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FROM THE DESK OF THE EXECUTIVE EDITOR
Dear Readers, Every year, 15th September is being celebrated as the Engineers day to commemorate the birth day of Bharat Ratna, Sir Mokshgundam Visvesvaraya (1860-1965) who is also called the Wizard of Engineering. He not only took keen interest in Engineering but also applied his talent to many allied matters connected with development of the nation. Let all Railway engineers be inspired by this great engineer & make Indian Railway the number one Railway in the world. The September issue of the Indian Railways Construction Bulletin features three articles. The first article deals with safety aspects incorporated in the conversion/strengthening of Pamban Bridge from MG to BG standards. The second article features the innovative maintenance system of bridge superstructure on Western Railway. The third article discusses the strengthening of bridges using composite fibre wrapping technology for introduction of higher axle loads on Indian Railways. The best way to specialised works carried articles on various issues others through this forum. disseminate knowledge is through publication of articles on the out by you. You are requested to actively participate by sending related to construction, which you feel important to be shared with The articles may be sent on a CD or through e-mail.
This bulletin is also available on the website at www.iricen.gov.in With best wishes,
Executive Editor
EDITORIAL BOARD
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Shri Shiv Kumar
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Indian Railways Construction Bulletin Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2007
INDIAN RAILWAYS CONSTRUCTION BULLETIN

C O N T E N T S
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PAPERS
Safety Aspects Incorporated in the Conversion/Strengthening of Pamban Bridge from MG to BG Standards

by A. K. Sinha, Chief Bridge Engineer, SR
2.
Maintenance System of Bridge Superstructure on Western Railway A Paradigm Shift after Centralization of Bridge Organization
by V. B. Sood, Professor Track-2, IRICEN, Pune
3.
Strengthening of Bridges using Composite Fibre Wrapping Technology for Introduction of Higher Axle Loads on Indian Railways
by D. Anjaneyulu Reddy, SR.DEN / North / Vijayawada, S.C.Rly. T. Muralidhara Rao, Dy.CE / CON / Bhubaneswar, Eco.Rly, and P. Mitra Kumar, Sri Mitra Consultancy & Services, Vishakapatnam
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September 2007
Safety Aspects Incorporated in the Conversion/ Strengthening of Pamban Bridge from MG to BG Standards
by
A. K. Sinha * SYNOPSIS
The Pamban bridge connecting the Mainland to the Rameswaram Island over Palk Strait that divides the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean was built in December 1913 by M/s Head Wrightson & Co., Tees Dale, U.K.; designed by the Scherzer Rolling Lift Bridge Company of Chicago, USA. This Railway bridge is 2.05 Km long and served as the only connection between mainland and Rameswaram Island up to 1982 when the Road bridge was also built parallel and south of the railway bridge. The Pamban bridge consists of 146 spans, out of which 145 spans are of 40ft and one span is a navigational span which is capable of lifting upto 81 degree to allow navigation of ships / boats etc. As part of the Gauge Conversion of Railway track from Meter Gauge to Broad Gauge from Madurai to Rameswaram, the Pamban bridge also had to be converted to suit the Broad Gauge traffic. There was a widespread feeling that as the bridge was 95 years old and having served in an extremely corrosive area, it would not be possible to convert the same bridge to the Broad Gauge trains loading. Accordingly, the proposal for an altogether new bridge was under active consideration. At this juncture, the Bridge Organisation of the Southern Railway took up the challenge and started to study the feasibility of converting the existing bridge to BG standards. As the Navigational span of the Pamban Bridge (popularly called as the Scherzer Navigational Rolling Lift Span) had to perform the dual function of passage of trains as well as ships / vessels etc, the task of conversion posed many challenges some foreseen and some unforeseen while 145 spans of 40 could easily be either replaced with new girders or the existing girders widened / rebraced, it was the Scherzer Navigational span that posed real challenge on account of several reasons like complicated superstructure, the lifting facility of span for passage of ship, non-feasibility of changing any member of the superstructure, extensive and intensive setting of corrosion, strengthening of members without causing any distortion of the cantilever structure, containing the increased uplift on the rear of cantilever structure / leaf under BG trains etc. The type of superstructure of the Navigational span is double cantilever, connected at the middle by male-female shear connection. The bridge was critical not only for connecting the place of extremely religious importance of Rameswaram Island but also for passage of ships / boats from Bay of Bengal to Indian Ocean. Thus lot of care was taken to ensure the safety aspect of the bridge. Safety aspects were considered and deliberated at each and every step right from the stage of conception to the execution stage, followed by load test.
* Chief Bridge Engineer/SR
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1.0
SAFETY ASPECTS INCORPORATED IN THE DESIGN
The task of retrofitting / strengthening a bridge as old as 95 years, serving in an extremely corrosive exposure condition, was a daunting one. Accordingly, care was taken to incorporate safety aspect in the design stage itself. While it is easy to incorporate safety aspects in the design for a new bridge, the same is equally difficult to incorporate in an existing bridge as it was not possible to remove any member for replacement etc. An exhaustive analysis, which is vital to the safety of the structure, was carried out to access the adequacy of the foundations of both 40ft span and 289ft navigational span popularly known as the Scherzer navigational rolling lift span. While steel girders of 98 spans were rebraced, 47 girders were changed altogether with new ones in view of corrosion. Care was taken to execute metalising work with zinc spread to impart good life and durability to the girders. As a first step to incorporate safety aspect it was decided to carry out an exhaustive analysis of the truss members, which in fact was subjected to both in-plane moment and out-of-plane moment. The analysis was carried out by STAAD-PRO 2003 by Railways followed by ABAQUS software by SERC/Chennai and finally using SAP by IIT/Chennai. All the three results were correlated in detail, discrepancies, if any, were sorted out and finally a judicious decision was taken to strengthen / retrofit the truss members so that the superstructure could carry Broad Gauge trains. It is worth noting that the retrofit / strengthening could not be done in a free manner since any addition of weight on the cantilever side in the truss resulted in addition of twice magnitude as counter weight. Thus, the whole exercise of strengthening was balanced duly keeping extra counter weight to the minimum, due to limited capacity / space as well as the strengthening of structure carrying the counter weight. As a matter of abandon precaution / safety, the corrosion that had already taken place in the superstructure truss members, was accessed exhaustively and efficiently. In order to asses and incorporate the existing corrosion in the analysis, the corrosion was measured at 6500 locations using NDT instruments by IIT/Chennai who collected the raw data, analysed statistically and % corrosion was arrived at for each and every member (as many as 200 members). The sectional properties were accordingly modified and the results of the analysis was considered to arrive at the decision to retrofit / strengthen the members for Broad Gauge loading.
2.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSING THE CONDITION OF THE FOUNDATION
While the foundation of 40ft span can be accessed quite easily, the 9ft and 12ft concrete cylindrical foundations were running as much as 55ft below the mean sea level and hence integrity / condition / soundness of these foundation had to be assessed by nondestructive testing techniques wherein apart from Schmidt hammer test, Ground
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Penetrating Radar (GPR) wave technique, UPV test and Sonic integrity tests were conducted. The NDT methods deployed for determining the integrity of the foundations which confirmed absence of any cracks / defects what so ever in the structure. Also, as a matter of abandon precaution, under water inspection duly video graphing the details of foundations was conducted for all the foundations, which also showed sound exterior condition. 3.0 SAFETY ASPECTS IN DRAWING DEVELOPMENT STAGE
Based on the analysis, as brought out above, the detailed drawings were developed by the Southern Railway Bridge Organization. However, since the members were proposed to be strengthened by adding plates to the existing channel sections, and as it was not possible to dismantle / remove any member / joint since the superstructure assisted to cantilever truss, a careful and exhaustive analysis was carried out for each and every joint concerned, to determine the number of rivets that could be cut and or removed duly replacing the same with drifts or bolts so as to avoid any distortion in the truss due to self-weight (the stress due to self-weight was high due to the cantilever behaviour). The drawings were thus developed for each and every joint and member duly indicating the sequence / methods, for removing / busting of rivets in a particular sequence. Being cantilever type of structure, the stress due to dead load was as much as 30%-40% of the total stress and hence it was considered necessary to reduce the stress level by providing prop in the form of erecting support in the mid span duly driving MS pipes below sea bed in the bed as much as 20m deep with high velocity currents and sea waves. Again an exhaustive analysis was carried out to determine the magnitude of the Prop Force, so as to minimize the stress level under Dead load in each member at the time of connecting new / additional plates, as this would ensure sharing of Dead load by the new plates also. The computed Prop-Force was applied accordingly during execution for each member being retrofitting accordingly. 4.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS DURING ERECTION / EXECUTION
Apart from above measure of providing central prop to reduce the stress level at the time of retrofitting of the member concerned, scores of safety aspects were taken into consideration while executing the work. a) Bursting / removal of rivets: The rivets were cut using disk cutter so as to avoid damage of the existing members and the sequence was indicated in the drawing. During loosening of the joint, the deflection at the cantilever tip was continuously measured to assess any distortion in the truss members. b) Temporary replacement of rivets: Rivets were replaced temporarily by drifts / bolts and it was ensured that the rivets on the periphery were replaced first going progressively towards center of the rivet groups of the joint concerned.
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c) Re-riveting: Immediately new rivets were provided without any delay so as to prevent any distortion / permanent set due to wind / storm that is common at such locations. While executing the new rivets, care was taken to prevent any substandard riveting by ensuring delivery of the white hot rivets at the riveting joint in an expeditious manner by erecting series of platforms, scaffoldings at high elevations so that the operator could apply the requisite force while riveting, ensuring full air pressure by properly networked hose pipe network of roughly 1200m fed by compressed air by as many as 13 air compressor at a time. d) Sequence of Strengthening of the members: As the work had to be done in parallel manner that is more than one member had to be tackled in each cantilever leaf, therefore the structural criticality of the cantilever leaf was kept in mind while doing so. 5.0 SAFETY FOR FUTURE
Since the structure was retrofitted considering the existing corrosion that had already taken place all efforts have been made to prevent any further corrosion in the structure so as to impart a good & long life to the structure. Accordingly; an exhaustive painting schedule incorporating multi layer of painting by epoxy based paints including sand blasting has been planned. Also; a special maintenance manual is being prepared so that the maintenance activities could be tailor-made for this type of structure since the existing normal inspection schedule will not suffice in this type of structure.
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REBRACED GIRDER
NDT TESTING OF SUPERSTRUCTURE
SUPPORT AT MID SPAN TO REDUCE DL - STRESSES
RIVETING WORK IN PROGRESS 5

MAINTENANCE SYSTEM OF BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE ON WESTERN RAILWAY A PARADIGM SHIFT AFTER CENTRALIZATION OF BRIDGE ORGANIZATION
by
V. B. SOOD * 1.0 FOREWORD
The bridges are important links in the railway system. The bridge inspections assume great significance considering that the bridge repairs, rehabilitation and restoration of bridges after unusuals are all long drawn processes. The consequences of failures on bridges can be catastrophic. In the light of above, this paper attempts to study the maintenance system of bridge superstructure on Western Railway pre and post centralization of bridge organization and to meet the requirements of safe traffic on the bridge superstructure. The bridge organisation was centralised in the years 1995-97. 2.0 INTRODUCTION
Historically, the bridge maintenance on Western Railway was being done through bridge inspectors (BRIs) (or JE/SE/SSE (bridges)and Assistant Engineer (Birdges) under the control of divisional setup (i.e. sectional DENs/ SrDENs). The BRI cadre was under the control of headquarter and the other staff was under the control of divisions. The technical guidance to the BRIs was available in the form of XEN/B & F/ Churchgate or DyCE/B/ Churchgate. The special works of bridges were carried out by a separate setup under DyCE/B/Valsad or XEN/B/Valsad. 3.0 OLD SYSTEM OF INSPECTIONS AND MAINTENANCE
The inspections were carried out by the BRIs and the same were test checked/ scrutinized by the AEN/Br concerned and sectional SrDENs and thereafter by XEN/B & F/Churchgate. The repair works were planned and executed by the divisions. Major works of rehabilitation were done by special unit under DyCE/B/Valsad, which was also responsible for responding to emergencies such as breaches and accidents involving bridges.
* Professor Track-2, IRICEN PUNE
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4.0
SHORTCOMINGS OF THE OLD SYSTEM
The inspection/ maintenance system was characterized by non-professionalism and adhoc-ism due to the following causes:
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The sectional DENs/ SrDENs were too busy with their works pertaining to track, works and other miscellaneous duties and the bridges occupied lower positions in the priority list. The BRIs and their labour were diverted for miscellaneous works as per divisions requirements and priorities. The focus of BRIs and staff was diverted from their main task of inspections and maintenance of superstructures of major bridges. The BRIs executed a large number of works of replacement of small span girders by slabs which resulted in reduced availability of time and labour for the maintenance activities of the bridge maintenance. The bridge setup received little technical guidance and least impetus on planning of maintenance activities, and on adopting new technologies. The bridge setup was divided in divisions and there was hardly any interaction between BRIs. The good work being done in some areas in some divisions were not known to others. Different units were busy inventing zero repeatedly and the overall organizational growth through incremental improvements was not taking place. There were few efforts at improving the overall system of maintenance in the light of important development of reducing departmental labour availability works. MALADIES IN THE SYSTEM
5.0
The maintenance system was suffering from the following maladies in the bridge superstructure maintenance system:
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No overall planning was being done for carrying out the routine maintenance works. No contractual agencies were introduced for maintenance activities and major maintenance activities were rarely planned. There was no long term plan for major bridge superstructure maintenance and repair activities. The inspection schedules of BRIs and other officials for major bridge superstructure were disturbed and the schedule of submission of bridge registers was badly delayed, in some cases upto two years delay was there.
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There was no proper monitoring of the work being done by bridge officials resulting in more and more ad hoc-ism, and culture of paper inspections had crept in. No training of staff in the new developments such as PSC girders inspection and maintenance was imparted. There were arrears in routine maintenance works including painting. There was no initiative in the bridge officials and the concept nothing ever happens to bridges had percolated in the system. REMEDY
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6.0
The decadence in the system prompted the Western Railway administration to put all major bridge superstructure under one organization centralized under DyCE/B/Valsad and Chief Bridge Engineer. The centralized bridge organization provided one administrative setup and technical platform for all major bridge superstructure. All inspection, maintenance and regirdering/special works as enumerated in Indian Railway Bridge Manual 1998 were entrusted to this organization. The centralized bridge organization was strengthened by creating work-charged posts and posting capable officers. The centralisation was done in the period 1995-97. 7.0 PARADIGM SHIFT AFTER CENTRALIZATION
The centralization of bridge organization resulted in the following paradigm shift in the major bridge superstructure inspections and maintenance:
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FOCUS ON CORE ACTIVITY: The engagement of bridge officials in miscellaneous activities stopped almost completely, and the bridge organization took up maintenance of major bridge super structure in the letter and spirit of Indian Railway Bridge Manual 1998. PROFESSIONALISM: The focus on core activity crystallized the requirements of bridge maintenance, the types of problems and their remedies. The zeal for problem solving and planning for all aspects of bridge maintenance came into the system. EXPERTISE IN ALL ASPECTS OF BRIDGE WORKS: The combining of maintenance and special works such as regirdering and rehabilitation of superstructure increased the expertise and exposure of average bridge officials to technical challenges. This led to brushing up of knowledge of the bridge officials and improving the basic mindset of the bridge official. NEW CONCEPTS: The concepts of preventive maintenance, timely action for remedying the problems in girders and meaningful bridge inspections came into vogue.
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OUTSOURCING: The introduction of contractual agencies in all aspects of bridge maintenance resulted in stimulus for planning the works and quantification of problems. ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS: The analysis of problems / failures and focus on identifying the reasons for the same led to more problems being actually solved. RESULTS
8.0
The change in attitudes allowed the centralized bridge organization to carry out the following with much better results :
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CLEARING BACKLOGS: The backlogs in basic bridge maintenance activities such as painting of girders, replacement of corroded components and other minor repair works were cleared to a large extent. INDUCTION OF NEW TECHNIQUES/TECHNOLOGIES: The centralization of bridge organization has allowed the concepts of in situ metallizing/epoxy painting of steel and epoxy painting of concrete bridges to be introduced in the bridge maintenance and new innovations in regirdering and special works on Western Railway were made because of this attitude. REINTRODUCTION OF FORGOTTEN CONCEPTS OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE: The forgotten concepts of providing inspection arrangements to facilitate easy access to all parts of the girders to facilitate inspections, providing camber measuring arrangements in PSC girders, greasing arrangements for plate girder bridges, oil baths in bearings of long span through type girders etc specified in various manual provisions were reintroduced, and planned for. ANSWERABILITY: The bridge officials having got the system of inspections, repairs etc in place, now entered into the phase where the questions on the actions taken and the reasons for failures are being asked, turning the system more answerable, and more professional. MEETING CHALLENGES HEAD-ON: The revitalized centralized bridge organization has met head-on the challenges posed by the difficult works of regirdering of bridge no 142 (ANAS) 30.5 m underslung girders, rehabilitation of girders of bridge no 65(MAHI) on which a caution order was imposed for more than 30 years, rehabilitation of bridge no 502 (NARMADA) etc through innovative methods resulting in speedy execution of works with least requirement of caution order and traffic blocks. The centralized bridge organization did commendable job in restoration of traffic after Gujarat Earthquake in January 2001 and after wash away of bridge no 144 on Rajdhani route on BCT division.
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ADOPTION OF NEW TECHNIQUES FOR REGIRDERING WORKS: The regirdering works by the gantry method on double line electrified sections has been adopted in a big way in place of railway cranes and slew in, slew out method being used earlier and the method has been standardized and refined to a great extent and the speed of regirdering works has been greatly enhanced by this method and is being adopted at all difficult sites having tidal water flow, no road approach etc. The road cranes have been adopted by centralized bridge organization for regirdering works resulting in even greater speeds and ease of execution of regirdering works where site conditions are favourable. The replacement of one span of 18.3 m in a single line traffic and OHE block of 3 hrs duration manually with only 35-40 labours at site was standardized by the Centralized Bridge Organization. FURTHER SCOPE AND REQUIREMENTS CENTRALIZED BRIDGE ORGANIZATION FOR NURTURING
9.0
The advantages of centralized bridge organization are still coming and with the strengthening of the organization, the reliability of the bridge superstructure on the railway is bound to increase. For more effectiveness. the bridge organization requires support in the following respects:
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BRIDGE INSPECTIONS are still being carried out by primitive methods and are person dependant. There are few instruments for assistance of the inspectors. The latest techniques of bridge inspections and health monitoring of girders are required to be integrated with the bridge inspection system. REDIRECTION of bridge officials, artisans and staff towards meeting the challenges of the changing times. The direction is required in the field of meaningful inspections, proper planning of maintenance and repair activities, implementing zero defects on the bridge superstructure, analyzing the causes and remedies of failures and identifying the action plans for avoiding recurrence of failures. This is particularly important in the context of the higher axle loads and higher speeds being introduced on the railway, which will require changes in the way the bridges are inspected, monitored and maintained. REDEPLOYMENT of bridge staff and changing designations of riveters, welders, carpenters, painters etc required in earlier system of departmental works is required. With reducing departmental works, there is a need for elementary multiskilling of all bridge artisans in the fields of gas cutting, welding, black smithy and operations of machines required for bridge repairs. There is a need for redefining the roles of the bridge cadre of Sarangs and Fitters in consonance with the requirements of meaningful inspections and effective supervision of contractual works.
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SUPPORT to the centralized bridge organization is required for some more time to allow the organization to be professional in real sense. The good leadership from the officers of the bridge organization is required to strengthen the good habits already initiated and pursue the goals of promptness, good planning and precision in actions in the average bridge official. The bridge officials require support in the form of non-disturbance from the core activities. CONTINUOUS TRAINING facilities for bridge officials for brushing up the knowledge as well as keeping abreast with the latest developments and fields such as epoxies, prestressed concrete, composite girders etc is required. EXPANDING THE SCOPE of centralized bridge organization by entrusting the maintenance of bridge sub structure also to the same organization. The centralized bridge organization can have XEN/Bridge or DyCE/Bridge in all divisions reporting to Chief Bridge Engineer and two or three IOWs (or SE(W)s) and some works staff in every division in addition to the existing staff, who shall be given the responsibility of inspections, maintenance and routine repair works of substructure of all the major bridges in the division. This organization shall also be entrusted with the flood management. The rebuilding works and major repairs shall be got done through additional work charged posts created for the same. CONCLUSION
10.0
The centralization of bridge organization has resulted in the bridge officials taking pride in their work, having better focus and having better technical orientation on problem solving, planning and execution of repair activities. The fruits of planning in the form of planned repairs and follow up action at various levels have prompted the bridge officials to be more alert and careful during inspections. The sharing of experiences in connection with carrying out the works in various units and dissemination of information and ideas for improvements in system of working in different units has spurred further generation of ideas. The centralization of bridge organization has brought about the paradigm shift resulting in the centralized bridge organization being well prepared for taking challenges ahead. The organization is now well geared up to meet technical challenges in execution of bridge works and in solving vexed problems.
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STRENGTHENING OF BRIDGES USING COMPOSITE FIBRE WRAPPING TECHNOLOGY FOR INTRODUCTION OF HIGHER AXLE LOADS ON INDIAN RAILWAYS
by
D. Anjaneyulu Reddy * T. Muralidhara Rao ** P. Mitra Kumar ***
SYNOPSIS
Bridge No. 220 Down (Spans 2x18.3m+2x16.2m) is a major bridge on VijayawadaVisakhapatnam section of South Central Railway. This route has been identified for running of higher axle load trains with CC+8+2 t. One of the masonry piers of this major bridge has vertically cracked all along the height causing serious concern for running of CC+8+2 t trains on this bridge even with restricted speed. At this juncture several common conventional strengthening methods such as jacketing, shotcreting /guniting and steel plate bonding etc., have been considered. These common techniques are found to be cumbersome, messy, time consuming, labour intensive and costly which will cause increase in dead weight and reduction in water way. Added to this the river will be flowing round the year having a history of flash floods. Therefore, another alternative of constructing a new bridge on a diversion at an approximate cost of Rs.7 crores was also thought of. At this juncture, a new advanced technology using composite materials (Fibre Wrapping) has been adopted for rehabilitation of the above said cracked bridge pier at a meager cost of about Rs.7 lakhs and the entire work was carried out in less than 40 days time and the said bridge was certified for running of CC+8+2 t trains without any speed restrictions. This has saved the railways of Rs.6.93 crores. The work was completed during July, 2005 which is standing well and did not show any sign of deterioration till date. Therefore an effort is made to share the experience through three case studies for the benefit of other Civil Engineers who are required to strengthen the old bridges for introduction of 25 t axle loads.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Indian Railways is marching towards introduction of higher axle loads with great success. So far CC+8+2 t (Axle Load of 22.82 t) and CC+6+2 t (Axle Load of 22.3 2t) trains with higher axle loads have been introduced and are running successfully on the identified routes. This single decision has changed the fate of Indian Railways turning into a highly profitable Government Organization.
* SR.DEN / North / Vijayawada, S.C.Rly. ** Dy. CE / CON. / Bhubaneswar, Eco.Rly, *** Sri Mitra Consultancy & Services, Vishakapatnam
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Honble MR announced in his budget speech, 2006 that 25 t axle load trains will be introduced in Indian Railways during the year 2006-07 on the identified two routes to start with. Further, Indian Railways has also planned:
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to universalize 22.82 t axle loads on all the routes to construct dedicated freight corridors (DFC) fit for 32.5 t axle loads to strengthen the feeder routes to DFC for running of 25 t axle load trains to strengthen the other identified routes for running of 25 t axle load trains
To achieve these objectives railways has made INTEGRATED RAILWAY MODERNIZATION PLAN (IRMP) (2005-2010). As a part of this plan, the existing old bridges have to be strengthened for running of 25 t axle loads using advanced composite materials in collaboration with IIT/Mumbai. 2.0 WHAT IS COMPOSITE FIBRE WRAPPING TECHNOLOGY
The limitations posed by common conventional strengthening techniques have given impetus to innovate and develop new materials/techniques for structural rehabilitation. The advanced composite material (Fibre Wrapping) is a result of these efforts. Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) are known as composites. This is called composite because a polymer matrix is reinforced with many relatively thin and long fibres. The composite properties are mainly influenced by the choice of fibres. In Civil Engineering, Carbon, Glass and Aramid fibres are most common. These fibres have different properties including price, which make one more suitable than the other for different purposes. For bridge strengthening purposes carbon fibres are most suitable. All the fibres have generally higher stress capacity than ordinary steel and are linear elastic until failure. The most important properties that differ between the fibre types are stiffness and tensile strain. The three fibre types are schematically presented in figure 1 in comparison with an ordinary steel bar and a steel tendon. The mechanical properties of material data is presented in Table 1.0. Further information about composite materials can be found from the internet through Google search where more than 10,000 technical papers with case studies are available with success stories. Several international codes/manuals on advanced composite materials are available detailing about material properties and design philosophy. One such important code issued by American Concrete Institute Report ACI 440-2R-02 - Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening of concrete structures, which can be found on internet.
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6000
Stress (MPa)
4000
2000
Steel Tendon Steel Bar
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%)
Figure 1: Graph indicating tensile strength vs ultimate elongation of various materials
Table 1.0 : Mechanical properties of common strengthening material : Material Modulus of Compressive elasticity strength (Gpa) (Mpa) 20-40 200-210 200-800 70-85 70-200 2.5-4.1 5-60 240-690 NA** NA** NA** NA** Tensile strength (Mpa) 1-3 240-690 2500-6000 2000-3000 2500-3000 55-130 Density (kg/m3) 2400 7800 1750-1950 2500-2600 1200-1500 1100-1300 Ultimate elongation 0.3-2.5% 2-5% 1.5-5% 1.5-9.0
Concrete Steel Carbon fibre* Glass fibre* Aramid fibre* Matrix (Epoxy) * **
Given values are for plain fibre. The characteristics of the composite will vary with amount and property of the used matrix. Not applicable. Plain fibres buckle.
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The details of various fibres and matrix are given below : 2.1 CARBON FIBRES
For strengthening purposes, Carbon fibres are most suitable. Carbon fibres do not absorb water, do not corrode like steel members and are resistant to many chemical solutions. They withstand fatigue excellently, do not stress corrode and do not show any creep or relaxation. The carbon fibres have less relaxation compared to high tensile prestressing steel strands. 2.2 GLASS FIBRES
Glass fibres are considerably cheaper than carbon fibres and aramid fibres. Therefore glass fibre composites have become popular in many applications such as Boat Industry. Glass fibres are more ductile than carbon fibres. Glass fibres are sensitive to stress corrosion at high stress levels and have some problems with relaxation. 2.3 ARAMID FIBRES
Aramid is short name for aromatic olyamide. Aramid has high fracture energy and is therefore used for helmets and bullet-proof garments. Aramid fibres are sensitive to elevated temperatures, moisture and ultra violet radiation and are therefore not widely used in civil engineering applications. Further, aramid fibres do have problems with relaxation and stress corrosion. 2.4 MATRIX
The matrix should transfer forces between the fibres and protect the fibres from the environment. In civil engineering, epoxy resins are almost exclusively used. Epoxy has a pot life around 30 minutes at 20oC but can be changed with different formulations. 2.5 COMPOSITES
When the fibre and matrix are combined to a new material it becomes a composite. The fibres may be placed in one direction in the composites and then the composite is unidirectional. However, fibres may also be woven or bonded in many directions and the composite becomes bi or multi directional. For strengthening purposes it is most common to use unidirectional composites. The properties of composites are dependent on the type of fibres, matrix, fibre quantity and fibre direction. Also the volume or size of composite will affect the mechanical properties. The composites have their high strength and high stiffness in the fibre direction and are weak in perpendicular direction. Since the material is highly anisotropic the consequences can be devastating if the material is placed in wrong direction. It is therefore necessary to understand how the composite will behave when it is loaded by shear or tensioning in a direction other than that of the fibres.
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3.0
MANUFACTURERS OF COMPOSITES IN INDIA
There are several competitors who have launched this composite fibre wrapping systems in India. Some of them are indicated as under :
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FOSROC: Product : NITOWRAP composIte fibre wrapping system available both carbon fibre (Nitowrap CF) and glass fibre (Nitowrap GF) SIKA AG: Product : SIKAWRAP KRISHNA CONCHEM: Product : Gold bond 121 MBT: Product : M Brace composite strengthening system Apart from this, some foreign brands are also flooding the market.
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Note:
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South Central Railway has used Nitowrap CF for strengthening of vertically cracked masonry bridge pier of bridge No.220 Down as detailed in case study No.1. IFFCO Kandla has used Krishna Conchems product for seismic strengthening.
4.0
KEY FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF COMPOSITE FIBRE WRAPPING SYSTEM Benefits Appreciable increase in strength and load carrying capacity without significant increase in weight Increased load carrying capacity and better resistance to seismic forces & deflection No increase in dead load and long term performance Excellent resistance to acids and alkalis. Protects concrete/steel from corrosion. Protection from atmospheric gases Can be applied on any shape or contour of substrate Easy to install, time and labour saving. Only rolling with roller is sufficient. Can be effectively used in space-constrained areas
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Features Very high strength to thickness ratio Enhanced stiffness, shear & tensile capacities Light weight and durable Chemical resistant Corrosion resistant Impervious Flexible Economical Thin sections
5.0
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KEY APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPOSITE WRAPPING SYSTEM Strengthening of columns for enhancing load-carrying capacities. Strengthening beams for enhanced flexure & shear strengths. Strengthening of slabs, retaining walls etc. Strengthening of bridge piers, jetty piles, tunnels, chimneys etc. for earthquake resistance. Improvement of impact resistance and blast resistant properties. Act as a barrier to Carbon dioxide, Chloride, Sulphates etc., for rc structures. Photographs of Typical areas of application
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5.1
Fibre Wrapping of Column
Fibre Wrapping of the slab
6.0
TEST CERTIFICATES OF COMPOSITE FIBRE WRAPPING MATERIALS (Made of Carbon & Glass Fibres)
The Fosroc Chemicals (India) Pvt. Ltd., has got the tests done in IIT/Mumbai and Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur using their branded Nitowrap GF (Glass Fibre) and Nitowrap CF (Carbon Fibre). The tests have been conducted to ASTM/BS test standards using concrete cylinders (150mm dia x 300 mm height) and beams (100x100x450mm). The test reports are enclosed at Annexure-A for ready reference. It can be easily noted from the test reports that the load bearing capacity of the members can be very easily increased by 100%/200% by increasing the number of layers of wrappings. 7.0 STRENGTHENING OF BRIDGES USING COMPOSITE FIBRE WRAPPING TECHNOLOGY FOR INTRODUCTION OF HIGHER AXLE LOADS
The composite fibre wrapping technology can be used for strengthening of both concrete and steel bridges.
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7.1
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FOUNDATIONS Any kind of foundations such as well, pile and open foundations can be easily strengthened by wrapping with carbon fibres for introduction of 25 t/32.5 t DFC loading. The critical areas to be strengthened shall be first identified based on the design calculations and the required strength can be obtained by adding more number of wrapping layers. The bearing capacity of soil will not be a problem for higher axle loads since the fine grained soils improve their bearing capacity with age due to long term consolidation. SUBSTRUCTURE
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7.2
Any substructure made of concrete, steel and masonry of any shape can be easily strengthened by wrapping with carbon fibres. Further, the technology is also available for shear strengthening of masonry walls with FRP composites. This technique is known as FRP structural repointing. This technique consists in placing FRP bars (6 to 8 mm dia) in the mortar joints during repointing. This technology can be easily understood from internet literature and the same can be utilized for strengthening of masonry well foundations and masonry piers. SUPER STRUCTURE
7.3
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Both steel girder bridges and concrete bridges (RCC/PSC) can be easily rehabilitated to carry higher axle loads such as 25 t/32.5 t DFC loadings. First of all the critical members/area of structure to be strengthened should be identified based on the design calculations. For example in case of PSC girder bridge, the centre area of the span becomes critical which can be easily strengthened by wrapping adequate layers of composite fibre made of carbon. Similarly, in case of through steel girder bridge of open web type, the cross girders/stringers/few of bottom chord members become critical when analyzed and the same can be easily strengthened again by wrapping adequate layers of composite fibre made of carbon. The composite fibre wrapping technology can be better understood through the following case studies :-
8.0
CASE STUDY NO.1 : Rehabilitation of vertically cracked masonry bridge pier on Vijayawada Division of South Central Railway
Bridge No. 220 Down (Spans 2x18.3 m+2x16.2m) is a major steel plate girder bridge on Vijayawada-Visakhapatnam section of South Central Railway. This bridge was
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constructed more than 75 years back for BGML standard loading. This route has been identified for running of Higher Axle Load trains with CC+8+2 t. One of the masonry piers of this major bridge has vertically cracked all along the height causing serious concern for running of CC+8+2 t trains on this bridge even with restricted speed. At this juncture several common conventional strengthening methods such as jacketing, shotcreting /guniting and steel plate bonding etc., have been considered. These common techniques are found to be cumbersome, messy, time consuming, labour intensive which will cause increasing dead weight and reduction in water way. Added to this the river will be flowing round the year having a history of flash floods. Therefore, another alternative of constructing a new bridge on a diversion at an approximate cost of Rs.7 crores was also thought of. At this juncture, a new advanced technology using composite materials (Fibre Wrapping) has been adopted for rehabilitation of the above said cracked bridge pier at a meager cost of about Rs.7 lakhs and the entire work was carried out in less than 40 days time and the said bridge was certified for running of CC+8+2 t trains without any speed restrictions. This has saved the railways of Rs.6.93 crores. The work was completed during July, 2005 which is standing well and did not shown any sign of deterioration till date. The specifications of the material used and the procedure adopted for carrying out the work is explained below: Specifications Name of the manufacturer : FOSROC Brand name : Nitowrap CF (Carbon Fibre) Fibre Orientation : Unidirectional Weight of fibre : 200 g/m2 Density of fibre : 1.80g/cm3 8.1 Fibre thickness Sheet width : 0.111mm : 500mm
Ultimate elongation (%) : 1.5 Tensile strength : 3500 N/mm2 Tensile modulus : 285 x 103 N/mm2
METHOD OF DOING WRAPPING WORK
Deep pointing of stone masonry of the cracked pier has been carried out as per the procedure laid down in the following non scheduled item (NS) : NS item No.1 Deep pointing of stone masonry of bridge piers and abutments with contractors approved quality of ordinary portland cement of grade 53, well graded sand and FosrocNitobond SBR with proportion 50 kg: 150 kg: 5 litres including raking out the joints; cleaning and application of primer coat with proportion Nitobond SBR, water and cement @ 1:1:3 and curing etc. including scaffolding with all contractors tools, plant machinery materials, lead and lift, etc. complete and as directed by the Engineer-in-charge. Approx. Cost per Sqm. = Rs.304/-*
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After deep pointing work, the entire masonry bridge pier has been plastered using cement mortar added with an admixture called Polymer Modified Mortar so as to achieve an even surface for carrying out composite fibre wrapping. During the plas tering work, 20mm GI pipe Nipples of suitable length at 500 to 750 mm spacing staggered in both the directions have been provided for grouting work at a later time. The NS item used for this is as under: NS Item No. 2 Polymer modified mortar plastering to a thickness of 40mm in 2 layers of each 20mm thick for stone masonry of bridge pier of bridge no 220 down at specified locations for providing even and smooth surface for providing composite fibre wrapping system for strengthening of cracked bridge pier , with contractors approved quality of ordinary portland cement of grade 53, well graded sand and Fosroc-Nito bond SBR with proportion 50 kg: 150 kg: 5 litres including raking out the joints; cleaning and application of primer coat with proportion Nitobond SBR, water and cement @ 1:1:3 and curing etc. excluding scaffolding with all contractors labour,tools, plant machinery materials, lead and lift, etc. complete and as directed by the Engineer-in-charge. Approx. Cost per Sqm. = Rs.876/-* After plastering work, epoxy grouting has been carried out only in the vicinity of vertical crack of masonry pier and the rest of the area of the masonry pier has been grouted with cement. Since epoxy is costly, therefore grouted only along the cracked area of the pier. The strength of the cement grout was found adequate for the rest of the masonry pier. The items used for the grouting work are as under: N.S. Item No.3 Epoxy grouting of Railways old masonry bridge pier with contractors CONBEXTRA EP10 OF FOSROC or similar which shall have a density of 1060 kgs per cum and shall have compressive strength of 45N/MM2 at one day and shall have 70 N/ MM2 at seven days and tensile strength 18 N/ MM2 at 7 days and flexural strength of 55N/ MM2 at 7 days as per 6319 parts 2, 7 and 4 and complete including cost of drilling and fixing of nipples in to the masonry and grouting with suitable grout pump and as per the detailed procedure given in para 209-2 of IRBM-1998 including all lead and lift, crossings of track, scaffolding arrangements and with contractors epoxy, other tools and materials and complete and as directed by the Engineer-in-charge. Approx. cost per Kg - Rs.1408/-* N.S. Item No.4 Cement pressure grouting of Rly bridge piers, abutments with approved quality of ordinary portland cement (43 grade) with water cement ratio by weight 0.40 to 0.50 and FOSROC CEBEX 100 admixture in the proportion of 225 gm per 50 Kg cement including fixing of 20mm GI pipe Nipples of suitable length at 500 to 750 mm spacing
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staggered in both directions and grouting as per detailed procedure given in para 209-2 of IRBM 1998 and with all contractors materials, tools, plant and machinery etc. complete and including the cost of scaffolding and as directed by the Engineer in charge. Approx. cost per cement bag of 50 Kgs - Rs.461/-* After completion of grouting work, the actual wrapping with composite carbon fibre in two layers has been carried out based on the test results furnished at Annexure-A. The procedure for wrapping is simple in which the surface shall be prepared for cleanliness and all depressions and imperfections of surface shall be made even. Then epoxy primer was applied using a brush over the prepared surface and allowed to dry for 24 hours before application of saturant. Then the saturant is applied over the primer for a specified wet film thickness and then the composite carbon fibre was wrapped around the pier using surface roller duly removing air bubbles. One more coat of saturant was applied and again the 2nd layer of wrapping was carried out. Finally, a top protective coat for UV resistance in two coats were applied and allowed to cure as per the manufacturers specifications. The description of the item is as under: NS Item No.5 Wrapping of Masonry of Bridge pier: Application Nitowrap 30 primer which shall have density of 2.0gm/cm3 and a pot life of 20 mins @ 35 deg at a coverage of 5.5 m2/Kg and then application of Nitowrap 410 which shall have a density of 1.12-1.16gm/ cm3 and shall have pot life of 2hours@ at 30 deg at a coverage of 2.5 m2/Kg and application of Nitowrap EP CF which shall have weight of 200gm/m2 and the fibre thickness of 0.111mm and ultimate elongation(%) of 1.5 and shall have a tensile strength of 3500N/mm2 and tensile modulus of 285x103 N/mm2 in 2 layers by applying one coat of Nitowrap 410 saturant after wrapping with Nitowrap EP CF 2nd layer and then application of Nitowrap UR 512 UV resistant top coat shall be applied in 2 coats at a coverage of 6.5 m2/Kg/coat all complete as specified and directed by the Engineer-InCharge. Approx. cost per Sqm of wrapping for two layers= Rs.4,808/-* Note: The rates indicated are very approximate based on the prevailing market rates during the year 2005 and shall not be taken for any future estimations/tender finalization. 9.0 CASE STUDY NO.2 Strengthening of a PSC girder railway bridge by Swedish Railways for introduction of higher axle loads
Outside the centre of Lulea in the northern part of Sweden there is a railroad bridge called The Kallkallan Bridge which is shown in the following photograph.
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The bridge is a three span trough bridge that was built in the sixties. The maximum allowed axle load has been increased from 25 tons upto 30 tons. (Banverket, 1996). Calculations made by the Swedish Road Administration for the higher axle load had shown that the bridge had a lack of bearing capacity across the bridge between the two main girders and that the bridge needed to be replaced, monitored or strengthened. However, except for the load bearing capacity the bridge was in fairly good condition. To investigate the method of plate bonding with CFRP, the Swedish Rail Administration decided to strengthen the bridge. Other strengthening methods were discussed as well but since the bridge is low with regard to the road underneath, those methods were considered not to be an alternative. When the strengthening method was chosen it was decided to keep the bridge in service during the strengthening process. In total 3200 m of carbon fibre sheet 0.3 m wide, 1.0 mm thick were used under the soffit of the PSC box girders as shown in the following figure.
Field measurements To investigate whether the strengthening work gave the desired effect, field measurements were undertaken. By measuring deformations and strains before and after strengthening it is possible to evaluate the strengthening effect. The measurements have been repeated two years and four years after the second measurement to investigate whether the effect remains or not. Results The deflection of the trough in the cross direction, before and after strengthening shown a decrease of 16%. After four years the same deformations as immediately after strengthening were measured and found almost same which indicates that the fibre wrapping technology has really helped for introduction of higher axle loads.
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10.0
CASE STUDY NO. 3 Strengthening of steel bridge girders using composite fibre wrapping system
A continuous 3 span I-beam bridge in Pottawattamie Country, Iowa, on State Highway 92 has been strengthened using fibre wrapping system. Originally the bridge was non composite structure. In 1965, the bridge was widened with the addition of exterior girders that were made composite with the deck. The bridge has a total length of 150 ft consisting of two end spans of 45.5 ft and a center span of 59 ft and is supported by six beams. The roadway width is 30ft allowing two traffic lanes and a narrow shoulder. The side view of the bridge can be seen in the photograph.
Strengthening System Unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) has been used in an epoxy matrix which has been specially designed for flexural strengthening. CFRP plates were selected due to their outstanding mechanical characteristics, non-corrosive nature, and relative ease of application. The CFRP plates were installed on both interior and exterior beams in the positive moment region of all three spans. These plates have been provided on the bottom of the bottom flange and half on the top of the bottom flange. The installation procedure of CFRP plates can be seen in the following photographs.
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11.0 CONCLUSIONS Common conventional techniques for strengthening of bridges such as jacketing, shotcreting/guniting, steel plate bonding, replacement of slabs etc., are cumbersome, time consuming, labour intensive, costly, adds dead weight and reduces water way etc., and requires speed restrictions and involves safety in running of trains during execution. Therefore, composite fibre wrapping technology overcomes most of the problems listed above. From the case studies it can be noted that both concrete (RCC & PSC) and steel bridges can be effectively strengthened using composite fibre wrapping system. This composite fibre wrapping system for strengthening of various civil engineering structures are widely used in USA, Canada, Newzeyland, Australia, Korea, Japan, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand. In India also, other organizations have started using this technique. Well laid codes and manuals are available in the world over for usage of this composite material giving the details of design principles and procedures and field applications. Thousands of bridges have already been strengthened and standing well all over the world. These details can be browsed through internet using Google search. It is the right time for the Indian Railways to adopt this composite fibre wrapping technology for strengthening of old bridges (both concrete, steel and masonry) for introduction of 25 t axle loads as envisaged in Integrated Railway Modernization Plan (IRMP) 2005-2010. Vertically cracked masonry pier of Bridge No.220 Down on VijayawadaVisakhapatnam section of South Central Railways has been rehabilitated using composite fibre wrapping system during the July, 2005 for running of higher axle loads of CC+8+2 t. The work carried out is still standing well and did not show any sign of deterioration. The composite fibre wrapping system is very cost effective, light in weight which adds no dead load and appreciable increase in strength and load bearing capacity can be achieved. Not much labour is required, very easy to handle and only rolling with roller is sufficient and very fast in construction and does not require any speed restriction or traffic blocks to execute the work.
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ANNEXURE-A TEST RESULT OF NITO WRAP SYSTEM (Tested in IIT - Mumbai, India during July, 2003)
Coupon Test
The NITO Wrap system is tested as per ASTM D 3039. The results are as follows: Material Color Fabric Weight Specific Gravity Effective thickness Tensile strenglh Tensile Modulus Ullimait Suain Wrapped Cylinder Test Test Procudure This test was carried out on concrete cylinders, 100mm dia and 300mm height, of 20MPa design strength. The surface of the cylinder IVBI ground to remove ill local unevenness and the dust was cleaned using a vacuum cleaner. Then the surface was treated with NITO Wrap 30 primer. After primer had cured for 24 hours the glass fiber sheet was wrapped on the surface of the cylinders using NITO Wrap 410 saturant as the bonding agent. The direction of the main fibres was maintained at all the joints. The details of the test are : Bare cylinder Compressive strength Ultimate strain Bare cylinder Wrap thickness Compressive strength of cylinder Ultimate strain 1 layer 61.2 MPa 0.032
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E-GlassFiber Dull while Bidirectional weave 900 gsm 2.6 0.35 mm 687 MPa 68 GPa 0.011
26.145 MPa 0.0039
The stress-strain graph of the bare and the wrapped cylinder is presented in Fig. 1.
Report on testing of concrete beams and columns wrapped with Nitowrap Composite fibre wrapping system Specimen details Fibres Epoxy Primer Epoxy saturant Specimen size E-glass Carbon Nitowrap 30 Nitowrap 410 Columns Beams 150 mm dia x 300 mm height 100 x 100 x 450 mm Nitowrap EP (GF) Nitowrap EP (CF)
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Test Results Table 1 - Columns wrapped with E-Glass fibre - Nitowrap EP (GF)
Failure Loads in kN Sl. No. Control Specimens 1 2 3 Average Value 610 610 600 606.7 Single Wrap 860 1200 1110 1056.70 Double Wrap 1420 1320 1300 1346.7 Single Wrap* Partial 850 900 920 890 Double Wrap* Partial 1050 1100 1080 1076.7
Table 2 - Columns wrapped with Carbon fibre Nitowrap EP (CF)

Failure Loads in kN Sl. No. Control Specimens 1 2 3 Average Value 610 610 600 606.7 Single Wrap 860 1240 1190 1210 Double Wrap 1610 1580 1520 1570 Single Wrap *Partial 970 1070 930 990 Double Wrap* Partial 1130 1280 1070 1160
*Wrapping done to a height of 250 mm only at the center. Table 3 - Testing of Beams
Sl. No. 1 2 3** 4** 5+ 6+ Types of Specimens Control Beams Control Beams Beam with only bottom wrap (Glass fibres) Beam with only bottom wrap (Carbon fibres) Beam with bottom wrapping + full wrapping (Glass fibre) Beam with bottom wrapping + full wrapping (Carbon fibre) 60 Failure load (kN) 15 13.8 35 40 50
** Wrapping only at soffit + Wrapping only at soffit + U Clamp through the length of beam
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FROM THE DESK OF THE EXECUTIVE EDITOR

Shri Shiv Kumar

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Shri Praveen Kumar

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Shri Ghansham Bansal

Shri Ajay Goyal

Indian Railways Construction Bulletin Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2007

INDIAN RAILWAYS CONSTRUCTION BULLETIN

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VH$ZrH$s nong / TECHNICAL

Safety Aspects Incorporated in the Conversion/Strengthening of Pamban Bridge from MG to BG Standards

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Volume 17, Number 2

* Chief Bridge Engineer/SR

SAFETY ASPECTS INCORPORATED IN THE DESIGN

NDT TESTING OF SUPERSTRUCTURE

SUPPORT AT MID SPAN TO REDUCE DL - STRESSES

RIVETING WORK IN PROGRESS 5

V. B. SOOD * 1.0 FOREWORD

* Professor Track-2, IRICEN PUNE

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE OLD SYSTEM

Steel Tendon Steel Bar

MANUFACTURERS OF COMPOSITES IN INDIA

Fibre Wrapping of Column

Fibre Wrapping of the slab

METHOD OF DOING WRAPPING WORK

26.145 MPa 0.0039

Table 2 - Columns wrapped with Carbon fibre Nitowrap EP (CF)

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