium foils are essential for the reproduction of microscopic integrated circuits in the field of X-ray lithography. Beryl is also an important gemstone, with emerald (green, Cr-bearing), aquamarine (blue-

green) and morganite (pink to red, Mn-bearing) being the principle varieties. High quality emeralds are particularly desirable.

BIOTITE: (and PHLOGOPITE) Composition: K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2; forms a solid solution series with phlogopite [KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2] which has more magnesium (Mg+2) and less ferrous iron (Fe+2) and with annite [KFe3AlSi3O10(OH)2] which has more ferrous iron (Fe+2) and less ferric iron (Mg+2); significant substitution of aluminum (Al+3) for both silicon (Si+4) and ferrous iron and/or magnesium (Fe+2 and/or Mg+2) also occurs; oxidized biotite, in which substantial ferric iron (Fe+3) has replaced ferrous iron (Fe+2) with the simultaneous substitution of oxygen (O-2) for hydroxyl ion (OH-1) to maintain charge balance are known as oxybiotite Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.31, b = 9.23, c = 10.28; = 90o, = 99o, = 90o; Crystal Habit: tabular (six-sided cross sections) to platy-scaly crystals; common in foliated aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: on cleavage surfaces: 2 - 3; soft, especially on cleavage surfaces Specific Gravity: 2.8 3.2; moderate; lower end specific gravity for phlogopite Cleavage/Fracture: one set of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent; phlogopite may be nearly transparent Colors: typically dark brown to black or green; also reddish brown; phlogopite is typically light, honey brown to tan or nearly colorless Streak: white to gray Luster: vitreous Other: flexible and elastic in thin sheets; biotite alters to chlorite and to clay minerals such as vermiculite, a hydrated version of biotite produced by weathering or hydrothermal alteration, and to limonite Diagnostic Properties: the dark color, along with the low hardness, tendency to split into thin flakes or sheets along one perfect cleavage and the elasticity of such sheets are diagnostic; phlogopite typically is a lighter shade of honey-brown to tan as a result of its lower iron content; annite is black

Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.565 1.625; n = 1.612 1.696; n = 1.613 1.696; phlogopite has the lower refractive indices Relief: low to moderate to moderate, positive; phlogopite has lower relief Color/Pleochroism: strongly pleochroic in shades of yellow, pale green, light brown, greenish brown, green, olive brown, yellow-brown, brown, reddish brown and dark brown; phlogopite is colorless to pale yellow, pale brown, buff, brownish yellow, olive green, salmon pink, reddish orange and pale red brown Birefringence: 0.32 0.066; high to very high; maximum colors are third to even fourth order, but are obscured somewhat by the strong coloring; phlogopite has somewhat lower birefringence with high second to third order colors commonly; both minerals display low birefringence when the cleavage is parallel to the stage, e.g., in grain mounts Twinning: usually not discernable, but may occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 0-25o; low 2V; may appear uniaxial or nearly so; phlogopite is similar with 2Vx = 0 15o Other: birdseye maple appearance near extinction which occurs at small angles (0 9o) to the prominent cleavage; length slow parallel to cleavage, but difficult to see because of deep colors; wavy extinction in bent flakes; hexagonal sections display symmetrical extinction; phlogopite has similar characteristics and the length slow property is easier to discern Diagnostic Properties: the combination of a single perfect cleavage, strong colors and pleochroism, birdseye extinction, near parallel extinction and biaxial () optics with a small 2V are characteristic; distinguished from other micas by the strong colors and pleochroism; phlogopite has paler colors, less intense pleochroism, an even smaller maximum 2V and a generally different set of associations; biotite resembles stilpnomelane, but the later lacks birdseye extinction, displays deeper yellow colors and commonly forms a radial or sheaf-like crystal aggregate; green biotite differs from chlorite by having much higher birefringence and by lacking anomalous interference colors Occurrences/Associations: Biotite is an abundant mineral in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, it is especially abundant in felsic rocks including granitoids, pegmatite, aplite, syenite, foid syenite and equivalent volcanic rocks, sometimes as oxybiotite. It also occurs as an accessory mineral in intermediate rocks such as diorite and in some mafic/basic rocks including gabbro and norite, often by late-stage reaction with hornblende. Biotite occurs widely in fairly low- to fairly high-grade pelitic metamorphic rocks

including hornfels, slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss and in mafic metamorphic rocks including amphibolite. Phlogopite, on the other hand, is a common accessory in ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks, where it is associated with pargasitic amphibole, pyroxenes and olivine, and in calcareous metamorphic rocks produced by the metamorphism of impure dolostone and in some skarns, where it is associated with calcite, dolomite, diopside, wollastonite, grossular-pyrope garnet and forsterite-rich olivine. Uses: Biotite is not of great economic value. Vermiculite, produced by the hydration of biotite, is used as a soil conditioner for potting soil, as a component of insulation products and with gypsum in sheet rock, wall board and other construction materials.

BORAX: Composition: Na2B4O5(OH)48H2O; Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 11.86, b = 10.67, c = 12.20; = 90o, = 107o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically occurs in flattened, stubby prismatic to tabular-bladed crystals that occur in divergent to reticulated aggregates; also in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 2 Specific Gravity: 1.71; very low Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation; pinacoidal {100}; perfect; there are two much less discernable orientations not at 90o; prismatic {110}; fair Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to white; may have a gray to pale green or bluish tint Streak: white Luster: vitreous to subvitreous Other: possesses a sweet, alkaline taste; transparent crystals acquire a white, crumbly coating (the mineral tincalconite) by dehydration in contact with the atmosphere; readily soluble in water Diagnostic Properties: distinguished by its crystal habit, sweet alkaline taste, white coating, very low specific gravity and ready solubility in water

Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.447; n = 1.469; n = 1.472 Relief: moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.025; moderate; maximum second order green to yellow colors Twinning: may occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 39 - 40o; moderate; tincalconite is Uniaxial (+) Other: possesses strong crossed dispersion and optic normal sections display anomalous interference colors in shades of blue and brown Diagnostic Properties: the combination of rather low refractive indices, moderate negative relief, and moderate birefringence, strong crossed dispersion and abnormal interference colors and the biaxial () optics with moderate 2V and single excellent cleavage are diagnostic Occurrences/Associations: Most borax forms by evaporation in enclosed saline lake in warm, arid climates and as an efflorescent formed by soil water evaporation under similar conditions. Commonly associated minerals include kernite, ulexite, colemanite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and a host of rare borate minerals. Uses: The most important use of borax is in the manufacture of glass fibers for use in insulation and textiles. Borax is also used in detergent soaps and as a flux in metallurgical processes such as welding and smelting. One isotope of elemental boron, obtained from borax, is used in the shields of atomic reactors and elemental boron is also used in fuels for rockets and automobiles and in the high strength plastics used in aircraft manufacturing.

BORNITE: Composition: Cu5FeS4; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 10.95, b = 21.86, c = 10.5; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; orthorhombic, rather than tetragonal, due to details of internal structure; isometric at temperatures above 228oC (Nesse, 2000) Crystal Habit: rare individual crystals are pseudocubic, octahedral or dodecahedral; most commonly smaller crystals occur in massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3; low side of moderate Specific Gravity: 5.06 5.08; high Cleavage/Fracture: very poor; so irregular (uneven) fracture generally seen Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: brownish bronze on fresh surfaces; rapidly tarnishes to iridescent colors including purple and blue tints which give rise to the name peacock ore Streak: gray black Luster: metallic on fresh surfaces; submetallic on tarnished surfaces Other: commonly alters by oxidation to copper carbonates such as malachite and azurite and copper oxides such as cuprite; supergene enrichment causes alteration to chalcocite and covellite; the iron may alter to siderite or limonite (goethite) Diagnostic Properties: bronze color helps to distinguish it from minerals such as chalcopyrite and chalcocite; color and softness distinguish it from pyrite and marcasite; lack of magnetism distinguishes it from pyrrhotite; peacock ore iridescence distinguishes it from all of these Microscopic Properties: opaque; yellow in reflected light with pleochroism Occurrences/Associations: Bornite is widely distributed in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite, galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, tetrahedrite, and silver sulfides and a variety of gangue minerals. Bornite also occurs with chalcocite and covellite in the zone of supergene enrichment. It occurs less abundantly as disseminated crystals in some skarn deposits produced by contact metamorphism, in pegmatites and in some mafic/basic igneous rocks such as gabbro. Uses: Bornite is an important ore of copper (Cu) whose primary use is in the manufacture of electrical wires and switches. Copper is also used in alloys: with zinc in brass, with copper and tin in bronze and with copper, zinc and nickel in German silver.

BRUCITE: Composition: Mg(OH)2; a hydroxide mineral; some iron (Fe+2) and Manganese (Mn+2) may substitute for magnesium (Mg+2)

Crystal System: Hexagonal (Trigonal) [bar32/m]: a1 = 3.14, a2 = 3.14, c = 4.77; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: crystals are platy to tabular; typically in foliated, swirled, or massive to granular aggregates; rarely fibrous Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.39; low-moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal, pinacoidal {0001} cleavage; perfect; often not discernible in crystal aggregates Diaphaneity: somewhat to slightly translucent in aggregates Colors: commonly white; often with a green or gray tint; less commonly bluish or brownish Streak: white Luster: waxy to pearly in most aggregates; vitreous in crystals Other: alters to serpentine, talc and hydrated magnesite Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from talc by brucites superior hardness and lack of greasy feel; from micas by the fact that brucites folia are not elastic; from chlorite and most serpentine by brucites paler colors Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.559 1.590; n = 1.580 1.600; increase with iron content Relief: low-moderate to moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.010 0.021; low to moderate; maximum colors upper first to lower second order Twinning: none Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+) Other: cross-sections of plates are length fast; may show anomalous first order bluish or reddish-brown colors

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of length fast scaly to platy crystals in swirled aggregates is distinctive; the lower birefringence and deep brown abnormal interference colors distinguish brucite from talc; the serpentine minerals that resemble brucite have scales that are length slow and typically possess lower birefringence; muscovite is biaxial (), albeit with a small 2V, and has very different associations than these ultramafic/magnesian/calcareous metamorphic minerals Occurrences/Associations: Brucite is typically a metamorphic mineral formed by the alteration of other magnesium-bearing minerals including periclase, dolomite, olivine and pyroxene. It is most commonly formed by hydrothermal, contact or regional metamorphism of ultramafic/ultrabasic rocks such as peridotites and in Mg-bearing marbles where it is associated with dolomite, magnesite, serpentine, talc and chlorite. Brucite also occurs with talc, serpentine and magnesite in veins that cross-cut serpentinized peridotite bodies. Uses: Brucite is mined on a small scale for use as a flame retardant in the manufacture of paper and plastics and is also used in furnaces in the manufacture of steel. Synthetic brucite is sometimes produced for these purposes.

CALCITE: Composition: CaCO3; a carbonate; polymorphic with aragonite; isostructural with magnesite, siderite smithsonite, and rhodochrosite, all members of the rhombohedral (calcite) group of carbonate minerals; magnesium (Mg+2) may replace a significant, but limited, amount of calcium (Ca+2); calcite with more than 4% magnesium (Mg+2) replacing calcium (Ca+2) is called highmagnesium calcite; substantial manganese (Mn+2) may also replace calcium (Ca+2) Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral); (bar32/m): a1 = 4.99, a2 = 4.99, c = 17.1; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: crystals common as stubby prismatic scalenohedra {21bar31} and slender prisms {01bar10} in combination with rhombohera {10bar10} in divergent clusters and massive to granular aggregates; also acicular crystals in fibrous habits in ooids and shells; rare as isolated rhombohedral crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 Specific Gravity: 2.7; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations not 90o (74.9o and 105.1o); rhombohedral {10bar1l}; perfect

Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: variable (allochromatic); typically colorless to white; also gray, yellow, blue, green, brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous; like all minerals, dull/earthy if in very fine grained aggregates Other: Effervesces in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); transparent specimens (Iceland spar) exhibit obvious double refraction Diagnostic Properties: Calcite is recognized by its fine rhombic cleavage, its hardness (3) and its effervescence in cold, dilute HCl. Dolomite does not readily effervesce in cold, dilute HCl and aragonite does not have rhombic cleavage and has a higher SG. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.668; n = 1.486 Relief: variable; from low-moderate negative to moderately-high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.172; very high-extreme; high order faded colors; creamy white Twinning: rhombohedral mechanical twins common Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: extinction is symmetrical with respect to intersecting cleavages; calcite twins tend to parallel the long diagonals between cleavage traces; strained crystals (e.g., from marble and calcsilicate rocks) may be biaxial with a small 2V (< 15o) Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage, and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as calcite; calcite is distinguished from dolomite only with difficulty; dolomite tends to occur more commonly as euhedral rhombohedra in sedimentary rocks, is less commonly twinned, possesses twins that parallel both the long and short diagonals of cleavage traces and tends to be stained with iron oxides more commonly because iron (Fe+2) substitutes easily for the magnesium (Mg+2) in dolomite; calcite is distinguished from aragonite by its rhombohedral cleavage and its uniaxial optics

Occurrences/Associations: Calcite is an abundant mineral in sedimentary rocks where it is the major component of shells and therefore of most limestone. It is also a significant component of calcareous detrital sediments such as marl, calcareous shale and calcareous sandstone and is an important cement in detrital sediments including sandstone. Calcite also occurs in where groundwater discharges in caves and around springs where loss of CO2 from solution lowers acidity and causes it to precipitate. Calcite is also a significant mineral in some soils, especially caliche aridosols formed in warm, arid climates, often forming hard calcrete horizons in such soils. Calcite is also abundant in metamorphic rocks as the major component of marble and calcsilicate rocks including skarn. Calcite is an important constituent of many hydrothermal vein deposits. Much less commonly, calcite occurs as a primary mineral in silica undersaturated alkalic igneous rocks such as foid syentite and in rare carbonate igneous rocks called carbonatites. It also occurs as a secondary mineral in many igneous rocks where it is a product of the alteration of calcium-bearing plagioclase. Use: Calcite, in the form of impure limestone, is the major raw material for the lime used cement products and mortars such as concrete which are widely used in construction. Lime is also used to whitewash structures and draw lines on playing fields. Cut blocks of limestone and marble, composed largely of calcite, are used as dimension stone in many construction projects.

CASSITERITE: Composition: SnO2; Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m2/m2/m): a1 = 4.59, a2 = 4.59, c = 2.96; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are rare stubby to elongate prisms{110} with dipyramid {111} terminations; commonly in massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals or grains; also in colloform (botryoidal) masses of radiating acicular-capillary crystals called wood tin Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 6.9 7.1; very high Cleavage/Fracture: not generally discernible Diaphaneity: barely to slightly translucent Colors: typically yellowish brown to reddish brown to brownish black; also gray, reddish

Streak: brownish to grayish white Luster: submetallic to adamantine or splendant Diagnostic Properties: The yellow brown to brown black color; adamantine to submetallic luster and botryoidal habit are characteristic; rutile is similar, but has a lower specific gravity; more of a reddish black color and commonly occurs in striated prismatic to acicular crystals rather than botryoidal aggregates Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.992 1.997; n = 2.091 2.093 Relief: extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: many colors, commonly color zoned in shades of yellow, orangered, red, brown or gray; colors may display a mottled or splotchy distribution Birefringence: 0.098 0.100; very high; colors often masked by the minerals color Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+); the high refractive index makes it difficult to obtain clear figures Other: length slow, but color and relief may make determination difficult; extinction is parallel to longitudinal sections Diagnostic Properties: the often zoned or splotchy yellow-orange-red-brown colors, the extremely high relief, and the uniaxial (+) optics serve to distinguish cassiterite from most other minerals; cassiterite resembles rutile, but the latter possesses even higher relief, two distinct cleavages at right angles and rarely occurs in radial-fibrous or colloform aggregates Occurrences/Associations: Cassiterite is a widespread, but generally scarce accessory mineral that occurs in many granitoids (especially S-type granitoids) and pegmatites. It also forms in high temperature hypothermal veins and contact metamorphic rocks adjacent to such granitoids where it is associated with topaz, tourmaline, fluorite, apatite, wolframite, molybdenite and arsenopyrite. Because it is highly resistant to decomposition during weathering and diagenesis, cassiterite is concentrated in detrital sediments derived from such source rocks, sometimes forming placer deposits that are mined commercially. Uses: Cassiterite is the principle ore of tin (Sn) used in the manufacture of tin cans which are steel electroplated with tin and in much aluminum cookware which is also plated with tin. Tin is also alloyed with copper in the production of bronze and with antimony and lead in the production of lead solder for joining pipes and electrical junctions. Tin is widely used in the production of capacitors and resisters used in integrated electronic circuits.

CELESTITE: Composition: SrSO4; a sulfate mineral; isostructural with barite; a complete solid solution series is possible and Ba+2 typically substitutes for Sr+2 to some degree producing variable specific gravity, refractive indices and birefringence Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 8.36, b = 5.35, c = 6.87; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are typically tabular to bladed; less commonly prismatic; most commonly reticulated aggregates of tabular to bladed crystals; also in divergent aggregates of prismatic to bladed crystals; also occurs in granular or massive aggregates and in radiating fibrous aggregates of acicular-capillary crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 3.9 4.0; moderately high Cleavage/Fracture: four cleavage orientations; one pinacoidal {001}, perfect cleavage is at right angles to two prismatic {210} very good cleavages that are not at right angles to each other (78o and 102o); a fourth cleavage is pinacoidal {010} fair, so not readily discerned Diaphaneity: generally quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly pale blue, colorless or white; may be gray or pale red, green or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: Celestite is distinguished from carbonates with elevated specific gravity such as witherite and strontianite by its lack of effervescence in HCl and its three orientations of cleavage; it is similar to barite, but has a lower specific gravity and is more typically a bluish color Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.621 1.622; n = 1.623 1.624; n = 1.630 1.632 Relief: moderate, positive

Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.008 0.009; low; maximum color is first order gray-yellow Twinning: rare; usually absent Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 50 - 51o; moderate Other: many orientations display two sets of cleavage at 90o; others display a single cleavage; acicular, tabular and bladed crystals are length slow Diagnostic Properties: the right-angle cleavages, moderate relief and low birefringence are characteristic; celestite is very difficult to distinguish from barite in thin-section Occurrences/Associations: Celestite typically occurs in sedimentary rocks such as limestone or sandstone where it is found as disseminated crystals and as crystal aggregates that line cavities. It also occurs in low-temperature hydrothermal veins associated with fluorite, galena and sphalerite and in some marine evaporite deposits where it is associated with gypsum, anhydrite, halite and sulfur. Uses: The major ore of strontium (Sr) used to plate the screens of cathode ray tubes to prevent xray leakage and therefore in television and computer screens; other uses include the production of ceramics and fluorescent lights and of the red colors in flares, fireworks and tracer bullets

CERUSSITE: Composition: PbCO3; a carbonate; isostructural with aragonite, witherite and strontianite, all members of the orthorhombic (aragonite) group of carbonate minerals Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 5.15, b = 8.47, c = 6.11; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically tabular-bladed crystals; reticulated aggregates common; penetration twins commonly produce columnar pseudohexagonal crystals; also in granular to compact massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 6.55; very high Cleavage/Fracture: two cleavages not 90o; prismatic {110}, good; another indistinct Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent

Colors: colorless, white or gray Streak: white Luster: vitreous to adamantine Other: effervesces in warm, dilute nitric acid (HNO3) Diagnostic Properties: The high specific gravity, adamantine luster, effervescence in nitric acid and association with other oxidized zone minerals are useful in recognizing cerrusite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.803; n = 2.074; n = 2.076 Relief: very high-extreme, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.273; extreme; very high order faded colors (creamy white) Twinning: alternating penetration twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 9o (very small 2V) Diagnostic Properties: cerussite is recognized by its very high refractive indices and relief, the biaxial negative optics with a very small 2V, the two prismatic cleavages and, where present, the psuedohexagonal crystals; the very high refractive indices and relief and the lack of twinkling as the stage is rotated under plane light distinguish cerrusite from the other orthorhombic carbonate minerals (aragonite, strontianite and witherite) which have much lower indices and relief Occurrences/Associations: Cerussite forms in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits that contain galena. It is formed by the reaction of acidic, carbonate rich, meteoric ground water with galena (PbS) to cause oxidation. What cerrusite is associated with depends on the other primary sulfide minerals, but common associates include anglesite, limonite (goethite), smithsonite, hemimorphite, malachite, azurite, and chrysocolla. Uses: Cerussite is an ore of lead used in lead-acid batteries. When alloyed with tin and antimony lead is used to produce electrical solder. Lead was formerly used as a gasoline additive to raise octane levels and was a major component of paints. Because of the deleterious health effects of lead, these uses have largely been discontinued.

CHABAZITE: Composition: Ca2Al2Si4O126H2O; a tectosilicate mineral; a zeolite mineral; some substitution of sodium (Na+1) and potassium (K+1) for calcium (Ca+2) is balanced by substitution of silicon (Si+4) for aluminum (Al+3) commonly occurs Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 9.40 9.45, b = 9.40 9.45, c = 9.40 9.45; = 94.2 94.3o, = 94.1 94.4o, = 94.1 94.5o; crystals are pseudo-rhombohedral/hexagonal Crystal Habit: occurs as equant, pseudo-rhombohedral crystals with angles close enough to 90o to resemble cubes on first inspection; often as granular aggregates of such crystals or as more finely-crystalline massive aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.1 2.2; low Cleavage/Fracture: three sets of rhombohedral cleavage at ~ 86o and 94o; good, psuedocubic Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically colorless to white; also shades of yellow, pink and red Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The white color, intermediate hardness and pseudorhombohedral crystals that resemble cubes are diagnostic; finely crystalline aggregates generally require XRD analysis for accurate identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.460 15.13; n = 1.460 15.12; n = 1.462 15.15 Relief: low to moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.02 -0.10; low; maximum colors first order grays and white Twinning: penetration twins common

Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+) or (-) or Biaxial (+) or (); 2V = 0 20o; none for uniaxial varieties, small 2V for biaxial varieties Diagnostic Properties: the pseudo-rhombohedral (nearly cubic) cleavage with 94o and 86o intersection angles and uniaxial to biaxial optics with small 2V distinguish chabazite from most other common zeolite minerals; heulandite also possesses low birefringence, is optically biaxial (+) and can possess a small 2V, but is never optically () and possesses only one cleavage; analcime is isotropic and other zeolites possess a larger 2V, different cleavage and somewhat higher birefringence Occurrences/Associations: Chabazite is a relatively widespread zeolite mineral. Coarse crystals are especially common in cavities, including vesicles, in mafic/basic rocks such as basalt and, less commonly, in intermediate volcanic rocks such as andesite. Finely crystalline chabazite occurs abundantly in altered felsic volcanic rocks, especially in volcanic ash beds deposited in lakes/oceans or altered by hydrothermal or groundwater circulation systems. Chabazite is also reported from alkaline soils formed in desert environments and in some contact metamorphic aureoles. Uses: Chabazite, like most natural and synthetic zeolites, is used, after heating and dehydration, to produce materials that remove water vapor from carbon dioxide, from refrigerants such as Freon and from many organic chemicals used in industrial applications. It is also used as a molecular sieve used to separate molecules of different sizes as in separating nitrogen from air to produce nearly pure oxygen gas. Because zeolites can selectively absorb selected molecules, they are widely used in applications that include reducing the hardness of water for cleaner laundry by the removal of calcium, removing heavy metals from mine waters and industrial waste and radioactive isotopes from nuclear waste, in the treatment of wastewater by the removal of undesirable dissolved species such as ammonia and in the cleaning up of oil spills.

CHALCEDONY: see CHERT CHALCOCITE: Composition: Cu2S; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Orthorhombic (mm2): a = 11.82, b = 27.05, c = 13.42; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; hexagonal polymorph stable at high temperature Crystal Habit: small tabular crystals with hexagonal outlines occur; more typically in massive, finely crystalline aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 - 3; soft to lowest moderate

Specific Gravity: 5.5 5.8; high Cleavage/Fracture: cleavage indistinct; conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: lead gray; tarnishes sooty black Streak: gray black Luster: metallic on fresh surfaces Other: sectile; though brittle if crushed Diagnostic Properties: The lead gray color, lack of cleavage, sectility and black tarnish are characteristic Microscopic Properties: opaque; white in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Chalcocite commonly occurs in the zone of supergene enrichment where groundwater concentrates metal from minerals in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits. In such deposits, it is commonly associated with covellite and several rarer copper and silver sulfide minerals. Chalcocite also occurs sparingly in some hydrothermal veins. Uses: Chalcocite is a rich ore of copper, but scarce enough to not be an important source. Copper used primarily in electrical wiring and switches and in the manufacture of alloys such as brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin and zinc) and German silver (with zinc and nickel) used for various implements.

CHALCOPYRITE: Composition: CuFeS2; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Tetragonal (bar42m): a1 = 5.28, a2 = 5.28, c = 10.40; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: the dominant forms are fairly equant tetragonal disphenoids {112} that resemble isometric tetrahedrons; may form druse-like divergent crystal aggregates; more commonly smaller crystals occur in massive to granular aggregates and disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 to 4 Specific Gravity: 4.1 -4.3; high

Cleavage/Fracture: very poor; so irregular (uneven) fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: brass-yellow; tarnishes to bronze or iridescent colors Streak: greenish black Luster: metallic on fresh surfaces; submetallic on tarnished surfaces Other: commonly alters by oxidation to copper carbonates such as malachite and azurite and copper oxides such as cuprite; supergene enrichment causes alteration to chalcocite and covellite; the iron may alter to siderite or limonite (goethite) Diagnostic Properties; distinguished from pyrite by being softer and by greenish tint to deeper brass yellow color; from pyrrhotite by deeper yellow color and lack of ferrimagnetism Microscopic Properties: opaque; yellow in reflected light with pleochroism Occurrences/Associations: Chalcopyrite is widely distributed in low (epithermal-telethermal) to high temperature (hypothermal and contact metamorphic) hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, bornite, tetrahedrite, stibnite, silver sulfides and wolframite and a variety of gangue minerals. It is also a common mineral in many skarn deposits produced by contact metamorphism. It also occurs in mineralized igneous rocks of the granitoid clan (e.g., in porphyry copper deposits) and in some mafic/basic igneous rocks such as gabbro. Uses: Chalcopyrite is the major ore of copper (Cu) whose primary use is in the manufacture of electrical wires and switches. Copper is also used in alloys: with zinc in brass, with copper and tin in bronze and with copper, zinc and nickel in German silver.

CHERT: (aka CHERT GROUP including CHALCEDONY) Composition: SiO2; a tectosilicate mineral; a microcrystalline aggregate of quartz,; chert varieties, largely based on color, include chert (white to light gray), flint (medium-dark gray to black), jasper (red, brown or yellow-brown, the latter sometimes called sard) and prase (green); an important subvariety of chert is chalcedony which is also a microcrystalline aggregate of quartz (and perhaps morganite), but possesses a micro-fibrous to sheaf-like crystal habit; color banded chalcedony is called onyx (where banding is flat) and agate (where banding is concentric); it should be pointed out that not all concerned agree with the above definitions for the varieties of microcrystalline silica, but we think this is a workable approach; colors generally

result from microcrystalline impurities; both chert and chalcedony are members of the silica group that includes quartz, tridymite, coesite and stishovite Crystal System: Hexagonal (32): a1 = 4.91, a2 = 4.91, c = 5.41; = 90o, = 120o, = 90o Crystal Habit: microcrystals are typically equant and occur in massive aggregates of microcrystals; in chalcedony the crystals are micro-fibrous to radiating sheaf-like and may occur as stellated aggregates in spherulites Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard Specific Gravity: 2.65; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: none; excellent conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent to barely translucent; chalcedony can be quite translucent Colors: variable, see above; white to light gray (chert), medium-dark gray to black (flint), red, brown or yellow-brown (jasper), green (prase); chalcedony is typically light to medium gray, but can also be green (chrysoprase), red (carnellian) and yellow-brown (sard); multiple colors commonly occur in a single specimen Streak: white Luster: dull to waxy (especially in chalcedony) Diagnostic Properties: the hardness, excellent conchoidal fracture, dullish luster and distinctive colors are characteristic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.544; n = 1.553; chalcedony may possess lower indices Relief: low, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.009; low; maximum first order grays and white; yellow only if thinsection is too thick Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+); but figures are difficult to obtain in finely crystalline material Other: fibers in chalcedony may be length fast or length slow depending on crystallography of the elongation; these may alternate in some specimens

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low refractive indices and low positive relief, microscopic crystals with low birefringence (salt and pepper appearance) and lack of cleavage (good conchoidal fracture) are distinctive; large microcrystals may display uniaxial (+) optics; the radial-fibrous habit of chalcedony is also distinctive; distinction between chert and other fine-grained silica minerals such as cristobalite and tridymite requires advanced techniques such as XRD Occurrences/Associations: Chert is an abundant component of many sedimentary rocks. Much chert forms during diagenesis as nodules and irregular beds formed by the replacement of carbonate minerals in limestone (including chalk) and dolostone. Other chert, typically bedded, forms by the diagenetic conversion of the opalline shells of radiolaria and diatoms into chert. In many cases, fossil remains are preserved in the chert and yield clues to its origin. Chert, especially in the form of flint and jasper is also an important constituent of Precambrian banded iron formations (BIF). Chert, like other varieties of quartz, is quite resistant to decomposition during weathering and is therefore a fairly common constituent of detrital sedimentary rocks including breccia, conglomerate and sandstone. Uses: Chert family varieties have been widely used as building stone, e.g., in flint churches, fireplaces and boundary walls. Jasper and prase are used for jewelry and as decorative stone. Microcrystalline quartz sparks easily when struck against steel and is used in flints in lighters, stoves and barbecues (and formerly in flintlock rifles). In former times, because of its hardness and excellent conchoidal fracture which produces sharp edges, chert was used extensively in the creation of arrowheads, spear points, scrappers, hand axes and drills. Chert is a minor source of quartz for the manufacture of glass products and is used in abrasive materials such as sandpapers and cleansers.

CHLORITE: Composition: (Mg,Fe,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2(Mg,Fe,Al)3(OH)6; a phyllosilicate mineral with a T-O-T + O structure; when finely-crystalline (< 4m), is considered a clay mineral; very variable composition, as indicated by the formula; recognized subvarieties of chlorite include magnesium-rich and silica-poor clinochlore, magnesium-rich and silica-rich pennine and aluminum-rich prochlorite; manganese (Mn+2), chromium (Cr+3) are common substitutions Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.2 5.3, b = 9.2 9.3, c = 14.3; = 90o, = 97o, = 90o; some chlorite is triclinic Crystal Habit: small, scaly-platy to tabular crystals with hexagonal outline; however, typically finely crystalline foliated aggregates; also massive to granular aggregates where crystals are randomly oriented; occasionally as spherulitic to oolitic aggregates

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 3; soft to borderline moderate Specific Gravity: 2.6 3.3; moderate; increases with iron content Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; excellent; often not discernable in finely crystalline aggregates Diaphaneity: translucent to nearly transparent in thin sheets Colors: typically various shades of light to dark green; also yellow green; rarely pinkish (when manganese rich) Streak: white to pale green Luster: vitreous to pearly; dull in some finely crystalline aggregates Other: thin sheets are flexible, but not elastic; may alter to vermiculite and other clay minerals and/or limonite; commonly replaces biotite and other ferromagnesian minerals Diagnostic Properties: The green color, flexible, but inelastic sheets and low hardness are distinctive and the common occurrence in metamorphic rocks helpful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.55 1.67; n = 1.55 1.69; n = 1.55 1.69 Relief: moderate to moderately high, positive Color/Pleochroism: slightly pleochroic in pale green, green, yellow green, brownish yellow and/or greenish brown Birefringence: 0.000 0.010; low; typically first order grays and white; anomalous colors in shades of blue, violet or brown are common Twinning: typically not discernable, but multiple twins do occur Optic Sign: most commonly Biaxial (+), also Biaxial (); 2Vz = 0 40o; 2Vx = 0 -60o; very low to moderate 2V Other: cleavage traces length fast or length slow; extinction angles with respect to cleavage are small (< 10o) and may be nearly parallel to it; unlike micas, there is no birdseye extinction Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low-moderate positive relief, one excellent cleavage, slight pleochroism in shades of pale green and relatively low birefringence are

characteristic; the abnormal interference colors, when present, are helpful; talc is generally colorless and has much higher birefringence; serpentine is similar in many respects, but tends to have different crystal habits (fibrous or sheaf-like), displays cleavage less often and is rarely biaxial (+) Occurrences/Associations: Chlorite is especially abundant in low to medium grade pelitic and mafic metamorphic rocks produced by regional metamorphism in the greenschist (so named because of the abundance of chlorite and other green minerals) and epidote-amphibolite facies. It is a common mineral in contact metamorphic rocks of similar composition produced in the albite-epidote hornfels facies. It is also an important product of the weathering of ferromagnesian silicate minerals and therefore an important constituent of soils and of fine-grained detrital sediments such as shale and mudstone. Chlorite is also a common deuteric alteration product of other ferromagnesian silicate minerals such as biotite, hornblende and pyroxenes in igneous rocks. Uses: Chlorite does not have great economic value. However, microcrystalline chlorite is an important constituent of clay which is used in the production of bricks, ceramics, absorbents (such as cat litter), cosmetics and refractory materials.

CHLORITOID: Composition: (Fe,Mg,Mn)2(Al,Fe)Al3O2(SiO4)2(OH)4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m) and Triclinic (): a = 9.50, b = 5.50, c = 18.22; = 90o, = 102o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are platy with roughly hexagonal outlines; often in foliated aggregates; may also occur as thick tabular crystals and in massive to granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 ; hard Specific Gravity: 3.5 -3.8; moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: one basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; good, less perfect than in micas and chlorite Diaphaneity: slightly to somewhat translucent Colors: typically greenish gray, green or greenish black

Streak: white to pale gray green Luster: pearly, especially on cleavage surfaces Other: brittle, commonly poikiloblastic; may show hourglass structure; alters to chlorite, sericite and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: The high hardness, brittleness and poorer cleavage can be used to distinguish chloritoid from chlorite in coarse material; in fine-material the distinction is more difficult Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.705 1.730; n = 1.708 1.734; n = 1.712 1.740 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: typically somewhat pleochroic; colorless to green, gray green, olive green, blue gray, indigo, blue green, greenish yellow, yellow, greenish brown Birefringence: 0.007 0.012; low; maximum colors in first order gray to yellow; higher in a few compositions with first order reds; often with anomalous birefringence Twinning: lamellar twins common; hourglass twins also occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 36 -72o; when monoclinic Biaxial (); 2Vx = 55 -88o; when triclinic

Other: extinction angles with respect to cleavage are 7 18o, larger than in most micas and chlorite; may be zoned with darker centers; long sections, parallel to cleavage, are length fast Diagnostic Properties: chloritoid may resemble chlorite, but has higher relief, larger extinction angles, often different pleochroic colors and somewhat higher birefringence; it lacks the near parallel, birdseye extinction and small 2V of biotite and other micas Occurrences/Associations: Chlorotoid is a common mineral, often occurring as porphyroblasts, in low- to medium-grade pelitic rocks such phyllite and schist formed by regional metamorphism in the greenschist, amphibolite and blueschist facies. It is commonly associated with chlorite, muscovite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, glaucophane, and lawsonite and muscovite. It is also reported from contact metamorphic metapelites. Uses: Chloritoid is not an economically valuable mineral.

CHROMITE: Composition: FeCr2O4; an oxide; a spinel group (XY2O4 group) mineral; forms a complete solid solution series with magnesiochromate (MgCr2O4) and generally contains some magnesium in substitution for iron Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 8.38, a2= 8.38, a3 = 8.38; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs as small, equant octahedral {111} crystals; sometimes modified by cubic {001} faces; more commonly as massive to granular crystal aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 5.1; high; less if substantial magnesium is present Cleavage/Fracture: none Diaphaneity: nearly opaque Colors: black Streak: brown Luster: metallic to submetallic (pitchy) if substantial magnesium is present Other: simple or multiple twins occur Diagnostic Properties: The brown streak, black color and pitchy luster are characteristic; the hardness and high specific gravity useful confirmation; magnetite is magnetic and has a black streak and more metallic luster Microscopic Properties: Refractive Index: n = 1.90 2.12 Relief: very high, positive Birefringence: none, isotropic Color: nearly opaque; dark brown on thin edges; subdued brownish gray in reflected light Optic Sign: none; isotropic

Diagnostic Properties: chromite resembles magnetite in thin-section, as both possess octahedral crystals with their rhomboid cross-sections, but the magnetite is completely opaque, whereas chromite is not; the brown edges under plane light are distinctive Occurrences/Associations: The vast majority of chromite occurs as an accessory mineral in ultramafic/ultrabasic and mafic/basic igneous rocks including dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite and gabbro. Thick layers rich in chromite are produced by magmatic differentiation/segregation processes, especially in the ultramafic portions of large layered gabbroic intrusions (LLGIs). Smaller amounts of chromite occur as placers in some detrital sediments. Uses: Chromite is the principle ore of chromium (Cr) used in stainless steel and corrosion resistant electroplating for steel products. Chromium is used in a wide variety of industrial processes as a refractory material and as a catalytic agent. Chromium, in different oxidation and coordination states, is widely used as a pigmenting agent. Chromium is a toxic, cancer-causing, heavy metal, especially in its hexivalent (Cr+6) state. This toxicity permits it to be used to protect and preserve wood products and paper from insects and fungi. Chromium is used in the tanning of leather and trace amounts are used in dietary supplements.

CHRYSOTILE: see SERPENTINE CINNABAR: Composition: HgS; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Hexagonal (32): a1 = 4.146, b1 = 4.146, c = 9.497; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o; high temperature form is an isometric {bar43m} polymorph Crystal Habit: crystals are typically small rhombohedra {10l} with thick tabular or stubby prismatic habits; more typically in vein fillings and fine massive to granular aggregates and drusy coatings and encrustations or disseminated as separate crystals; isometric crystals are commonly tetrahedral {10} Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 8.1; very high, but difficult to discern in disseminated cinnabar Cleavage/Fracture: 3 sets not at 90o; rhombohedral {101}, but commonly not visible in massive to granular aggregates

Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: bright vermillion red, with brownish tint if impure Streak: scarlet red Luster: adamantine in pure crystals to dull in impure masses Diagnostic Properties: the bright red color and scarlet streak are diagnostic and distinguish cinnabar from hematite; realgar is red, but has an orange-red streak and a resinous luster and is very commonly associated with the yellow mineral orpiment Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.91; n = 3.26 Relief: extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: deep red Birefringence: 0.35; extremely high; but faded high order colors are masked by mineral color Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+) Diagnostic Properties: the deep red color and extremely high refractive indices and relief are characteristic; obtaining good figures is very difficult, so the association with other low temperature hydrothermal minerals is helpful Occurrences/Associations: Cinnabar forms primarily in low-temperature hydrothermal veins, replacement deposits or hot springs associated with volcanism or shallow intrusions. In these deposits, cinnabar is commonly associated with stibnite, marcasite, realgar, orpiment, pyrite, opal, chalcedony, calcite, dolomite, fluorite and barite. Uses: Cinnabar is the principal ore of mercury (Hg) used in electrical apparatuses such as batteries, switches and mercury-vapor and fluorescent lights, including low-energy light bulbs. Mercury is also used in thermometers, dental amalgams, as a preservative in many vaccines, in eyeliners such as mascara and in the production of chlorine for killing microorganisms in water supplies and swimming pools.

CLAY MINERALS: see CHLORITE, ILLITE, KAOLINITE, and SMECTITE CLINOZOISITE: see EPIDOTE COBALTITE:

Composition: (Co,Fe)AsS; a sulfarsenide mineral; isostructural with pyrite Crystal System: Orthorhombic (mm2): a = 5.58, b = 5.58, c = 5.58; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; so appears isometric (is pseudoisometric) Crystal Habit: scarce individual crystals are equant, pseudoisometric cubes or pyritohedra; much more commonly occurs in finely crystalline massive aggregates or coarser granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5; hard Specific Gravity: 6.33; high Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations of pseudocubic cleavages at 90o; Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: silver white Streak: gray black Luster: metallic Other: commonly alters to pink arsenate mineral erythrite Diagnostic Properties: can be distinguished from pyrite by its silver white color, its tendency to alter to pink erythrite and, if discernable, its perfect pseudocubic cleavage Microscopic Properties: opaque; pleochroic white with pink or violet tint Occurrences/Associations: Most cobaltite occurs in high temperature hypothermal vein deposits where it is associated with skutterudite and other cobalt and nickel-bearing minerals. Uses: Cobaltite is the major ore of cobalt (Co) which is used to harden steel for use in high-speed tools and to produce permanent magnets. It is also used to produce blue pigments for glassware and ceramics.

COESITE: see QUARTZ (Silica Group) COLEMANITE: Composition: Ca2B6O115H2O; a borate mineral

Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.74, b = 11.26, c = 6.10; = 90o, = 110o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically occurs stubby prismatic crystals that occur in granular aggregates and cleavable masses Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 4 Specific Gravity: 2.42; low to moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation; pinacoidal {010}; perfect; there is a second much less discernible orientation at 90o; pinacoidal {100}; fair Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: colorless to white; may have a gray to pale yellow tint Streak: white Luster: vitreous to subvitreous Diagnostic Characteristics: its single perfect cleavage distinguishes it from kernite and its higher hardness distinguishes it from borax and ulexite which are both soft Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.586; n = 1.592; n = 1.614 Relief: moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.028; high; middle second to lower third order colors Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 56o; moderate Diagnostic Properties: a relatively rare mineral, colemanite can be recognized by the combination of perfect cleavage, moderate positive relief, high birefringence, biaxial (+) optics with a moderate 2V, and its association with other continental evaporite minerals Occurrences/Associations: Most colemanite forms by the diagenetic alteration of primary borate minerals such as borax and ulexite that formed by evaporation in enclosed, saline lake in warm, arid climates and by soil water evaporation under similar conditions. Commonly

associated minerals include borax, kernite, ulexite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and a host of rare borate minerals. Uses: The most important use of colemanite is in the production of borax which is in the manufacture of glass fibers for use in insulation and textiles. Borax is also used in detergent soaps and as a flux in metallurgical processes such as welding and smelting. One isotope of elemental boron, obtained from colemanite, is used in the shields of atomic reactors and elemental boron is also used in fuels for rockets and automobiles and in the high strength plastics used in aircraft manufacturing.

COPPER: Composition: Cu; a native element (native metal); may contain some gold (Au) or silver (Ag) Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 3.62, b = 3.62, c = 3.62; = 90o, = 90o , = 90o Crystal Habit: rare, equant, malformed octahedral {111} or dodecahedral {011} crystals; more typically filiform or scaly; common in dendritic to arborescent or massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2-3; soft Specific Gravity: 8.9 Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; hackly fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: rose red to copper red Streak: rose red copper red Luster: Metallic Other: Typically alters to reddish copper oxide (cuprite), green or blue copper carbonate (malachite and azurite) or blue-green copper sulfate. Diagnostic Properties: Coppers copper red color, extreme malleability and ductility and high specific gravity are distinctive, in combination with its alteration products. Microscopic Properties: Opaque; rose red color and copper red tarnish in reflected light

Occurrences/Associations: Copper typically occurs with zeolite minerals, prehnite, calcite and epidote in association with mafic volcanic and shallow plutonic rocks such as basalt where it forms by the reaction of hydrothermal fluids (zeolite facies metamorphism) with oxide minerals in the basalt. It typically occurs in veins and cavities in the basalts and in pore spaces in adjacent sedimentary rocks. It also occurs with cuprite, malachite and azurite in the oxidized portion of hydrothermal veins that contained copper sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite and bornite. Uses: An ore of copper used primarily in electrical wiring and in the manufacture of alloys such as brass (with zinc) and bronze (with tin and zinc) used for various implements. It is also used by some people for bracelets that are said to cure arthritis and other chronic inflammatory diseases.

CORDIERITE: Composition: (Mg,Fe)2Al3(AlSi5O18)nH2O; a cyclosilicate mineral; iron (Fe+3) may substitute for aluminum (Al+3) and water (H2O), in various amounts, and some carbon dioxide (CO2) sodium (Na+1) and potassium (K+1) commonly occur in the ring chambers. Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 17.08, b = 9.73, c = 9.36; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: rare short, psuedohexagonal prisms; more commonly as disseminated anhedral crystals; less commonly in massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 7; very hard Specific Gravity: 2.6 2.8; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: none discernable; fair to poor cleavages only Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent; rarely transparent Colors: typically bluish gray; also gray, dark gray or blue Streak: white Luster: vitreous Twinning: can be complex; simple, lamellar, sector and cyclic twins occur

Diagnostic Properties: The bluish-gray color distinguishes most cordierite from quartz, which it otherwise resembles; cordierite is softer than corundum which can have similar colors Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.527 1.560; n = 1.532 1.574; n = 1.537 1.578; Relief: low, negative and/or positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless; less commonly pale bluish in iron-rich varieties; not pleochroic Birefringence: 0.005 0.017; low to low-moderate (in iron-rich varieties); typically 1st order grays and white; maximum first order red colors Optic Sign: Biaxial () mostly; can be (+); 2Vx = 40 90o for (); 2Vz = 74 90o for (+) Diagnostic Properties: colorless varieties, with their low relief, lowish birefringence and lack of good cleavage resemble quartz and nepheline, but both of those minerals are uniaxial, whereas cordierite is biaxial with a substantial 2V and neither quartz nor nepheline display twinning; orthoclase is biaxial (), but displays good right angle cleavage Occurrences/Associations: Cordierite most commonly occurs in medium to high-grade pelitic rocks. It is abundant as porphyroblasts generated by contact metamorphism in hornblende hornfels or pyroxene hornfels facies rocks and in regional metamorphic rocks of the amphibolite and granulite facies where is associated with sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, garnet, spinel, muscovite and biotite. It also occurs in some mafic metamorphic rocks such as amphibolite where it is associated with amphibole, plagioclase and garnet. Cordierite is less common in igneous rocks where it occurs in granitoids and pegmatite. Uses: Cordierite is not an economically important mineral, except as the rare transparent gem variety of cordierite called iolite.

CORUNDUM: Composition: Al2O3; an oxide mineral; chromium (Cr+3), iron (Fe+3 and Fe2+) and titanium (Ti+4), paired with Fe2+, substitute for aluminum (Al+3) and have a major effect on color; gem varieties include ruby (red due to Cr+3) and sapphire (blue due to Ti+4 and Fe2+) Crystal System: Hexagonal: Trigonal (bar32/m): a1 = 4.75, a2 = 4.75, c = 12.98; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o

Crystal Habit: columnar prisms with hexagonal outlines common; less commonly as tabular crystals with hexagonal outlines; divergent crystal aggregates; massive to granular aggregates and disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 9; very hard Specific Gravity: 4.02; high or moderate-high Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage, but prominent parting (basal and prismatic) occurs Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent Colors: typically gray to gray blue or gray red; also white, yellow-green, red (ruby), or blue (sapphire) Streak: white, but hardness makes it difficult to obtain streak Luster: vitreous to adamantine; subvitreous when altered Other: commonly alters to muscovite/sericite; also to clay minerals and bauxite; oriented inclusions in gem varieties may cause asterism, as in star sapphires Diagnostic Properties: the extreme hardness (if not altered) and the hexagonal crosssections of crystals are diagnostic; the parting, high luster and specific gravity are helpful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.772 1.776; n = 1.764 1.768; higher with increasing chromium and iron Relief: very high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless or pale shades of blue, blue-gray, blue-green, gray or light red; not pleochroic in thin-section Birefringence: 0.008; low; maximum colors are first order yellows; higher orders sometimes observed because hard corundum is often thicker than the standard in thin sections, increasing retardation Twinning: lamellar twins are common Optic Sign: Uniaxial (); some crystals have biaxial characteristics with substantial 2V;

Other: longitudinal sections are length fast; crystals commonly zoned or color banded; inclusions of hematite, rutile and spinel are common; parting can resemble cleavage, but with larger spacing Diagnostic Properties: the combination of very high relief, low birefringence, and hexagonal crystals is characteristic; lamellar twinning and/or zoning help to confirm identification as does uniaxial () figure, if it can be obtained Occurrences/Associations: Corundum commonly occurs in peraluminous, silica undersaturated alkali igneous rocks such as alkali syenite, foid syenite, alkali pegmatite and lamprophyre. It is also common in many medium to high grade metamorphic rocks including pelitic schist and gneiss, hornfels, marble and skarns where it is associated with andalusite, sillimanite, cordierite, scapolite, muscovite, calcite and dolomite. An unusual occurrence is in emery deposits which are believed to have formed by the metamorphism of bauxite-rich soils. Because it is very hard and chemically resistant, corundum is also concentrated in detrital sediments. That is where many of the gemstones are collected. Uses: The most valuable forms of corundum are the prized gemstones ruby and sapphire. The highest quality, natural rubies are more valuable even than diamonds, and considerably rarer. Color-enhanced natural and artificial rubies and sapphires are produced, but are considerably less valuable. Due to its great hardness, corundum, especially in the form of emery, is mined for use as an abrasive agent for sand paper, grinding wheels, polishing materials and cutting tools.

COVELLITE: Composition: CuS; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a1 = 3.79, a2 = 3.79, c = 16.34; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: scarce individual crystals typically tabular, with hexagonal outlines; more commonly as massive or foliated aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1.5 2; soft Specific Gravity: 4.6 4.7; high Cleavage/Fracture: one perfect basal pinacoidal {0001} cleavage Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: richly bluish (indigo) gray; may be iridescent

Streak: gray black Luster: Metallic Other: often altered to copper carbonates such as malachite and azurite and oxides such as cuprite, as well as to supergene minerals such as chalcocite and rarer copper sulfides Diagnostic Properties: The richly bluish gray color and perfect cleavage are distinctive Microscopic Properties: opaque; pleochroic indigo blue to bluish white in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Covellite commonly occurs in the zone of supergene enrichment where groundwater concentrates metal from minerals in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits. In such deposits, it is commonly associated with chalcocite and several rarer copper and silver sulfide minerals. Covellite also occurs in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits with bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and tetrahedrite. Uses: Covellite is fairly scarce and so is a minor ore of copper. Copper used primarily in electrical wiring and switches and in the manufacture of alloys such as brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin and zinc) and German silver (with zinc and nickel) used for various implements.

CRISTOBALITE: Composition: SiO2; a tectosilicate mineral; a silica group mineral; inclusion of small amounts of sodium (Na+1), potassium (K+1) and (Ca+2) in the crystal structure is electrically balanced by the substitution of aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4); occurs in two polytypes, both stable at relatively low pressure: tetragonal cristobalite (low tridymite) and isometric tridymite (high tridymite); cristobalite (low cristobalite) is the stable form in normal temperature environments; high temperature cristobalite (high cristobalite) inverts readily, through nondisplacive transformation, into cristobalite (low cristobalite) on cooling; the characteristics of cristobalite (low cristobalite) are therefore cited below; cristobalite is polymorphic with other silica group minerals including quartz and tridymite; rarer polymorphs include the high pressure silica minerals coesite and stichovite which occur in meteorite impactites and likely in the deep mantle Crystal System: Tetragonal (422): a1 = 4.97, a2 = 4.97, c = 6.93; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; crystals are commonly pseudomorphs after isometric cristobalite (high cristobalite), thus pseudo-isometric Crystal Habit: typically occurs as equant octahedral, rarely cubes; also as dendritic to skeletal crystals in radiating to stellated (spheroidal) aggregates; also capillary crystals in fibrous aggregates

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard Specific Gravity: 2.3 2.4; low to low-moderate Cleavage/Fracture: none Diaphaneity: transparent to moderately translucent Colors: colorless to white or pale yellow Streak: colorless Luster: vitreous Other: cristobalite (low cristobalite) pseudomorphs after isometric cristobalite (high cristobalite are the rule; sometimes quartz pseudomorphs occur, although the inversion is displacive, so the kinetics are slow Diagnostic Properties: cristobalite is difficult to distinguish from other macrocrystalline varieties of silica such as quartz, without optical or XRD methods; the octahedral crystals are suggestive, the isometric nature of cristobalite (low cristobalite) is distinctive and helps to distinguish it from tridymite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.486 1.488; n = 1.482 1.484 Relief: moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.002 0.004; quite low; maximum first order grays; can appear nearly isotropic Twinning: multiple twins common, either in lamellar or cross-hatch patterns Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Other: crystals may be length slow or length fast Diagnostic Properties: euhedral crystals can be distinguished by their octahedral or cubic form, moderate negative relief, low birefringence and uniaxial () optics; the finely crystalline material resembles some tridymite and chalcedony and requires advanced techniques such as XRD for identification

Occurrences/Associations: Cristobalite is a relatively scarce mineral that occurs primarily in silica-oversaturated, felsic volcanic and hypabyssal rocks, especially rhyolite, rhyodacite and dacite as phenocrysts, as part of the groundmass or in spherulites (with sanidine) formed by the divitrification of glass. It can form pseudomorphs after tridymite. It also lines vesicles in felsic and intermediate volcanic and hypabyssal rocks. Cristobalite is also reported from stony meteorites and as a fibrous mineral in some serpentenite. Use: Cristobalite has no economic value.

CUMMINGTONITE: Composition: (Mg,Fe)2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2; double-chain inosilicate; an amphibole; forms a solid solution series with grunerite [(Mg,Fe)2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2] which contains smaller amounts (< 30%) of magnesium (Mg+2) and larger amounts ( >70%) of iron (Fe+2); cummingtonite is related to anthophyllite, but larger amounts of iron (Fe +2) in cummingtonite cause it to crystallize in the monoclinic, rather than the orthorhombic, system Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.52 9.54, b = 18.14 18,26, c = 5.31 5.32; = 90o, = 102o, = 90o Crystal Habit: slender, bladed prismatic; crudely with diamond-shaped cross-sections; in foliated-lamellar to massive aggregates; also as acicular crystals in fibrous to radiated aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6 Specific Gravity: 3.1 3.4; moderate; grunerite is higher Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110}, not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good Diaphaneity: somewhat to slightly translucent Colors: typically medium to dark brown or dark greenish brown; also gray-brown and tan Streak: white Luster: vitreous to silky; also subvitreous Diagnostic Properties: Distinguished from pyroxenes which possess near right angle cleavage by its cleavages not at right angles (when it is discernable); brown varieties

resemble anthophyllite, but are generally darker; green varieties resemble hornblende, but are more typically occur in radiated to fibrous aggregates Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.630 1.664; n = 1.638 1.676; n = 1.655 1.689; grunerite has higher indices Relief: moderate to high; positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to grayish brown; may be weakly pleochroic with colorless, pale yellow, pale brown, pale greenish yellow, even pale violet Birefringence: 0.20 0.34; moderate; maximum colors generally low to high second order Twinning: common; simple pairs or lamellar Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 65-90o; high to very high; grunerite is negative Other: cross-sections display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are lengthslow and display relatively small extinction angles (14 21o) relative to cleavage; commonly alters to chlorite, talc and/or serpentine Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from pyroxenes by 2 sets of cleavage not at right angles; cleavage may not be visible in fibrous aggregates; the pleochroism and pale colors in shades of pale shades of brown, yellow, green and violet is somewhat similar to anthophyllite, but anthophyllite has parallel extinction because it is orthorhombic; most other monoclinic amphiboles are biaxial (-) and most possess different colors Occurrences/Associations: Cummingtonite is common in medium- to high-grade mafic metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and granulite, where it is associated with cordierite, plagioclase, garnet and hornblende. It also occurs in some magnesian (ultramafic) metamorphic rocks. Uses: Cummingtonite has been used as a substitute for chrysotile asbestos which was long used in fireproofing and insulation. However, it turns out to have similar negative health implications.

CUPRITE: Composition: Cu2O; an oxide mineral (X2O group) Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 4.27, a2 = 4.27, a3 = 4.27; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: commonly as equant octahedral {111} crystals; also cubic {001} and dodecahedral {110} crystals, often combined with octahedra; mostly in massive or granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 6.1; very high Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernible; 4 orientations; octahedral {111}; fair Diaphaneity: moderately to barely translucent Colors: ruby red to almost black Streak: deep brownish red Luster: adamantine to submetallic Other: alters to malachite, azurite, native copper and other copper minerals Diagnostic Properties: The deep red (to almost black) color and deep brownish red streak are characteristic; distinguished from specularite hematite by cuprites inferior hardness, darker streak and isometric crystals and from cinnabar by the latters scarlet red streak and inferior hardness Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.849 Relief: extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: red to orange yellow; not pleochroic since isotropic Birefringence: none; isotropic Twinning: none Optic Sign: none; isotropic Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely high refractive indices and relief, its isotropic nature and its red to orange-yellow color are diagnostic; cinnabar is somewhat similar, but has a deeper red color, is anisotropic and has a rather different association, forming in low-temperature hydrothermal conditions, rather than in the oxidized zone of such deposits as for cuprite

Occurrences/Associations: Most cuprite forms in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits that contain copper-bearing sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite and bornite. These are oxidized by descending, acidic (CO2-rich) meteoric water to produce cuprite which is typically associated with malachite, azurite, native copper, limonite (goethite), smithsonite and anglesite, among others. Uses: Cuprite is a minor ore of copper which used primarily in electrical wiring and switches and in the manufacture of alloys such as brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin and zinc) and German silver (with zinc and nickel) used for various implements.

DIAMOND: Composition: C; polymorphic with graphite which is stable at lower pressures Crystal System: Isometric (4/m/2/m2/m): a = 3.56, b = 3.56, c = 3.56; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: equant, mostly octahedral {111} crystals, but dodecahedral {011} and cubic {001} forms occur; may occur in small, polycrystalline aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 10; the hardest known mineral Specific Gravity: 3.5; moderate to high Cleavage/Fracture: 4 sets not at 90o; octahedral {111}; perfect Diaphaneity: transparent Colors: variable; colorless, white, pale yellow, blue; less commonly orange, pink, Streak: white, but too hard to produce a conventional streak Luster: adamantine when cut; greasy in uncut stones Diagnostic Properties: The octahedral crystal form, extreme hardness and luster are characteristic of diamond Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.42 Relief: very high-extreme

Color/Pleochroism: colorless, but rare and cant be ground in thin-section, unless diamond used as the abrasive Optics: isotropic Diagnostic Properties: rarely seen in thin-section, unless diamond is used as the abrasive; the extreme refractive index and relief, isotropic optics, lack of color in thin section, octahedral crystals and four sets of cleavage would be diagnostic Occurrences/Associations: Natural diamonds are high pressure minerals that occur primarily in ultramafic rocks called kimberlites that typically occur in brecciated pipes called diatreme and in detrital alluvial deposits derived from them. Diamond-bearing kimberlites typically contain fragments of peridotite rich in olivine, pyroxene (especially chrome diopside), garnet, spinels and phlogopite. These and the diamonds are thought to have formed at depth in the mantle and have been brought near the surface during explosive eruptions of gas-rich kimberlite magmas. The precise mechanism of emplacement remains controversial. Small, very rare diamonds occur in ultrahigh pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks and graphite deposits metamorphosed during meteorite impacts. Most industrial diamonds are produced synthetically. Uses: Diamond is a very important gemstone; better marketed than any other. Low quality and synthetic diamonds are widely used in cutting tools such as rock saws and drills and in abrasives for polishing surfaces and for sharpening instruments

DIOPSIDE: Composition: CaMgSi2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene; forms a complete solid solution series with hedenbergite (CaFeSi2O6); one classification scheme recognizes diopside (> Di90), salite (Di5090), ferrosilite (Di1050) and hedenbergite (< Di10); these minerals also display extensive solid solution with augite [(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Fe,Al,Ti)Si2O6] Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.75, b = 8.90, c = 5.25; = 90o, = 106o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as stubby prismatic {110} crystals with squarish four- to eight-sided cross sections; may also show prominent parting; commonly in granular aggregates or coarse cleavable aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.2; moderate

Cleavage/Fracture: two prismatic cleavages {210}, near right angles (87o and 93o); good only; prominent parting in some examples Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to moderately translucent Colors: typically white to pale green, apple green or medium green; emerald green in chromium-rich varieties Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: commonly alters to chlorite, serpentinite, carbonates and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: The pale green to apple green color distinguishes diopside from all pyroxenes except jadeite; distinguished from forsterite-rich olivine by possessing good cleavage Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.664 1.676; n = 1.672 1.685; n = 1.694 1.706; may be higher in iron-rich diopside Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to very pale green; iron-rich varieties display deeper colors and may display pleochroism in blue green, brownish green and yellowish green Birefringence: 0.018 0.030; moderate; maximum first order red to second order red colors Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 50 60o; moderate 2V Other: cross-sections exhibit symmetrical extinction; commonly alters to talc, serpentine, tremolite or chlorite Diagnostic Properties: the squarish 4-8 sided cross-sections and two orientations of cleavage near right angles distinguish diopside from amphiboles; hedenbergite has higher refractive indices and relief and possesses deeper colors; augite is similar in most respects and the distinction between the two is difficult; pigeonite has a smaller 2V (< 32o); some augite possesses a lower 2V, slightly higher extinction angles and augite is more common in mafic intrusive igneous rocks and much less common in calcareous metamorphic rocks

Occurrences/Associations: Diopside is an abundant mineral in calcareous metamorphic rocks such as marble, skarn and calcsilicate rock. Such rocks are produced by the contact and/or regional metamorphism of impure dolostone and limestone under medium- to high-grade metamorphism in the hornblende hornfels, pyroxene hornfels, amphibolite and even granulite facies. Diopside is commonly associated with calcite, dolomite, grossular garnet, tremolite, wollastonite, scapolite, vesuvianite, forsterite-rich olivine and epidote group minerals. Diopside also occurs in medium-high grade mafic and quartzofeldspathic rocks including amphibolite, hornblende gneiss and pyroxene granulite. Chrome-rich diopside is common in ultramafic rocks including peridotite and kimberlite. Diopside also occurs in some lamprophyre dikes and as phenocrysts in olivine basalt. Uses: Some diopside, especially chromium-rich diopside, is used as a semi-precious gemstone.

DOLOMITE: Composition: CaMg(CO3)2; a carbonate; isostructural with ankerite CaFe(CO3)2; a complete solid solution series exists between these two double-layer rhombohedral carbonate minerals. Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral) (bar32/m): a1 = 4.80, a2 = 4.80, c = 15.98; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: equant rhombohedral {10bar11} crystals with curved faces common; common as massive microscopic to coarsely crystalline granular and massive aggregates; also occur as ooids Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 Specific Gravity: 2.85; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 3 cleavages, not 90o (73o and 107o); rhombohedral {10bar10}; excellent to perfect Diaphaneity: translucent Colors: typically white or gray; often tinged yellow or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: rhombohedral twins common; ankerite-bearing varieties weather yellow-brown

Diagnostic Properties: similar to calcite, but does not readily effervesce in cold, dilute HCl unless sample is powdered of acid is heated; tendency for Fe-bearing dolomite to be yellow-brown is also useful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.682; n = 1.500; increasing with Fe content Relief: variable; from low negative to moderately-high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.180; very high-extreme; so high order, faded colors (creamy white) in most orientations Twinning: rhombohedral twins are common Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: extinction is symmetrical with respect to intersecting cleavages; dolomite twins parallel both the long and short diagonals between cleavage traces Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage, and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as dolomite; dolomite is distinguished from calcite only with difficulty; dolomite tends to occur more commonly as euhedral rhombohedra in sedimentary rocks; is less commonly twinned than is calcite, possesses twins that parallel both the long and short diagonals of cleavage traces (calcite twins parallel only the long diagonal) and tends to be stained with iron oxides more commonly because iron (Fe+2) substitutes easily for the magnesium (Mg+2) in dolomite Occurrences/Associations: Dolomite is abundant in carbonate sedimentary rocks as the essential constituent of dolostone. The vast majority of dolostones form by the diagenetic replacement of limestone by Mg-rich, low sulfate groundwater that converts calcite to dolomite. Dolomite is also a common mineral in calcareous metamorphic rocks such as dolomitic marble, calcsilicate rock and skarn where it occurs with diopside, tremolite, phlogopite, calcite and grossularite garnet. Dolomite (and ankerite) is also a common gangue mineral in hydrothermal veins and replacement deposits. Rare dolomite (and ankerite) occurs in carbonatite igneous rocks associated with silica undersaturated rocks such as foid syentite. Uses: By heating dolomite and driving off carbon dioxide (CO2) both calcium oxide (CaO = lime) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are produced. Lime is used in cement products, aggregates

such as concrete and to whitewash buildings and line fields. Magnesium oxide is used in the production of refractory bricks or linings for furnace and industrial oven linings. Crushed dolomite is used in aggregates such as concrete and asphalt. Dolomite is also used as a dimension stone for construction. Most magnesium for other uses is currently derived from seawater or groundwater brines.

DRAVITE: see TOURMALINE ELBAITE: see TOURMALINE EMERALD: see BERYL ENSTATITE: see ORTHOPYROXENE Stopped here EPIDOTE (and CLINOZOISITE and PIEMONTITE): Composition: Ca2(Al,Fe)Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH); sorosilicate; solid solution series with clinozoisite which contains less iron (Fe) and more aluminum (Al); the transition between the two is generally taken to be the transition from optically () epidote to optically (+) clinozoisite which typically occurs between 10 15% Fe+3; where a few percent of manganese (Mn+2) substitutes, the pink epidote mineral called piedmontite forms; all three may be intergrown with zoisite Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.88 8.89, b = 5.58 5.63, c = 10.15 10.16; = 90 o, = 115o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals range from acicular to bladed and prismatic; radial aggregates of acicular crystals and divergent aggregates of bladed-prismatic crystals; also as disseminated crystals and in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 7; hard Specific Gravity: 3.21 3.49; moderate; higher for iron-rich epidote Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; excellent to perfect Diaphaneity: somewhat to barely translucent

Colors: epidote is grass green to pistachio green to greenish black; clinozoisite is pale green to gray; piedmontite is pink to reddish brown Streak: white Luster: dull in earthy varieties; vitreous in macro-crystals; silky in radiating to stellate aggregates Diagnostic Properties: Epidote is distinguished by its grass to pistachio green color, its hardness and, where visible, its single cleavage; the radiating aggregates of acicular crystals are also distinctive; olivine lacks cleavage and is typically a paler shade of green Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: epidote: n = 1.714 1.751; n = 1.720 1.784; n = 1.727 1.797; clinozoisite: n = 1.703 1.716; n = 1.707 1.723; n = 1.709 1.731; piedmontite: n = 1.725 1.756; n = 1.730 1.789; n = 1.750 1.832 Relief: moderately high to very high, positive relief; increases with iron content, so higher for epidote than for clinozoisite Color/Pleochroism: epidote is weakly pleochroic in pale shades of green, yellow, yellow green and greenish brown; clinozoisite is colorless; piedmontite is pleochroic yellow, pink, orange, red, brownish red, purple red and violet Birefringence: epidote: 0.012 0.049; low to high; maximum first order yellow to third order colors; clinozoisite: 0.006 0.015; low; maximum first order gray first order red colors; piedmontite is 0.028 0.082; moderate to very high; maximum second- to fourth-order colors Twinning: uncommon, lamellar Optic Sign: epidote: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 64 90o; high to very high 2V; clinozoisite: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 15 90o; low to very high 2V; piedmontite: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 50 86o Other: epidote commonly exhibits a marked mottling to its birefringence, displays abnormal bluish to greenish-yellow interference colors similar to clinozoisite and may be zoned; clinozoisite commonly displays abnormal bluish to greenish yellow interference colors like epidote and may also be zoned; there is an inverse relationship between 2V and extinction angle; piedmontite is commonly zoned; all three minerals may occur together in zoned crystals Diagnostic Properties: epidote is distinguished from clinozoite by its biaxial () optics, its yellow to green color and its generally higher birefringence; clinozoisite is

distinguished from epidote by its biaxial (+) optics, generally lower birefringence, lack of color and common anomalous interference colors; vesuvianite superficially resembles clinozoisite, but is generally uniaxial, lacks good cleavage and crystallizes in the tetragonal system; piedmontite is distinguished from both epidote and clinozoisite by its deeper colors, especially the violet tints, its generally higher birefringence and refractive indices and relief; piedmontite resembles thulite, but the latter is orthorhombic, thus possesses parallel extinction Occurrences/Associations: Epidote occurs widely. It is an important component of low-grade to lower medium-grade quartzofeldspathic, calcareous and especially mafic metamorphic rocks formed in the albite-epidote hornfels, greenschist and epidote amphibolite facies where it is associated with albitic plagioclase, chlorite, actinolite, hornblende, quartz, calcite, vesuvianite, garnet, and diopside. Clinozoisite occurs under similar conditions in quartzofeldspathic, calcareous and especially pelitic rocks. Epidote and clinozoisite are common as accessory minerals in granitoids. They are also produced by hydrothermal alteration in fault zones and, quite commonly, by the alteration of plagioclase (sausseritization) in granitoids. Both epidote and clinozoisite are fairly resistant to decomposition during weathering and so occur in detrital sediments derived for source rocks similar to those described above. Piedmontite is a rarer mineral that occurs in metamorphic rocks, especially manganese rich ore deposits of metamorphic or hydrothermal origin. Uses: Epidote and clinozoisite are not economically valuable minerals. They are occasionally cut for use as semiprecious gemstones.

FAYALITE: see OLIVINE FLINT: see CHERT FORSTERITE: see OLIVINE

FLUORITE: Composition: CaF2; a halide mineral; some rare earth elements such as cerium (Ce+2) and yttrium (Y+2) may substitute in limited amounts for calcium Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 5.46, b = 5.46, c = 5.46; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: Equant cubic {001} crystals; less commonly octahedral {111}; massive to granular aggregates

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 3.18; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 4 orientations, not 90o; octahedral {111}; perfect; triangular faces bounded by three of the cleavages with the face the fourth cleavage are common Diaphaneity: quite translucent to transparent Colors: variable; colorless, purple, yellow, blue, green all fairly common Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The moderately hard cubic crystals and the octahedral cleavage with triangular faces, in combination with its translucency and vitreous luster are distinctive. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.43-1.44; higher where rare earth element content is high Relief: moderate; negative; one of the few common minerals with moderate, negative relief Color/Pleochroism: generally colorless or very pale hues in blues and purples; not pleochroic; pale colors may be patchy or mottled Birefringence: none; isotropic Optic Sign: none; isotropic Other: perfect cleavages typically seen as 2 sets that intersect at 70o and 110o or as three sets that intersect at 60o and 120o Diagnostic Properties: the moderate negative relief, isotropic optics, pale patchy colors, if any and the perfect cleavage patterns are diagnostic Occurrences/Associations: Fluorite is a common mineral in low-medium temperature hydrothermal deposits where it occurs in veins and replacement deposits with sphalerite, galena, pyrite, calcite, barite and celestite. Fluorite also occurs as a minor accessory mineral in alkalirich igneous rocks such as granite, syenite and alkali granite pegmatite, especially in cassiteritebearing S-type granitoids. Fluorite is disseminated in some sedimentary rocks, especially carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolostone.

Uses: Fluorite is the major source of fluorine used in various industrial processes; as a flux in productions and in the manufacture of fluorocarbons for use in air conditioners and refrigerators. Fluoride compounds are used in the fluoridation of drinking water, toothpastes and mouthwashes designed to reduce dental caries. Fluorite is also used in the preparation of hydrofluoric acid (HFl).

GALENA: Composition: PbS; a sulfide mineral; isostructural with halite Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 5.94, b = 5.94, c = 5.94; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as equant cubes {001}, less commonly octahedra {111}, sometimes in combination; common in massive, cleavable aggregates, but also as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 7.5 7.6; very high Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations at 90o; cubic {001}; excellent to perfect Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: dark gray (lead gray) Streak: dark gray (lead gray) Luster: metallic Other: commonly alters to cerrusite and anglesite Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lead gray color and streak, metallic luster, cubic cleavage, very high specific gravity and soft hardness distinguish galena from all other minerals (especially other gray sulfides) Microscopic Properties: Opaque; white in reflected light, sometimes with a pinkish hue Occurrences/Associations: Galena is widespread in hydrothermal veins and replacement deposits produced under a variety of temperatures that range from high temperature hypothermal through low temperature epithermal and telethermal conditions. Commonly associated minerals include sphalerite, pyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite and a host of other sulfides, as well as calcite, quartz, fluorite and barite.

Uses: Galena is the major ore of lead used in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries such as those used in automobiles and tractors. Combined with tin and antimony, lead is used to produce electrical solders. Lead is also used as a shield in nuclear reactors. Formerly, lead was widely used in paints, pipes and pottery glazes and to boost the octane rating of gasoline, but the toxic effects of lead poisoning have led to a severe restriction of these uses. Some galena contains sufficient silver (Ag) in solid solution to be a significant ore of silver.

GARNET: (GARNET GROUP) Composition: X3Y2(SiO4)3; nesosilicate (orthosilicate) minerals: the garnet group includes the varieties almandine [Fe3Al2(SiO4)3], andradite [Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, grossular(ite) [CaAl2(SiO4)3], pyrope [Mg3Al2(SiO4)3], spessartine [Mn3Al2(SiO4)3] and uvarovite [Fe3Cr2(SiO4)3] between which extensive solid solution exists, especially between almandine, spessartine and pyrope (Fe+2, Mn+2 and Mg+2) and between andradite and grossularite (Fe+3 and Al+3); almandine and spessartine are sometimes referred to as almandite and spessartite respectively Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 11.46, a2 = 11.46, a3 = 11.46; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: common as equant dodecahedra {011} and/or trapezohedra {hhl}; can resemble small soccer balls with diamond-shaped or trapezoidal faces; as disseminated crystals or as massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard to very hard Specific Gravity: 3.5 4.3; moderate plus to high Cleavage/Fracture: none; conchoidal fracture; prominent parting in some specimens Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: extremely variable; almandine and spessartine most often wine red, like raspberry jam or reddish brown, but also brown; pyrope is typically pink, purple, red or nearly black; grossular is often green, but also white, yellow, cinnamon brown or pale red; andradite is typically yellow to green, but also brown or black; uvarovite is emerald green Streak: white Luster: vitreous to resinous

Other: almandine and andradite commonly alter to chlorite, epidote and/or iron oxides; pyrope commonly alters to serpentine and talc Diagnostic Properties: the equant, dodecahedral to trapezohedral crystals are characteristic; the hardness, lack of cleavage, conchoidal fracture and some colors (especially wine red to red brown) are also distinctive Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: 1.720 1.890; lowest for pyrope and grossularite (1.720 1.770, highest for andradite and uvarovite (1.850 1.895) and intermediate for almandine and spessartine (1.770 1.820) Relief: high to very high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to quite pale rose/pink most commonly, but also pale shades of other hand sample colors; not pleochroic; in thin-section, spessartine and grossularite are colorless, almandine is colorless to pale rose, pyrope is pale pink, andradite is pale brown and uvarovite is pale green Birefringence: none; isometric Optic Sign: none, isometric Other: commonly zoned; some garnets (especially spessartine and grossularite) may be slightly anisotropic and display birefringence with low first order colors Diagnostic Properties: the high relief, isotropic optics, equant six-sided cross sections (of dodecahedra) and eight-sided cross sections (of trapezohedra) and lack of cleavage are characteristic of all garnet; given the amount of substitution solid solution between garnets, a chemical analyses are helpful in determining the exact composition of any garnet; educated approximations may be made on the basis of color, refractive index and occurrences/associations (see above and below). Occurrences/Associations: Garnet group minerals of various compositions are widely distributed in metamorphic rocks. The most abundant is almandine-rich garnet which is abundant in pelitic rocks and common in mafic/basic rocks formed over a wide range of conditions, including regional metamorphic rocks of the greenschist, amphibolite and granulite facies and contact metamorphic rocks of the albite-epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels and pyroxene hornfels facies. Grossular-rich and andradite-rich garnet occurs primarily in calcareous metamorphic rocks such as marble, calcsilicate rock and skarn, again developed over a wide range of contact and regional metamorphic conditions. Scarcer spessartine-rich garnet occurs in similar circumstances, but only where large amounts of manganese are available. Pyrope-rich garnet and rare uvarovite-rich garnet occur chiefly in ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous

and metamorphic rocks such as peridotite, serpentinite and kimberlite. Garnet in eclogite is typically intermediate between pyrope and almandine. Garnet, typically intermediate between almandine and spessartine, also occurs as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks, especially in pegmatite and some peraluminous granitoids and syenite. Uses: Garnet is mined extensively for use as an abrasive, especially for use in sandpaper and emery sticks for fingernails. It is also utilized in filters used in water purification systems. Several varieties of garnet are utilized as semi-precious gemstones.

GIBBSITE: see BAUXITE GLAUCONITE: Composition: (K,Na,Ca)0.5-1.0(Fe,Mg,FeAl)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2nH2O; a phyllosilicate mineral; T-O-T structure; a clay mineral; frequently a mixed layer clay that contains some expandable layers Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.23, b = 9.06, c = 10.15; = 90o, = 101o, = 90o Crystal Habit: scaly-flaky to tabular crystals; typically occurs as small (< 2.0mm) granules or pellets that are aggregates of numerous tiny crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.4 2.9; light to moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect, but rarely discernible in aggregates Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent Colors: pleochroic; mostly in shades of green; green, yellow, yellow-green, olive green, blue green common Streak: light green to greenish gray Luster: subvitreous to dull/earthy Other: alters to limonite, giving it a yellow- to red-brown color

Diagnostic Properties: The green color, low hardness and pelletal aggregate grains are distinctive as is the occurrence in marine sediments and sedimentary rocks; however some green pellets in sedimentary rocks are chlorite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.590 1.612; n = 1.609 1.643; n = 1.610 1.644 Relief: moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: pleochroic in shades of green, yellow green and blue green; yellowbrown where altered to limonite Birefringence: 0.014 0.032; low to moderate; second order colors are typically masked by the color, making it appear to have lower birefringence Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 0 20o; (usually >10o); very low 2V; good figures difficult to obtain Other: cleavage traces, if visible, are length slow Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pelletal-granular shape, moderate relief, microcrystalline structure, greenish color and occurrence in sedimentary rocks are distinctive; some mixed-layer clay pellets that contain chlorite may appear similar and are distinguishable only by using XRD or other advanced analytical techniques Occurrences/Associations: Glauconite occurs chiefly in marine sediments and sedimentary rocks, where it often forms by the replacement of organic-rich pellets in slightly reducing environments. It may be the principal constituent of greensands and occurs widely as disseminated pellets in limestone and argillaceous limestone. Uses: Glauconite is used chiefly as a soil additive which provides potassium for plant growth and loosens clayey soils, while aiding water retention. It is also used in water treatment facilities to remove iron, manganese and hydrogen sulfide from solution.

GLAUCOPHANE: Composition: Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2; double-chain inosilicate; sodic amphibole group mineral; glaucophane forms a complete solid solution series with riebeckite Na2Fe3Fe2Si8O22(OH)2 in which ferrous iron (Fe+2) substitutes for magnesium (Mg+2) and ferric iron (Fe+3) substitutes for aluminum (Al+3); glaucophane in which >50% ferrous iron (Fe+2) substitutes for magnesium (Mg+2) is called ferroglaucophane and reibeckite in which >50%

magnesium (Mg+2) substitutes for ferrous iron (Fe+2) is called magnesioriebeckite; intermediate compositions with 30 70% each of the reibeckite and glaucophane end members are called crossite [Na2(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe)2Si8O22(OH)2]; glaucophane also forms a solid solution series with tremolite-actinolite [Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2] Crystal System: Monoclinic: (2/m): a = 9.5 9.6, b = 17.7 17.8, c = 5.3; = 90o, = 104o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as thin prismatic to bladed crystals, with six-sided, diamond shaped cross sections; as massive to granular or foliated aggregates and as disseminated crystals; less commonly acicular; in fibrous or massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.0 3.2; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110}, not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good; splintery; not discernible in finely crystalline aggregates Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent; less transparent with increasing iron Colors: blue to lavender blue, blue gray, to dark blue; darker with increasing iron Streak: white to pale blue Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The bluish color, in combination with the hardness and cleavage characteristic of other amphiboles, is characteristic; the association with blueschist facies minerals is also helpful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.594 1.626; n = 1.612 1.642; n = 1.618 1.648; increase with iron content Relief: moderate to moderately high, positive Color/Pleochroism: strongly pleochroic; shades of pale blue, blue, lavender blue, violet, bluish green, bluish brown, yellow, yellow-green Birefringence: 0.16 0.23; moderate; maximum colors are first order red to second order green, but the strong colors tend to mask the interference colors Twinning: simple pairs and lamellar twins occur, but are not common

Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 10 45o; low to moderate 2V; increases with iron content Other: cross sections show symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length slow and display relatively small extinction angles (8 21o) relative to cleavage traces; crystals are commonly zoned; may display abnormal interference colors Diagnostic Properties: the diamond-shaped cross-section and two cleavages at 56o and 124o distinguish glaucophane as an amphibole; the combination of blue-violet colors, length slow optics, relatively small extinction angles and moderate relief are characteristic; riebeckite is length fast and has deeper colors, higher relief and smaller extinction angles; tourmaline is uniaxial, so possesses parallel extinction Occurrences/Associations: Glaucophane occurs primarily in blueschist facies metamorphic rocks produced by moderate to high pressure, relatively low temperature (high P/T) metamorphism along Franciscan trajectories in subduction zones in trench-arc systems, where rocks are forced downward into high pressure depths while remaining relatively cool. Glaucophanee is commonly associated with lawsonite, pumpellyite, kyanite, muscovite, pyrophyllite, chlorite, zoisite, aragonite and albite-rich plagioclase in pelitic, mafic, and rare calcareous rocks formed under blueschist facies conditions (6-12kbar, 300-400oC). Uses: Glaucophane has no commercial value.

GOETHITE: Composition: -FeOOH; an oxyhydroxide mineral; polymorphic with lepidochrosite (FeOOH); see also limonite Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 4.60, b = 9.96, c = 3.02; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: rare prismatic to bladed crystals; more commonly acicular or scaly; commonly in colloform (reniform-stalactitic) aggregates with fine, radiating crystals; sometimes oolitic; also massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 5; low side of hard Specific Gravity: 4.3; high Cleavage/Fracture: one perfect pinacoidal {010} cleavage; generally not discernible Diaphaneity: slightly to barely translucent

Colors: yellow-brown to brownish black Streak: yellow-brown, sienna; may have red tint Luster: submetallic-adamantine to earthy Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from hematite by goethites yellow-brown streak Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.15 2.27; n = 2.22 2.41; n = 2.23 2.42 Relief: very high, positive Color/Pleochroism: pleochroic with yellow, orange and brownish orange colors Birefringence: 0.138 0.140; extreme, but color obscures high order colors Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 0 27o; small 2V Diagnostic Properties: the yellow-orange color, biaxial () optics and greater transparency distinguish goethite from hematite which possesses a deeper red-brown color, is uniaxial and is nearly opaque; limonite is isotropic, but goethite is often a major component of those microcrystalline aggregates; goethite closely resembles lepidochrosite, but the latter has a much larger 2V, if a figure can be obtained; XRD and other techniques may be required for adequate identifications Occurrences/Associations: Goethite is a major component of limonite which is commonly produced by the weathering of iron-bearing minerals and rocks near Earths surface and contributes significantly to the yellow to brown colors common to many soils and to the stains of that color common on joint surfaces. It is also a common mineral in bog irons, manganese nodules, sedimentary ironstones and banded iron formations. Small amounts occur in lowtemperature hydrothermal veins. Uses: Goethite (as well as lepidochrosite) is a significant ore of iron (Fe), the primary material used in the manufacture of a wide range of steel alloys for the manufacture of tools, appliances, automobiles, trucks, ships, weapons, bridges and building supports. It is also used in the production of cast iron for cookware, pipes and furnaces and of wrought iron for fences and patio furniture. Iron is widely used as a dietary supplement, especially for people with symptoms of anemia.

GOLD:

Composition: Au; native element (native metal); silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) are common impurities; a complete solid solution series exists between gold and silver; silver-rich gold is called electrum. Crystal System: Isometric (4/m/bar32/m): a = 4.71, b = 4.71, c = 4.71; = 90 o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: filiform or equant, the latter poorly formed octahedral {111} dodecahedral {011} and cubic {001} crystals; arborescent or dendritic aggregates; also as disseminated flakes or rounded detrital nuggets in placer deposits Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2-3 (soft) Specific Gravity: 19.3 Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; hackly fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: yellow-gold; paler with silver (Ag) and reddish with copper (Cu) impurities Streak: gold-yellow Luster: metallic Other: sectile, malleable, ductile Diagnostic Properties: gold color, gold yellow streak, sectility, malleability and extreme specific gravity distinguish gold from brass yellow colored sulfides such as pyrite and chalcopyrite Microscopic Properties: Opaque; golden yellow in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Gold forms principally in low temperature hydrothermal veins associated with granitoid/rhyolitic-dacitic igneous rocks where it occurs with quartz, pyrite and other epithermal sulfide minerals. In addition, substantial amounts of gold occur in quartz veins in low-grade metamorphic terranes and contact metamorphic aureoles. Gold also occurs in detrital sediments such as placer deposits derived from such source rocks. Uses: Gold is admired for its beauty and rarity. Golds primary use is monetary, in the form of gold coins and as a hedge against inflation and political uncertainty. Its malleability and ductility permit it to be used in rings and bracelets and to be hammered into fine gold leaf for plating ornamental objects. Its metallic properties make it important as an industrial metal in electronic devices including computers.

GRAPHITE: Composition: C; polymorphic with diamond which is stable at higher pressures Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a = 2.46, b = 2.46, c = 6.71; = 120o, = 120o, = 90o Crystal Habit: platy to scaly crystals; typically in massive to foliated aggregates or as disseminated grains Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1-2; very soft, easily marks paper or flesh Specific Gravity: 2.2; relatively low Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of cleavage {0001}; typically indistinct in aggregates, visible only when it occurs in flexible sheets Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: dark gray to black Streak: dark gray to black Luster: typically metallic to submetallic; less commonly dull-earthy Other: greasy feel as soft material separates onto hand; sectile Diagnostic Properties: Color, softness and greasy feel are distinctive; molybdenite is similar but has a greenish-black streak and is a lighter shade of gray. Microscopic Properties: Opaque; white-gray in reflected light; rather low reflectance Occurrences/Associations: Graphite is a common mineral in low- to medium-grade metamorphic rocks, including pelitic rocks such as slate, phyllite and some schist and in calcareous rocks such as marble and skarn. Most graphite occurs in Phanerozoic rocks where it is the product of the metamorphism of organic carbon initially deposited in sediments. Metamorphosed coal beds may also contain graphite. Rare occurrences of graphite are reported from igneous rocks and hydrothermal veins have been reported. Much graphite is produced artificially in furnaces that convert coal to graphite. Uses: Graphite has many uses. Mixed in various proportions with clay, it is a major component of pencil leads. It is used as a dry lubricant for locks and other devices and as an additive in wet lubricants such as lubricating oils. Graphite also is used in refractory crucibles for the production

of steel and in electrical resistors in electronic devices such as batteries, electrodes and generator brushes.

GROSSULAR ( GROSSULARITE); see GARNET GYPSUM: Composition: CaSO42H2O; a hydrated sulfate mineral Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 6.52, b = 15.18, c = 6.29; = 90o, = 127o, = 90o Crystal Habit: the variety of gypsum called Selenite occurs as large, cleavable individual crystals that are typically tabular to bladed; these are often twinned (simple swallow-tail crystals) and occur in divergent to roseiform aggregates (as in desert rose); the variety of gypsum called Satinspar is composed of parallel acicular to capillary crystals in fibrous aggregates that commonly form in veins with crystal long axes perpendicular to fracture walls; the variety of gypsum called Alabaster is composed of small randomly oriented crystals in compact massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.32; low-moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one perfect pinacoidal cleavage {010} along which selenite cleaves into thin sheets; a less perfect, very good pinacoidal {100} cleavage at right angles to the first; two less distinct prismatic {bar111} good cleavages that are not at right angles to each other nor two the first two cleavages; so single crystals of selenite possess one perfect cleavage, one less perfect cleavage at right angles to it and two less distinct cleavages; in alabaster and satinspar the cleavages are generally obscured by the aggregate habit Diaphaneity: generally transparent in selenite; somewhat translucent in alabaster and satinspar Colors: commonly colorless to white or gray; may be pale pink or yellow Streak: white Luster: vitreous in selenite; silky in satinspar; dull to pearly in alabaster

Other: commonly alters, by dehydration, to anhydrite (CaSO4) and forms by the hydration of anhydrite Diagnostic Properties: All three varieties are distinctively soft and possess a rather low specific gravity; the cleavage and swallow-tail twinned monoclinic crystals help to distinguish selenite; the fibrous habit is characteristic of satinspar and the massive to granular habit characterizes alabaster; anhydrite is harder and has a higher specific gravity Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.520 1.521; n = 1.522 1.524; n = 1.529 1.530 Relief: low, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.010; low with maximum first-order gray and white colors Twinning: simple, paired twins are common in selenite; multiple and penetration twins also occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 58o; on the high side of moderate Diagnostic Properties: the low, negative relief, low birefringence, biaxial (+) optics with a moderately high 2V and association with other evaporite minerals are characteristic; in coarsely crystalline selenite, the cleavage is also a useful diagnostic property as is the fibrous habit of satinspar; anhydrite is easily distinguished by its higher refractive indices, positive relief, much higher birefringence and excellent pseudocubic cleavage; polyhalite possesses positive relief and significantly higher birefringence Occurrences/Associations: Gypsum is the most abundant mineral in marine evaporite sequences where it precipitates from sea water or sediment pore water that is undergoing significant desiccation by net evaporation in a restricted sea or sabkha environment in a warm, dry climate or by the hydration of anhydrite precipitated under similar conditions. Gypsum is an important constituent of the cap rocks of salt domes. In both the preceding cases, gypsum is associated with anhydrite, halite and calcite and in salt domes with native sulfur; smaller amounts of gypsum form by precipitation from desert lakes undergoing desiccation by net evaporation, as efflorescence produced by evaporation of capillary water in desert soils and as veins precipitated from saline groundwater; rare gypsum occurs around volcanic fumaroles where sulfur vapors react with limestone and in the oxidized portion of hydrothermal deposits Uses: Ground up, significantly dehydrated gypsum is the major raw material for plaster of Paris, also called stucco. When mixed with water, fibers and other additives and dried it is extruded and dried to form sheets of wallboard or sheetrock that set when the mixture dries and gypsum

crystals form. These sheets are used to cover the walls of many houses and other buildings. Gypsum is also used to retard the setting of cement until it can be worked into the appropriate forms, as a soil conditioner, and in producing casts (for broken bones). Alabaster is used as a soft, easy to work, sculpting stone

HALITE: Composition: NaCl; halide mineral; isostructural with sylvite (KCl), very limited solid solution, and periclase (MgO), a common mineral only in the mantle Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 5.64, b = 5.64, c = 5.64; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: equant cubes {001}; less common octahedral; massive to granular aggregates; hopper crystals form when edges and corners grow faster than face centers Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 Specific Gravity: 2.16; low Cleavage/Fracture: three orientations at 90o; cubic {001} Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to white when pure; may be gray, yellow, orange, red, or blue Streak: white Luster: vitreous on fresh surfaces; cloudy on partially dissolved surfaces Other: salty taste; highly soluble Diagnostic Properties: The cubic cleavage, transparency and salty taste are highly indicative of halite; sylvite has a somewhat bitter taste Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.544 Relief: very low relief, positive, but so soluble that special techniques required for thin section

Color/Pleochroism: colorless, but may be colored reddish by inclusions of hematite and often contains significant amounts of fluid inclusions, making it cloudy Birefringence: none, since isotropic Optics: isotropic Diagnostic Properties: again, must be prepared using techniques that do not readily dissolve it; if used, the perfect cubic cleavage, isotropic nature, extremely low relief and association with other evaporite minerals serve to distinguish it; sylvite is similar, but has much lower refractive indices and higher negative relief Occurrences/Associations: Most halite forms by the evaporation of sea water in restricted seas in warm, dry climates where it is associated with other evaporate minerals including gypsum, anhydrite, sylvite and rarer species. Carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite and dolomite and clay minerals are commonly associated with these sedimentary deposits. Halite is the active component of salt domes formed when, after deep burial, the halite flows upward as a diapir. Smaller amounts of halite are produced by the evaporation of saline lakes where it is associated with borates such as kernite and ulexite, sulfates such as gypsum and anhydrite and carbonates such as calcite and dolomite. Halite is also produced in artificial evaporation ponds in many coastal areas in regions with warm, arid climates by using flood gates to fill the ponds with sea water or by pumping salt dissolved from salt domes into the ponds. Uses: Halites most familiar use is as table salt to enhance food flavors. It is also widely used as a preservative in foods such as cheese, salted fish and meats. Another familiar use is in the deicing of roads, sidewalks and airplanes. However, its major use is in the production of chlorine and sodium-based chemicals used in a variety of applications including the processing of metals. Salt is also used in the curing of leather and in the manufacture of paper and drugs.

HEDENBERGITE: Composition: CaFeSi2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene; forms a complete solid solution series with diopside (CaMgSi2O6); one classification scheme recognizes diopside (>Di90), salite (Di5090), ferrosilite (Di1050) and hedenbergite (< Di10); these minerals also display extensive solid solution with augite [(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Fe,Al,Ti)Si2O6]; manganese (Mn+2) may also substitute in significant amounts for iron (Fe+2) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.75, b = 8.90, c = 5.25; = 90o, = 106o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as stubby prismatic {110} crystals with squarish four- to eight-sided cross sections; may also show prominent parting; commonly in granular aggregates or coarse

cleavable aggregates or as disseminated crystals; less commonly as acicular crystals in radiating aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.5 3.6; moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: two prismatic cleavages {210}, near right angles (87o and 93o); prominent parting in some examples Diaphaneity: moderately translucent to barely transparent Colors: dark greenish to dark brownish black to black Streak: gray Luster: vitreous Other: may contain exsolution lamellae; commonly alters to chlorite, biotite, hematite, limonite, carbonates and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: hedenbergite cannot be distinguished from other clinopyroxenes of similar dark color; they are distinguished from amphiboles, such as hornblende, by their crude, nearly right angle cleavage Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.700 1.732; n = 1.716 1.746; n = 1.738 1.770 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: pale green, deep green, blue green, pinkish purple, brownish yellow, yellow and yellow-green; somewhat pleochroic Birefringence: 0.018 0.034; moderate; maximum first order red to second order red colors Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 55 70o; moderate to high 2V Diagnostic Properties: the squarish 4-8 sided cross-sections and two orientations of cleavage near right angles distinguish hedenbergite from amphiboles; diopside is similar, but possesses lower refractive indices and relief and possesses paler colors; augite is similar in most respects, but augite generally possesses paler colors (except ferroaugite) a

lower 2V and lower refractive indices and a different association; pigeonite has a smaller 2V (< 32o); Occurrences/Associations: Hedenbergite is an uncommon mineral. It occurs mostly in contact metamorphic skarns produced by iron-rich hydrothermal fluids. It is also a constituent of some greenstones. Hedenbergite also occurs, often with fayalite-rich olivine, in iron-rich igneous rocks where it crystallizes from melts (e.g., tholeiitic magma) that have followed an extreme iron-enrichment trend during magmatic differentiation. Hedenbergite has also been reported from chondrules in chondritic meteorites. Uses: Hedenbergite has no commercial value.

HEMATITE: Composition: Fe2O3; an oxide mineral; some titanium (Ti+4), paired with (Fe+2), typically substitutes for iron (Fe+3); polymorphic with maghaemite (maghemite). Crystal System: Hexagonal (bar32/m): a = 5.04, b = 5.04, c = 13.77; = 120o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals typically platy-tabular with hexagonal outlines; also bladed; coarsely crystalline hematite is called specularite; colloform (botryoidal-reniform) aggregates with radiating acicular-capillary crystals and rarely roseiform with tabular crystals; also abundant as fine earthy masses and granular and oolitic aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard; but may appear softer in earthy masses Specific Gravity: 5.2; high; but may appear less in loosely aggregated masses Cleavage/Fracture: none, but basal and prismatic partings occur Diaphaneity: nearly opaque Colors: steel gray for specularite; red for earthy and oolitic aggregates Streak: brick red or red brown; specularite may give a black component as scaly crystals are separated from sample Luster: metallic for specularite; dull or earthy for finely crystalline aggregates Other: commonly alters to limonite

Diagnostic Properties: the brick red streak distinguishes hematite from goethite, limonite, magnetite and ilmenite; specularite is distinguished from ilmenite and magnetite by its lack of magnetism Microscopic Properties: very nearly opaque; grayish white with bluish tint in reflected light Refractive Indices: n = 3.15 3.22; n = 2.87 2.94 Relief: extreme, but nearly opaque Color/Pleochroism: very nearly opaque; deep red to red-brown tint at thin edges Birefringence: 0.28; high, but not evidenced due to opacity of hematite Twinning: lamellar twins occur, again difficult to discern Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+); good luck getting a figure Other: commonly observed as an alteration (oxidation) product of other iron-bearing minerals Diagnostic Properties: the nearly opaque, yet anisotropic character and deep red to red brown color are distinctive; limonite is isotropic and typically possesses a more yellowbrown color, though hematite can be a significant constituent; goethite tends to be yellow-orange, a bit more transparent and is biaxial; in finely-crystalline aggregates, mixtures occur and XRD is required to sort things out Occurrences/Associations: Hematite occurs abundantly in a variety of geologic settings. It is a common mineral in largely sedimentary to metasedimentary Precambrian banded iron formations (BIF) and their metamorphosed equivalents, where it is associated with chert, magnetite, greenalite, minnesotaite siderite, dolomite, pyrite and clay minerals. It is also common in largely Phanerozoic sedimentary ironstones where it is associated with limonite, magnetite, siderite, chamosite, and calcite. It occurs in some contact metamorphic deposits (with magnetite) and in iron-rich schists. Hematite is also commonly produced by the weathering, diagenetic alteration and hydrothermal alteration of iron-bearing minerals in almost any rock type. The red color of many sedimentary rocks and soils is caused by the presence of hematite. Hematite is significant cement in some sedimentary rocks. Hematite is also an accessory mineral in some felsic igneous rocks and forms in some hydrothermal deposits. Uses: Hematite is a principal ore of iron used in the manufacture of a wide range of steel alloys for the manufacture of tools, appliances, automobiles, trucks, ships, weapons, bridges and building supports. It is also used in the production of cast iron for cookware, pipes and furnaces and of wrought iron for fences and patio furniture. Iron is widely used as a dietary supplement, especially for people with symptoms of anemia.

HEULANDITE: Composition: CaAl2Si7O186H2O; a tectosilicate mineral; a zeolite mineral; up to 20% substitution of sodium (Na+1) for calcium (Ca+2) is common, so could be written as: (Na0.2Ca0.8) and is balanced by substitution of silicon (Si+4) for aluminum (Al+3) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 7.96, b = 17.95, c = 7.44; = 90o, = 92o, = 90o; crystals are pseudo-orthorhombic (given near 90o) Crystal Habit: occurs as tabular to bladed pseudo-orthorhombic crystals; often as drusy to granular aggregates of such crystals or as more finely-crystalline massive aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.2; low Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {010} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically colorless to white or gray; also shades of yellow, red, pink, brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly on the cleavage surfaces Diagnostic Properties: the tabular, pseudo-orthorhombic crystals, hardness and single set of perfect cleavage with pearly luster are characteristic; finely crystalline aggregates require XRD analysis for proper identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: Relief: low to moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.01 -0.11; very low to low; maximum colors first order grays to yellow Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 0 70o; but typically 30o 10o; moderate

Other: sections that display the perfect cleavage are characterized by parallel extinction; others possess angular extinction Diagnostic Properties: the negative relief and low birefringence are typical of most zeolite minerals; stilbite is similar, but is biaxial () and typically possesses a sheaf-like habit, rather than tabular-bladed crystals; chabazite is pseudo-rhombohedral, with 3 sets of pseudocubic cleavage; natrolite has slightly higher birefringence and is orthorhombic, typically with a higher 2V; laumontite is biaxial () with three sets of cleavage; analcime is isotropic Occurrences/Associations: Heulandite is a relatively widespread zeolite mineral. Coarse crystals are especially common in cavities, including vesicles, in mafic/basic rocks such as basalt and, less commonly, intermediate volcanic rocks such as andesite. Finely crystalline heulandite occurs less commonly in altered felsic volcanic rocks. Heulandite is a common mineral in very low-grade regional metamorphic rocks of the zeolite facies and in some contact metamorphic aureoles. Heulandite is also reported from alkaline soils formed in desert environments and from low-temperature hydrothermal deposits and hot springs. Uses: Heulandite, like most natural and synthetic zeolites, is used, after heating and dehydration, to produce materials that remove water vapor from carbon dioxide, refrigerants such as Freon and from many organic chemicals used in industrial applications. It is also used as a molecular sieve used to separate molecules of different sizes, as in separating nitrogen from air to produce nearly pure oxygen gas. Because zeolites can selectively absorb selected molecules, they are widely used in applications that include reducing the hardness of water for cleaner laundry by the removal of calcium, removing heavy metals from mine waters and industrial waste and radioactive isotopes from nuclear waste, in the treatment of wastewater by the removal of undesirable dissolved species such as ammonia and in the cleaning up of oil spills.

HORNBLENDE: Composition: (Na,K)0-1Ca2(Mg,Fe,FeAl)5(Al,Si)2Si6O22(OH,F)2; a double-chain inosilicate; an

amphibole group mineral; may be thought of as a complex solid solution of several end member amphiboles with various amounts of the principal cations; oxyhornblende is a form of hornblende in which the ferrous iron (Fe+2) has been oxidized to ferric iron (Fe+3) and hydroxyl ion (OH-1) replaced by oxygen (O-2), typically in volcanic rocks

Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.9, b = 18.0, c = 5.30; = 90o, = 105o, = 90o Crystal Habit: slender, bladed prismatic; less commonly stubby prismatic; 6-sided, diamondshaped cross sections with beveled edges; sometimes acicular in fibrous aggregates; more typically as massive to granular aggregates and disseminated crystals

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5-6 Specific Gravity: 3.0 3.6; moderate to moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110} not at right angles (56o and 124o); good to very good; splintery appearance is common Diaphaneity: moderately translucent to barely translucent Colors: typically dark green to black; also green or brown Streak: gray to greenish gray Luster: vitreous Other: commonly altered to biotite or chlorite Diagnostic Properties: the hardness and cleavage are distinctive of amphibole; the dark color distinguishes hornblende from most other amphiboles; ferro-actinolite and hornblende can be difficult to distinguish Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.60-1.70; n = 1.61-1.72; n = 1.62-1.73; increasing with increasing iron content Relief: moderate to moderate-high; positive Color/Pleochroism: shades of green and brown with the former predominate in green hornblende and the latter predominant in brown hornblende; pleochroism increases with iron content; green hornblende is pale green, gray green, yellow green, yellow, deep green, green, olive green, deep bluish green, blue green; brown hornblende is greenish yellow, yellow brown, yellow, greenish brown, pale brown, sepia brown, reddish brown Birefringence: (0.014-0.034); low-moderate to moderate; upper first order to upper second order colors Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins are common; Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 55 90o; high to very high 2V; rarely Biaxial (+) with very high 2V; 2V increases generally with iron content Other: cross-sections showing the two cleavages display symmetrical extinction; may be zoned; pale green hornblende (uralite) commonly forms reaction rims around pyroxene

Diagnostic Properties: the diamond-shaped cross-section and two cleavages at 56o and 124o distinguish hornblende as an amphibole; the green-brown pleochroism, () optic sign, high 2V and moderate birefringence are characteristic of hornblende; actinolite possesses similar, if paler, less pleochroic, colors, higher birefringence, lower relief and smaller extinction angles and occurs almost exclusively in metamorphic rocks; oxyhornblende has deeper, more strongly pleochroic colors, higher birefringence and smaller extinction angles; biotite possesses a single cleavage, higher birefringence and near parallel, birdseye extinction Occurrences/Associations: Hornblende is the most common and widely distributed amphibole group mineral. It is an essential constituent of a wide variety of felsic, acidic and intermediate rocks including granitoids, syenite and diorite and equivalent volcanic rocks, where it (and oxyhornblende) is a common phenocryst phase. It is less abundant, but still significant constituent of mafic/basic and even ultramafic/ultrabasic such as hornblende gabbro and hornblendite. Hornblende is also an important constituent of medium-grade, mafic and quartzofeldspathic rocks such as amphibolite, hornblende schist and gneiss formed in the epidote amphibolite, amphibolite and hornblende hornfels facies. It also occurs, less commonly, in some calcareous and pelitic rocks. Uses: Hornblende has little economic value. Rocks that contain hornblende are used as dimension stone for countertops and facings.

HYPERSTHENE: see ORTHOPYROXENE ICE: Composition: H2O; an oxide mineral (X2O group) Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a1 = 4.50, a2 = 4.50, c = 7.34; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: occurs as lacey, skeletal stellated to dendritic hexagonal crystals in snowflakes and frost; more abundantly as granular to massive crystal aggregates in glaciers or on the surfaces of frozen bodies of water Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1; soft Specific Gravity: 0.92; extremely low (buoyant in water!) Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; excellent conchoidal fracture

Diaphaneity: transparent to very translucent Colors: colorless to white, when pure; bluish tint in thick accumulations Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: unusually low melting temperature makes it unstable in many surface environments where it melts at 0oC and sublimates at lower temperatures; therefore always cold to the touch Diagnostic Properties: low hardness, extremely low specific gravity, low melting temperature and cold feel, white color, vitreous luster and conchoidal fracture render ice difficult to confuse with any other mineral Microscopic Properties: thin-sections cannot be prepared by normal methods because of low melting point Refractive Indices: n = 1.309; n = 1.311; Relief: very high, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.002; extremely low; nearly isotropic Twinning: basal deformation twins are common Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Diagnostic Properties: melts at room temperature Occurrences/Associations: Because of its low melting temperature, ice is a sedimentary mineral that forms at low temperatures in surface and near-surface environments. It typically forms by precipitation from water vapor in the atmosphere in the form of snow, hail or frozen rain. Thick snow accumulations commonly recrystallize (a diagenetic, not metamorphic process) to form glacial ice deposits whose thickness may exceed 5km and blanket extensive areas, especially during ice ages. Ice forms as frost when water vapor freezes on surfaces. Ice also forms when liquid water freezes on the surface of lakes, ponds, rivers and the ocean. Lastly ice forms when liquid soil water freezes, both in areas of seasonal freezing and in areas of permafrost, as well as when liquid freezes in rock fractures, a major agent in the disintegration of rock bodies by frost action. Uses: The major use of ice is to cool alcoholic and non- alcoholic beverages. Prior to the invention of refrigeration, ice cut from ponds was used to preserved food by keeping it cool in an

ice box; the use of ice in travel coolers is similar. Ice is also used to construct structures, e.g. igloos, in cold regions, to replenish snow on skiing courses and to reduce swelling after injuries. Ice is also used in sculptures, as a surface in ice-skating and hockey rinks and to lower patients body temperature during medical procedures.

IDOCRASE: old name for VESUVIANITE ILLITE: Composition: K0.8Al2(Al0.8Si3.2)(OH)2; a phyllosilicate mineral; a 10 clay mineral with a T-OT structure, similar to that in muscovite; similar clay minerals that contain more calcium, sodium, iron and magnesium include glauconite and celadonite and small amounts of these may be in solid solution with illite Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.18, b = 9.02, c = 9.98; = 90o, = 90+o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as very small (< 4m), platy microcrystals; typically in finely crystalline, massive aggregates or as disseminated crystals or grains; common component of mixed layer clays Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 - 2; soft to very soft Specific Gravity: 2.6 2.9; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect; almost always indistinct Diaphaneity: nearly transparent in crystals to barely translucent in massive aggregates Colors: colorless to pale gray or green, but may be colored by impurities such as limonite and hematite may render it tan, yellow-brown or reddish Streak: white to pale gray Luster: dull, earthy Other: possesses a somewhat sticky, cohesive feel when pure Diagnostic Properties: Illite is distinguished from other clay minerals with which it is commonly mixed only by advanced methods such as XRD Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n = 1.542 1.567; n = 1.565 1.608; n = 1.565 1.608 Relief: low to moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.028 0.032; maximum high second order colors; typically somewhat lower in microscopic flakes Optic Sign: Biaxial (): 2Vx = 0 - 10o; low 2V; figures rarely obtained Diagnostic Properties: the microscopic, platy crystals, lack of color, low-moderate relief and moderate birefringence distinguish illite; kaolinite possesses lower birefringence and a larger 2V (if a figure can be obtained); smectite clays are difficult to distinguish from illite, unless they are iron-rich, in which case they posses yellow-brown-green pleochroism; there is a large variety of clay minerals and most cannot be distinguished optically and require alternate techniques for accurate identification Occurrences/Associations: Illite forms chiefly from the alteration of aluminum silicate minerals especially potassium feldspar, but also plagioclase, feldspathoids and a host of metamorphic minerals. It is produced either by hydrothermal alteration of such minerals or by weathering. It is therefore an abundant constituent of soils and of detrital sedimentary rocks, especially shale and mudstone. Uses: Illite, as an important constituent of clay, is used in the production of bricks, ceramics, paper, plastics, cosmetics and refractory materials. Because of its very low permeability, compacted clay is commonly used to line hazardous waste sites, containment ponds and city dumps.

ILMENITE: Composition: FeTiO3; an oxide mineral; ferric iron (Fe+3) in simultaneous substitution for titanium (Ti+4) and ferrous iron (Fe+2); in this way forms a coupled solid solution series with hematite Crystal System: Hexagonal: trigonal (bar3): a1 = 5.09, a2 = 5.09, c = 14.09; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: tabular to platy crystals with rhombohedral truncations; commonly in massive to granular aggregates or as disseminated grains and crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6

Specific Gravity: 4.7 4.8; high Cleavage/Fracture: none; but parting due to twinning may be discernable Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: black Streak: black Luster: metallic to submetallic Other: commonly intergrown with magnetite; alters to limonite and leucoxene (a mixture of iron and titanium oxides) Diagnostic Properties: Ilmenite is characterized by its black color, black streak and hardness; it is distinguished from specular hematite by its black streak and from magnetite by its weaker magnetism (if any) Microscopic Properties: opaque; brownish with a pale pink or violet tint in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Ilmenite occurs widely as a disseminated accessory mineral in both igneous and metamorphic rocks. It also in concentrated in the heavy mineral populations of detrital sediments derived from such source rocks. Large concentrations of ilmenite occur as segregation products in mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic rocks such as gabboro, norite and peridotite and associated rocks such as anorthosite where it commonly occurs with magnetite. It occurs less commonly in hydrothermal veins. Uses: Ilmenite is a major ore of titanium (Ti) which is used with iron to strengthen steel and in alloys with aluminum, molybdenum and vanadium that are used in aircraft engines, missiles and spacecraft. Because of its resistance to corrosion, it is used in propeller shafts and riggings on boats. Because it is physiologically inert and can integrate with bones, titanium is a choice material for joint replacement and tooth implants. Because of its light weight and strength, titanium is used in alloys for golf clubs and eyeglass frames. Titanium is used most extensively as a pigmenting agent in white paints and plastics.

JADEITE: Composition: NaAlSi2O6; single chain inosilicate; clinopyroxene; some coupled substitution (Ca+2 for Na+1) and (Mg+2 and/or Fe+2 for Al+3) commonly occurs Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.5, b = 8.6, c = 5.2; = 90o, = l08o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: crystals are stubby prismatic to prismatic with squarish four to eight-sided crosssections; also acicular; typically in massive or granular aggregates; also fibrous Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.24 3.43; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two prismatic cleavages {210}, near 90o (87o and 93o); good only; massive aggregates do not display cleavage and are very tough Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically various shades light apple green to emerald green; also colorless, white or bluish green; mottled color variations in one sample common Streak: white to pale green-gray Luster: vitreous to pearly Diagnostic Properties: green, sometimes mottled, color and toughness distinguish the massive aggregates from other minerals; Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.654 1.673; n = 1.659 1.679; n = 1.667 1.692 Relief: moderate to moderately high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to very pale green; deeper shades of green and yellow in iron-rich varieties Birefringence: 0.08 0.21; low-moderate; maximum colors are first order reds to second order green Twinning: simple paired twins and lamellar twins occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+) or, less commonly, (); 2Vz = 60 - 90o; 2Vx = 84 - 90o; high 2V Other: cross-sections (showing near right angle cleavage) display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections show one cleavage with maximum extinction angle of 30-41o to cleavage Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from green amphiboles by its 2 orientations of cleavage near right angles and squarish 4- 8-sided cross sections; acicular-fibrous varieties do not display the cleavages well, but can be distinguished from nephritic

tremolite-actinolite by jadeites higher refractive indices and larger extinction angles; jadeite is quite similar to both diopside and augite in color, but diopside and augite are always biaxial (+), possess generally higher birefringence and higher refractive indices and relief and typically have a smaller 2V; omphacite is closely similar to jadeite, but occurs in the eclogite facies rather than in the blueschist facies so that the associations are somewhat different Occurrences/Associations: Jadeite occurs principally in metamorphic rocks of the blueschist facies produced by high P/T metamorphism along Franciscan and/or Sanbagawan trajectories in subduction zones. It is typically associated with minerals such as glaucophane, albite-rich plagioclase, lawsonite, garnet, aragonite, calcite, quartz, muscovite, zoisite and kyanite Uses: Jadeite is the principal mineral in jade (some jade is composed of the amphibole called nephrite) that is widely used in jewelry and carved decorative objects and utensils.

JASPER: see CHERT KAOLINITE: Composition: Al2Si2O5(OH)4; a phyllosilicate mineral; a 7 clay mineral with a T-O structure; similar clay minerals with a slightly different layer stacking arrangement are dickite, nacrite and halloysite Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 5.14, b = 8.94, c = 7.38; = 91.5o, = 104.7o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as very small (< 4m), platy microcrystals; typically in finely crystalline, massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.6; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect; almost always indistinct Diaphaneity: somewhat to barely translucent in massive aggregates Colors: white, but may be colored by impurities such as limonite and hematite may render it tan, yellow-brown or reddish Streak: white

Luster: earthy to chalky; sometimes pearly Other: typically possesses a sticky, cohesive feel Diagnostic Properties: The white color, low hardness, pearly-earthy luster and sticky feel are characteristic, but distinguished from other clay minerals with which it is commonly mixed only by advanced methods such as XRD Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.553 1.565; n = 1.559 1.569; n = 1.560 1.570 Relief: low, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.005 0.007; quite low; first order gray Optic Sign: Biaxial (): 2Vx = 24 50o; low to moderate 2V; figures rarely obtained Diagnostic Properties: the microscopic, platy crystals, lack of color, low-moderate relief and low birefringence distinguish kaolinite; illite and smectite possess significantly higher birefringence and a smaller 2V (if a figure can be obtained); because of their microcrystalline nature, clays are difficult to distinguish from one another; there is a large variety of clay minerals and most cannot be distinguished optically and require alternate techniques for accurate identification Occurrences/Associations: Kaolinite forms chiefly from the alteration of aluminum silicate minerals especially feldspars, but also feldspathoids and a host of metamorphic aluminum silicate minerals. It is produced either by hydrothermal alteration of such minerals or by weathering, especially in warm, humid climates with acidic soil waters. It is therefore a common constituent of soils and of detrital sedimentary rocks, especially shale and mudstone. Uses: Kaolinite is an economically important clay mineral. It is an important ingredient in many cosmetic products including It is used in the manufacture of quality china and porcelain ware (as china clay or kaolin), in the production of ceramic products including roofing tiles, bricks and sewer pipes. It is also used in the production of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, cement, drilling mud, paper, paint, rubber and refractory materials to line furnaces.

KERNITE: Composition: Na2B4O6(OH)23H2O; a borate mineral

Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 15.52, b = 9.14, c = 6.96; = 90o, = 109o, = 90o Crystal Habit: sometimes occurs in nearly equant crystals; more commonly occurs as granular to coarsely crystalline, cleavable masses Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 - 3 Specific Gravity: 1.91; quite low Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations not at right angles (71o and109o); both pinacoidal {100} and {001} and perfect; the intersection of these sets can mimic a fibrous habit Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to white or pale gray Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: may acquire a white, crumbly coating (the mineral tincalconite) by dehydration after prolonged contact with the atmosphere; slowly soluble in water Diagnostic Characteristics: distinguished by its two orientations of cleavage not at 90o that yield long, splintery fragments that mimic a fibrous habit and hardness Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.455; n = 1.472; n = 1.487 Relief: moderate negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.032; high; 3rd and 4th order colors Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 80o; very high Diagnostic Properties: a scarce mineral, kernite can be recognized by the combination of two perfect cleavages not at right angles, moderate negative relief, high birefringence, biaxial () optics with a high 2V, and its association with other continental evaporite minerals

Occurrences/Associations: Most kernite forms by the alteration of borax produced by evaporation in enclosed, saline lake in warm, arid climates and as an efflorescent formed by soil water evaporation under similar conditions. Commonly associated minerals include borax, ulexite, colemanite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and a host of rare borate minerals. Uses: The most important use of kernite is in the production of borax used in manufacture of glass fibers for use in insulation and textiles. Borax is also used in detergent soaps and as a flux in metallurgical processes such as welding and smelting. One isotope of elemental boron, obtained from kernite, is used in the shields of atomic reactors and elemental boron is also used in fuels for rockets and automobiles and in the high strength plastics used in aircraft manufacturing.

KYANITE: Composition: AlAlOSiO4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral, polymorphic with andalusite and sillimanite; small amounts of iron (Fe+3) may substitute for aluminum (Al+3) Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 7.12, b = 7.85, c = 5.57; = 90o, = 101o, = 106o Crystal Habit: typically in elongate, bladed (to prismatic) crystals which sometimes possess a twisted appearance; mostly as disseminated crystals; less commonly as tabular crystals; occurs as foliated, reticulated or granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals. Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 on the cleavage; very hard; 5 parallel to prism elongation; moderate plus Specific Gravity: 3.53 3.67; moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {100} cleavage; perfect; a second pinacoidal {010} cleavage not at 90o (79o) is good only, so may or may not be discernible; splintery fracture sometimes observed Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent Colors: most commonly bluish to bluish gray or bluish white; also gray; rarely greenish; colors are often somewhat patchy or mottled Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: alters to sericite and chlorite

Diagnostic Properties: The bluish colors, bladed crystals, patchy colors, good cleavage and significantly different hardness in different directions are characteristic of most kyanite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.710 1.718; n = 1.719 1.725; n = 1.724 1.734 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale blue; not pleochroic Birefringence: 0.012 0.016 low; maximum first yellow to red colors typical Twinning: simple paired twins common; lamellar twins occur as well Optic Sign: Biaxial (), 2Vx = 78-84o; very high 2V Diagnostic Properties: the combination of bladed crystals, with excellent cleavage, relatively high relief, relatively low birefringence, colorless to pale blue character, biaxial () optics with very high 2V and the large extinction angles are characteristic of kyanite; sillimanite is easily distinguished because it is commonly acicular, possesses lower relief and slightly higher birefringence, is biaxial (+) with small 2V, is typically colorless to gray and possesses parallel extinction Occurrences/Associations: Kyanite is the high pressure polymorph of aluminum silicate and typically forms in high P/T pelitic metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and granulite. It is therefore abundant in regional metamorphic rocks produced in the blueschist facies where it is associated with lawsonite, muscovite, pyrophyllite, pumpellyite, chloritoid, corundum, glaucophane and garnet. It also occurs in the higher pressure portions of the amphibolite facies where it is produced along Sanbagawan and Barrovian trajectories and is associated with garnet, cordierite, staurolite, biotite, muscovite and sillimanite. Kyanite occurs in some eclogites, with omphacite and pyrope-rich garnet and is found in some ultra-high pressure (UHP) facies rocks. Kyanite also occurs in peraluminous igneous rocks including granitoids and pegmatite, although whether or not it is a primary mineral in such rocks is controversial. Uses: Kyanite is mined extensively to be refined for use as a refractory material used in the manufacture of the porcelain used spark plugs and high alumina bricks for lining blast furnaces and kilns. It may also be used as an abrasive.

LABRADORITE: see PLAGIOCLASE LAZURITE: see SODALITE

LAWSONITE: Composition: CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2H2O; a disilicate (sorosilicate) mineral; substitutions for Ca+2 (Na+1) and Al+3 (Fe+3, Fe+2, Mg+2 and Ti+4) occur on a small scale Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 8.80, b = 5.85, c = 13.10; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: tabular crystals with rectangular cross-sections; also as massive to granular aggregates and commonly as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 - 8; very hard Specific Gravity: 3.09 3.12; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two sets of pinacoidal {100} and {010} cleavage at 90o; very good Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly bluish gray; also colorless, white, or bluish green Streak: white Luster: vitreous to greasy Diagnostic Properties: The elevated hardness, tabular crystals with rectangular crosssections and two perpendicular orientations of cleavage and color are diagnostic as is the association with other high P/T minerals Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.665; n = 1.672 1.676; n = 1.684 1.686 Relief: moderate-high Color/Pleochroism: colorless to very pale bluish green; may be very weakly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.020; moderate; maximum colors are first order red to purple Twinning: simple or lamellar twins common; may be curved Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 76 87o; high 2V Other: cross sections that symmetrical extinction; the longitudinal sections are length slow and display parallel extinction

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of rectangular cross sections, moderate to high relief; low-moderate birefringence, two sets of cleavage and biaxial (+) optics with high 2V are characteristic, as is the association with high pressure blueschist facies minerals; andalusite is similar in many properties, but possesses lower birefringence and square cross sections and occurs in low pressure associations; clinozoite has only one cleavage, higher refractive indices, inclined extinction, often lower 2V and anomalous interference colors and zoisite possesses only one cleavage, a lower 2V and often anomalous interference colors Occurrences/Associations: Lawsonite most commonly occurs in blueschist facies metamorphic rocks, formed by moderate to high pressure and low temperature (high P/T) conditions associated with rocks being rapidly forced downward along Franciscan trajectories to relatively high pressures, while remaining relatively cool, during subduction in trench-arc systems. Lawsonite is commonly associated with glaucophane, pumpellyite, kyanite, muscovite, pyrophyllite, chlorite, zoisite, aragonite and albite-rich plagioclase in pelitic, mafic, and rare calcareous rocks formed under blueschist facies conditions (6-12kbar, 300-400oC). Less common lawsonite occurrences have been reported from high pressure, higher temperature metamorphic rocks of the eclogite facies. Uses: Lawsonite has no economic value.

LEPIDOCHROSITE: see GOETITE, LIMONITE LEPIDOLITE: see MUSCOVITE LEUCITE: Composition: KAlSi2O6; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspathoid mineral; small amounts of substitution of sodium (Na+1) for (K+1) and ferric iron (Fe+3) for aluminum (Al+3) may occur Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m); a1 = 13.05, a2 = 13.05, c = 13.75; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; pseudoisometic crystals common because leucite crystallizes at high temperatures as an isometric mineral that inverts to tetragonal on cooling Crystal Habit: Equant; trapezohedral crystals {hhl} resemble soccer balls; also as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.5; moderate (low side of moderate)

Cleavage/Fracture: exists, but poor and so not generally discernable Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent Colors: white to gray Streak: white Luster: vitreous to dull Other: commonly occurs as phenocrysts set in aphanitic groundmass of volcanic and hypabyssal rocks; also disseminated in the groundmass; commonly alters to analcime or to psuedoleucite which is a mixture of nepheline and potassium feldspar Diagnostic Properties: the color, hardness, trapezohedral crystals and occurrence as phenocrysts in volcanic/hypabyssal rocks are distinctive; microscopic crystals in the groundmass cannot of course be identified by macroscopic techniques Microscopic Properties: Refractive Index: n = 1.508 1.511; n = 1.509 -1.511 Relief: low, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.000 0.001; appears isotropic or nearly so Twinning: complex, concentric lamellar twins, intersect at ~60o Optic Sign: none, essentially isotropic Diagnostic Properties: the 8-sided cross sections (through trapezohedra), low negative relief, lack of color and extremely low (almost isotropic) birefringence are characteristic; the complex twins are also useful Occurrences/Associations: Leucite is a scarce mineral, occurring chiefly in alkali-rich (especially K2O-rich), silica undersaturated rocks formed at or near the surface, including phonolite and foid syenite. It is typically associated with nepheline, albite-rich plagioclase, sanidine, aegerine or aegerine-augite, and riebeckite or arvedsonite. Uses: Leucite has no economic value or use.

LIZARDITE: see SERPENTINE

LIMONITE: see goethite; technically a rock or soil, but commonly discussed with minerals Composition: Variable; sometimes as FeOOHnH2O; Limonite is a fine-grained mixture of different hydroxide, oxyhydroxide and oxide minerals including goethite (-FeOOH), lepidochrosite (-FeOOH), jarosite [KFe3(OH)6(SO4)2], hematite (Fe2O3) and clay minerals; analogous to bauxite for aluminum hydroxides and oxyhydroxides Crystal System: not applicable Crystal Habit: limonite typically occurs in fine-grained, earthy masses and as surficial encrustations; also as pseudomorphs after other iron-bearing minerals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 5; variable apparent hardness Specific Gravity: 2.0 4.3; low to moderately high apparent specific gravity; depending on mineralogy and compactness (porosity) Cleavage/Fracture: none discernible Diaphaneity: slightly transparent in hand specimen Colors: variable, but typically rusty yellow brown to darker sienna brown Streak: yellowish brown to orange brown Luster: dull in earthy masses; small metallic highlights where coarser Diagnostic Properties: combination of yellow brown to orange brown streak, relative softness, rusty yellow brown color and earthy luster are distinctive Microscopic Properties: see goethite; shades of yellow brown to nearly opaque in thin section, with high indices of refraction characterize limonite mixtures Occurrences/Associations: Limonite is most commonly produced by the weathering of ironbearing minerals and rocks near Earths surface. It is also produced by the low temperature hydrothermal alteration of such minerals. It contributes significantly to the yellow to brown colors common to many soils and to the stains of that color common on joint surfaces. Uses: Limonite is an ore of iron (Fe), the primary material used in the manufacture of a wide range of steel alloys for the manufacture of tools, appliances, automobiles, trucks, ships, weapons, bridges and building supports. It is also used in the production of cast iron for pipes and furnaces. Limonite is also used as a pigment. Limonite in the form of gossan produced by the weathering of pyrite and other iron-bearing sulfides was once used by prospectors to locate underlying hydrothermal vein deposits.

MAGNESITE: Composition: MgCO3; isostructural with calcite, siderite, rhodochrosite, and smithsonite; partial solid solution exists with calcite (see high-Mg calcite) and more with rhodochrosite and smithsonite, all members of the rhombohedral (calcite) group of carbonate minerals; a complete solid solution exists with siderite; some siderite (Fe) component is common in magnesite as a result of the abundance of iron in natural environments Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral) (bar32/m): a1 = 4.63, a2 = 4.63, c = 15.01; = 120o, = 90 o, = 120o Crystal Habit: rare equant rhombohedral {10bar10} crystals; typically in compact, massive microcrystalline aggregates or coarser granular to massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; harder if intergrown with microcrystalline silica or opal Specific Gravity: 3.0; average; higher where Fe substitutes for Mg Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations at 90o; rhombohedral {10bar10}; compact, earthy masses display subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: translucent to somewhat translucent in earthy masses Colors: variable; but white and gray common; also yellow-brown when iron present Streak: white Luster: vitreous; to dull in earthy masses Diagnostic Properties: massive microcrystalline aggregates resemble chert, but are much softer; cleavable masses resemble dolomite, but have a higher specific gravity Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.700; n = 1.512 Relief: variable; from low negative to high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless; iron-rich varieties transitional to siderite may display pale yellow to brown colors due to the presence of oxidized iton

Birefringence: 0.188; very high to extreme; so high order, faded colors in most orientations Twinning: lacks mechanical twinning Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: extinction is symmetrical with respect to intersecting cleavages Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage, and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as magnesite; magnesite is distinguished from dolomite and calcite only with difficulty; magnesite lacks mechanical twins common to dolomite and calcite and occurs much less commonly as euhedral rhombohedra than does dolomite; iron-poor magnesite lacks they yellowbrown color of siderite, but iron-rich varieties are difficult to distinguish from the latter; siderite possesses higher refractive indices and positive relief in all orientations Occurrences/Associations: Most magnesite is produced by hydrothermal alteration (metamorphism) of ultramafic rocks such as peridotites; for example by hydrothermal solutions derived from heated sea water circulating through ultramafic rocks near the oceanic ridge system. These deposits typically occur as microcrystalline, earthy masses. Scarcer magnesite deposits are associated with sedimentary dolostone and evaporite deposits where they are thought to form by diagenetic or hydrothermal alteration of preexisting carbonate minerals such as dolomite. Magnesite also occurs as a rare mineral in hydrothermal veins. Uses: By heating magnesite and driving off carbon dioxide (CO2) magnesium oxide (MgO) is produced which is used in the production of refractory bricks or linings for furnace and industrial oven linings. Most magnesium for other uses is currently derived from seawater or groundwater brines.

MAGNETITE: Composition: FeFe2O4; an oxide; a spinel group (XY2O4 group) mineral; commonly contains some titanium (Ti+4) that substitutes for Fe+3 in the X site with the charge difference balanced by the simultaneous substitution of Fe+2 for Fe+3 in the Y site, as part of a complete solid solution series with ulvospinel FeFeTiO4; magnesium (Mg+2) and manganese (Mn+2) may substitute for iron (Fe+2) and some chromium (Cr+3) for iron (Fe+3) Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 8.38, a2= 8.38, a3 = 8.38; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: commonly occurs as small, equant octahedral {111} crystals; rarely dodecahedral {110}; more commonly as massive to granular crystal aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6; hard Specific Gravity: 5.2; high; less if substantial magnesium is present Cleavage/Fracture: none; sometimes displays octahedral parting Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: black Streak: black Luster: metallic Other: strongly ferromagnetic; the variety known as lodestone acts as a natural magnet Diagnostic Properties: the strong magnetism is most diagnostic; the black color, black streak, metallic luster, lack of cleavage and high hardness are characteristic; ilmenite is similar, but much more weakly magnetic; chromite has a brownish streak and pitchy luster Microscopic Properties: opaque; brownish gray in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Magnetite is widely distributed in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is most commonly a disseminated accessory mineral in all of these rocks. Concentrated masses of magnetite are produced by magmatic segregation (liquid immiscibility?) in some mafic/basic gabbros. Massive replacement deposits of magnetite are produced by contact metamorphism of calcareous metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary iron formations and banded iron formations often contain substantial amounts of magnetite. These large igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary bodies constitute most of the concentrated magnetite deposits that are mined commercially. Magnetite is also concentrated in the heavy mineral population of detrital sediments. Uses: Magnetite is a major ore of iron (Fe), the primary material used in the manufacture of a wide range of steel alloys for the manufacture of tools, appliances, automobiles, trucks, ships, weapons, bridges and building supports. It is also used in the production of cast iron for cookware, pipes and furnaces and of wrought iron for fences and patio furniture. Iron is widely used as a dietary supplement, especially for people with symptoms of anemia.

MALACHITE: Composition: Cu2CO3)(OH)2; a hydrous carbonate mineral Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.48, b = 12.03, c = d3.21; = 90o, = 99o, = 90o Crystal Habit: rare individual crystals are short prismatic to acicular; commonly as acicular to capillary crystals in radiating, banded, colloform (botryoidal) aggregates; also as drusy encrustations and granular to earthy masses Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 -4 Specific Gravity: 3.9 4.05 Cleavage/Fracture: 2 orientations of prismatic cleavage not at 90o; perfect, but rarely visible; a third orientation of fair cleavage is also not generally discernible; Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: various shades of green; often intense, bright green Streak: pale, but distinctly green Luster: vitreous, even adamantine; silky in fibrous-radiating aggregates Other: effervesces readily in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); commonly alters to azurite Diagnostic Characteristics: The bright green color and ready effervescence in HCl are diagnostic; the radiating, banded botryoidal habit is useful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.655; n = 1.875; n = 1.909 Relief: moderately high to very high positive Color/Pleochroism: green; pleochroic from nearly colorless, pale green, yellow-green, blue-green Birefringence: 0.254; extreme; the faded colors (creamy white) masked by green color Optic Sign: biaxial (); 2Vx = 40-45o (moderate)\

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pleochroism in green shades, common acicular-radiating-banded colloform habit, high relief, extreme birefringence and biaxial (-) optics with moderate 2V are characteristic; the association with other oxidized zone minerals is also helpful Occurrences/Associations: Malachite most commonly occurs in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits that contain copper-bearing sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite and bornite which are oxidized by descending, acidic (CO2-rich) meteoric water. It is typically associated with azurite, cuprite, limonite (goethite), smithsonite and cerussite, among others. Uses: a minor ore of copper; large masses are prized by collectors as decorative pieces; banded malachite is widely used as a stone in jewelry; when powdered, malachite provides green pigments

MANGANITE: Composition: MnO(OH); Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.84, b = 5.23, c = 5.74; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; so pseudo-orthorhombic Crystal Habit: slender prismatic to stubby prismatic or columnar crystals, with striated faces; in divergent aggregates; also in massive, granular aggregates, as encrustations and as a constituent of mixtures of manganese minerals called wad Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 4.3; high Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal cleavage {010}; perfect Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: dark gray to black Streak: dark brown to brownish black Luster: metallic Other: twins common; frequently alters to pyrolusite and other manganese minerals

Diagnostic Properties: Recognized chiefly by its striated prismatic crystals, black color, brownish streak and hardness of 4; pyrolusite is softer; romanechite is harder; there are many related manganese oxides and hydroxides, many of which occur in finely crystalline mixtures called wad Microscopic Properties: opaque Occurrences/Associations: Manganite, forms in low temperature hydrothermal veins where it is associated with hausmanite, barite, calcite and siderite. It is also a common constituent of wad, finely crystalline mixtures of multiple manganese oxide, hydroxide and oxyhydroxide minerals that form by the alteration of manganese bearing minerals in soils, by precipitation on ocean floors (manganese nodules) and in bogs (bog manganese) and also accumulate in a variety of other near surface environments. Uses: Manganite is an ore of manganese (Mn) which is primarily used as a hardening agent in the manufacture of steel for support beams, automobiles and machinery. It is also used as a hardening agent with aluminum and copper, e.g., in the production of electrical wires and transmission lines. Manganese is also use as a coloring agent in the production of glassware and ceramics. It is used in the production of potassium permanganate (KMnO4), used as a to kill bacteria and algae in water and wastewater treatment.

MARIALITE: see SCAPOLITE MEIONITE: see SCAPOLITE MARCASITE: Composition: FeS2; polymorphic with pyrite Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 4.44, b = 5.14, c = 3.38; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are typically tabular, less commonly prismatic; commonly occurs in radiated and colloform (reniform to globular) aggregates, often with a drusy surface Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6 ; hard Specific Gravity: 4.89; high Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations not 90o; fair, generally not discernable Diaphaneity: opaque

Colors: pale bronze yellow (almost white) Streak: black Luster: metallic Other: commonly alters to limonite which often forms pseudomorphs after marcasite Diagnostic Properties: Distinguished from pyrite which it closely resembles by lighter (whiter) color on fresh surfaces and different crystal forms Microscopic Properties: opaque; pleochroic creamy white to yellowish with pinkish and greenish tints in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Most marcasite occurs in low temperature (telethermal and epithermal) hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, fluorite, barite and calcite. Uses: Marcasite has no significant value, though some sulfur for sulfuric acid and some iron are extracted from it during the processing of ore minerals with which it is associated.

MICROCLINE: Composition: KAlSi3O8; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspar; polymorphic with orthoclase and sanidine; significant sodium (Na+1) may substitute for potassium (K+1) at the time of formation, but much sodium (Na+1) exsolves to form albite during cooling, so microcline is commonly perthitic or microperthitic; microcline typically possesses a high degree of Al-Si ordering Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 8.58, b = 12.96, c = 7.21; = 91o, = 116o, = 88o Crystal Habit: stubby prismatic to flattened prismatic-tabular crystals; commonly in coarse, granular aggregates and disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.5 2.6; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 2 cleavage orientations at very nearly right angles (89.4 and 90.6o); one perfect; one good to very good Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent

Colors: variable; typically white, salmon pink-red or yellowish; green to blue-green variety is called amazonite Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: commonly perthitic, with blebs, stringers and/or patches of intergrown albite; commonly alters to sericite and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: distinguished as a potassium feldspar by its hardness, colors, commonly perthitic nature and two sets of cleavage near right angles; sanidine is generally more transparent; sanidine and orthoclase are rarely blue green and crystallize in the monoclinic system, but cleavage fragments of orthoclase can otherwise be indistinguishable from microcline without optical microscopy Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.517 1.522; n = 1.522 1.526; n = 1.524 1.530 Relief: low, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless; often dusty or cloudy from alteration to clay minerals Birefringence: 0.006 0.007; low; maximum colors are first order grays and white Twinning: tapered polysynthetic pericline twins; often in gridiron (scotch plaid or tartan) pattern with polysynthetic albite twins; also paired Carlsbad twins; microperthitic intergrowths common as well Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 50 85o; moderate to very high 2V; generally high to very high; increases with degree of order Other: commonly perthitic, with blebs, stringers and/or patches of intergrown albite Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low negative relief, cloudiness, two sets of right angle cleavage, low birefringence and gridiron or scotch plaid twinning are diagnostic; microperthitic intergrowths and the biaxial negative character with relatively high 2V help to confirm the identification; orthoclase lacks tapered pericline twins and albite twins, so never displays gridiron twinning; sanidine is less cloudy and possesses a smaller 2V Occurrences/Associations: Microcline is an abundant mineral in alkali-rich, deep seated plutonic igneous rocks including pegmatite, granodiorite, granite and alkali granite, and syenite and alkali syenite that formed under conditions of slow cooling. It is also common in quartzofeldspathic and pelitic metamorphic rocks including gneiss and schist formed in the

amphibolite and granulite facies. It is also a significant component of detrital sedimentary rocks including arkosic sandstone and also occurs as authigenic cement in sedimentary rocks. Uses: As an important rock forming mineral, especially in granitoids, microcline as a constituent of such rocks finds use as a dimension stone for countertops, wall and building facings and monuments. Ground up and mixed with clays and quartz, it also finds use in the manufacture of glass and ceramics products including tiles, plumbing fixtures and electrical insulators and as filler in paints, plastics and paper products. Amazonite is cut and polished for use as an ornamental stone.

MOLYBDENITE: Composition: MoS2; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a1 = 3.16, a2 = 3.16, c = 12.29; = 120o, = 90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: typically as platy to tabular crystals with hexagonal outlines; less commonly as stubby hexagonal prisms; occurs in massive, foliated or scaly aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 1; very soft Specific Gravity: 4.6 4.7; high Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of perfect basal pinacoidal {0001} cleavage Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: bluish silver gray Streak: gray black, often with a slight greenish tint Luster: metallic Other: greasy feel typical of very soft minerals; sectile; plates are flexible, but not elastic Diagnostic Properties: Can be distinguished from graphite which is equally soft by its much higher specific gravity, its slightly bluish gray color and the slightly greenish tint to the gray black streak Microscopic Properties: Opaque; white, with a bluish tint, in reflected light

Occurrences/Associations: Molybdenite most commonly occurs in high temperature hydrothermal (hypothermal) veins and disseminations in granitoid igneous rocks including aplites and pegmatites. It also occurs in contact metamorphic rocks such as skarn. Associated minerals include quartz, calcite, fluorite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, cassiterite, scheelite and wolframite. Uses: Molybdenite is the major ore of molybdenum (Mo) which is used in the production of high strength steels. It also finds use in lubricants and, as an essential trace element, in dietary supplements and fertilizers.

MONAZITE: Composition: (Ce,Ln,Y,Th)PO4; a rare earth phosphate mineral; any rare earth element can substitute in the REE site, but cerium and lanthanum are the most common; actinides, especially thorium, but also uranium, can substitute; some silicate (SiO4) can substitute for phosphate (PO4) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 6.79, b = 7.01, c = 6.46; = 90o, = 104o, = 90o Crystal Habit: roughly equant to bladed or stubby prismatic crystals; most crystals small, except in some pegmatites; typically as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5; upper end of moderate Specific Gravity: 4.8 5.4; high Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernible; a single fair cleavage orientation exists Diaphaneity: slightly to somewhat translucent Colors: typically reddish brown to yellow Streak: white Luster: subvitreous; resinous to waxy Other: commonly radioactive due to the thorium (and lesser uranium) content Diagnostic Characteristics: in scarce larger crystals, monazite can be recognized by its radioactivity, its high specific gravity which distinguishes it from titanite (sphene) and its hardness that distinguishes it from zircon Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n = 1.774 1.800; n = 1.777 1.801; n = 1.828 1.851; increase with thorium content Relief: very high positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale yellow or yellow brown; pleochroism not generally visible Birefringence: 0.045 0.075; very high; colors up to 3rd and 4th order, with some fading Twinning: simple twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 6 19o; small Diagnostic Properties: the very high relief, colorless to pale yellow color, very high birefringence, monoclinic crystals and biaxial (+) optics with a large 2V are characteristic; titanite is typically pale brown, possesses higher refractive indices, relief and birefringence, typically occurs in wedge-shaped crystals and possesses a larger 2V; zircon and xenotime are tetragonal and uniaxial and xenotime tends to be pleochroic in thin-section, zircon colorless Occurrences/Associations: Monazite is typically disseminated as an accessory mineral in igneous alkali-rich granitoids, granitic pegmatites, syenites, alkali syenites and carbonatites. It also occurs as an accessory mineral in metamorphic rocks such as marbles, gneisses and granulites. Monazite is very stable in the weathering environment and so also occurs concentrated with other resistant heavy minerals (magnetite, ilmenite, zircon, rutile and tourmaline), in placer deposits in sediments and sedimentary rocks. Uses: Monazite is an important ore of rare earth elements and Thorium. Rare earth elements are widely used in modern manufactured products. For example, cerium is used in catalytic converters; lanthanum is used in nickel hydride batteries for hybrid cars, in catalytic converters and in mantles for gas lamps; and yttrium is used in computer monitors, TV screens and fluorescent lights. Thorium is used in incandescent lights, the mantles for gas lamps and as a fuel in nuclear reactors. Several rare earth elements are used in the manufacture of high refractive index glass and in an increasing variety of other applications.

MONTMORILLONITE: see SMECTITE MUSCOVITE: Composition: KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2; a phyllosilicate mineral; a mica group mineral with a T-O-T structure with interlayer cations; there is a limited substitution solid solution series with

paragonite [NaAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2] in which sodium (Na+1) substitutes for potassium (K+1) in amounts limited by size difference to about 10%; microscopic crystals of muscovite or paragonite are commonly called sericite; in all of these, fluorine (F-1) commonly substitutes for hydroxyl ion (OH-1); chlorine (Cl-1) does so less commonly; lepidolite[K(LiAl)2+1 3AlSi3O10(OH)2] is a scarce, lithium (Li ) mica, closely related to muscovite; many other smallscale substitutions occur in all of these micas Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.19, b = 9.04, c = 20.08; = 90o, = 96o, = 90o; Crystal Habit: tabular (six-sided cross sections) to platy-scaly crystals; common in foliated aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: on cleavage surfaces: 2; soft; perpendicular to cleavage ~4; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.8 -2.9; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one set of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to pale yellow or greenish; also pale gray, pale brown or reddish Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: flexible and elastic in thin sheets Diagnostic Properties: the light color, along with the low hardness, tendency to split into thin flakes or sheets along one perfect cleavage and the elasticity of such sheets are diagnostic; paragonite is similar; lepidolite typically is shade of pink or lilac owing to its elevated lithium content, but can be indistinguishable from muscovite in hand samples.

Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.552 1.574; n = 1.582 1.611; n = 1.587 1.616 Relief: low to moderate, positive; changes somewhat with rotation Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.036 0.049; high; striking colors are upper second to third order

Twinning: usually not discernable Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 28 47o; low to moderate 2V; paragonite possesses a lower 2Vx = 0 40o and the 2Vx of lepidolite ranges between 0 60o Other: birdseye maple appearance near extinction which occurs at small angles (0 3o) to the prominent cleavage; length slow parallel to cleavage, but difficult to see because of deep interference colors; wavy extinction in bent flakes; hexagonal sections display symmetrical extinction; Diagnostic Properties: the combination of a single perfect cleavage, lack of color, birdseye extinction, near parallel extinction and biaxial () optics with a small to moderate 2V are characteristic; distinguished from biotite by biotites strong colors and pleochroism; most phlogopite is also pleochroic with paler colors than biotite, but darker than muscovite, a significantly smaller 2V and a generally different set of associations; lepidolite and paragonite are similar to muscovite in that they are colorless, but generally, being nearly uniaxial, possess a smaller 2V; lepidolite possesses lower birefringence and occurs almost exclusive in lithium-rich pegmatite and paragonite is common only in metamorphic rocks; distinctions between these three minerals may require XRD and other analytical techniques Occurrences/Associations: Muscovite is an abundant mineral in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, it is especially abundant in peraluminous granitoids, pegmatites and aplites and other felsic rocks. It is also common, in the form of sericite, as the product of hydrothermal alteration of feldspars and other aluminum-bearing minerals in such rocks. Muscovite occurs widely in low- to fairly high-grade pelitic metamorphic rocks including slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss. Because it is fairly resistant to decomposition during weathering, muscovite is a common constituent of many detrital sediments and sedimentary rocks, especially arkosic sandstone. Paragonite occurs widely in low-grade metamorphic rocks including slate, phyllite and schist. Lepidolite occurs chiefly in lithium-rich pegmatite where it is associated with beryl, tourmaline, spodumene, amblygonite, albite-rich plagioclase and potassium feldspar. Uses: Sheets of muscovite are used in the windows of microwave tubes and industrial furnaces. Ground muscovite is used in the production of capacitors and transistors for use in electronic devices, in the production of insulation, paints and plastics and in the manufacture of wall paper with a high sheen. Consumer products that use muscovite include lipstick, nail polish, eye shadow and glitter.

NATROLITE:

Composition: NaAl2Si3O102H2O; a tectosilicate mineral; a zeolite mineral; some substitution of potassium (K+1) and sodium (Ca+2) for calcium (Na+1) commonly occurs; the latter is balanced by substitution of aluminum (Al+3) silicon (Si+4) Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2mm): a = 18.27, b = 18.61, c = 6.59; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs as slender prismatic to acicular crystals; commonly in radiating aggregates; also fibrous and granular aggregates; finely crystalline massive aggregates and as disseminated crystals also occur Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 5; hard Specific Gravity: 2.2 2.3; low Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of cleavage near right angles; perfect; but not always discernible in aggregates Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically colorless to white; less commonly shades of gray, blue, yellow and pink Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The light color, hardness and slender prismatic to acicular crystals in radiating to fibrous aggregates are distinctive; finely crystalline aggregates generally require XRD analysis for accurate identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.473 14.90; n = 1.476 14.91; n = 1.485 15.02 Relief: low-moderate to moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.012 0.013; low; first order yellow to orange colors Other: fibers are length slow Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 0 64o; very low to moderately high 2V Other: longitudinal sections through crystals are length slow

Diagnostic Properties: the negative relief and low birefringence are typical of most zeolite minerals; stilbite is similar, but is biaxial () and typically possesses a sheaf-like habit rather than a radial-fibrous one; heulandite typically lacks the fibrous-radial habit, has slightly lower birefringence and typically a lower 2V; chabazite is pseudorhombohedral, with 3 sets of pseudocubic cleavage; laumontite is biaxial () with three sets of cleavage; analcime is isotropic Occurrences/Associations: Natrolite is a relatively widespread zeolite mineral. Coarse crystals are especially common in cavities, including vesicles, in mafic/basic rocks such as basalt where they are associated with calcite, analcime, chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, thomsonite and pectolite. Less commonly, these occur in intermediate volcanic rocks such as andesite. Natrolite is also reported from alkaline soils formed in desert environments and from some contact metamorphic aureoles. Uses: Natrolite, like most natural and synthetic zeolites, is used, after heating and dehydration, to produce materials that remove water vapor from carbon dioxide, from refrigerants such as Freon and from many organic chemicals used in industrial applications. It is also used as a molecular sieve used to separate molecules of different sizes as in separating nitrogen from air to produce nearly pure oxygen gas. Because zeolites can selectively absorb selected molecules, they are widely used in applications that include reducing the hardness of water for cleaner laundry by the removal of calcium, removing heavy metals from mine waters and industrial waste and radioactive isotopes from nuclear waste, in the treatment of wastewater by the removal of undesirable dissolved species such as ammonia and in the cleaning up of oil spills.

NEPHELINE: Composition: (Na0.75,K0.25)AlSiO4; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspathoid mineral; somewhat higher amounts of potassium (K+1) may substitute for sodium (Na+1); a related, non-isomorphous mineral is kalsilite (KAlSiO4) Crystal System: Hexagonal (6) a1 = 9.99, a2 = 9.99, c = 8.37; = 90o, = 120o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are stubby hexagonal prismatic; more commonly in granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.6 -2.8; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: not discernible; conchoidal fracture

Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent Colors: typically white to gray; occasionally with a pale yellow or pale green tint Streak: white Luster: typically subvitreous to greasy Other: commonly alters to cancranite (often yellow), sodalite (blue or gray), calcite, clay minerals and analcime Diagnostic Properties: resembles some milky-smoky quartz, but is softer, has a characteristic greasy luster and different alteration products Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.529 1.546; n = 1.526 1.544 Relief: low, negative; less commonly very low positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless; may be pale gray or cloudy Birefringence: 0.003 0.005; Low; first order grays Twinning: occur, but rarely discernable Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Other: rectangular longitudinal sections are length fast and display parallel extinction; may display zoning Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low relief, low birefringence, uniaxial () optics and lack of recognizable cleavage are characteristic; quartz has low, but positive relief, is generally less cloudy and is uniaxial (+); orthoclase possesses 2 sets of right angle cleavage and commonly displays paired Carlsbad twins and/or is perthitic; the distinction from kalsilite requires advanced chemical analysis or XRD Occurrences/Associations: Nepheline occurs widely in alkali-rich, silica undersaturated plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks including foid syenite, foidite and phonolite, where it is associated with sodalite, cancranite, leucite, albite-rich plagioclase, potassium feldspars, aegerine and aegerine-augite, and riebeckite and arfvedsonite. Uses: The principle use of nepheline is as a constituent in the manufacture of glass and ceramic ware. In a few places, nepheline is mined as a source of aluminum ore.

NICKELINE: aka Nickelite Composition: NiAs; an arsenide mineral Crystal System: Hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m): a1 = 3.60, a2 = 3.60, c = 5.01; = 120o, =90o, = 120o Crystal Habit: rare, tabular hexagonal crystals; typically in massive aggregates, but also in colloform (reniform to stalactitic) aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 5; hard (moderately so) Specific Gravity: 7.78; very high Cleavage/Fracture: none; subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: typically pale copper red; dark gray to black tarnish Streak: pale brownish black Luster: metallic on fresh surfaces Diagnostic Properties: the pale copper red color is distinctive; the high specific gravity, brownish black streak and tarnish are helpful indicators Microscopic Properties: Opaque; highly reflective in reflected light in pleochroic shades of yellow-pink to brownish pink Occurrences/Associations: Nickeline is a scarce mineral that most frequently occurs in mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks, where it is formed by magmatic segregations and associated with pentlandite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite. Uses: Nickeline is a minor ore of nickel used to strengthen steel alloys for the production of machines. It is also an essential ingredient in stainless steel used in silverware and kitchen appliances and in a number of other alloys. Nickel is also used with copper in so-called nickel coins.

NITER: (also known as saltpeter) Composition: KNO3; a nitrate mineral; closely related to nitratite (NaNO3)

Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 5.43, b = 9.19, c = 6.46; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: commonly as acicular crystals in radiating to fibrous aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.1; low Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {011} not at right angles; good Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent Colors: white Streak: white Luster: vitreous to silky Other: extremely soluble Diagnostic Properties: the cooling taste is diagnostic; the habit and low hardness are also helpful Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n =1.332; n = 1.504; n = 1.504 Relief: low to very low, negative; sections in which both na and n or n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.176; very high to extreme; so high order, faded colors (creamy white) in some orientations Twinning: simple pairs common Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 5 -12o; very low 2V Diagnostic Properties: the lack of color, negative relief, twinkling effect, extreme birefringence, and biaxial () optics with very low 2V are characteristic of this rare mineral which is associated with other continental evaporites

Occurrences/Associations: Niter and nitratite occur as surface encrustations and as precipitates in saline soils in areas with very low rainfall and are associated with gypsum, halite and other evaporate minerals. Use: Niter and nitratite are mined as a source of nitrate for fertilizers.

OLIGOCLASE: see PLAGIOCLASE OLIVINE: Composition: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral; a complete solid solution series exists between forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe2SiO4); forsterite-rich olivine is much more abundant than fayalite-rich olivine; manganese (Mn+2) commonly substitutes, especially for iron (Fe+2) in small amounts; forsterite-rich olivine is stable at higher temperatures than fayalite-rich olivine; montecellite is a scarce, calcium rich olivine (CaMgSiO4) Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): forsterite: a = 4.75, b = 10.20, c = 5.98; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; fayalite: a = 4.82, b = 10.48, c = 6.09; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals tabular to bladed or equant; typically in massive or granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 7; hard Specific Gravity: 3.22 4.39; moderate to high; increasing with forsterite and therefore iron (Fe+2) content Cleavage/Fracture: not generally discernible; conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: quite translucent to transparent Colors: commonly pale to light olive green to yellowish green; becoming darker as fayalite component and therefore iron (Fe+2) content increases; fayalite-rich olivine is medium green or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: crystals sometimes zoned with cores relatively enriched in forsterite component and rims enriched in fayalite component; alters to reddish- to yellow-brown iddingsite

and to orange to greenish chlorophaeite which are isotropic or nearly isotropic mixtures of alteration products Diagnostic Properties: The pale green, olive green, yellow green color, high translucency, conchoidal fracture, hardness and granular to massive habit are diagnostic. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.636 1.827; n = 1.651 1.868; n = 1.669 1.879; increases with fayalite, therefore iron (Fe+2) content; maximum forsteritic olivine (>Fo50) indices are in the range n = 1.730; n = 1.760; n = 1.770 Relief: moderate to very high; increases with fayalite, therefore iron (Fe+2) content Color/Pleochroism: typically colorless; fayalite-rich olivine may display slight pleochroism in shades of pale yellow color, greenish yellow and amber Birefringence: 0.033 0.052; high to very high; increase somewhat with fayalite, therefore iron (Fe+2) content; maximum colors from higher second order to third order; maximum birefringence for forsteritic olivine is approximately 0.042 Twinning: none reported Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 84 90o; very high 2V, for forsterite-rich (>Fo87) olivine; Biaxial () with 2Vx = 74 90o, for other compositions (Fo87 Fo50) and 46 74o for fayalitic (<Fo50) olivine Other: commonly alters to serpentine and/or iddingsite (a reddish brown to golden brown mixture of limonite and/or hematite and clay minerals) Diagnostic Properties: forsteritic olivine is recognized by its lack of color, its moderate to high relief, its high birefringence and its general lack of cleavage; optically positive olivine and olivine with very high 2V (>75o) is forsteritic; fayalite is often lightly colored in shades of yellow-brown-green, has higher indices, relief and birefringence and is optically negative with a smaller 2V; the pyroxenes with which forsteritic olivine is commonly associated possess 2 sets of near right angle cleavage Occurrences/Associations: Forsterite-rich olivine is the most abundant mineral in ultramafic/ultrabasic rocks in the upper mantle (it inverts to spinel below 400km depth). In such rocks, including dunite and peridotite, it is associated with orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and spinel-group minerals and with sparse amphibole and phlogopite. Forsterite-rich olivine is also common in mafic/basic igneous rocks such as olivine gabbro, troctolite and basalt where it is associated with calcic plagioclase, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene. Rare fayalite-rich olivine occurs in iron-rich rocks, including granitoids. Forsterite-rich olivine is also a common mineral in medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks. It is especially common in calcareous, calcsilicate

rocks where it is associated with grossularite garnet, calcite, dolomite, diopside, tremolite, phlogopite, epidote, and wollastonite, and in mafic and ultramafic metamorphic rocks where it is associated with orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, calcite plagioclase and garnet. Montecellite is a scarce component of calcareous contact metamorphic rocks and of alkalic mafic-ultramafic igneous rocks such as feldapathoidal peridotite and basalt and lamprophyre. Because it decomposes rapidly during weathering, olivine is rare in detrital sediments. Uses: Deep green, transparent specimens of olivine called peridote are used as gems (birthstones). Olivine is used to make refractory sand for castings in foundries and for refractory bricks and is sometimes used in abrasive products.

OMPHACITE: Composition: (Ca,Na)(Al,Mg,Fe)Si2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene with a range of compositions between jadeite (which contains more sodium and aluminum) and augite (which contains more calcium, iron and magnesium) and diopside (which contains more calcium and magnesium) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.45 9.68, b = 8.57 8.90, c = 5.23 5.28; = 90o, = 105 - 108o, = 90o Crystal Habit: scarce crystals are stubby prismatic, with squarish four- to eight-sided crystals (one or two sets of prisms); commonly anhedral; as disseminated crystals and massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.16 3.43; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic {210} cleavage near right angles (87o and 93o); a prominent parting that bisects the cleavage may be discernible Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically bright green to dark green Streak: gray to gray-green Luster: vitreous to satiny Other: alters to fibrous green amphiboles; retrograde metamorphism produces breakdown into diopside and plagioclase intergrowths

Diagnostic Properties: omphacite cannot be reliably distinguished from many other pyroxenes, but the bright green color and association with garnet is suggestive; distinguished from green amphiboles by the near right angle cleavage Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.662 1.701; n = 1.670 1.712; n = 1.685 1.723 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale green Birefringence: 0.012 0.028; low to moderate; maximum colors from first order yellow to second order reds and yellow Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 56 84o; moderate to high Other: cross-sections (showing near right angle cleavage) display symmetrical extinction Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from green amphiboles by its 2 orientations of cleavage near right angles and squarish 4- 8-sided cross sections; omphacite is quite similar to both diopside and augite in color, but diopside and augite possess generally higher birefringence, higher refractive indices and relief and typically have a smaller 2V; omphacite is closely similar to jadeite, but occurs in the eclogite facies rather than in the blueschist facies so that the associations are somewhat different Occurrences/Associations: Omphacite is a high pressure clinopyroxene. It is an essential constituent (with garnet) of most eclogite formed by the metamorphism of mafic/basic igneous rocks under very high pressure and temperature conditions in the eclogite facies at depths that exceed 40 50km. Omphacite also occurs in regional metamorphic rocks of the high temperature/high pressure granulite (granulite II) facies and in high P/T rocks of the blueschist facies. It always suggests deep burial of the rocks in which it occurs. Uses: Omphacite has no commercial value.

OPAL: Composition: SiO2nH2O; a silica group, amorphous mineraloid, lacking a long-range crystal structure, in which silica spheres are packed together, with various amounts of water that range from about 4% to 20% in the interstices between them Crystal System: none; since amorphous

Crystal Habit: there are no crystals; but opal generally occurs in irregular masses Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard, but less so than other silica group species Specific Gravity: 2.0 -2.3; low Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; excellent conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: highly variable; white, yellow, brown, red, green, gray and blue Streak: white Luster: typically waxy to resinous Other: often opalescent with significant play of colors, as in fire opal Diagnostic Properties: The conchoidal fracture and waxy to resinous luster are indicative; possesses a lower hardness than microcrystalline silica such as chert and chalcedony, although the latter can possess a waxy luster; the play of colors and isotropic nature are clinchers Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: 1.43 1.46; low Relief: moderate-high; negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless; may be pale gray or pale brown Birefringence: none, isotropic Optic Sign: none, isotropic Diagnostic Properties: the combination of moderate-high negative relief, lack of color or pale color, lack of cleavage, conchoidal fracture and isotropic optics are characteristic; most volcanic glass possesses a higher refractive index and lower negative relief; analcime commonly occurs as trapezohedral crystals, sodalite may occur as dodecahedral crystals and both minerals possess somewhat higher refractive indices an lower negative relief; XRD may be necessary to sort these out in finely crystalline examples Occurrences/Associations: Opal occurs widely in surface environments and in sedimentary rocks. It is a component of siliceous sinter in hot springs deposits, of low temperature

hydrothermal vein deposits and of much petrified wood. It is the primary component of the shells of diatoms that accumulate in many aqueous environments to form diatomite or diatomaceous earth and of radiolaria that accumulate on deep ocean floors. It replaces calcareous shells. Opal also fills voids in volcanic rocks and is a significant cement in some detrital sediments, especially those of volcanoclastic origin. Uses: Opals of various colors are significant gemstones, widely used in jewelry. Organic opal, in the form of diatomite or diatomaceous earth, is widely used as a soil conditioner, in filtration agents for removing impurities and in insulation products.

ORTHOCLASE: Composition: KAlSi3O8; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspar; polymorphic with microcline and sanidine; much sodium (Na+1) may substitute for potassium (K+1) at the time of formation, but much sodium (Na+1) exsolves to form albite during cooling, so orthoclase is commonly perthitic or microperthitic; commonly has an intermediate degree of Al-Si ordering between well-ordered microcline and more disordered sanidine Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.56, b = 12.96, c = 7.30; = 90o, = 116o, = 90o Crystal Habit: stubby prismatic to flattened prismatic crystals; commonly in coarse, granular aggregates and disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.5 2.6; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 2 cleavage orientations at right angles; one perfect; one good to very good Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: variable; typically white, gray, salmon pink or yellowish Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: sometimes perthitic, with blebs, stringers and/or patches of intergrown albite, but less often than microcline; commonly alters to sericite and clay minerals

Diagnostic Properties: distinguished as a potassium feldspar by its hardness, colors, sometimes perthitic nature and two sets of cleavage near right angles; sanidine is generally more transparent; microcline is more commonly perthitic, crystallizes in the triclinic system and is sometimes blue-green, but cleavage fragments of orthoclase can otherwise be indistinguishable from microcline without optical microscopy Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.518 1.526; n = 1.522 1.530; n = 1.523 1.533 Relief: low, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless; often dusty or cloudy from alteration to clay minerals Birefringence: 0.006 0.008; low; maximum colors are first order grays and white Twinning: paired Carlsbad penetration twins common; also simple, paired Mannebach and Baveno twins; microperthitic intergrowths are common as well; lacks polysynthetic pericline and albite twins and therefore the gridiron (scotch plaid or tartan) twinning characteristic of microcline Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 40 75o; moderate to high 2V; increases with degree of order and with sodium (Na+1) content Other: commonly perthitic; graphic and granophyric intergrowths with quartz common; also as blebs and stringers in plagioclase (antiperthite); alters to sericite and clay minerals; replaced by calcite, albite and quartz Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low negative relief, cloudiness, low birefringence, biaxial () optics with a sizeable 2V and common, simple paired twins are characteristic; sanidine is similar, but generally less cloudy, possesses a significantly smaller 2V and occurs mostly in volcanic-hypabyssal igneous rocks; microcline typically possesses polysynthetic, tapered pericline twins and albite twins in a gridiron pattern under crossed polars; untwinned orthoclase resembles quartz, but the latter is uniaxial (+) and is generally less cloudy except in hydrothermal veins Occurrences/Associations: Orthoclase is an important rock forming mineral. It is abundant in alkali-rich plutonic igneous rocks including pegmatite, granodiorite, granite and alkali granite, syenite and alkali syenite, especially those formed at moderate cooling rates at moderate depth. It is also common in quartzofeldspathic and pelitic metamorphic rocks including gneiss and schist formed in the greenschist and amphibolite facies and in contact metamorphic aureoles. It is also a significant component of detrital sedimentary rocks including arkosic sandstone and occurs as authigenic cement in sedimentary rocks.

Uses: As an important rock forming mineral, especially in granitoids, orthoclase finds use as a dimension stone for countertops, wall and building facings and monuments. Ground up and mixed with clays and quartz, it also finds use in the manufacture of glass and ceramics products including tiles, plumbing fixtures and electrical insulators and as filler in paints, plastics and paper products.

ORTHOPYROXENE: (ENSTATITE-HYPERSTHENE) Composition: (MgFe)2Si2O6; single-chain inosilicate; an orthorhombic pyroxene solid solution series exists between end member components enstatite (Mg2Si2O6) and ferrosilite (Fe2Si2O6), with several intermediate compositions including hypersthene (MgFeSi2O6); orthopyroxenes can be subdivided on the basis of percent enstatite end-member (En) into: enstatite (En88-100), bronzite, often considered a variety of hypersthene (En70-88), hypersthene (En50-70), ferrohypersthene (En30-50), eulite (En12-30) and ferrosilite (En0-12); the is rare in nature; significant substitution of other cations occurs; calcium (Ca+2) substitutes significantly at high temperatures and exsolves to form separate phases during cooling that produce exsolution lamellae of calcium-rich clinopyroxene Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 18.22 18.43, b = 8.81 9.08, c = 5.17 5.24; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: crystals are usually stubby prismatic with squarish four- or eight-sided cross sections; more commonly as massive to granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals; acicularcapillary, radial fibrous aggregates also occur Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.21 3.96; moderate to moderate to high; increasing with ferrosilite, therefore iron (Fe+2) content Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic {210} cleavage near 90o (88o and 92o); good only; a prominent parting commonly bisects the cleavages Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to barely translucent; less transparent with increasing iron (Fe+2) content Colors: enstatite-rich specimens are usually clove to honey brown or greenish brown; ferrosilite-rich specimens of hypersthene and ferrohypershene are medium to dark green, brown or greenish black Streak: white to gray

Luster: vitreous to pearly; submetallic on some bronzite Other: prominent parting bisect the cleavage in many specimens Diagnostic Properties: the two nearly right angle cleavages distinguish orthopyroxene from amphiboles of similar color; the clove to honey brown or greenish brown color and generally greater transparency distinguish enstatite-rich orthopyroxene from most clinopyroxene; the submetallic luster of bronzite is diagnostic; hypersthene resembles many clinopyroxenes and requires a thin-section or advanced analytical technique for proper identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.649 1.768; n = 1.653 1.770; n = 1.657 1.788 Relief: moderately high to high, positive Color/Pleochroism: enstatite is colorless; hypersthene is colorless to pleochroic in shades of brownish pink, pink, yellow, red, brownish red, greenish yellow, green, gray green and blue green Birefringence: 0.007 0.020; low to moderate, increasing with iron (Fe+2) content; maximum first order gray through first order reds is typical Twinning: none; but exsolution lamellae of clinopyroxene are common and mechanical twins can occur Optic Sign: enstatite (En88-100): Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 48 90o; moderate to very high bronzite, hypersthene, ferrohyperthene, eulite (En12-88): Biaxial (), 2Vx = 50 90o; moderate to very high; ferrosilite is Biaxial (+), but rare in nature Other: 4-8 sided cross-sections display two sets of cleavage near right angles and symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections display parallel extinction; hypersthene (and bronzite) that formed at depth, commonly contains fine exsolution lamellae of exsolved calcic pyroxene such as augite or diopside; mechanical twin lamellae have similar looking appearance; poikilitic olivine common; Diagnostic Properties: the combination of 4-8 sided cross-sections and two sets of cleavage near right angles distinguish orthopyroxene from orthoamphiboles such as anthophyllite; the parallel extinction and relatively low birefringence distinguish orthopyroxene from most clinopyroxenes which also possess angular extinction; enstatite is biaxial (+), whereas other orthopyroxenes are biaxial () Occurrences/Associations: Magnesium-rich orthopyroxene such as enstatite and bronzite are abundant in mafic/basic igneous rocks such as norite, gabbro and basalt and in

ultramafic/ultrabasic rocks including peridotite (harzburgite and lherzolite) and pyroxenite. It is commonly associated with olivine, clinopyroxenes, spinels, and, in the case of mafic rocks, with calcic plagioclase. Orthopyroxenes are also abundant in relatively high-grade metamorphic rocks. For example, enstatite is abundant in regionally metamorphosed ultramafic rocks of the granulite facies and iron-rich eulite is a common component of metamorphose banded iron formations (BIF). Orthopyroxene is also a major constituent of the stony component of meteorites formed in the asteroid belt. Uses: Orthopyroxene is of limited economic value. Some specimens find use as a semi-precious gemstone and orthopyroxenite is used as a dimension stone for counter tops.

PARAGONITE: see MUSCOVITE PECTOLITE: Composition: Ca2NaH(SiO3)3; single-chain inosilicate; a pyroxenoid mineral with rotated single chains; small amounts of manganese (Mn+2) may substitute for calcium (Ca+2) Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 7.99, b = 7.04, c = 7.02; = 91o, = 96o, = 102o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are acicular to capillary; commonly occurs in radiating aggregates of such crystals; less commonly occurs in massive aggregates (like alabaster gypsum) Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 5; moderate to hard Specific Gravity: 2.86 3.09; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of pinacoidal cleavage {100} and {001} near 90o (85o and 95o); perfect; not discernible in acicular to capillary crystals with radiating habit Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically white to creamy white Streak: white Luster: silky in radiating aggregates; dullish in compact massive aggregates Diagnostic Properties: the radiating acicular to capillary crystals are characteristic; resembles wollastonite, but the latter has a different occurrence in medium-high grade metamorphic rocks rather than as a cavity filling in volcanic rocks; the zeolite mineral

natrolite is similar, but usually forms divergent aggregates of slender prismatic crystals rather than radiating aggregates Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: Relief: moderate to moderate plus, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.026 0.035; moderate to high; maximum colors are middle to upper second order Twinning: rare Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 50 63o; moderate to moderately high 2V Other: fibers are length slow, extinction angles are < 10o Diagnostic Properties: the combination of radial-fibrous habit, length slow crystals, moderate-high relief and birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with moderate-large 2V are characteristic; wollastonite can be similar, but its fibers are length fast, its extinction angle higher, its birefringence lower and its occurrence and association completely different; tremolite is biaxial () with a larger 2V, its 2 cleavages at 56o and 124o are often visible and it also has a completely different occurrence and association Occurrences/Associations: Pectolite occurs as a secondary, hydrothermal mineral in cavities and vesicles in volcanic rocks such as basalt and andesite. It is commonly associated with calcite, prehnite and zeolite minerals that include stilbite, heulandite, chabazite, natrolite and analcime. Pectolite is a scarce mineral in serpentinites and is a primary mineral in some contact metamorphic skarns and rare foid syenite and phonolite. Uses: Pectolite has no major uses.

PENTLANDITE: Composition: (Fe,Ni)9S8; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 9.93, b = 9.93, c = 9.93; =90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: crystals rare; most commonly in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties:

Hardness: 3 - 4 Specific Gravity: 4.6 5.0; increasing with nickel content Cleavage/Fracture: none; irregular fracture; does have octahedral {111} parting in rare larger crystals Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: light bronze yellow Streak: pale bronze brown Luster: metallic Diagnostic Properties: pentlandite can be distinguished from pyrrhotite by its lack of magnetism and from pyrite by is bronze color, streak and inferior hardness Microscopic Properties: opaque; whitish in reflected light with a creamy pinkish or brownish tint Occurrences/Associations: Most pentlandite occurs in mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks, where it is formed by magmatic segregations and is associated with nickeline, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite. Uses: Pentlandite is the major ore of nickel used to strengthen steel alloys for the production of machines. It is also an essential ingredient in stainless steel used in silverware and kitchen appliances and in a number of other alloys. Nickel is also used with copper in so-called nickel coins.

PHLOGOPITE: see BIOTITE PIEDMONTITE: see EPIDOTE PIGEONITE: Composition: (Fe,Mg,Ca)2Si2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene; the proportions of magnesium and iron vary greatly; the molecular proportion of magnesium (Mg+2) + iron (Fe+2) is always much greater than that of calcium (Ca+2 = 10 30%); displays extensive solid solution, especially at high temperatures, with augite [(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Fe,Al,Ti)Si2O6] which has much more calcium (Ca+2), more sodium (Na+1) and aluminum (Al+3) and less magnesium (Mg+2) than pigeonite Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.71, b = 8.95, c = 5.25; = 90o, = 106o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: rare crystals are stubby prismatic to prismatic {210} with squarish four- to eightsided cross sections; commonly in granular aggregates or coarse cleavable aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.17 3.46; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two prismatic cleavages {210}, near right angles (87o and 93o); prominent parting in some examples Diaphaneity: moderately translucent to barely translucent Colors: typically greenish brown to brown; brownish black when iron-rich Streak: gray Luster: vitreous to subvitreous Other: exsolution lamellae of more calcic plagioclase (augite) are common; alters to chlorite, biotite, limonite, hematite and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: pigeonite cannot be distinguished in hand specimen from other clinopyroxenes or orthopyroxene with similar colors; if discernable, the crude, nearly right angle cleavage and/or four- to eight-sided squarish crystals distinguish it from amphiboles with similar color Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.682 1.732; n = 1.684 1.732; n = 1.705 1.757 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless, pale shades of greenish brown, pink, brownish pink, yellow, green, and reddish brown; very slightly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.023 0.029; moderate; maximum second order green to second order red colors Twinning: simple paired and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 0 - 32o; low to very low 2V

Other: squarish, 4-8 cross-sections (showing near right angle cleavage) display symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections are length slow; maximum extinction angles are 39 - 52o; phenocrysts are commonly zoned Diagnostic Properties: the squarish 4-8 sided cross-sections and two orientations of cleavage near right angles distinguish pigeonite from most amphiboles; augite is similar, but has a higher 2V (> 45o) and often lacks the pinkish colors that characterized pigeonite, in addition to green and brown; orthopyroxenes show parallel extinction in all longitudinal sections; olivine lacks cleavage has much higher birefringence and generally higher 2V; iron-rich orthopyroxene (hypersthene) and iron-rich olivine are also optically () Occurrences/Associations: Pigeonite is a comparatively uncommon clinopyroxene which occurs primarily in volcanic and shallow intrusive (hypabyssal) igneous rocks, especially as small phenocrysts and as a groundmass constituent. It occurs in rocks in mafic/basic and intermediate rocks including basalt, diabase, gabbro, andesite, diorite and some dacite. It often inverts to orthopyroxene with augite exsolution lamellae during long-term cooling. Uses: Pigeonite has no commercial value. It is a constituent of some dimension stone used for countertops.

PLAGIOCLASE: Composition: (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)AlSi2O8; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspar group mineral; complete coupled solid solution series between albite (Ab) = NaAlSi3O8 with large ion sites occupied by sodium (Na+1) and of the tetrahedral sites occupied by silicon (Si+4) and anorthite (An) = CaAl2Si2O8 with large ion sites occupied by Ca and of the tetrahedral sites occupied by aluminum (see chapter 3 for detailed discussion). Plagioclase varieties are distinguished by the percentage of anorthite (An) end member as follows: Albite (<An10), Oligoclase (An10-30), Andesine (An30-50), Labradorite (An50-70), Bytownite (An70-90) and Anorthite (>An90); both high-temperature (relatively disordered) and low-temperature (relatively ordered) plagioclases occur, with transitional ordering common; chemical zoning is very common in plagioclase, typically with cores enriched in anorthite relative to rims, but also with oscillatory or reverse zoning; a complete solid solution series exists at high temperatures between albite (NaAl3Si 3O8) and potassium feldspar (KAl3Si3O8), but at lower temperatures exsolution occurs to produce perthite (blebs, stringers or patches of albite in a potassium feldspar host) or antiperthite (blebs, stringers or patches of potassium feldspar in an albite host); anorthoclase is a sodic feldspar with substantial potassium feldspar in solid solution (Ab65Or35 to Ab90Or10) that occurs in volcanic rocks and has fine-scaled gridiron twinning analogous to that in microcline;

Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 8.14 8.18, b = 12.79 12.88, c = 7.158 14.17; = 93 94o, = 116 117o, = 88 92o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are tabular to bladed; may even be platy; typically in coarsely crystalline granular or finely crystalline massive aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.6 2.8; moderate; increases with anorthite content Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of cleavage near right angles (86 87o and 93 94o); one perfect the, other very good Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: variable, typically white to light to dark gray; also pale green, yellow or blue Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly or opalescent Other: twinning striations common on some cleavage surfaces; alters to sericite, clay minerals, calcite, epidote group minerals and/or zeolite group minerals Diagnostic Properties: The hardness and near right angle cleavage are indicative of feldspar; distinguished from potassium feldspar by the presence of fine striations on the basal cleavage surface that results from albite twinning; the salmon pink color also distinguishes potassium feldspar as do the common macroscopic perthitic intergrowths; to complicate matters, many metamorphic plagioclase crystals are untwinned Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.527 1.577; n = 1.531 1.585; n = 1.534 1.590, increasing with anorthite content; the boundary between albite and oligoclase occurs at approximately n = 1.533; n = 1.537; n = 1.542, so most albite has negative relief; between oligoclase and andesine at approximately n = 1.543; n = 1.547; n = 1.552; between andesine and labradorite at approximately n = 1.554; n = 1.558; n = 1.562; between labradorite and bytownite at approximately n = 1.563; n = 1.568; n = 1.573; between bytownite and labradorite at approximately n = 1.572; n = 1.578; n = 1.583 Relief: low negative for most albite, low positive for the others with positive relief increasing with anorthite content

Color/Pleochroism: colorless; typically dusty or cloudy due to alteration to clays and sericite Birefringence: 0.007 0.013; low; increasing with anorthite content; maximum colors are first order grays and white to yellow (in very calcic plagioclase) Twinning: polysynthetic albite twins are very common; they tend to be very narrow in oligoclase, a little wider in albite and andesine and can be quite wide in bytownite and anorthite; paired Carlsbad twins occur with albite twins, especially in more calcic plagioclase; tapered polysynthetic pericline twins occur alone or in combination with the other two; they are generally at an oblique angle to albite twins; rarer twin types occur; some metamorphic plagioclase is untwinned Optic Sign: Biaxial () and Biaxial (+) depending on composition and ordering; mostly biaxial negative with 2Vx = 45 90o; also biaxial positive with 2Vz = 58 90o; high to very high 2V; albite and labradorite are (+), andesite and anorthite are () and oligoclase and bytownite may be (+) or () Other: zoning is common, especially in hypabyssal and volcanic rocks; normal zoning is characterized by progressive enrichment in albite (lower-temperature) component from core to rim as might be expected from continuous cooling; reverse zoning is the opposite, sodic cores with more calcic rims, recording changes in equilibrium compositions driven by changes in vapor pressure or magma mixing; oscillatory zoning displays fluctuations from core to rim with calcic core to sodic zones to calcic zones and sodic zones common, recording fluctuations in equilibrium composition; intergrowths are common, including (1) perthite: intergrowths of plagioclase in K-feldspar, (2) antiperthite: intergrowths of K-feldspar in plagioclase, (3) myrmekite: bleb or wormlike intergrowths of quartz in plagioclase Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, cloudiness, low relief, low birefringence, two sets of cleavage near right angles, albite (and other) twinning and biaxial optics are characteristic; orthoclase is similar, but lacks polysynthetic albite twins and has lower refractive indices and negative relief; microcline typically possesses gridiron twins and also has lower refractive indices and negative relief; sanidine lacks albite twins, is less cloudy and has a smaller 2V; quartz is generally less cloudy and lacks cleavage; the combination of refractive index, optic sign and occurrence/association is helpful in sorting out likely subvarieties; many optical methods, most of which use extinction angles and twinning, are available for the determination of plagioclase composition using thin-sectionsconsult a good optical mineralogy book for details; XRD and advanced chemical analytical techniques are required for truly accurate determinations of An content

Occurrences/Associations: Plagioclase is the most abundant rock forming mineral in Earths crust. Albite is common in alkali-rich igneous rocks including pegmatite, alkali granite and granite, alkali syenite and syenite and their aphanitic equivalents such as rhyolite and trachyte. Albite is also common in low temperature pelitic, mafic and quartzofeldspathic metamorphic rocks formed in the albite epidote hornfels, prehnite-pumpellyite, greenschist and even blueschist facies. It is also fairly common in detrital sedimentary rocks and as an authigenic mineral in sedimentary rocks. Oligoclase is common in igneous rocks such as granite, granodiorite, monzonite and their volcanic equivalents such as rhyodacite, dacite and latite. It is reasonably common in detrital sedimentary rocks. Andesine is common in intermediate igneous rocks such as diorite, monzodiorite and andesite. Labradorite is abundant in mafic igneous rocks including gabbro and basalt and in related rocks such as norite and anorthosite. Bytownite is relatively rare, occurring primarily in mafic igneous rocks such as gabbro and norite and occasionally in ultramafic rocks such as websterite and troctolite. Anorthite is rare, occurring most commonly in contact metamorphic skarns and related calcsilicate rocks. None of the calcium-rich plagioclases are common in sedimentary rocks because, their chemical instability during weathering means they tend to be decomposed before they can be dispersed from the source area. Uses: As a major rock forming mineral in granitoids, diorite and gabbro, plagioclase is an important constituent of dimension stone used for countertops, wall and building facings, headstones and sculptures. Albite, ground up and mixed with clays and quartz, finds use in the manufacture of glass and ceramics products including tiles, plumbing fixtures and electrical insulators and all plagioclase finds use as a filler in paints, plastics and paper products.

PLATINUM: Composition: Pt; a native element (native metal); commonly alloyed with iron (Fe), and platinum group metals such as palladium (Pd), rhenium (Rh), osmium (Os) and iridium (Ir), as well as copper (Cu), gold (Au) and nickel (Ni). Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 3.92, b = 3.92, c = 3.92; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: scaly grains; rare, equant, malformed cubic crystals; typically in small; typically disseminated, but small, irregular masses do occur Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4-4; moderate Specific Gravity: 21.4; but usually impure, so lower (14-19) when alloyed with less dense metals

Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; hackly fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: steel gray to dark gray Streak: whitish steel gray Luster: metallic Other: can be magnetic when alloyed with iron Microscopic Properties: Opaque; bluish-white in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Most platinum deposits are associated with large, layered gabbroic intrusions (LLGIs), especially with the, ultramafic layers of such intrusions where it is associated with olivine, pyroxene, chromite and magnetite. It also occurs as placer deposits in detrital sedimentary rocks in close proximity to ultramafic source rocks. Use: Native platinum is the major ore of platinum (Pt), a rare metal. The major use of platinum is as a catalyst in chemical reactions, for example in automobile catalytic converters used to control exhaust emissions. Platinum is highly refractory and resistant to chemical attack and so is used in a variety of high-temperature applications. Platinum is also used in jewelry and some electrical equipment.

POTASH FELDSPAR: see MICROCLINE, ORTHOCLASE and SANIDINE PREHNITE: Composition: Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2; a phyllosilicate mineral; a small percentage of iron (Fe+3) commonly substitutes for aluminum (Al+3) Crystal System: Orthorhombic (mm2): a = 4.65, b = 4.49, c = 18.52; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are platy to tabular; commonly occur in radiating to fanshaped, banded, colloform (globular) aggregates, often with platy drusy surfaces; commonly amygdaloidal; double fans yield an hourglass aggregate Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.8 2.9; moderate; increases with iron (Fe+3) content

Cleavage/Fracture: one basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage orientation; good; commonly not discernable Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: typically light to medium green; also white, gray, yellow, pink Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: alters to chlorite or zeolite minerals Diagnostic Properties: the green color, single cleavage and hardness, in combination with the radiating, globular habit are quite distinctive; smithsonite is softer and effervesces in HCl; hemimorphite possesses a much higher specific gravity Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.610 1.637; n = 1.615 1.647; n = 1.632 1.670; increase with iron content Relief: moderate; higher for iron-rich varieties Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.020 0.035; moderate; increases with iron (Fe+3) content; may be anomalous; maximum colors from first order red to second order blue; abnormal interference colors may occur Twinning: uncommon, but both lamellar and sector twins occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 64 70o; Large 2V Diagnostic Properties: the combination of crystal habit, lack of color, moderate + refractive indices and relief, moderate + birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with high 2V are characteristic; specimens with hourglass structure and/or anomalous birefringence are distinctive; zeolite minerals have moderate negative relief Occurrences/Associations: Prehnite commonly occurs as a cavity filling mineral in basic/mafic to intermediate volcanic rocks where it fills veins or occurs as amygdules in association with zeolite minerals, pectolite and calcite. It is also an abundant constituent of low-grade metamorphic rocks of the zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies where it occurs with pumpellyite, lawsonite, albite-rich plagioclase, epidote, chlorite and zeolites. It is a less common constituent of some skarns where it occurs with calcite, dolomite and a variety of calcsilicate minerals. It also forms by the alteration of plagioclase in igneous rocks.

Uses: Prehnite is sometimes used as a decorative or ornamental stone.

PUMPELLYITE: Composition: Ca2MgAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)2H2O; a sorosilicate mineral; significant variations in composition occur due to large amounts of the usual substitutions (Na+1 for Ca+2) (Fe+2, Fe+3 and Al+3 for Mg+2)(Fe+3 for Al+3) which define different end members of the pumpellyite group Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.83, b = 5.90, c = 19.17; = 90o, = 97o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals commonly slender prismatic or bladed to acicular; commonly in radiating to crudely fibrous aggregates, in massive aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.16 3.25; moderate; increases with iron (Fe) content Cleavage/Fracture: one basal {001} cleavage; good; not easily discerned Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to translucent Colors: variable; typically green to bluish green: also colorless, brown, or greenish black Streak: white or pale gray Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: Difficult to distinguish from members of the epidote group from which it can be distinguished by XRD or other analytical techniques Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.665 1.710; n = 1.670 1.720; n = 1.683 1.726; Relief: moderate-high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale green, blue-green, green, yellow-green, yellow, yellow brown; distinctly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.008 - 0.020; low to moderate; maximum colors are first order gray to red-purple Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), most commonly, or (); 2Vz = 7 90o; 2Vx = 70 90o; very low to very high 2V

Other: maximum extinction angles with respect to cleavage 24o 45o; Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pleochroism in pale shades of green-yellowbrown, high relief, relatively low-moderate birefringence, and biaxial optics is characteristic; resembles epidote group minerals; epidote generally has smaller extinction angles, mottled birefringence, slightly higher birefringence, commonly displays anomalous interference colors, is biaxial () and never has a small-moderate 2V; clinozoisite can be quite similar to pumpellyite, but can be distinguished by the common anomalous birefringence and often larger extinction angles; zoisite is orthorhombic, so possesses parallel extinction; Occurrences/Associations: Pumpellyite most commonly occurs in the low grade prehnitepumpellyite facies (transitional from zeolite facies to higher grades) and in the blueschist facies metamorphic rocks, formed by moderate to high pressure and low temperature (high P/T) conditions associated with rocks being rapidly forced downward along Franciscan trajectories to moderate to high pressures (6-12kbar), while remaining relatively cool (200-400oC), during subduction in trench-arc systems. In the prehnite-pumpellyite facies, pumpellyite common occurs as amygdules in mafic volcanic rocks or as a product of the low pressure, low temperature hydrothermal metamorphism of such rocks where it is commonly associated with prehnite, epidote, zeolites, calcite and albite-rich plagioclase. In the blueschist facies it is associated with lawsonite, muscovite, kyanite, glaucophane, chlorite, actinolite, zoisite, aragonite and albite-rich plagioclase in pelitic, mafic, and rare calcareous rocks formed under prehnite-pumpellyite and blueschist facies conditions. Uses: Pumpellyite has no economic value.

PYRITE: Composition: FeS2; polymorphic with marcasite Crystal System: Isometric (2/mbar3): a = 5.42, b = 5.42, c = 5.42; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: equant individual striated cubes {001} and pyritohedra {102} are common; octahedra {111} less so; very common is massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals; also as acicular crystals with in fibrous or stellated aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6 Specific Gravity: 5.0; high

Cleavage/Fracture: none discernable; one indistinct cleavage exists Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: pale brass yellow, tarnishes dark to iridescent Streak: greenish to brownish black Luster: metallic Other: penetration twins yield iron crosses Diagnostic Properties: superior hardness, brittleness and black streak distinguish pyrite from gold; superior hardness, lighter color and crystal forms distinguish pyrite from chalcopyrite; superior hardness and less bronze-hued color distinguish it from pyrrhotite; similar to marcasite, but has a somewhat deeper, less white color and generally different crystal forms Microscopic Properties: opaque; creamy white to yellow white in reflected light; not pleochroic Occurrences/Associations: Pyrite is widely distributed in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits. It is the most abundant sulfide mineral in hydrothermal deposits that form under all temperatures from telethermal to hypothermal. It is an abundant accessory mineral in igneous rocks of all compositions and in some mafic rocks concentrated in large segregations. It is quite common in sedimentary rocks, especially in coal, black shale and related mudrocks formed under reducing conditions. It is also a common accessory in many metamorphic rocks. Uses: Despite its abundance, pyrite does not have any real economic value. Both iron and sulfur are extracted from pyrite during the processing of ore minerals that occur with it, but pyrite is not mined for its own value.

PYROLUSITE: see WAD PYROPE: see GARNET PYROXENE: see varieties, including AEGERINE, AUGITE, DIOPSIDE, HEDENBERGITE, JADEITE, OMPHACITE, \ORTHOPYROXENE, PIGEONITE, SPODUMENE

PYROPHYLLITE:

Composition: Al2Si4O10(OH)2; a phyllosilicate mineral with a T-O-T structure; rather small amounts of substitution occur: aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4), magnesium (Mg+2), ferrous iron (Fe+2), ferric iron (Fe+3) for aluminum (Al+3); some interlayer sodium (Na+1), potassium (K+1) and/or calcium (Ca+2) may occur Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.17, b = 8.96, c = 18.68; = 90o, = 100o, = 90o; some pyrophyllite crystallizes in the triclinic system with similar dimensions for the a- and b-axes, but roughly half for the c-axis as the unit cell is one T-O-T layer thick, rather than two, and with = 91o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are scaly to tabular, less commonly acicular; occur most commonly in foliated crystal aggregates; also radiating, fibrous and massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 2; very soft Specific Gravity: 2.7 2.9; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect; not generally discernible in finely crystalline aggregates Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically white; also pale shades of yellow, apple green, gray, blue or brown Streak: white Luster: typically pearly; may be dull in some finely crystalline aggregates Other: thin sheets are flexible, but not elastic; soft enough to mark colored paper and to possess a greasy feel; sectile Diagnostic Properties: the combination of very low hardness, greasy feel and luster, pale colors and foliated habit distinguish pyrophyllite from all minerals except talc; muscovite has a vitreous luster and is elastic in thin sheets; pyrophyllite s occurrence in pelitic metamorphic and hydrothermal associations rather than magnesian metamorphic and hydrothermal associations permits it to be distinguished from talc Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.552 l.556; n = 1.586 1.589; n = 1.596 1.601 Relief: low to moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless

Birefringence: 0.043 0.045; high; maximum third order colors common Twinning: rare; poorly developed Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 53 62o; moderate to high Other: cleavage traces are length slow; elongate crystals are length fast Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, low-moderate relief, high birefringence, biaxial () sign with large 2V, and crystal habit are distinctive; resembles talc, but talc possesses a significantly smaller 2V (5o 30o); may resemble some sericite and kaolinite, but sericite has near parallel extinction and lower birefringence and kaolinite has much lower birefringence. Occurrences/Associations: Pyrophyllite occurs primarily in relatively low- to medium-grade, relatively high P/T pelitic metamorphic rocks and is commonly associated with kyanite. Some large deposits of pyrophyllite may be metabauxite deposits. Pyrophyllite also forms as a product of the hydrothermal alteration of aluminum-rich rocks that contain kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite, corundum, topaz, muscovite and/or alkali feldspars. Use: Pyrophyllites primary use is in the production of refractory tiles to line kilns and furnaces. It is also used in the manufacture of floor and wall tiles, pottery and porcelain products. It is also used with gypsum in the manufacture of sheetrock wall board. Pyrophyllite has long been used to make carved ornamental pieces.

PYRRHOTITE: Composition: Fe1-XS; a sulfide mineral; some of the Fe+2 ions are missing from the structure to produce omission defects; their charges are balance by the substitution of two Fe+3 ions in other sites for every three Fe+2 omissions; copper, nickel and cobalt may substitute as well Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m); a = 6.87, b = 11.90, c = 22.72; = 90o, = 90.1o, = 90o; so almost orthorhombic in low-temperature examples; is hexagonal (6/m2/m2/m) in hightemperature examples Crystal Habit: tabular hexagonal crystals most common, with inverted structures; very common as massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3.5 4.5; moderate Specific Gravity: 4.58 4.65; high

Cleavage/Fracture: none; uneven/irregular to subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: pale bronze-yellow color; may have brownish tint; tarnishes black or iridescent Streak: dark gray to black Luster: metallic on fresh surfaces Other: Ferrimagnetic (like magnetite, but somewhat less strongly) Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from pyrite by magnetism, softer hardness and color which is more bronze in tint, from chalcopyrite by color and crystal form and from pentlandite by slightly deeper color, magnetism and darker streak Microscopic Properties: opaque; light brown color in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Pyrrhotite most commonly occurs in mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks, where it is associated with pentlandite, nickeline, chalcopyrite and pyrite. It is also fairly common in high temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits, with chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite and arsenopyrite, and in contact metamorphic aureoles. Uses: Pyrrhotite is not an especially valuable mineral. It is mined for its nickel, cobalt, copper and platinum where they substitute in sufficient quantities, as at Sudbury, Ontario.

QUARTZ: see CHERT and CHALCEDONY for microcrystalline varieties Composition: SiO2; a tectosilicate mineral; a silica group mineral; inclusion of small amounts of sodium (Na+1), potassium (K+1) and (Ca+2) in the crystal structure is electrically balanced by the substitution of aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4)occurs in two polytypes: rhombohedral quartz (low quartz) and hexagonal quartz (high quartz), the former being the stable form in relatively low-moderate temperature (< 573oC) and low-moderate pressure (< 22Kbar = 2.2GPa) environments under which most rocks in Earths crust form; quartz (high quartz) inverts readily through non-displacive transformation into quartz (low quartz) on cooling; the characteristics of quartz (low quartz) are therefore cited below; many varieties of macrocrystalline quartz exist, based primarily on color, including rock crystal (colorless, quite transparent), milky quartz (white), rose quartz (pink), smoky quartz (brown to nearly black), amethyst (purple to violet) and citrine (yellowish); quartz is polymorphic with other silica group minerals including tridymite and cristobalite; rarer polymorphs include the high pressure

silica minerals coesite and stichovite which occur in meteorite impactites and likely in the deep mantle; microcrystalline varieties of quartz are dealt with separately under chert and chalcedony Crystal System: Hexagonal (32): a1 = 4.91, a2 = 4.91, c = 5.41; = 90o, = 120o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as slender to stubby prismatic crystals, striated perpendicular to prism axis, with six-sided (two sets of trigonal prisms) cross sections and rhombohedral terminations (two sets of which may resemble hexagonal pyramids); common in divergent crystal aggregates and as drusy coatings; very common as more or less equant crystals and grains in coarsely crystalline, granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals and grains Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7; hard to very hard Specific Gravity: 2.65; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: none; conchoidal fracture, especially evident in large crystals Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: highly variable, often gray; colorless in rock crystal, white in milky quartz, yellow in citrine, purple-violet in amethyst, pink in rose quartz and brown to black in smoky quartz; mineral inclusions may also produce distinctive color as in green (chrome mica) or red (hematite) aventurine Streak: white Luster: vitreous to subvitreous Other: because of its low symmetry, quartz is strongly piezoelectric and pyroelectric Diagnostic Properties: the combination of hardness, conchoidal fracture, vitreous luster and often distinctive coloring and crystal habit are diagnostic; garnet is harder and has isometric crystals; cordierite resembles quartz, but is typically a bluish-gray color and less transparent Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.544; n = 1.553 Relief: low, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.009; low; maximum first order grays and white; yellow only if thinsection is too thick

Twinning: penetration twins are common Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+) Other: basal sections remain dark on rotation under crossed polars and yield excellent centered optic axis figures; euhedral crystals are length slow with parallel extinction; strained crystals may possess a small 2V and typically display undulatory extinction (in which different sector go to extinction at different times as the stage is rotated, the extinction shadows sweeping across the crystal; intergrowths with feldspars are common and include (1) graphic (and micrographic) intergrowths of optically aligned quartz in K-feldspar; (2) granophyre: intergrowths of plumose blebs of quartz in K-spar and (3) myrkmekite: vermicular (worm-like) intergrowths of quartz and plagioclase; inclusions of acicular rutile, tourmaline, and apatite and of chlorite and fluid droplets are also common Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, low relief, low birefringence, lack of alteration and frequent clarity, lack of cleavage, lack of twinning, parallel extinction and length slow character and uniaxial (+) optics are diagnostic; other colorless minerals with low relief and low birefringence possess different properties; nepheline has negative relief, more alteration and is uniaxial (); untwinned orthoclase has negative relief, two cleavages near right angles and is biaxial () with a substantial 2V; beryl has higher relief and is uniaxial (); cordierite is generally more altered, commonly twinned and is biaxial () with a substantial 2V; some scapolite resembles quartz, but it possesses cleavage and is uniaxial () Occurrences/Associations: Macrocrystalline quartz is an abundant mineral in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, it occurs as an essential mineral in silicaoversaturated rocks that include pegmatite, granite, granodiorite, tonalite and as phenocrysts in the volcanic equivalents rhyolite, rhyodacite and dacite. It is much less common in silicaoversaturated syenite, monzonite, diorite, gabbro and the volcanic equivalents trachyte, latite, andesite and basalt. In metamorphic rocks, quartz is the primary mineral in quartzite, is abundant in many schists and gneisses, and is a significant component of some slate, phyllite, granulite and hornfels. Because it is stable over a wide range of metamorphic conditions, quartz occurs in rocks of most of the major metamorphic facies. Quartz is quite resistant to decomposition in most surface environments and is therefore selectively concentrated in detrital sedimentary rocks where it is the major constituent of quartzarente sandstone and a significant constituent of most arkose, most siltstone and many litharentites and mudstones. Macrocrystalline quartz is also a significant cement in such rocks and forms by the replacement of carbonate material during diagenesis. Macrocrystalline quartz is also an abundant mineral in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits. Use: Macrocrystalline quartz has a wide variety of uses. Quartz is widely mined from relatively pure quartzarenite sand, sandstone and quartzite deposits for use as a source of silica for the

manufacture of glass. It is also mined from such deposits as a source of elemental silicon for use in the manufacture of semiconductors used in the electronics and computers. Silicon is also used to produce silicone used in the production of silicone caulking to seal fixtures in home and for breast implants. Quartz sand and gravel is widely used in aggregates used in construction including concrete, asphalt and mortar. Increasingly, clean quartz sand is being used in hydrofracturing black shale layers to obtain natural gas. Their pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties permit pure quartz crystals (now mostly synthetic) to be used in the production of electronic oscillators and pressure gauges. Macrocrystalline quartz is widely used as a semiprecious gemstone with fine examples of amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, smoky quartz and aventurine used in rings, pendants, earrings and necklaces. Rock crystal is highly prized by many new age spiritualists for its supposed mystical and healing properties.

RHODOCHROSITE: Composition: MnCO3; a carbonate; isostructural with calcite, magnesite, siderite and smithsonite, all members of the rhombohedral (calcite) group of carbonate minerals; forms a complete solid solutions series with siderite (as Mn and Fe substitute for each other) and a limited substitution series with magnesite, smithsonite, and even calcite Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral (bar32/m): a1 = 4.78, a2 = 4.78, c = 15.66; = 120o, = 90 o, = 120o Crystal Habit: rare as equant, rhombohedral {10bar10} crystals with curved faces similar to dolomite and siderite; common in massive, coarsely crystalline aggregates, granular aggregates or encrustations Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4 Specific Gravity: 3.7 3.8; moderately high, especially with increasing iron content Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations at 90o (73o and 107o); rhombohedral {10bar10}; perfect Diaphaneity: quite translucent Colors: typically shades of pink to rose red; may also be shades of gray or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: effervesces readily in HCl only if powdered or if acid is heated

Diagnostic properties: The pink to rose red color and rhombohedral cleavage are characteristic; rhodonite lacks cleavage and is harder (H = 6) Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.816; n = 1.597 Relief: variable; from low-moderate to very high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale pink (look closely!); may be slightly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.219; extreme; so high order, faded colors (creamy white) in most orientations Twinning: relatively rare rhombohedral twins Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: extinction is symmetrical with respect to intersecting cleavages Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage, and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as rhodochrosite; rhodochrosite is distinguished from other rhombohedral carbonates, except siderite, by its very high maximum refractive indices and relief and its consistently positive relief in all orientations; siderite is often brownish (from oxidation of iron) under plane light and displays yellow brown to brown colors in hand specimen, rather than the pink-rose red colors shown by rhodochrosite Occurrences/Associations: Rhodochrosite occurs primarily in low-medium temperature hydrothermal veins and replacement deposits with sulfide minerals such as galena, pyrite, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Rhodonite, barite, calcite, fluorite and quartz are other common minerals in such deposits. Uses: Pink to rose red, cleavable masses of rhodochrosite are highly prized by mineral collectors for their ornamental value. Rhodochrosite is a minor or of manganese (Mn) used in the manufacture of steel and other industrial alloys

RHODONITE:

Composition: MnSiO3; single-chain inosilicate; a pyroxenoid mineral with rotated single chains; small amounts of magnesium (Mg+2), iron (Fe+2), calcium (Ca+2) or zinc (Zn+2) may substitute for manganese (Mn+2) Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 9.76, b = 10.50, c = 12.21; = 109o, = 103o, = 83o Crystal Habit: scarce individual crystals are typically tabular; more commonly occurs as massive or granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 5; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.86 2.90; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of pinacoidal cleavage {110} and {10} near right angles (88o and 92o); perfect Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly rose red to pink; also reddish brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous; subvitreous to dull in massive aggregates Other: commonly alters to black manganese oxides and hydroxides (wad) Diagnostic Properties: the pink to rose red color distinguishes rhodonite from other pyroxenoids; the near right angle cleavage and hardness distinguishes it from the softer, rhombohedral mineral rhodochrosite and from the harder pink epidote group minerals thulite and piemontite which possess only one orientation of cleavage Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.711 1.734; n = 1.715 1.739; n = 1.724 1.748 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale pink and yellowish red; somewhat pleochroic Birefringence: 0.011 0.017; low; maximum colors are first order yellow to red Twinning: lamellar twins may be observed Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 63 87o; high to very high 2V

Other: all sections display inclined extinction; some crystals are zoned Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pale pinkish colors (if present), high refractive indices and relief, two cleavages near right angles, low birefringence, common twinning and biaxial (+) optics with large 2V are characteristic, as is the common association with other manganese-rich minerals Occurrences/Associations: Most rhodonite occurs in manganese-rich hydrothermal veins or replacement deposits, in contact metamorphic rocks associated with such hydrothermal systems or in metamorphosed, manganese-rich iron formations. Associated minerals include rhodochrosite, wad, quartz, calcite, galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Uses: Rhodonite of nice color is used as an ornamental or decorative stone.

RIEBECKITE: Composition: Na2Fe3Fe2Si8O22(OH)2; double-chain inosilicate; sodic amphibole group mineral; riebeckite forms a complete solid solution series with glaucophane Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2 in which magnesium (Mg+2) substitutes for ferrous iron (Fe+2) and aluminum (Al+3) substitutes for ferric iron (Fe+3); riebeckite in which >50% magnesium (Mg+2) substitutes for ferrous iron (Fe+2) is called magnesioriebeckite and glauconite in which >50% ferrous iron (Fe+2) substitutes for magnesium (Mg2) is called ferroglaucopahne; intermediate compositions with 30 70% each of the reibeckite and glaucophane end members are called crossite [Na2(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe)2Si8O22(OH)2] Crystal System: Monoclinic: (2/m): a = 9.7 9.8, b = 17.9 18.1, c = 5.3; = 90o, = 104o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs in capillary to filiform crystals; in fibrous aggregates known as crocidolite; also as acicular to thin prismatic to bladed crystals; as massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals; Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 6; hard Specific Gravity: 3.4 3.5; high side of moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110}, not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good; splintery; not discernible in finely crystalline aggregates Diaphaneity: barely translucent Colors: typically dark, bluish black to black

Streak: gray to blue Luster: vitreous and very reflective in crystals Other: fibers in crocidolite are flexible; the chatoyant fibrous stone called tiger-eye is formed when quartz replaces crocidolite Diagnostic Properties: The bluish tint to the nearly black color and high reflectivity, in combination with the hardness and cleavage characteristic of other amphiboles, is characteristic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.668 1.701; n = 1.680 1.711; n = 1.686 1.717 Relief: moderately high, positive Color/Pleochroism: pleochroic; deep blue, indigo blue, blue, violet, greenish blue, yellow, yellow-green, yellow-brown, smoky green; deep absorption when c-axis is parallel to the vibration direction of the lower polar Birefringence: 0.12 0.20; low plus; maximum colors are first order red and are obscured by the strong colors Twinning: simple pairs and lamellar twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 62 85o; high to very high 2V; magnesioriebeckite may be biaxial (+) Other: longitudinal sections and acicular crystals are length fast Diagnostic Properties: the diamond-shaped cross-section and two cleavages at 56o and 124o distinguish riebeckite as an amphibole; the deep blue colors, with strong absorption (nearly black in some orientations) are characteristic of riebeckite and distinguish it from other blue amphiboles such as glaucophane which has paler colors, is length slow, possesses lower refractive indices and relief and has larger extinction angles; tourmaline is uniaxial, so possesses parallel extinction Occurrences/Associations: Riebeckite forms in both igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is a fairly common mineral in alkali-rich, peralkaline igneous rocks such as foid syenite, alkali syenite and alkali granite and pegmatite, where it is associated with albite-rich plagioclase, Kfeldspars, aegerine, aegerine-augite, arfvedsonite and quartz or feldspathoids. It also occurs in metamorphosed banded iron formation (BIF), in many cases as fibrous crocidolite. Less commonly it has been reported from rocks of the blueschist facies formed under high P/T conditions in subduction zones.

Uses: Crocidolite was used as a source of asbestos for many years, but its health risks seem to be even worse than those for chysotile (serpentine) asbestos. Tiger eye is used in jewelry. ROMANECHITE: see WAD RUBELLITE: see TOURMALINE RUBY: see CORUNDUM RUTILE: Composition: TiO2; an oxide mineral; polymorphic with brookite and anatase; some iron (Fe+2 Fe+3) and tin (Sn+4) may substitute for titanium (Ti+4), as may niobium (Nb+5) and tantalum (Ti+5) Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m2/m2/m): a1 = 4.59, a2 = 4.59, c = 2.96; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: small, often slender, striated tetragonal prisms with dipyramid {hhl} or {h0l} terminations and acicular crystals; also in massive to granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals or grains Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 6; hard Specific Gravity: 4.2 4.3; high; higher if rich in tin, niobium, tantalum or iron Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations at 90o; prismatic {110}; good only; may show conchoidal or uneven fracture Diaphaneity: barely to slightly translucent Colors: typically reddish brown to black; violet and yellow-green tints possible Streak: white Luster: submetallic to adamantine Other: commonly alters to leucoxene, a mixture of iron and titanium oxides and hydroxides Diagnostic Properties: The red brown to red black color; adamantine to submetallic luster are characteristic; the striated prismatic to acicular crystal tetragonal crystals are clinchers; cassiterite is similar, but has a higher specific gravity and commonly occurs in botryoidal aggregates; cuprite has a higher specific gravity, a reddish streak and is softer Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n = 2.61; n = 2.89 Relief: extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: yellow brown to reddish brown; darker with higher iron content; weakly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.28; extremely high; creamy white upper order interference colors are masked by color Twinning: cyclic contact twins common Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+); high relief makes figures difficult to obtain Diagnostic Properties: the extremely high refractive indices and relief, dark yellowbrown to reddish-brown color, two decent cleavages at right angles (if visible), extreme birefringence, slender prismatic-acicular tetragonal crystals with parallel extinction and (if obtainable) uniaxial (+) optics are characteristic; cassiterite is quite similar to rutile, but is often zoned or with splotchy yellow-brown-orange-red colors, has much less extreme relief, lacks cleavage and commonly occurs in radial-fibrous or colloform aggregates hematite is deep red, hexagonal and nearly opaque Occurrences/Associations: Rutile is widely disseminated as an accessory mineral in a variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Because it is quite resistant to weathering, it is concentrated in the heavy mineral population of detrital sediments, sometimes as placer ore deposits associated with monazite, ilmenite, cassiterite, and zircon. Large crystals typically occur only in coarse granitoids and pegmatites and in high temperature veins with quartz and apatite. Uses: Rutile is a major ore of titanium (Ti) which is used with iron to strengthen steel and in alloys with aluminum, molybdenum and vanadium that are used in aircraft engines, missiles and spacecraft. Because of its resistance to corrosion, it is used in propeller shafts and riggings on boats. Because it is physiologically inert and can integrate with bones, titanium is a choice material for joint replacement and tooth implants. Because of its light weight and strength, titanium is used in alloys for golf clubs and eyeglass frames. Titanium is used most extensively as a pigmenting agent in white paints and plastics.

SANIDINE: Composition: KAlSi3O8; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspar; polymorphic with microcline and orthoclase; significant sodium (Na+1) may substitute for potassium (K+1) at the time of formation, but during cooling much sodium (Na+1) may exsolve to form albite, so sanidine is sometimes perthitic, microperthitic or cryptoperthitic; barium (Ba+2) and rubidium (Rb+2)may also substitute for potassium (K+1) if the substitution is balanced by aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4); sanidine

commonly has a low degree of Al-Si ordering, so has a more disordered crystal structure than orthoclase or well ordered microcline Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 8.60, b = 13.04, c = 7.17; = 90o, = 116o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as tabular to flattened prismatic crystals; commonly as disseminated crystals (phenocrysts) in volcanic rocks; also as acicular crystals in spherulites formed by the divitrification of glass Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.6; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 2 cleavage orientations at right angles; one perfect; one good to very good Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to quite translucent Colors: typically colorless to white Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: sometimes perthitic, with blebs, stringers and/or patches of intergrown albite, but less often than microcline and orthoclase; commonly alters to sericite and clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: distinguished as a potassium feldspar by its hardness, sometimes perthitic nature and two sets of cleavage at right angles; sanidine is generally more transparent than microcline or orthoclase; sanidine is generally colorless to white, whereas both microcline and orthoclase are often salmon pink and microcline is sometimes blue-green; microcline is also more commonly perthitic and crystallizes in the triclinic system; sanidine can otherwise be distinguished from the other potassium feldspars by optical microscopy Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.518; n = 1.522 1.523; n = 1.523 1.524 Relief: low, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless; often quite clear Birefringence: 0.005 0.008; low; maximum colors are first order grays and white

Twinning: paired Carlsbad penetration twins common; also simple, paired Mannebach and Baveno twins; lacks polysynthetic pericline and albite twins and therefore the gridiron (scotch plaid or tartan) twinning characteristic of microcline Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 0 - 45o; low to moderate 2V; increases with degree of order and with sodium (Na+1) content Other: typically microperthitic; phenocrysts are commonly zoned Diagnostic Properties: the combination of low negative relief, low birefringence, biaxial () optics with a small 2V, common simple paired twins and occurrence in volcanic and hypabyssal igneous rocks are characteristic; orthoclase is similar, but generally more cloudy, possesses a significantly larger 2V and has a much less restricted occurrence; microcline typically possesses polysynthetic, tapered pericline twins and albite twins in a gridiron pattern undercrossed polars; quartz is untwinned and uniaxial (+) and rarely forms in volcanic and hypabyssal environments Occurrences/Associations: Sanidine is less common than orthoclase and microcline. It is abundant as phenocrysts and groundmass material in alkali-rich volcanic rocks of rhyolite, alkali rhyolite, trachyte, alkali trachyte, and rhyodacite composition that formed form at rapid cooling rates at or very near the surface. Sanidine also occurs in rare, very high temperature contact metamorphic rocks of the sanidinite facies. It is also a minor component of detrital sedimentary rocks including arkosic and volcanoclastic sandstone. Uses: Because sanidine is a scarcer mineral than microcline or orthoclase, it is less often used for economic purposes. Ground up and mixed with clays and quartz, it does find use in the manufacture of glass and ceramics products including tiles, plumbing fixtures and electrical insulators and as filler in paints, plastics and paper products

SAPPHIRE: see CORUNDUM SCAPOLITE: Composition: [(Na,Ca)4(Si,Al)(AlSi2O6)3(Cl,CO3); a tectosilicate mineral; a complete solid solution series exists between end members marialite [Na4(AlSi3O6)3Cl] and meionite [Ca4(Al2Si2O6)3CO3]; most scapolite has substantial amounts of both end members; potassium (K+1) commonly substitutes for sodium (Na+1); small amounts of sulfate (SO4-2) may substitute for carbonate (CO3-2) and fluoride (F-1) and hydroxyl ion (OH-1) for chloride (Cl-1) Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m): a1 = 12.06, a2 = 12.06, c = 7.57; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: typically as prismatic crystals with squarish 4-8 sided sections that can be quite large; commonly in granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.5 2.8; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: 2 orientations of prismatic {110} cleavage at right angles; good only; another set of cleavage intersecting the first two at 45o is rarely discernible but often gives cleavage fragments a slightly fibrous or striated appearance Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent Colors: rarely colorless; typically white to greenish or grayish; less commonly yellow, bluish or even pink Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: commonly fluoresces orange to yellow under ultraviolet radiation; alters to calcite, epidote, chlorite, sericite and zeolite minerals Diagnostic Properties: the prismatic crystals with square cross-sections and the fibrous appearance of the cleavage surfaces, taken with the light color and hardness are characteristic; the extra set of cleavages which produce a fibrous appearance on the prominent cleavages distinguish scapolite from most feldspar Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.532 1.607; n = 1.522 1.571; increasing with meionite content Relief: low negative for marialite-rich samples to moderate positive for meionite-rich samples; low positive for most scapolite Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.004 0.038; increases with meionite content; extremely variable from low with first order grays and white for marialite-rich samples to high with second and third order colors for meionite-rich samples; most scapolite has low to moderate birefringence Twinning: none

Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Other: longitudinal sections are length fast and display parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: the lack of color, generally low relief, decent right angle cleavages, generally low to moderate birefringence and uniaxial () and length fast optics are characteristic; the tetragonal prismatic crystals are very helpful where visible; typical scapolite resembles other colorless minerals with low relief and relatively low birefringence; quartz lacks cleavage, is hexagonal and is uniaxial (+), so length slow; nepheline lacks cleavage and has negative relief; cordierite is biaxial, usually (-) and often twinned and lacks cleavage Occurrences/Associations: Scapolite most commonly occurs in low- to medium-grade calcareous and mafic metamorphic rocks produced by both contact and regional metamorphism. In marble and skarn, it is commonly associated with calcite, garnet, diopside, actinolite, apatite and titanite. In amphibolites and related rocks it is associated with hornblende, calcic plagioclase, augite, epidote and titanite. Scapolite also occurs in high-grade metamorphic rocks of the granulite and pyroxene hornfels facies. Use: Scapolite has little economic value. semiprecious gemstones. Rare colorless crystals are sometimes used as

SCHORL: see TOURMALINE SELENITE: see GYPSUM SCHEELITE: Composition: CaWO4; a tungstate mineral Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m): a1 = 1.92, a2 = 1.92, c = 1.94; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: tabular to stubby prismatic tetragonal dipyramidal {101} and {112} crystals that somewhat resemble isometric octahedra; more typically in granular to massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 - 5 Specific Gravity: 5.9 6.1; very high Cleavage/Fracture: 2 orientations at 90o; good only Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent to transparent

Colors: typically white to pale shades of yellow, green or brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous (subvitreous) to adamantine Other: fluoresces a bluish color under short wave ultraviolet light Diagnostic Characteristics: The combination of very high specific gravity for a nonopaque mineral and the blue fluorescence are helpful in distinguishing scheelite from other non-opaque minerals. When present, the tetragonal dipyramidal crystals are also indicative. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.921; n = 1.938 Relief: extremely high Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.017; low plus; maximum first order yellow to red colors Twinning: contact and penetration twins common Optic Sign: uniaxial (+) Other: longitudinal sections are length slow and exhibit parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, extreme relief, cleavage, common twinning, relatively low birefringence and uniaxial (+) optical properties are characteristic, as is the limited occurrence and associations; zircon has similar crystal forms and relief, but has much higher birefringence, brownish colors in hand-specimen and lacks good cleavage Occurrences/Associations: Scheelite occurs principally in skarn deposits produced by the contact metamorphism of carbonate rocks in contact with silicic intrusions where it is associated with calcite and calcsilicate minerals such as wollastonite and diopside. It is also reported from granitic pegmatites and from high-temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with cassiterite, wolframite, molybdenite, topaz, apatite, fluorite and quartz. Uses: Scheelite is a major ore of tungsten (W) used primarily to harden steel for the manufacture of tools used for cutting and drilling, especially power tools. Tungsten is also used in the manufacture of silicon carbide, an abrasive harder than any mineral except diamond, which is

used wherever hard substances are required. Pure tungsten has long been used for filaments in lamps and light bulbs.

SERPENTINE: (aka: SERPENTINE GROUP) Composition: Mg3Si5O10((OH)4; a phyllosilicate mineral (group) with a T-O structure; some substitution of aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4) and aluminum (Al+3), ferric iron (Fe+3) or ferrous iron (Fe+2) and manganese (Mn+2) for magnesium (Mg+2) is fairly common; three main varieties of serpentine are micro-fibrous chrysotile, commonly scaly to foliated antigorite, both monoclinic (data given below) and typically massive triclinic lizardite; the latter two cannot always be distinguished without x-ray crystallography; all three are typically intergrown; many other varieties are recognized; other varieties exist Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 5.31 5.32, b = 9.12 9.21, c = 14.45 14.64; = 90o, = 93o, = 90o Crystal Habit: chrysotile occurs in capillary to filiform crystals, typically in fibrous aggregates that are sometimes banded; antigorite occurs in scaly crystals, typically in foliated to radial, sheaf-like aggregates, but can occur in fibrous aggregates; lizardite typically occurs in finelycrystalline massive aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 - 4; low to moderate; some varieties even harder Specific Gravity: 2.5 2.7; moderate; iron rich varieties may be higher Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal {001} cleavage; excellent; but generally indistinct, discernible only in some antigorite Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent Colors: typically shades of green, with color variation (mottling) common; light to dark green, yellow green or grayish colors are common; less commonly reddish Streak: white Luster: waxy; silky in fibrous varieties Other: commonly alters to chlorite Diagnostic Properties: yellow-green, silky, microfibrous chrysotile is distinctive; softer than fibrous amphiboles; hardness, greenish color mottling, waxy luster and occurrence in altered ultramafic rocks is useful in recognizing lizardite/antigorite

Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.529 1.595; n = 1.530 1.603; n = 1.537 1.604; higher values (n > 1.557; n > 1.563; n = 1.564) are generally associated with antigorite and lizardite, lower values with chrysotile Relief: low negative to low-moderate positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale shades of green and yellow-green; very weakly pleochroic in some instances Birefringence: 0.002 0.012; low; maximum colors in first order gray to yellow (may look nearly isotropic) for most orientations; anomalous greenish-yellow colors in occur in some samples, especially of antigorite Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 20 50o; low to moderate; rarely biaxial (+) in some chrysotile; figures often difficult to obtain because of the finely crystalline nature of most serpentine Other: commonly pseudomorphic after olivine and pyroxenes; fibers in chrysotile are length slow; antigorite typically displays mottled or wavy, undulatory extinction; the blades in antigorite are length slow Diagnostic Properties: the pale green-yellow green color, generally low relief and low birefringence and capillary to scaly crystal habit are characteristic; most other fibrous, asbestiform minerals, including tremolite, actinolite, anthophyllite and crocidolite (riebeckite) possess significantly higher relief and higher birefringence; brucite possesses has higher indices, slightly higher birefringence, deep brown anomalous colors, whorl structure, length slow scales and is uniaxial (+); chlorite is similar to antigorite, but displays cleavage more often, often displays blue-violet abnormal interference colors, is mostly biaxial (+) and has somewhat higher relief; talc possesses much higher birefringence; clear distinction between serpentine varieties requires other analytical techniques such as XRD; serpentine is similar in many respects, but tends to have different crystal habits (fibrous or sheaf-like), displays cleavage less often and is rarely biaxial (+) Occurrences/Associations: Uses: Chrysotile was once extensively mined as a source of asbestos and still is to a lesser extent. Its fibrous habit, flexibility, low thermal conductivity and resistance to combustion made it valuable in the manufacture of materials used for insulation and fireproofing. It was widely used in insulating material, in the manufacture of brake shoes and clutch linings, as an insulator for hot water pipes and boilers, as a reinforcing material in floor, ceiling and roof tiles and even as a significant material in felt hats. However, its micro-fibrous nature makes it an extremely

dangerous carcinogen when inhaled into the lungs and can cause other forms of severe lung damage. Because of this, it is less widely used and mined than it was several decades ago. Lizardite is widely used as an ornamental stone in carvings (e.g., by northern Native Americans) and, when it occurs naturally mixed with marble to form verde antique, as a decorative building stone.

SIDERITE: Composition: FeCO3; a carbonate; isostructural with calcite, magnesite, rhodochrosite and smithsonite, all members of the rhombohedral (calcite) group of carbonate minerals; complete solid solution with rhodochrosite and partial solid solution with the others Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral): (bar32/m): a1 = 4.69, a2 = 4.69, c = 15.38; = 120o, = 90 o, = 120o Crystal Habit: equant rhombohedral crystals {10bar11}; coarsely crystalline massive and granular aggregates common; also occurs as ooids and in concretions; less commonly as acicular to capillary crystals in radiating, colloform (botryoidal) aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 4 Specific Gravity: 3.96; moderately high; lower where manganese (Mn) and/or magnesium (Mg) substitute substantially for iron (Fe) Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations, not at 90o (73o and 107o); rhombohedral {10bar11}; Diaphaneity: translucent to quite translucent Colors: light to medium-dark brown; sometimes with yellowish or reddish tint Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: oxidizes to iron oxyhydroxides (goethite, limonite) and oxides (hematite); effervesces in HCl only if powdered or acid heated Diagnostic characteristics: the brown color and elevated specific gravity distinguish siderite from other carbonates with rhombohedral cleavage Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.875; n = 1.635

Relief: variable; from moderate to very high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale yellow brown (look closely!); slightly pleochroic Birefringence: 0.240; extreme; so high order, faded colors (creamy white) in most orientations Twinning: rhombohedral twins fairly common Optic Sign: uniaxial () Other: extinction is symmetrical with respect to intersecting cleavages Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage, and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as siderite; siderite is distinguished from other rhombohedral carbonates, except rhodochrosite and smithsonite, by its very high maximum refractive indices and relief and its consistently positive relief in all orientations; siderite is often yellow-brown (from oxidation of iron) under plane light, whereas rhodochrosite is colorless to pale pink; siderite displays yellow brown to brown colors in hand specimen, rather than the pink-rose red colors shown by rhodochrosite; smithsonite is colorless and typically occurs in colloform-globular aggregates Occurrences/Associations: Siderite is fairly common in sedimentary iron deposits where it occurs as ooids and/or concretions, as layers and lenses in mudrocks, in metamorphosed Precambrian banded iron formations (BIF) and as hydrothermal replacement deposits in limestones. Siderite also occurs in hydrothermal veins where it is associated with galena, pyrite, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Uses: Siderite is a minor, but not insignificant, ore of iron used in the manufacture of steel and related products.

SILLIMANITE: Composition: AlAlOSiO4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral, polymorphic with andalusite and kyanite; small amounts of iron (Fe+3) may substitute for aluminum (Al+3) Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 7.49, b = 7.68, c = 5.78; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: typically in slender prismatic to acicular crystals with diamond-shaped crosssections; commonly in fibrous to swirled, interlaced aggregates called fibrolite; also in foliated aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard to very hard Specific Gravity: 3.23 3.27; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {100} cleavage; perfect; but may be very difficult to discern in fibrous aggregates Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent Colors: most commonly white to creamy white; also colorless or pale yellow brown Streak: white Luster: pearly or silky to vitreous Other: alters to sericite and chlorite Diagnostic Properties: The white color, hardness, slender tabular to acicular crystals in fibrous to swirled masses are characteristic; tremolite and wollastonite can have a similar appearance, but are associated with calcsilicate and carbonate minerals, rather than with the pelitic suite of cordierite, garnet, corundum and biotite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.653 1.661; n = 1.657 1.662; n = 1.672 1.683 Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.018 0.022; moderate; maximum lower second order blues and greens, but often first order yellow or red Twinning: none reported Optic Sign: Biaxial (+), 2Vz = 20 - 30o; low 2V Other: basal sections of prismatic crystals are diamond-shaped, possess symmetrical extinction and display the cleavage parallel to the long diagonal; fibers and longitudinal sections of slender prisms are length slow and display parallel extinction

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, high relief, moderate birefringence, fibrous to swirled habit, single cleavage parallel to the diagonal of the basal section, length slow character and biaxial (+) optics with low 2V are diagnostic; kyanite possesses angular extinction, higher relief, is commonly twinned and is typically bladed to prismatic; andalusite is typically pleochroic in pale yellow-green-pink shades, has two sets of decent cleavage near right angles, is length fast, is biaxial () with a large 2V and in the variety chiastolite displays symmetrically arranged carbonaceous graphite inclusions Occurrences/Associations: Sillimanite is the high temperature polymorph of aluminum silicate and typically forms in pelitic metamorphic rocks at temperatures below 550oC over a large range of pressures. Sillimanite is abundant in regional metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and granulite produced along Buchan and Barrovian trajectories in the granulite facies where it is associated with cordierite, garnet, corundum, and biotite. It is also common in rocks pelitic rock formed by contact metamorphism in the pyroxene hornfels facies. Sillimanite also occurs in peraluminous igneous rocks including granitoids and pegmatite, although whether or not it is a primary mineral in such rocks is controversial. Uses: Sillimanite is mined less commonly than kyanite and andalusite to be refined for use as a refractory material used in the manufacture of the porcelain used spark plugs and high alumina bricks for lining blast furnaces and kilns. It may also be used as an abrasive.

SILVER: Composition: Ag; a native element (native metal); forms a complete solid solution series with gold (Au); samples with high gold content are called electrum. Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 4.09, b = 4.09, c = 4.09; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: filiform or equant, the latter poorly formed octahedral {111} dodecahedral {011} and cubic {001} crystals; arborescent or dendritic aggregates; also as disseminated flakes and irregular masses. Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2-3 (soft) Specific Gravity: 10.5 Cleavage/Fracture: no cleavage; hackly fracture Diaphaneity: opaque

Colors: silvery white; tarnishes dark gray to black Streak: silvery white Luster: metallic Other: sectile, malleable and ductile Diagnostic Properties: The silvery white color, low hardness, sectility and malleability, and tarnish distinguish silver from most silver gray metallic minerals such as stibnite, enargite, pyrargerite, argentite and arsenopyrite. Microscopic Properties: Opaque; bright, creamy white in reflected light; black tarnish Occurrences/Associations: Many silver deposits occur in the oxidized zone of low temperature hydrothermal sulfide veins associated with intermediate to acidic igneous rocks where it forms by the oxidation of silver-bearing sulfide, sulfarsenide and sulfantimonide minerals such as tennantite, tetrahedrite, acanthite, argentite, pyrargerite and proustite. Native silver also occurs as a primary mineral in low-medium temperature hydrothermal veins where it is associated with pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, cobaltite, nickelite, tetrahedrite and silver sulfides. Use: An important ore of silver used in jewelry and in electrical components in computers. Silver has achieved significant value as a monetary hedge against inflation and political unrest. Silver was formerly widely used in coinage and in the manufacture of photographic film; both of these uses have been considerably curtailed.

SMECTITE: Composition: Ca0.17(Al,Fe,Mg)2(Si,Al)4(OH)2nH2O; a phyllosilicate mineral; a 10 to 15 clay mineral with an expandable T-O-T structure that can accommodate large interlayer molecules including calcium (Ca+2), but also water (H2O), which causes the layer dimensions to swell; when dehydrated, the dimensions shrink back to ~10; sodium (Na+1) may substitute for calcium (Ca+2) in addition to the substitutions indicated by the formula; small variations in smectite composition and structure yield clay minerals that include montmorillonite, nontronite, hectorite and saponite. Crystal System: Monoclinic: (2/m): a = 5.18, b = 9.08, c = 10 15.2 ; = 90o, = 90+o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically as very small (< 4m), platy microcrystals; typically in finely crystalline, massive aggregates or as disseminated crystals or grains Macroscopic Properties:

Hardness: 1 2; soft to very soft Specific Gravity: ~2.0 3.0, depending on water content; low to moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal cleavage; usually indistinct Diaphaneity: typically somewhat to barely translucent Colors: typically gray to green to whitish-gray; may be stained yellow-brown to reddish brown by limonite Streak: white to light gray Luster: dull, earthy Other: very sticky, especially when wet; often displays desiccation cracks when dry Diagnostic Properties: Smectite is distinguished from other clay minerals with which it is commonly mixed only by advanced methods such as XRD Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.482 1.608; n = 1.502 1.638; n = 1.502 1.638; increases with iron content Relief: low negative to moderate positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale yellow-green Birefringence: 0.010 0.038; low to moderately high; maximum colors from first order yellow to lower third order Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 0 -10o; small 2V; figures rarely obtained due to small crystal size Diagnostic Properties: the microscopic, platy crystals, sometimes pale yellow-green color, low-moderate relief and moderate birefringence distinguish smectite; kaolinite possesses lower birefringence and a larger 2V (if a figure can be obtained); illite clays are difficult to distinguish from colorless smectite; there is a large variety of clay minerals and most cannot be distinguished optically and require alternate techniques for accurate identification Occurrences/Associations: Smectite clays form chiefly from the alteration of aluminumbearing, ferromagnesian silicate minerals especially hornblende, but also biotite and calciumbearing clinopyroxene and several metamorphic minerals. They are produced either by hydrothermal alteration of such minerals or by weathering. They are therefore an abundant

constituent of soils and of detrital sedimentary rocks, especially shale and mudstone. Another important occurrence of smectite clay (montmorillonite) is in bentonite which forms by the alteration of volcanic ash strata in marine environments. Uses: Smectite is an important constituent of drilling mud in which it is used to increase the viscosity. Because it swells when wetted, smectite has long been used as a short-term patch to stop leakage in rock walls and dams. It is also used as an absorbent to remove various chemicals from water supplies. Because of their water-absorbing and releasing capabilities, smectite clays can rapidly change volume, leading to severe subsidence of surface structures and significant slope stability problems, as discussed in chapter 12 of the textbook.

SMITHSONITE: Composition: ZnCO3; a carbonate; isostructural with calcite, magnesite, rhodochrosite and siderite, all members of the rhombohedral (calcite) group of carbonate minerals; partial solid solution with all of these Crystal System: Hexagonal (Rhombohedral) (bar32/m): a1 = 4.65, a2 = 4.65, c = 15.02; = 120, = 90 o, = 120o Crystal Habit: equant rhombohedral {10bar11} to prismatic scalenohedral {11bar20} crystals; very commonly in colloform (reniform-globular) aggregates; also as drusy encrustations or granular or earthy masses Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 4 Specific Gravity: 4.3-4.4; high Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations at 90o (72o and 108o); rhombohedral {10bar10}; generally not visible in aggregates Diaphaneity: quite translucent Colors: variable (allochromatic); may be colorless to white; but commonly green; also pink, blue or yellow Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: effervesces readily in dilute HCl

Diagnostic characteristics: Its ready effervescence in HCl and common reniformglobular habit distinguish it from most rhombic carbonates and its elevated specific gravity and higher hardness distinguish it from calcite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.850; n = 1.625 Relief: variable; from moderate to very high positive; sections in which both n and n are visible produce a somewhat twinkling effect as the relief changes when stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.225; extreme; so high order, faded colors (creamy white) in most orientations Twinning: lacks mechanical twinning Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely variable relief leading to a twinkling effect, the extreme birefringence, the rhombohedral cleavage (if visible), and the uniaxial () optics are characteristic of rhombohedral carbonates such as smithsonite; much smithsonite occurs in colloform (reniform-globular) aggregates; other rhombohedral carbonates generally do not; only siderite possesses similarly high indices Occurrences/Associations: Most smithsonite forms in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal vein deposits where it forms by the oxidation of sphalerite (ZnS) and is commonly associated with cerussite, hemimorphite, calcite and limonite. Uses: A minor ore of zinc (Zn) used in the manufacture of galvanized steel (alloyed with iron), brass (alloyed with copper) and sheet zinc. Zinc is also used in conventional batteries and as an additive in many paints.

SPECULARITE: see HEMATITE SPESSARTINE (SPESSARTITE): see GARNET SPHENE: old name for TITANITE SODALITE: (SODALITE GROUP)

Composition: Na8(AlSiO4)6Cl2; a tectosilicate mineral; a feldspathoid mineral; some substitution of potassium (K+1) for sodium (Na+1); closely related, scarcer sodalite group minerals include hauyne {(Na,Ca)4-8[AlSi(O,S)4]6(SO4)1-2} and [nosean Na8(AlSiO4)6(SO4)]. Lazurite, a significant constituent of the valuable decorative stone lapis lazuli is a blue variety of hauyne in which chlorine (Cl-1) and sulfur (S-2) substitute for sulfate ion (SO4)-2. Crystal System: Isometric (bar43m) a1 = 8.87, a2 = 8.87, a3 = 8.87; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: rare individual crystals are equant dodecahedra (110); more commonly in massive to granular aggregates or as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.3; Low Cleavage/Fracture: not discernible; irregular to conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: somewhat to quite translucent Colors: typically light to dark blue, but also gray; also white, pale yellow or pale green Streak: white; lazurite has a bluish streak Luster: typically vitreous; somewhat greasy in gray varieties Other: commonly alters to cancranite (often yellow), calcite, clay minerals and zeolites Diagnostic Properties: the blue color, combined with the hardness is distinctive; the varieties of blue-colored sodalite group minerals cannot easily be distinguished macroscopically Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.483 -1.487; for hauyne (including lazurite): 1.470 1.495; for nosean: 1.494 1.510 Relief: moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale blue; lazurite may be deeper blue Birefringence: not applicable; isometric Twinning: occurs, but rarely discernable

Optic Sign: not applicable; isometric Diagnostic Properties: the combination of moderate negative relief, diamond-shaped cross-sections (of dodecahedra), lack of good cleavage and isotropic optics are characteristic; sodalite sensu stricto is colorless, the bluish tones of hauyne (and lazurite) are clinchers and the association with other feldspathoid minerals helpful; analcime is similar, but typically occurs in trapezohedral crystals with 8-sided cross-sections and has a different occurrence and associations Occurrences/Associations: Sodalite and other sodalite group minerals occur chiefly in alkalirich, silica undersaturated plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks including foid syenite, phonolite, alkali basalt and foid basalt. Sodalite and lazurite also occur in some skarns produced by contact metamorphism of impure carbonate rocks. Uses: The principle use of sodalite (and lapis lazuli) is as an expensive dimension stone used to face structures and for other high-end decorative purposes.

SPHALERITE: Composition: ZnS; a sulfide, significant amounts of Fe may substitute for Zn; smaller amounts of cadmium and rarer metals such as gallium, germanium and indium also substitute Crystal System: Isometric (bar43m); a = 5.41, b = 5.41, c = 5.41; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs in equant tetrahedral crystals; cubic and dodecahedral crystals also occur in malformed crystals; common as coarsely crystalline, cleavable masses and granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; intermediate Specific Gravity: 3.9 4.1; moderately-high; increases with iron content Cleavage/Fracture: 6 orientations not at 90o; dodecahedral {011}; perfect, but it is generally very difficult to discern all six orientations on a given specimen Diaphaneity: somewhat to barely translucent Colors: typically yellow-brown and black in splotchy pattern; can be shades of red, even green Streak: pale yellow to brown; darker with higher iron content

Luster: vitreous to adamantine and resinous; almost submetallic in some cases Other: gives off sulfurous odor when streaked Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.37 2.50; increases with iron content Relief: extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: pale yellow or brown; not pleochroic because isotropic Birefringence: isotropic; thus none Twinning: twins may be simple pairs or complex Optic Sign: isotropic; thus none Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pale yellow to brown color, extreme relief, multiple sets of cleavage intersecting in hexagonal patterns, isotropic nature and commonly triangular, square or even diamond shaped cross-sections are characteristic; cassiterite can have similar colors and diamond-shaped cross-sections, but lacks cleavage, is anisotropic and has different crystal forms Occurrences/Associations: Sphalerite occurs chiefly in hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits generated over a wide range of temperatures from hypothermal to telethermal conditions. Commonly associated minerals include galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite and many other sulfides as well as calcite, quartz, fluorite and barite. Uses: Sphalerite is the major ore of zinc used in the manufacture of galvanized steel (alloyed with iron), brass (alloyed with copper) and sheet zinc. Zinc is also used in conventional batteries, as a soldering flux and as an additive in many paints. Sphalerite is also the chief source of cadmium used in batteries and of gallium, germanium and indium used in the manufacture of semiconductors and computer microprocessors.

SPINEL: (see also Chromite and Magnetite) Composition: MgAl2O4; an oxide; a spinel group (XY2O4 group) mineral; forms a complete solid solution series with hercynite (FeAl2O4); intermediate compositions are sometimes called pleonaste; zinc (Zn+2) and manganese (Mn+2) may also substitute extensively for ferrous iron (Fe+2) and ferric iron (Fe+3) and chromium (Cr+3) for aluminum (Al+3)

Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a1 = 8.10, a2= 8.10, a3 = 8.10; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: occurs as small, equant octahedral {111} crystals; sometimes modified by cubic {001} or dodecahedral {110} faces; also as massive to granular crystal aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 - 8; very hard Specific Gravity: 3.5 3.9; high; increasing with higher iron content Cleavage/Fracture: none; may display octahedral parting Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent Colors: variable; typically blue to green shades; also colorless, red; darker with increasing iron Streak: white Luster: vitreous Diagnostic Properties: The transparent-translucent, octahedral crystals and high hardness are distinctive and distinguish spinel from chromite and magnetite; iron-rich hercynite samples may resemble magnetite, but have a lighter-colored streak and are not magnetic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.714 1.775; higher with increasing iron; Mg-rich spinels are typically < 1.74, pleonaste is 1.75 l.79 and hercynite is 1.78 -1.80 Relief: high, positive, increasing with iron content Color/Pleochroism: variable; colorless in Mg-rich varieties, usually blue or green, in ferrous iron-rich pleonaste and hercynite; red in manganese-rich varieties; olive brownish in chromium-rich varieties Birefringence: none; isotropic Twinning: simple or multiple twins occur Optic Sign: none; isotropic

Diagnostic Properties: the combination of high relief, square cross sections, lack of cleavage and isotropic nature are characteristic; the color of colored varieties is helpful; garnet typically possesses 6-8 sided cross-sections through dodecahedral and/or trapezohedral crystals and a rounder outline; knowing the occurrence and associations can help, e.g., in ultramafic rocks the Mg-rich garnet, pyrope is usually pale pink, whereas the Mg-rich spinel is colorless or, if Cr-rich, olive brown; a combination of refractive indices and color helps to sort out spinel varieties, but chemical analytical techniques provide a more accurate analysis Occurrences/Associations: Spinel is a common accessory mineral in medium- to high-grade pelitic and calcareous metamorphic rocks where it is associated with corundum, andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite, phlogopite, cordierite and garnet. It is also abundant in ultramafic rocks such as peridotite, especially those that originate in the upper mantle where it is associated with olivine, pyroxene and phlogopite. Spinel occurs sparsely in some peraluminous pegmatites and high temperature hydrothermal veins. Nice gem quality spinel is obtained from detrital sediments derived from the source rocks noted above. Uses: Nicely colored samples of spinel are used as gemstones, especially the red ruby spinel.

SPODUMENE: Composition: LiAlSi2O6; single-chain inosilicate; a clinopyroxene; minor substitution of sodium (Na+1) and potassium (K+1) for lithium (Li+1) and of iron (Fe+3) for aluminum (Al+3) commonly occurs Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.45, b = 8.39, c = 5.22; = 90o, = 110o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are commonly striated, prismatic to bladed, typically with eight-sided cross-sections; they can be very large; also occur as coarse, granular masses; sometimes acicular Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard Specific Gravity: 3.03 -3.23; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic {210} cleavage near 90o (87o and 93o); may have a prominent parting that bisects the cleavages Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to translucent

Colors: typically white to greenish or grayish white; also shades of pale lilac, pink, blue, green or yellow Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: fluoresces pink, orange and yellow under both short- and long-wave ultraviolet light Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from other pegmatite minerals by its hardness, light colors, near right angle cleavage and striated prismatic crystals; resembles tremolite, especially if the parting is prominent, but tremolite occurs mostly in calcareous metamorphic rocks, whereas spodumene occurs mostly in pegmatite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.648 1.668; n = 1.655 1.671; n = 1.662 1.682 Relief: moderate-high; positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.014 - 0.027; low to moderate; maximum colors are first order yellowred to second order colors Twinning: simple, paired twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 58 68o; moderately high 2V Other: basal cross-sections show symmetrical extinction with respect to cleavages; maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is 23o 27o; Diagnostic Properties: the squarish 4-8 sided cross-sections and two orientations of cleavage near right angles distinguish spodumene from amphiboles; diopside and augite can be similar, but possess somewhat higher birefringence and larger maximum extinction angles and have entirely different occurrences and associations; jadeite and omphacite are similar, but possess larger extinction angles and common only in highpressure metamorphic rocks Occurrences/Associations: Spodumene is a relatively scarce mineral, common only in lithiumrich pegmatites where it is associated with tourmaline, lepidolite (Li-rich mica), amblygonite (LiF phosphate), beryl, quartz, K-feldspar and albite-rich plagioclase. Uses: Spodumene is a minor source of lithium which is used in a many types of batteries including lithium batteries, rechargeable lithium ion batteries and experimental nannowire

batteries. It is also used as a critical agent in the thickening of oils for use in high-temperature lubricating oils and greases. Lithium is used in the manufacture of glazes with low coefficients of thermal expansion for ceramic ovenware. It is also utilized in various forms in the manufacture of hygroscopic desiccants, in the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder and depression, and as a fuel additive for fuels that propel rockets and torpedoes.

STAUROLITE: Composition: Fe2Al9O6(SiO4)4(OH)2; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral; some magnesium (Mg+2) commonly substitutes for ferrous iron (Fe+2) and some ferric iron (Fe+3) may substitute for aluminum (Al+3); other substitutions are minor Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 7.86 7.87, b = 16.53 16.61, c = 5.63 5.66; = 90o, = 90 90.4o, = 90o; so nearly orthorhombic (pseudo-orthorhombic) Crystal Habit: typically in flattened prismatic to bladed pseudo-orthorhombic crystals with prism and side pinacoid yielding six-sided, diamond shape cross-sections; penetration twins commonly yield iron cross forms at 60o or 90o to each other; usually as disseminated crystals and grains or in divergent aggregates; also in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7 7; very hard Specific Gravity: 3.74 3.83; moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: typically not discernable Diaphaneity: slightly to somewhat translucent Colors: typically brown; yellow-brown, red-brown, black-brown Streak: white to gray Luster: vitreous Other: penetration twins commonly yield iron cross forms at 60o twinned on {231} or 90o twinned on {031} to each other Diagnostic Properties: The brown bladed pseudo-orthorhombic crystals, often with penetration twins and elevated hardness are characteristic Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n = 1.736 1.747; n = 1.740 1.754; n = 1.745 1.762; increases as iron content increases Relief: high, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale yellow; yellow, orange yellow, honey yellow brown to reddish brown in iron-rich varieties; pleochroic in iron-rich varieties Birefringence: 0.009 0.015; low; maximum first order yellow to red and often somewhat obscured by the minerals color Twinning: common; but only occasional observed in thin section where twin plane cut Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 80 - 90o; very high; rare () examples are reported Other: basal sections are 6-sided, diamond-shaped one beveled edge; crystals are very commonly poikiloblastic, with many inclusions of other minerals creating a sieve-like appearance; longitudinal sections are length slow and exhibit parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: the combination of high relief, yellow-brown color, lack of cleavage, poikiloblastic length slow crystals, parallel extinction, low birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with very high 2V are characteristic; the brown tourmaline dravite resembles staurolite, but is uniaxial () and length-fast, has higher birefringence and possesses roughly triangular basal sections Occurrences/Associations: Staurolite is a significant mineral in medium-grade, pelitic metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and hornfels. It forms by contact metamorphism under hornblende hornfels facies conditions and more extensively by regional metamorphism in the amphibolite facies. In these rocks, staurolite is associated with almandine garnet, biotite, muscovite, quartz, cordierite, kyanite and chloritoid. Staurolite also occurs in the heavy mineral fraction of detrital sedimentary rocks. Uses: Staurolite has minor use as an abrasive in sandpaper. The crossed twins are used as pendants by some religious groups. STISHOVITE: see QUARTZ (Silica Group) STIBNITE: Composition: Sb2S3; a sulfide mineral Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 11.22, b = 11.30, c = 3.84; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: slender prismatic, even acicular, to bladed crystals are common with striations parallel to long axis; typically in divergent to radiating aggregates; also in massive to granular aggregates; Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 4.5 4.6; high Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {010} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: opaque Colors: lead gray Streak: gray black Luster: metallic, even splendant Diagnostic Properties: The prismatic-bladed crystals, single cleavage and divergentradiating habit distinguish most stibnite from galena which is also lead gray and soft; Microscopic Properties: opaque; pleochroic white to grayish white in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Stibnite is most commonly formed in low temperature hot spring, hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits, where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, realgar, orpiment and barite. Uses: Stibnite is the principal ore of antimony (Sb) used primarily as a pigment and in the manufacture of glass.

STILBITE: Composition: NaCa2Al5Si13O3614H2O; a tectosilicate mineral; a zeolite mineral; substitution of potassium (K+1) for sodium (Na+1) is common Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 13.6, b = 22.4, c = 7.44; = 90o, = 128o, = 90o; Crystal Habit: occurs as tabular to bladed crystals; typically in radiating, sheaf-like aggregates of such crystals or as more finely-crystalline massive aggregates or disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 - 4; moderate

Specific Gravity: 2.1 - 2.2; low Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {010} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically white; also shades of gray, yellow, brown, orange or red Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly on the cleavage surfaces Other: cruciform twins common Diagnostic Properties: the tabular crystals in sheaf-like aggregates, hardness and single set of perfect cleavage with pearly luster are characteristic; finely crystalline aggregates require XRD analysis for proper identification Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.482 15.00; n = 1.489 15.07; n = 1.493 15.19 Relief: low to moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.06 -0.14; low; maximum colors first order grays to yellow-orange Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 30 50o; moderate 2V Diagnostic Properties: the negative relief and low birefringence are typical of most zeolite minerals; natrolite is similar, but is biaxial (+) and typically possesses a radialfibrous habit rather than a sheaf-like one; heulandite is biaxial (+), typically lacks the sheaf-like habit; chabazite is pseudo-rhombohedral, with 3 sets of pseudocubic cleavage; laumontite has three sets of cleavage; analcime is isotropic Occurrences/Associations: Stilbite is a relatively widespread zeolite mineral. Coarse crystals are especially common in cavities, including vesicles, in mafic/basic rocks such as basalt and, less commonly, intermediate volcanic rocks such as andesite. Finely crystalline stilbite occurs less commonly in altered felsic volcanic rocks. Stilbite is also reported from alkaline soils formed in desert environments and in some contact metamorphic aureoles. Uses: Stilbite, like most natural and synthetic zeolites, is used, after heating and dehydration, to produce materials that remove water vapor from carbon dioxide, refrigerants such as Freon and from many organic chemicals used in industrial applications. It is also used as a molecular sieve used to separate molecules of different sizes, as in separating nitrogen from air to produce nearly

pure oxygen gas. Because zeolites can selectively absorb selected molecules, they are widely used in applications that include reducing the hardness of water for cleaner laundry by the removal of calcium, removing heavy metals from mine waters and industrial waste and radioactive isotopes from nuclear waste, in the treatment of wastewater by the removal of undesirable dissolved species such as ammonia and in the cleaning up of oil spills.

STILPNOMELANE: Composition: K0.6(Fe,FeMg)6Si8Al(O,OH)272-4H2O; a phyllosilicate mineral with a T-O-T structure; substantial ferric iron (Fe+3) substitutes for ferrous iron (Fe+2); charge neutrality is accomplished by the necessary substitution of oxygen (O-2) for hydroxyl ion (OH-1) Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 21.8 22.1, b = 21.8 22.1, c = 17.6 17.7; = 125o, = 96o, = 120o Crystal Habit: crystals are platy to tabular; occur in foliated to sheaf-like, radiating crystal aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 2.6 -2.9; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; excellent, not perfect; possesses a second cleavage at right angles, but it is usually not discernible Diaphaneity: quite translucent to barely translucent Colors: typically golden to reddish brown; iron-rich varieties may be dark green to black Streak: white to tan Luster: vitreous to pearly Other: alters to chlorite and/or iron oxides; also to clay minerals Diagnostic Properties: Stilpnomelane resembles biotite, but the cleavage is less perfect, it is a bit harder than biotite, occurs more frequently in radiating sheaf-like aggregates and crystals never display 6-sided sections Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.543 1634; n = 1.576 1.745; n = 1.576 1.745

Relief: low to high, positive Color/Pleochroism: strongly pleochroic; pale brown, deep brown, reddish brown, nearly black, greenish brown, pale yellow, golden yellow, greenish yellow, yellow brown Birefringence: 0.030 0.110; moderate to very high Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial () with 2Vx ~0-40o; increasing with iron content; figures may appear Uniaxial () in iron-poor examples Other: cross-sections are length slow with nearly parallel extinction, but not birdseye extinction Diagnostic Properties: the combination one excellent cleavage, pleochroism in shades of yellow, brown and green (to nearly black in iron-rich examples), nearly parallel extinction with respect to cleavage is indicative of stilpnomelane; it is best distinguished from biotite by lack of birdseye extinction, very small extinction angle and perhaps less perfect basal cleavage; iron-rich stilpnomelane also possesses higher birefringence, deeper colors and a larger 2V than biotite Occurrences/Associations: Stilpnomelane commonly occurs in low-grade pelitic and less commonly mafic, regional metamorphic rocks of the greenschist facies produced by regional metamorphism along Buchan or Barrovian trajectories, where it is associated with muscovite, chlorite, albite-rich plagioclase and garnet. It is also reported from high pressure, low- to moderate-temperature (high P/T) blueschist facies metamorphic rocks produced along Sanbagawan and Franciscan trajectories in subduction zones, where it is associated with lawsonite, glaucophane, aragonite and pumpellyite. A third occurrence is as a constituent of metamorphosed banded iron formations (BIF). Uses: Stilpnomelane has no significant use or application.

STRONTIANITE: Composition: SrCO3; a carbonate mineral; isostructural with aragonite, witherite and cerrusite, all members of the orthorhombic (aragonite) group of carbonate minerals; rather limited solid solution with witherite in which barium (Ba+2) substitutes for (Sr+2) occurs and some calcium (Ca+2) also substitutes for strontium Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 5.11, b = 8.42, c = 6.03; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o

Crystal Habit: typically acicular crystals in radiating to fibrous aggregates; also as columnar crystals produced by penetration twins that produce pseudohexagonal crystals; also in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 3.7; moderately high Cleavage/Fracture: two cleavages not 90o; prismatic {110} good; others poor so all cleavages are difficult to discern; subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent Colors: colorless to white; also pale green, pale yellow or pale brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous to silky or pearly in aggreagates Other: effervesces readily in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); commonly alters to celestite Diagnostic Characteristics: strontianite can be distinguished from aragonite by its higher specific gravity; it most closely resembles witherite (which has a higher specific gravity) from which it can, in large crystals, be distinguished by its two orientations of cleavage and more clearly by a test for barium or strontium Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.521; n = 1.674; n = 1.679; but quite variable about these averages Relief: low-moderate negative to moderate-high positive; sections in which the alpha vibration direction is visible produce a twinkling effect as the stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.157; variable, but very high-extreme; high order faded colors (creamy white) Twinning: alternating penetration twins common; some polysynthetic twinning Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 7 10o (very small 2V)

Other: longitudinal sections are length slow with parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from rhombohedral carbonates (e.g., calcite and dolomite) by the lack of rhombohedral cleavage and by being biaxial (), rather than uniaxial (); aragonite has a higher 2V, higher refractive indices and relatively poor cleavage than witherite; witherite also possesses poor cleavage and is a much less common mineral, with slightly higher refractive indices, relief and 2V, and possesses a markedly higher specific gravity; cerussite is distinguished by its very high refractive indices and relief and the lack of twinkling as the stage is rotated under plane light Occurrences/Associations: Most strontianite forms in low-temperature hydrothermal veins and replacement products in limestone where it is associated with barite, celestite and calcite. It has also been reported from low-temperature sulfide veins that cross-cut igneous rocks. Uses: Stontianite is minor ore of strontium, used to plate the screens of cathode ray tubes to prevent x-ray leakage and therefore in television and computer screens. Other uses include the production of ceramics and fluorescent lights and of the red colors in flares and fireworks

SULFUR: Composition: S; a native element (non-metallic); small amounts of selenium (Se) may substitute for sulfur Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 10.47, b = 12.87, c = 24.49; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; rare monoclinic polymorphs exist Crystal Habit: prismatic crystals with prism {011} and pyramid {111} and {113}faces; massive crystal aggregates and encrustations are common, but also occurs in colloform (reniform) and stalactitic aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 - 2; soft Specific Gravity: 2.07; low Cleavage/Fracture: cleavage indistinct; conchoidal fracture to irregular fracture (in masses) Diaphaneity: quite translucent Colors: bright yellow to yellowish-brown Streak: pale yellow to white

Luster: resinous to greasy Other: alters to sulfate minerals such as gypsum and anhydrite Diagnostic Properties: the bright yellow color, lack of distinct cleavage and resinous to greasy luster are distinctive, as is the commonly pale yellow streak Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: = 1.96, = 2.04, = 2.25 Relief: very high-extreme (+) Color/Pleochroism: pale yellow to yellowish gray; very weakly pleochroic Birefringence: extreme (0.287) Twinning: usually absent Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 69o (moderately large) Diagnostic Properties: the combination of very high to extreme relief, pale yellow colors, absence of cleavage, very high-extreme birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with large 2V are characteristic Occurrences/Associations: Sulfur is a common mineral in areas of active volcanism where it forms encrustations and mounds around fumuaroles and hot springs. The sulfur forms by sublimation from gases or by bacterial reduction of sulfate minerals precipitated from solution. Abundant sulfur is also associated with marine evaporate deposits over salt domes. The sulfur is concentrated between the calcium sulfate (gypsum and anhydrite) cap rocks from which it is produced by bacterial processes and overlying calcite layers. In simple terms, bacterial reduction of the sulfate minerals releases hydrogen sulfide gas and calcium. Oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide by groundwater produces the sulfur and released calcium combines with carbonate ion from groundwater to form the calcite. Less commonly, sulfur is produced by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, e.g. in the oxidized portion sulfide veins. Uses: Sulfur is used in the production of sulfuric acid. Most of the sulfur used for acid production is a byproduct of the refining of sulfide ores. Sulfur is also used to aid the production of insecticides, paper, paints, dyes and textiles.

SYLVITE: Composition: KCl; halide mineral; isostructural with halite; but very limited solid solution

Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar32/m): a = 6.29, b = 6.29, c = 6.29; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: equant, cubic crystals {001}; in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2 Specific Gravity: 1.99; low to very low Cleavage/Fracture: 3 orientations at 90o; cubic {001} Diaphaneity: transparent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to white when pure; also gray, blue, yellow, orange or red Streak: white Luster: vitreous; cloudy on partially dissolved surfaces Other: has a slightly bitter salty taste; sectile, so doesnt powder easily Diagnostic Properties: its bitter taste and sectility distinguish sylvite from halite which has similar properties and occurrence Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.49 Relief: moderate, negative; one of only a few reasonably common minerals with moderate negative relief; due to high solubility, only occurs in thin-sections produced without using water Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: none; isotropic Optic Sign: none; isotropic Diagnostic Properties: again, must be prepared using techniques that do not readily dissolve it; if used, the perfect cubic cleavage, isotropic nature, extremely low relief and association with other evaporite minerals serve to distinguish it; halite is similar, but has much higher refractive indices and very low positive relief

Occurrences/Associations: Sylvite is a relatively scarce bitter salt evaporite mineral produced largely by severe desiccation during the evaporation of a restricted sea in a warm, dry climate. It forms with other rare evaporite minerals only after more than 98% of the water has been evaporated. Associated minerals include common evaporite minerals such as halite, gypsum and anhydrite and rarer ones such as polyhalite, kainite and carnellite. Carbonates, clays and iron oxide minerals are other common associates. Uses: The major use of sylvite is as a source of potassium, essential to plant growth, in fertilizers. It is also used as a source for potassium in a variety of industrial applications and as a replacement for halite in the diet of those who need to restrict sodium

TALC: Composition: Mg3Si4O10(OH)2; a phyllosilicate mineral with a T-O-T structure; rather small amounts of substitution occur: aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4) and manganese (Mn+2), ferrous iron (Fe+2) or ferric iron (Fe+3) for magnesium (Mg+2); the iron-rich equivalent of talc is minnesotaite Fe2Si4O10(OH)2 Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 5.29, b = 9.17, c = 9.46; = 90.4o, = 99o, = 90.1o; some talc crystallizes in the monoclinic system with similar dimensions for the a- and b-axes and the c-axes roughly twice as long because the unit cell is two T-O-T layers thick, rather than one, and with and = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are scaly or shreddy to tabular, less commonly acicularcapillary; occur most commonly in foliated or massive (called steatite or soapstone) crystal aggregates; also radiating and fibrous aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1; extremely soft Specific Gravity: 2.6 2.8; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect; not generally discernible in finely crystalline aggregates Diaphaneity: transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: typically white to light to dark green; also gray, brown, lavendar Streak: white Luster: typically pearly to greasy; may be dull in some finely crystalline aggregates

Other: possess a greasy-waxy feel due to extreme softness; sectile; thin sheets are flexible, but not elastic Diagnostic Properties: the combination of extremely low hardness, greasy-waxy feel and luster, white-green colors and foliated habit distinguish talc from all minerals except pyrophyllite; talcs occurrence in magnesian metamorphic and hydrothermal associations rather than pelitic metamorphic and hydrothermal associations permits it to be distinguished from pyrophyllite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.538 l.554; n = 1.575 1.599; n = 1.575 1.602; increase with iron content Relief: low to moderate, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless; minnesotaite may show pale yellow and green pleochroism Birefringence: 0.040 0.45 in sections in which is parallel to the stage; very high; 3rd order maximum colors common; 0.03 0.05; first order grays and whites in fragments lying on basal cleavage (as in many grain mounts) Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 5 - 30o; small 2V Diagnostic Properties: the lack of color, low to moderate relief, scaly, shreddy to capillary crystals, very high birefringence, and association with other magnesium-rich minerals in metamorphosed ultramafic/ultrabasic, mafic/basic and calcareous rocks are characteristic; phlogopite possesses higher refractive indices and relief and displays the birdseye extinction common to micas; brucite is biaxial (+) and commonly displays abnormal interference colors; the clay mineral sepiolite has negative relief and considerably lower birefringence; pyrophyllite and muscovite possess a larger 2V and occur in very different associations, e.g., pelitic metamorphic rocks Occurrences/Associations: Talc is a common product of the hydrothermal metamorphism of ultramafic/ultrabasic and mafic/basic igneous rocks, e.g., near oceanic ridges, where it is associated with serpentine, brucite, magnesite and pseudomorphs of olivine and pyroxene. Talc also occurs in relatively low- to medium-grade calcareous metamorphic rocks produced by the metamorphism of impure dolostone where it is associated with tremolite, dolomite, calcite and grossular-pyrope garnet. It also occurs in talc schists produced by low-grade regional metamorphism of mafic/basic and ultramafic/ultrabasic igneous rocks during greenschist facies metamorphism. Minnesotaite is common in metamorphosed iron formations.

Use: Talc is an important industrial mineral with many applications. One primary use is in the production talcum powders such as baby powder, foot powders and body powders and cosmetics including body lotions, facial creams and lipsticks. It is also used in the manufacture of industrial lubricants, in caulking and roofing compounds and in the manufacture of paint, plastics, rubber and paper. Talc is used in ceramic products including floor tiles, pottery and porcelain products. Soapstone (steatite) is commonly used to carve ornamental objects.

TENNANTITE: see TETRAHEDRITE TETRAHEDITE: Composition: Cu12Sb4S13; a sulfosalt mineral; forms complete solid solution series with the isostructural mineral tennantite (Cu12As4S13); much substitution of other metals, including silver (Ag) for copper(Cu) and iron (Fe) is common leading to variable compositions in both minerals Crystal System: Isometric (4bar3m): a = 10.23 10.55, b = 10.23 10.55, c = 10.23 10.55; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: as the name suggests, tetrahedral crystals are common; also scarcer dodecahedra, octahedra and tristetrahedra; as disseminated crystals and crystal groups; also as massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3 4; moderate Specific Gravity: 4.6 5.1 Cleavage/Fracture: none Diaphaneity: opaque or nearly so Colors: gray to gray black Streak: black to brownish black Luster: metallic to slightly submetallic; almost silky Other: important ore of silver Diagnostic Properties: The gray tetrahedral crystals are distinctive and the brownishblack streak, moderate hardness and silky metallic luster characteristic Microscopic Properties: opaque; gray with olive green or brownish tinge in reflected light

Occurrences/Associations: Tetrahedrite (and tennantite) occurs primarily in low to moderate temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite and a variety of silver-bearing minerals. Less commonly, it is found in higher temperature hydrothermal vein and contact metamorphic deposits. Uses: Tetrahedrite is an important ore of both copper and silver. Copper is used primarily in electrical wiring and in the manufacture of alloys such as brass (with zinc) and bronze (with tin and zinc) used for various implements. Silver is used in jewelry and in electrical components in computers. In addition, silver has achieved significant value as a monetary hedge against inflation and political unrest.

TITANITE: (formerly called SPHENE) Composition: CaTiO(SiO4); a nesosilicate mineral; limited coupled substitution of (Fe+3 or Al+3 for Ti+4) coupled with substitution of (OH-1 or F-1 for O-2) occurs; small amounts of rare earth elements and actinides such as uranium (U+2) and thorium (Th+2) may substitute for calcium (Ca+2) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 6.555, b = 8.707, c = 7.445; = 90o, = 120o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are wedge-shaped, with thick tabular to bladed habits and 6sided, diamond-shaped basal cross sections; typically as disseminated crystals or grains; also in lamellar to massive crystal aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 5 ; hard Specific Gravity: 3.48 3.60; moderate + Cleavage/Fracture: exists, but not generally discernible; prominent parting Diaphaneity: slightly, to somewhat translucent Colors: typically brown or gray; also yellow, green, and black Streak: white Luster: adamantine to resinous Other: typically alters to leucoxene, a mixture of titanium oxides and other minerals

Diagnostic Properties: the hard, wedge-shaped crystals with diamond-shaped crosssections and the adamantine-resinous luster are characteristic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.840 1.950; n = 1.870 2.034; n = 1.943 2.110 Relief: very high to extremely high, positive Color/Pleochroism: typically shades of pale gray brown or yellow brown; may be colorless; may be slightly pleochroic in shades of greenish yellow, yellow brown, yellow green, pinkish, red orange and red brown Birefringence: 0.100 0.192; extremely high; upper order faded creamy white colors, often obscured by color and high relief Twinning: simple twins are common; lamellar twins less so Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 17 40o; small to moderate 2V Other: basal cross-sections display symmetrical extinction with the long diagonal parallel to the fast ray; commonly zoned; may display abnormal interference colors; Diagnostic Properties: the combination of very high relief, brownish colors (if present), 6-sided, diamond-shaped basal sections with twinning, wedge-shaped longitudinal sections, extreme birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with small to moderate 2V are characteristic; monazite is similar and commonly twinned, but is typically pale yellow, has lower relief, a different crystal form, somewhat lower birefringence and a higher 2V; zircon and xenotime are tetragonal and uniaxial and xenotime tends to be quite pleochroic in thin-section, whereas zircon is colorless Occurrences/Associations: Titanite is a fairly common accessory mineral in felsic and intermediate plutonic igneous rocks including pegmatite, granitoids and diorite and in volcanic equivalents such as rhyolite and dacite. Titanite also occurs in regional metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss and in contact metamorphic rocks including skarn. It is fairly resistant to decomposition during weathering and so is a member of the heavy mineral population in detrital sediments. Uses: Titanite is a minor source of titanium (Ti) which is used with iron to strengthen steel and in alloys with aluminum, molybdenum and vanadium used in aircraft engines, missiles and spacecraft. Because of its resistance to corrosion, it is used in propeller shafts and riggings on boats. Because it is physiologically inert and can integrate with bones, titanium is used in material for joint replacements and tooth implants. Because of its light weight and strength, titanium is used in alloys for golf clubs and eyeglass frames. Titanium oxide is used extensively as a pigmenting agent in white paints and plastics. Some fine quality yellow-green (chartreuse)

crystals have been used as semiprecious gemstones. Although less important than zircon, titanite (sphene) is also used in geochronology for determining rock ages using uranium-lead dating techniques.

TOPAZ: Composition: Al2SiO4(F,OH)2; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m): a = 4.65, b = 8.80, c = 8.39; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically in small prismatic crystals, sometimes with cross-sections with crude eight-sided diamond shapes (from two sets of, sometimes striated, prism faces); often with dipyramidal terminations; usually as disseminated crystals and grains or in divergent aggregates; also in massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 8; very hard Specific Gravity: 3.49 3.57; moderate plus Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of basal pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect Diaphaneity: quite translucent to transparent Colors: variable; usually colorless to gray or wine yellow or golden brown; may also be brown, pink, red, green, blue or violet Streak: white Luster: vitreous to adamantine Diagnostic Properties: Distinguished from quartz by 8-sided crystal form and excellent single cleavage orientation, as well as superior hardness and specific gravity Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.606 1.635; n = 1.609 1.637; n = 1.616 1.644; increasing with fluorine content Relief: moderate Color/Pleochroism: colorless

Birefringence: 0.008 0.011; low; maximum first order yellow Twinning: rarely observed Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 44-68o; moderate to high Other: 8-sided basal cross-sections possess symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections display parallel extinction and basal cleavage traces; cleavage traces are length fast Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, moderate relief, excellent cleavage (which is length fast), low birefringence, and biaxial (+) optics with moderate to large 2V are characteristic; no other common mineral has similar characteristics Occurrences/Associations: Topaz forms chiefly in felsic volcanic and plutonic igneous rocks. Excellent crystals occur in cavities in rhyolite and dacite and in in pegmatite and granitoids. Topaz also occurs in hydrothermal veins and replacement deposits and contact metamorphic rocks with wolframite, scheelite, molybdenite, cassiterite, gold, beryl, apatite, tourmaline and fluorite. Regionally metamorphosed pelitic rocks such as schists and gneisses may also contain topaz. Uses: Topaz is mined as a gemstone with various colors, most commonly wine yellow to golden brown, but also colorless, pink, blue and violet. Topaz is also used sparingly as an abrasive in many products, including scouring pads, sanding products, knife sharpeners and grinding equipment.

TOURMALINE: Composition: (Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe,Mn,Li,Al)3(Al,Fe,Mg)6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH,F,O)4; a cyclosilicate mineral; composition can vary widely; three end-member compositions are recognized: dravite [NaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH,F,O)4], schorl [NaFe3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH,F,O)4], elbaite [Na(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH,F,O)4]; a fourth end member is sometimes recognized: uvite [CaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH,F,O)4]; there is considerable substitution solid solution between end-members; many additional substitutions occur, as tourmaline compositions are very complex Crystal System: Hexagonal (Trigonal): (3m): a1 = 1.594 1.599, a2 = 1.594 1.599, c = 7.19 7,23; = 90 o, = 120 o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically occurs as striated prismatic crystals with crudely triangular crosssections; rhombohedral terminations common; in divergent to radiating crystal aggregates; also occurs in massive aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties:

Hardness: 7; hard very hard Specific Gravity: 2.90 3.22; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: none discernible; conchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: dravite is somewhat translucent; shorl is barely translucent; elbaite is transparent to quite translucent Colors: highly variable; dravite is typically brown, schorl is typically black and elbaite is typically green, pink, red, yellow or blue Streak: white to medium gray Luster: vitreous Other: tourmaline is piezoelectric Diagnostic Properties: the striated, trigonal prismatic (slender to stubby) crystals are characteristic and the hardness, conchoidal fracture and colors are helpful in the identification of tourmaline Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.631 1.698; n = 1.610 1.675 Relief: moderate to high, positive Color/Pleochroism: can be strongly pleochroic; elbaite is colorless to pale colored; dravite and uvite are colorless to light yellow and dark yellow brown; schorl displays deeper shades of blue, blue-green, green, olive, purple, light brown, gray and even black Birefringence: 0.015 0.035; low to moderate; upper first to upper second order colors; masked in strongly colored varieties such as schorl Optic Sign: Uniaxial () Other: longitudinal sections are length fast and possess parallel extinction; color zoning about the c-axis is common Diagnostic Properties: moderate to high relief, lack of cleavage, roughly triangular, 3to 6-sided basal cross-sections, length fast longitudinal sections with parallel extinction, common zoning and uniaxial () optics are characteristic; colors and birefringence vary with composition, but the deep pleochroism of schorl is characteristic and the coloring in dravite-uvite helpful; some biotite and hornblende may show similar relief and pleochroism, but both have well-defined cleavage, while biotite has slightly angular,

birdseye extinction and is biaxial (-) and hornblende is biaxial (+) with a substantial 2V; apatite may resemble some elbaite, but has very low birefringence Occurrences/Associations: Tourmaline is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks including granitoids and pegmatite. In pegmatite, it is most commonly shorl, associated with quartz, muscovite, albite and K-feldspars; in some pegmatite, fine, gem quality elbaite crystals also occur in association with lepidolite, beryl, apatite, spodumene, amblygonite and fluorite. Tourmaline is also a common accessory mineral in pelitic regional metamorphic rocks such including phyllite, schist and gneiss. It also occurs in skarns in contact metamorphic zones adjacent to granitoids, chiefly as dravite. Tourmaline is quite resistant to weathering and so is a common constituent of the heavy mineral fraction in detrital sediments. Uses: Because of its piezoelectric properties, tourmaline is used in pressure gauges, seismometers and other electronic instruments. Exceptional elbaite crystals are used as gemstones including pink-red rubellite, blue indicolite, green Brazilian emerald and green and red watermelon tourmaline.

TREMOLITE: (see ACTINOLITE) Composition: Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; double-chain inosilicate; an amphibole group mineral; forms a solid solution series with actinolite which has 10-50% iron (Fe+2) substituting for magnesium (Mg+2) and ferro-actinolite which has more than 50% iron (Fe+2) substituting for magnesium (Mg+2). The maximum amount of Fe+2 that substitutes for Mg+2 is about 80%; small amounts of sodium (Na+1) may substitute for calcium (Ca+2) coupled typically with substitution of ferric iron (Fe+3) for magnesium (Mg+2); small amounts of aluminum (Al+3) substitute for silicon (Si+4) in a similar way; other small-scale substitutions occur Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 9.87, b = 18.05, c = 5.29; = 90o, = 104.8o, = 90o Crystal Habit: prismatic to acicular crystals in fibrous to radiated aggregates; also granular aggregates; both types of aggregates may occur together Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5-6 Specific Gravity: 3.0 Cleavage/Fracture: two orientations of prismatic cleavage {110} not at right angles (56o and 124o); very good, but not distinct in many aggregates Diaphaneity: moderately translucent

Colors: typically white to gray; may be pale green Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly; silky in fibrous aggregates Other: the pale color, hardness, habit and amphibole cleavage are diagnostic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.599 1.612; n = 1.613 1.626; n = 1.625 1.637; increasing with iron content Relief: moderate; positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.22 0.27; moderate; maximum colors are 2nd order blue and green Twinning: simple paired twins occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2V = 80-88o; very large 2V Other: basal cross-sections typically 4-sided, unusual for amphiboles, and display the two cleavages not at right angles and symmetrical extinction; longitudinal sections typically length slow, display one cleavage and have maximum extinction angles of 12 o 20o Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, moderate relief, good cleavage (with 2 sets visible in basal sections), moderate birefringence, common simple twins, length slow prismatic sections, relatively small extinction angles and biaxial () optics with very high 2V are characteristic; colorless actinolite is similar, but most actinolite displays pale pleochroism in shapes of yellow and green and has a different occurrence and associations; hornblende displays marked pleochroism, a smaller 2V and larger extinction angles; anthophyllite is orthorhombic, so has parallel extinction; wollastonite possesses different cleavage and a lower 2V Occurrences/Associations: Tremolite occurs primarily in low- to medium-grade calcareous metamorphic rocks including (a) non-foliated impure, dolomitic marbles and calcsilicate rocks of the albite epidote and hornblende hornfels facies and (b) in calcareous schists and impure marbles of the greenschist and amphibolites facies. In both occurrences it is commonly associated with calcite, dolomite, vesuvianite, talc, garnet, and epidote group minerals and less commonly with phlogopite, diopside and even forsterite. Uses: Fibrous varieties of tremolite have been used as a substitute for chrysotile asbestos which was long used in fireproofing and insulation.

TRIDYMITE: Composition: SiO2; a tectosilicate mineral; a silica group mineral; inclusion of small amounts of sodium (Na+1), potassium (K+1) and (Ca+2) in the crystal structure is electrically balanced by the substitution of aluminum (Al+3) for silicon (Si+4); occurs in two polytypes, both stable at relatively low pressure: orthorhombic tridymite (low tridymite) and hexagonal tridymite (high tridymite); tridymite (low tridymite) is the stable form in relatively low-moderate temperature environments (< 870oC); tridymite (high tridymite) inverts readily through nondisplacive transformation into tridymite (low tridymite) on cooling; the characteristics of tridymite (low tridymite) are therefore cited below; tridymite is polymorphic with other silica group minerals including quartz and cristobalite; rarer polymorphs include the high pressure silica minerals coesite and stichovite which occur in meteorite impactites and likely in the deep mantle Crystal System: Orthorhombic (222): a = 9.9, b = 17.1, c = 16.3; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o; monoclinic and triclinic varieties of tridymite have been reported Crystal Habit: typically occurs as tabular to platy crystals with hexagonal cross-sections; also as acicular to capillary crystals in radiating to stellated (spheroidal) aggregates; also in granular aggregates and as disseminated crystals Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7; hard to very hard Specific Gravity: 2.3; low Cleavage/Fracture: none; conchoidal fracture; may not be evident Diaphaneity: transparent to moderately translucent Colors: colorless to white or gray Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: quartz (low quartz) pseudomorphs after hexagonal tridymite (high tridymite) occur, although the inversion is displacive, so the kinetics are slow Diagnostic Properties: tridymite is difficult to distinguish from other macrocrystalline varieties of silica such as quartz, without optical or XRD methods; the tabular crystals are suggestive, the biaxial character of tridymite (low tridymite) and lower indices of refraction are distinctive (see below)

Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.471 1.482; n = 1.472 1.483; n = 1.474 1.488 Relief: moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.002 0.004; quite low; maximum first order grays Twinning: three wedge-shaped sets of twins are common, thus the name Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 40 90o; typically 70o 10o; high to very high 2V Diagnostic Properties: the combination of color, moderate negative relief, lack of cleavage, wedge-shaped twins, very low birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with generally high 2V are characteristic; cristobalite has a different crystal form, lower relief and is uniaxial () and nearly isotropic; in microcrystalline varieties, the distinction is less clear and may require XRD or other analytical methods Occurrences/Associations: Tridymite is a relatively scarce mineral that occurs primarily in silica-oversaturated, felsic and intermediate volcanic and hypabyssal rocks, especially rhyolite, rhyodacite and dacite as phenocrysts, as part of the groundmass or in spherulites formed by the divitrification of glass. It also lines vesicles in felsic, intermediate and even mafic/basic volcanic rocks, commonly in the form of amygdules. Tridymite has been reported from some stony meteorites. Use: Tridymite has no economic value.

TURQUOISE: Composition: CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)84H2O; a complete solid solution series exists with the rare end member chalcosiderite: CuFe6(PO4)4(OH)84H2O; but the amount of iron (Fe) is usually small Crystal System: Triclinic ( i ): a = 7.48 , b = 9.95, c = 7.69; = 112o, = 115o, = 69o Crystal Habit: mostly cryptocrystalline or very tiny crystals; typically occurs in cryptocrystalline, massive aggregates or as disseminated grains; also as veins, encrustations and in colloform (reniform to stalactictic) aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5 - 6; hard Specific Gravity: 2.6 2.8; moderate

Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {001} cleavage; perfect; a second orientation not at 90o of pinacoidal cleavage {010} is good; neither cleavage is commonly discerned Diaphaneity: slightly to somewhat translucent Colors: typically bluish green; also sky blue and light green Streak: white or pale green Luster: subvitreous; waxy to porcelain-like Diagnostic Characteristics: Turquoise can be distinguished from most other minerals by its blue-green to sky blue color, hardness and porcelain-like luster; chrysocolla is much softer; malachite and azurite are softer, have different colors and effervesce readily in HCl. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.61; n = 1.62; n = 1.65 Relief: moderate Color/Pleochroism: pale shades of blue, blue-green or green Birefringence: 0.04; low; first order grays Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vz = 40o; moderate Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pale blue, blue-green to green color, moderate relief, low birefringence and biaxial (+) optics with moderate 2V is characteristic Occurrences/Associations: Turquoise occurs mostly as a product of the hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks such as rhyolite, dacite and trachyte, associated with copper mineralization. Uses: Turquoise is widely used as a gemstone in jewelry and decorative objects.

UVAROVITE: see GARNET ULEXITE: Composition: NaCaB5O65H2O; a borate mineral Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 8.71, b = 12.72, c = 6.69; = 90.3o, = 109o, = 105o

Crystal Habit: commonly as acicular to filiform crystals which occur in fibrous aggregates; also in loose cotton-ball aggregates, nodular masses and encrustations Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 2; soft Specific Gravity: 1.96; low Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation; pinacoidal {100}; perfect; there are two much less discernible orientations not at 90o; prismatic {10}; fair Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent to quite translucent Colors: colorless to white or light gray Streak: white Luster: silky in fibrous aggregates; otherwise vitreous to subvitreous Other: television rock consists of closely packed, parallel fibers of ulexite Diagnostic Characteristics: distinguished most easily by its acicular-filiform crystals in soft, cotton balls or fibrous habit Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.491; n = 1.504; n = 1.520 Relief: low to moderate, negative Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.029 0.32; high; up to lower 3rd order colors Twinning: simple and polysynthetic twins occur Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vx = 73o; high Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, one perfect cleavage, lowmoderate negative relief, common acicular-fibrous habit, high birefringence and biaxial (+) optic sign with large 2V and association with other continental evaporites are characteristic; borax is rarely fibrous, has lower birefringence and a lower 2V Occurrences/Associations: Most ulexite forms by evaporation in enclosed saline lakes in warm, arid climates and as an efflorescent formed by soil water evaporation under similar conditions.

Commonly associated minerals include bornite, kernite, colemanite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and a host of rare borate minerals. Uses: The most important use of ulexite is in production of borax for the manufacture of glass fibers for use in insulation and textiles. Borax is also used in detergent soaps and as a flux in metallurgical processes such as welding and smelting. One isotope of elemental boron, obtained from ulexite, is used in the shields of atomic reactors and elemental boron is also used in fuels for rockets and automobiles and in the high strength plastics used in aircraft manufacturing.

URANINITE: Composition: UO2; an oxide mineral; forms a complete solid solution series with thorianite (ThO2), so usually contains substantial thorium; often contains lead (Pb) isotopes and helium (He) produced by radioactive decay of uranium (and thorium). Crystal System: Isometric (4/mbar3/m): a1 = 5.47, a2 = 5.47, a3 = 5.47; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: individual crystals are scarce equant octahedra {111}, sometimes with cubic {001} dodecahedral {011} modifying faces; occurs commonly as pitchblende in massive to granular aggregates or in colloform (botryoidal-reniform) encrustations of radiating acicularcapillary crystals with a banded structure Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 5; hard Specific Gravity: 10.9 when pure; usually 6.5 10.0; very high to extremely high Cleavage/Fracture: none Diaphaneity: barely to slightly translucent Colors: brownish to steely black Streak: brownish black to grayish Luster: submetallic to pitchy; earthy in fine-grained aggregates Other: highly radioactive; alters to yellow carnotite, green autunite and many other uranium-bearing minerals Diagnostic Properties: The black color, brownish-black streak, pitchy luster and extremely high specific gravity are distinctive; the radioactivity is the clincher

Microscopic Properties: nearly opaque; brownish gray in reflected light Occurrences/Associations: Uraninite is a generally scarce accessory mineral that forms mostly in medium to high temperature (mesothermal to hypothermal) veins where it is associated with chalcopyrite, cassiterite, arsenopyrite and cobaltite. Uraninite is also concentrated in detrital sediments by precipitation from solution during the reduction of pore waters during bacterial decomposition. Uses: Uraninite is the principle ore of uranium (Ur) used as a fuel in nuclear power generation and in thermonuclear bombs.

VESUVIANITE: formerly called idocrase Composition: Ca10(Mg,Fe)2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4; a sorosilicate mineral; composition is quite variable due to substantial substitution of (Na+1 for Ca+2) (Mn+2, Fe+3 for Mg+2 and Fe+2) (Fe+3 for Al+3) and (Al+3 for Si+4); sparse amounts of other elements may substitute as well Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m2/m2/m): a1 = 1.550, a2 = 1.550, c = 11.80; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: commonly striated, nearly equant to stubby prismatic crystals with pinacoidal {001} terminations; also as radiating prismatic crystals; as disseminated crystals; less commonly in massive to granular aggregates; rarely acicular-fibrous Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 7; hard Specific Gravity: 3.32 3.43; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: imperfect; none discernible Diaphaneity: nearly transparent to somewhat translucent Colors: variable; commonly shades of brown, green or yellow; also red and blue Streak: white Luster: vitreous to resinous Diagnostic Properties: the stubby striated prismatic crystals, brown to green color and hardness are characteristic; zircon tetragonal and brown, but is harder and its crystals typically have dipyramidal truncations Microscopic Properties:

Refractive Indices: n = 1.703 1.742; n = 1.700 1.736 Relief: high to very high Color/Pleochroism: colorless to often pale shades of gray, brown, yellow-brown, yellow green, even red brown; not pleochroic Birefringence: 0.001 0.015; very low to low; somewhat obscured by color Optic Sign: Uniaxial (); some biaxial forms reported Other: square basal cross-sections common; longitudinal sections are length fast, commonly displays abnormal interference colors in shades of Berlin blue and green; may be zoned Diagnostic Properties: the combination of no color or pale brown shades, high relief, square cross-sections, low birefringence, common abnormal interference colors and uniaxial () length fast optics is characteristic, as is its occurrence in calcareous metamorphic rocks; clinozoisite resembles colorless vesuvianite, but it has a perfect cleavage, is biaxial () and has a different occurrence and associations; epidote resembles colored vesuvianite, but typically possesses higher birefringence, has angular extinction and is biaxial () with a substantial 2V Occurrences/Associations: Vesuvianite occurs primarily in low to medium grade contact and regional metamorphic calcareous rocks such as skarn, marble and calcsilicate marble. It is common in rocks of the albite-epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels, greenschist, epidote amphibolite and amphibolite facies where it is associated with minerals that include calcite, dolomite, graphite, phlogopite, grossularite garnet, diopside, tremolite and wollastonite. Uses: Vesuvianite does not generally possess economic value, although transparent specimens are sometimes used as minor gemstones.

WAD: see manganite; technically a rock or soil, but commonly discussed with minerals Composition: Variable; Wad is a finely crystalline mixture of different hydroxide, oxyhydroxide and oxide minerals including romanechite [Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10], todorokite [(Mn,Ca.Mg)Mn3O7H2O], pyrolusite (MnO2), manganite (MnOOH), cryptomelane (KMn8O16) and other manganese minerals with clay minerals; analogous to bauxite for aluminum hydroxides and oxyhydroxides Crystal System: not applicable

Crystal Habit: typically occurs in fine-grained, earthy masses and as surficial encrustations; forms nodular masses and layers in bogs (bog manganese) and on the ocean floor (manganese nodules); forms dendrites on fracture surfaces (joints and faults); contributes to black surface stains (rock varnish) on rock surfaces, especially in deserts (desert varnish) Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 1 6; soft to hard; variable depending on mineralogy and compactness (porosity) of earthy and nodular masses Specific Gravity: 3 - 7; moderate very high; variable depending on mineralogy and compactness (porosity) of earthy and nodular masses Cleavage/Fracture: none discernible Diaphaneity: generally opaque Colors: typically gray black to black Streak: brownish black to black Luster: dull in earthy masses; submetallic in nodular masses Diagnostic Properties: combination of black color, brownish black to black streak, earthy to submetallic luster is distinctive; nodular masses are distinctive Microscopic Properties: see manganite; opaque Occurrences/Associations: Wad is formed by the alteration of manganese bearing minerals in soils, by precipitation on ocean floors (manganese nodules) and in bogs (bog manganese) and also accumulates in a variety of other near surface environments. Uses: Wad, especially, in the form of nodules, is the major source of manganese (Mn) which is primarily used as a hardening agent in the manufacture of steel for support beams, automobiles and machinery. It is also used as a hardening agent with aluminum and copper, e.g., in the production of electrical wires and transmission lines. Manganese is also use as a coloring agent in the production of glassware and ceramics. It is used in the production of potassium permanganate (KMnO4), used to kill bacteria and algae in water and wastewater treatment.

WITHERITE: Composition: BaCO3; a carbonate; isostructural with aragonite, strontianite and cerrusite, all members of the orthorhombic (aragonite) group of carbonate minerals; limited solid solution with strontianite (Sr+2 substitutes for Ba+2)

Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 5.31, b = 8.90, c = 6.43; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: penetration twins nearly always produce stubby prismatic dipyramidal pseudohexagonal crystals with horizontal striations; often in colloform (botryoidal, globular) aggregates; also in massive to granular aggregates; acicular crystals in fibrous aggregates also occur Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3; moderate Specific Gravity: 4.3; high Cleavage/Fracture: one cleavage; pinacoidal {010} fair; others poor so all cleavages are difficult to discern; subconchoidal fracture Diaphaneity: translucent to transparent Colors: colorless to white; also light gray to yellow-brown Streak: white Luster: vitreous Other: effervesces readily in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); commonly alters to barite Diagnostic Characteristics: witherite can be distinguished from aragonite by its higher specific gravity; it most closely resembles strontianite (which has a lower specific gravity) from which it can be distinguished, in large crystals, by the latters two orientations of cleavage and more clearly by a test for strontium Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n= 1.529; n = 1.676; n = 1.677 Relief: low negative to moderate-high positive; sections in which the alpha vibration direction is visible produce a twinkling effect as the stage is rotated under plane light Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.148; very high-extreme; high order faded colors (creamy white) Twinning: alternating penetration twins common; some polysynthetic twinning Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 16o (small 2V)

Other: longitudinal sections are length slow with parallel extinction Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from rhombohedral carbonates (e.g., calcite and dolomite) by the lack of rhombohedral cleavage and by being biaxial (), rather than uniaxial (); strontianite is similar, but it is a more common mineral, with much better cleavage, that possesses slightly lower refractive indices and relief and 2V, and possesses a markedly lower specific gravity; aragonite has a higher 2Vand higher refractive indices; cerrusite is distinguished by its very high refractive indices and relief and the lack of twinkling as the stage is rotated under plane light Occurrences/Associations: Most witherite occurs in low-temperature hydrothermal veins and replacement products in limestone where it is associated with galena, sphalerite, fluorite and barite. Uses: a minor ore of barium used to increase the density drilling muds used in the recovery of petroleum from wells which helps to prevent blowouts; also used in the manufacture of glass, paper and ceramics products and in the production of rubber and plastics; for x-ray images of the stomach and intestinal tract

WOLFRAMITE: Composition: (Fe,Mn)WO4; a complete solid solution series exists between MnWO4 (huebnerite) and FeWO4 (ferberite) Crystal System: Monoclinic (2/m): a = 4.77, b = 5.71, c = 4.98; = 90o, = 91o, = 90o; so nearly orthorhombic Crystal Habit: tabular-bladed crystals with prominent front pinacoid {100}; divergent to lamellar aggregates; also massive to granular aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 4 Specific Gravity: 7.0 7.5; very high; higher with increasing iron (Fe) content Cleavage/Fracture: one cleavage orientation; pinacoidal {010} Diaphaneity: barely translucent to nearly opaque Colors: dark brown to black (in iron-rich varieties) Streak: dark brown to nearly black

Luster: submetallic to resinous Diagnostic Characteristics: The dark brown to black color and streak, very high specific gravity and one orientation of cleavage are distinctive. Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.17 - 2.31; n = 2.22 2.40; n = 2.30 2.46 Relief: extremely high Color/Pleochroism: pleochroic in shades of yellow, orange, green and red brown Birefringence: 0.13 0.15; low; upper first order colors, but obscured by pleochroic colors Twinning: common simple contact twins Optic Sign: biaxial (+); 2Vz = 73o 89o; high to very high Diagnostic Properties: the strong pleochroism in shades of yellow-green-orange-red brown, the extreme relief and relatively low birefringence are suggestive; the common twinning, biaxial (+) optic sign and very high 2V are characteristic Occurrences/Associations: Wolframite occurs in granitic pegmatites and from high-temperature hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits where it is associated with cassiterite, scheelite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite, topaz, apatite, pyrite and quartz. Uses: Wolframite is the major ore of tungsten (W) used primarily to harden steel for the manufacture of tools used for cutting and drilling, especially power tools. Tungsten is also used in the manufacture of silicon carbide, an abrasive harder than any mineral except diamond, which is used wherever hard substances are required. Pure tungsten has long been used for filaments in lamps and light bulbs.

WOLLASTONTE: Composition: CaSiO3; single-chain inosilicate; a pyroxenoid mineral with rotated single chains; small amounts of manganese (Mn+2) or iron (Fe+2) and less magnesium (Mg+2), may substitute for calcium (Ca+2) Crystal System: Triclinic (): a = 7.94, b = 7.32, c = 7.07; = 90o, = 95o, = 103o Crystal Habit: individual crystals may be acicular, tabular or bladed; commonly occurs in fibrous or granular aggregates, often within the same specimen; may occur in foliated aggregates

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 4 5 ; moderate to hard Specific Gravity: 2.86 3.09; moderate Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {100} cleavage; perfect; two others, orientations, one near 90o (84o) to the prominent cleavage and the other not at right angles (70o) to the prominent cleavage; good only; the combination tends to produce coarse, splintery fracture Diaphaneity: quite translucent to somewhat translucent Colors: commonly white; also light gray to pale green Streak: white Luster: vitreous to pearly; silky in fibrous aggregates Other: commonly alters to calcite Diagnostic Properties: distinguished from tremolite with difficulty unless in cleavable masses where the splintery cleavage with two orientations near 90o and often lower hardness distinguish it from tremolite Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.616 1.645; n = 1.628 1.652; n = 1.631 1.656 Relief: moderate to moderate plus, positive Color/Pleochroism: colorless Birefringence: 0.013 0.017; low plus; maximum colors are first order yellow to red Twinning: simple paired twins common Optic Sign: Biaxial (); 2Vx = 36 60o; moderate 2V Other: two orientations of cleavage visible in most sections, sometimes near right angles, sometimes not; extinction may be somewhat mottled, so not all parts of the crystal go to extinction at the same time Diagnostic Properties: the combination of lack of color, moderate relief, good cleavage, rather low birefringence, common twinning and biaxial () optics with moderate 2V are characteristic, as is the occurrence in calcareous metamorphic rocks; tremolite possesses typical amphibole cleavage (2 sets at 56 o and 124o) and a larger 2V;

pectolite is more typically radial-fibrous and has smaller extinction angles and higher birefringence, as well as a different association Occurrences/Associations: Wollastonite is an abundant mineral in medium to high grade calcareous metamorphic rocks such as marble, skarn, and calcsilicate rocks produced by the metamorphic transformation of impure limestone and dolostone. It is produced by contact metamorphism the hornblende hornfels and pyroxene hornfels facies and by regional metamorphism in the amphibolite and granulite facies. Commonly associated minerals include calcite, dolomite, diopside, forsterite, grossular garnet and calcic plagioclase, and less commonly tremolite, vesuvianite and epidote. Wollastonite has been reported from rare alkalic igneous rocks. Uses: Fibrous wollastonite is used as a healthier replacement for asbestos used to produce fireresistant construction materials such as insulation, construction board, siding and roofing materials. Wollastonite possesses properties such as resistance to alteration, flexural strength and durability that make it useful in the production of high quality ceramics, as an additive to paints and in the production of plastics and rubber products. WULFENITE: Composition: PbMoO4; a molybdate mineral Crystal System: Tetragonal (4): a1 = 5.44, a2 = 5.44, c = 12.11; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: rather thin, tabular crystals with square cross-sections; sometimes with pyramidal or dipyramidal (where twinned) faces; commonly in reticulated aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 3; soft to moderate transition Specific Gravity: 6-5 7.0; very high Cleavage/Fracture: 2 orientations not at 90o; good Diaphaneity: somewhat translucent to transparent Colors: typically yellow-orange-red; also white to gray Streak: white Luster: vitreous to adamantine Diagnostic Characteristics: the square, thin, tabular crystals and yellow-orange-red color are characteristic as is its very bright luster and low hardness; the rare lead

chromate mineral Crocoite (PbCrO4) can only be distinguished with certainty by chemical analysis Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 2.404; n = 2.283 Relief: extremely high Color/Pleochroism: pleochroic in shades of yellow to pale orange Birefringence: 0.122; extremely high; high order faded colors (creamy white) Twinning: contact twins common Optic Sign: uniaxial () Diagnostic Properties: the combination of yellow-orange pleochroism, square to rectangular sections, extreme relief and birefringence and uniaxial () optics are characteristic Occurrences/Associations: Wulfenite occurs in the oxidized zone of galena-bearing hydrothermal vein and replacement deposits. It is formed by the reaction of acidic rich, meteoric ground water with galena (PbS) and molybdenite (MoS2) to cause oxidation. What wulfenite is associated with depends on the other primary sulfide minerals, but common associates include cerussite, anglesite, limonite (goethite), pyromorphite, and vanadinite. Uses: The crystals are prized for their bright yellow-orange-red colors. Wulfenite is a minor ore of molybdenum (Mo) used in the manufacture of steel alloys.

ZIRCON: Composition: ZrSiO4; a nesosilicate (orthosilicate) mineral; some hafnium (Hf+4) typically substitutes for zirconium (Zr+4) in the range of 1-5%, as do small amounts of rare earth elements and actinides (uranium and thorium); metamict zircon has a structure that has been largely destroyed by alpha decay of radioactive uranium and thorium; limited amounts of phosphate (PO4)-4 may substitute for silica (SiO4)-4 Crystal System: Tetragonal (4/m2/m2/m): a1 = 6.61, a2 = 6.61, c = 5.98; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: typically small prismatic crystals; with tetragonal prisms {110} and tetragonal dipyramids {111}; typically as disseminated crystals and grains

Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 7; very hard Specific Gravity: 4.6 4.8; high Cleavage/Fracture: generally not discernible Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent Colors: typically brown, yellow brown or reddish brown; also gray, pink, blue-green Streak: white Luster: vitreous to sub-adamantine; greasy Diagnostic Properties: The small tetragonal prismatic crystals with dipyramidal terminations, its elevated hardness and the commonly brownish color are characteristic Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.920 1.960; n = 1.967 2.015; increases with hafnium content; less in metamict zircon (~1.800) Relief: very high to extremely high, positive; less in metamict zircon Color/Pleochroism: colorless to pale brown, but obscured in small crystals by extreme relief Birefringence: 0.036 0.065; high to very high; maximum third or fourth order colors; but essentially isotropic in metamict crystals Optic Sign: Uniaxial (+); metamict zircon is essentially isotropic Other: longitudinal sections are length slow, with parallel extinction; crystals commonly zoned; where zircon crystals occur as inclusions in other minerals alpha decay commonly produces a pleochroic halo in the mineral that surrounds the inclusions Diagnostic Properties: the combination of pale brown to no color, very high relief and birefringence, lack of cleavage and uniaxial (+), length slow optics is characteristic; xenotime resembles zircon, but is usually pleochroic and has significantly lower relief and higher birefringence; titanite is superficially similar, but possesses higher birefringence, six-sided diamond-shaped basal sections and wedge-shaped longitudinal sections and is biaxial (+); monazite is biaxial with a small 2V and angular extinction Occurrences/Associations: Zircon is a widely distributed accessory mineral formed in felsic rocks such as granitoids, syenite, monzonite, foid syenite and pegmatite. It also occurs in

metamorphic rocks, including marble, schist and gneiss. Zircon is extremely resistant to chemical decomposition during weathering and diagenesis, so is commonly concentrated in the heavy mineral population of detrital sediments where it can form commercially valuable placer deposits. Uses: The mineral zircon is utilized in foundry sand used to make castings and used in the form of zirconium oxide in the production of refractory bricks. High quality zircon is also used as a gemstone, with colorless specimens used as substitutes for diamond. Zircon is also the principal source for zirconium (Zr) and Hafnium (Hf) and a secondary source for many rare earth elements (REE). Zirconium is used in nuclear reactors and to make the synthetic stone cubic zirconia which is widely used in jewelry. Zircon is also widely used to precisely date geological events using uranium-lead dating techniques. Hafnium is used to absorb neutrons in nuclear power plant control rods, in superalloys for jet engines and its oxide form is used in the fabrication of integrated circuits for computers.

ZOISITE: Composition: Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH); sorosilicate; epidote group mineral; forms a partial solid solution series with clinozoisite with less iron (Fe+3) substituting for (Al+3); clinozoisite contains more (Fe+3) substituting for (Al+3) and is therefore monoclinic; still higher amounts of iron (Fe+3) result in the monoclinic mineral epidote; where a few percent of manganese (Mn+2) substitutes in zoisite, the pink zoisite called thulite results Crystal System: Orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m): a = 16.19, b = 5.55, c = 10.03; = 90o, = 90o, = 90o Crystal Habit: acicular to striated prismatic (or bladed) crystals occur chiefly as disseminated crystals or in granular to aggregates; also radiating aggregates Macroscopic Properties: Hardness: 6 - 7; hard Specific Gravity: 3.15 3.37 Cleavage/Fracture: one orientation of pinacoidal {010} cleavage; perfect; Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent Colors: variable; typically greenish gray to greenish brown; also white, gray, blue-violet or pink to rose red (thulite) Streak: white

Luster: vitreous to pearly Diagnostic Properties: the grayish green color and single excellent cleavage distinguish zoisite from most amphiboles (two cleavages); the color distinguishes it from most clinozoisite and epidote which are deeper green due to their higher iron content Microscopic Properties: Refractive Indices: n = 1.685 1.705; n = 1.688 1.710; n = 1.697 1.725; increase with increasing iron Relief: moderate-high Color/Pleochroism: colorless; except thulite which is pleochroic in shades of pale pink to yellow Birefringence: 0.005 0.020; low to moderate; maximum colors are first order grays to first order red-purple Twinning: none Optic Sign: Biaxial (+); 2Vx = 0 50o; very low to moderate 2V Other: longitudinal sections display parallel extinction and are either length slow or length fast; zoning is common; some zoisite and thulite display abnormal interference colors in blue and brown; Diagnostic Properties: the lack of color, moderately-high relief, excellent pinacoidal cleavage, low-moderate birefringence, parallel extinction, abnormal interference colors and biaxial (+) optics with low-moderate 2V are characteristic; clinozoisite possesses angular extinction and slightly higher relief and birefringence; epidote is often pleochroic in shades of yellow and green, has inclined extinction and much higher birefringence; vesuvianite is uniaxial (+); thulite is distinguished from other zoisite by its pink to yellow pleochroism; piemontite has similar colors, but has angular extinction and higher birefringence Occurrences/Associations: Zoisite occurs mostly in medium-grade (amphibolite facies) calcareous metamorphic rocks, including marble, impure marble and calcsilicate rocks, and in mafic rocks including amphibolite. It is also reported from high pressure metamorphic rocks of the blueschist and eclogite facies. Uses: Zoisite is not an economically important mineral. Transparent specimens of good color are used as minor gemstones.