Notes On Motor 03 Oct 09

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Competency 6.1 6.1(1) Theoretical knowledge of construction & operation of Main Machinery? General Construction of Engines
The diesel engine is now understood to be any reciprocating engine using fuel oil and working on the compression ignition system. The marine diesel consists essentially of a number of cylinders each fitted with water cooled liner in each of which reciprocates a water or oil-cooled piston (or pistons). The piston (or pistons) transmit, through piston rods, guides and connecting rods, power to a crankshaft crankpin. This rotates the crankshaft and so converts reciprocating motion into the rotary motion needed to rotate a ships propeller. Many differences in design and construction exist in the main diesel engines in ships, but all work on the same fundamental principles. Speed high speed, medium speed, slow speed Usage automotive engines, locomotive engines, marine engines Operation 2-stroke, 4-stroke, single acting, double acting Cylinder arrangement horizontal, vertical, vee, radial In the majority of British ships the main diesel engines are of the two-stroke opposed piston type and are un-supercharged. But the majority of present day marine diesel engines are supercharged. The diesel engine compression ignition system used for airless injection consists of compressing air in the cylinder liner to a pressure which will give the air a temperature which will ignite the injected atomized fuel oil. In marine engines this pressure must be such as to give consistent ignition at all working revolutions of the engine and under varying atmospheric conditions. To accomplish compression ignition the working cycle of an engine may be twostroke or four-stroke. 2 STROKE In the two-stroke working cycle, the engine sucks in air, then compresses it, fuel is injected, combustion takes place, the gases expand and are exhausted all in one revolution of the crankshaft; that is, as the term two-stroke implies, during one upward plus one downward stroke of the piston. The four-stroke cycle requires for the same gas cycle two revolutions of the engine, that is, two upward strokes plus two downward strokes of the piston. Briefly, the different operations of the two-stroke cycle are completed in sequence at about one third of each revolution. When the piston of a single-acting engine is at the bottom or end of its stroke both the exhaust and the air inlet are open. At about one third of the upward stroke of the piston the exhaust and air inlets close and as the piston moves upwards the air is compressed. Just before the top or end of the upward stroke of the piston the fuel injection begins. The piston continues to travel to the end of its stroke during which the fuel injection continues and combustion takes place, thus increasing the pressure in the cylinder. A few degrees after top dead centre fuel injection ceases. During the downward stroke of the piston
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the gases expand and power is transmitted to the crankpin. At about two thirds of the downward stroke the exhaust opens and the gases are exhausted to the atmosphere. Continuing on the downward stroke, the piston uncovers the air inlet through which air is admitted to the cylinder. After reaching the end of the downward stroke the piston commences its upward stroke and the cycle is repeated. 4 STROKE The different operations of the four-stroke cycle start with the piston of a single-acting engine at the end of its upward stroke just about to commence its downward stroke. At this point the exhaust valve in the cylinder cover is not quite closed but the air inlet valve is open. As the piston moves down the exhaust valve closes at about one third the downward stroke, but the air inlet valve deeps open and only closes at the end of the stroke. During the upward stroke the air is compressed and near the end of this stroke fuel is injected. Combustion takes place and continues until the piston reaches the end of the upward stroke and for a short distance on the second downward stroke. As the piston continues on its second downward stroke the gases expand until near the bottom of the stroke when the exhaust valve opens. The gases continue to be exhausted during the second upward stroke of the piston and on reaching the top of the stroke the cycle is repeated. Three principal types of machinery installation are to be found at sea today. The three layouts involve the use of direct coupled slow-speed diesel engines, medium-speed diesels with a gear box, and the steam turbine with a gear box drive to the propeller. A propeller, in order to operate efficiently, must rotate at a relatively low speed. Thus, regardless of the rotational speed of the prime mover, the propeller shaft must rotate at about 80-100 rev/min. The slow speed diesel engine rotates at this low speed and the crankshaft is thus directly coupled to the propeller shafting. The medium speed diesel engine operates in the range 250-750 rev/min and cannot therefore be directly coupled to the propeller shaft. A gear box is used to provide a low-speed drive for the propeller shaft. The steam turbine rotates at a very high speed, in the order of 6000 rev/min. Again, a gearbox must be used to provide a lowspeed drive for the propeller shaft. Operation and Maintenance The responsible of the marine engineer are rarely confined to the machinery space. Usually all shipboard machinery, with the exception of radio equipment, is maintained by the marine engineer. A broad based theoretical and practical training is therefore necessary for a marine engineer. He must be a mechanical, electrical, air conditioning, ventilation and refrigeration engineer, as the need arises. Unlike his shore based opposite number in these occupation, he must also deal with the specialized requirements of a floating platform in a most corrosive environment, Furthermore he must be self sufficient and capable of getting the job done with the facilities at his disposal. The modern ship is a complex collection of self-sustaining machinery providing the facilities to support a small community for a considerable period of time. To
simplify the understanding of all this equipment is the purpose of this book. This equipment is dealt with either as a complete system comprising small items or individual larger items. In the latter case, especially, the choices are often considerable. Knowledge of machinery and equipment operation provides the basis for effective maintenance, and the two are considered in turn in the following chapters.
6.1(2) Define a) Crosshead type diesel engines b) Trunk type diesel engines c) Slow speed diesel engines d) Medium speed diesel engines e) High speed diesel engines
There are two basic types of connecting a piston to a crankshaft; (a) Crosshead construction-used by all slow speed two stroke engine manufactures (b) Trunk piston construction- used in smaller four stroke engines (a) Crosshead type diesel engines
The main difference between crosshead and trunk-piston type engines is the manner in which the transverse thrust from the piston and connecting-rod is taken up and the nature of the bearing assembly at the upper part of the connecting-rod. Crosshead engines have a piston-rod and trunk-piston engines do not. The working parts of a crosshead engine consist of a piston head and rod, connected together. The crosshead block, pins and slippers form an assembly which is attached to the lower part of the piston-rod. The slippers slide up and down with the crosshead assembly in the engine guides. The crosshead assembly is connected to the crankshaft through the crosshead bearings (top end bearings) and the connecting rod bearing (big or bottom-end bearing). When the crank moves away from the top and bottom dead centre positions the connecting rod is at an angle to the line of piston stroke and, consequently, there is angularity. The down ward force exerted by the piston together with the upward reaction from the connecting rod cause a transverse thrust to be set up (this can be shown with a triangle of forces). This transverse thrust is transmitted by the guide slippers on to the engine or cylinder guides. The transverse thrust is referred to as guide load. There are fewer parts in trunk-piston engines. The working parts consist of the piston, piston trunk, gudgeon bearing assembly and connecting-rod. The transverse thrust or guide load is transmitted by the piston trunk or skirt on to the cylinder. The function of the crosshead and piston trunk is to play a part in the conversion of the reciprocating movement of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. They also transmit the transverse loads, on to the fixed parts of the engine designed to take these loads. Note: The guide load comprises the resultant of the piston-rod and connecting-rod loads caused by the cylinder pressures (static load) and the dynamic loads caused by inertia of the moving parts. Advantages
Crosshead type engines are able to develop much higher power at lower rotational speeds than trunk-piston type engines, because the space available for the gudgeon bearing assembly. Trunk-piston type engines have the advantage of requiring less head room than crosshead engines. Their working parts are fewer in number and much less costly to produce because their design lends itself to mass production methods. The gudgeon bearing assembly is not particularly suited for highly rated two-stroke engines unless special arrangements are made for its lubrication. Cheaper quality fuels may be used in crosshead engines as it is possible to isolate the cylinder space from the crankcase, thus preventing acidic residues entering the crankcase. The total cost for lubricants is less with crosshead engines than with trunk-piston engines of equivalent power. (b) Trunk piston construction The piston is directly attached to the connecting rod by a small end rotating bearing. Side thrust is absorbed by extended skirts on piston. The main advantage is reduced engine height.
Opposed piston engines

Mainly built by Doxford and consisted of two opposing piston moving in a common liner. Fuel injection occurred at the centre where the piston met. Construction is of the crosshead design with the upper piston connected to the crankshaft via two side rods and transverse beam. Timing was approximately 180oC except for a small angle of advance for exhaust timing. Advantages are as under:(i) Perfect primary balance by balancing (aa) (ab)
(i)
upper reciprocating masses and lower velocity side cranks against lower reciprocating mass and the higher velocity centre crank
No gas loading transverse to bed plate (normally via head and tie rods) on engine meaning that construction could be lighter
(c)
Slow speed engine
Cylinder cut-out system. In the case of low loads, the traditional problem is fouling of the engine due to irregular injection and atomisation, leading to incomplete combustion. The irregular injection may be caused by jiggling of the governor, and/or play in the connections in the fuel pump rack control system. The effect in either case is that the fuel pumps, when operating so close to the minimum injection amount, may sometimes just have enough index to inject fuel, at other times just not enough index to do so. By the introduction of a system where approximately half of the cylinders are cut out at low speed, the injection into the remaining working cylinders is improved considerably, giving more stable combustion and, consequently, stable running and keeping particle emission in the low speed range at a minimum. To avoid that excessive amounts of cylinder lubricating oil are collected in cylinders that are temporarily deactivated, the cutting out is made by turns between two groups of cylinders in order to burn surplus lubricating oil and keep the same thermal
load on all cylinders. Turns between the groups are made on a time basis. The group separation is determined in order to halve the number of active cylinders and to get the smoothest possible firing order. In order to obtain a safe start, the cutout system is disabled during the starting period and until the engine has been stabilised. The system has been in service for a year on a series of 11K90MC-C engines, and stable operation down to 13 r/min (MCR is at104 r/min) is achieved by means of this system.
(d)
Medium speed engine (300-1200 rpm)
In recent years the geared multiple engine marine main propulsion plants have been used in certain types of ships. There are a number of advantages which have prompted development of these compact power units. The developments that have taken place for these new, higher output four stroke, main propulsion geared units are towards high piston and engine speed, higher mean effective pressure with high degree of turbocharging and vee arrangement of cylinders. Advantages of medium speed engines. (a) Low weight of engine and reduced space requirement In thepresent state of technology, with turbo-supercharging there is about 30% saving in space of engine room and 300% saving in weight compared with slow speed diesel engine plant with comparable output. 3.5 kg per H.P for slow speed crosshead engine. 12 kg per H.P for medium speed geared unit. (b) Low head space The low height of engine room enables the shipbuilder to provide a continuous deck which may be useful for laying out of workshop, auxiliary engines, control room, stores, etc. A continuous deck may prove useful for carriage of cargo in some special type of ships. (c) Location of engine as far aft as possible is advantageous for best utilization of space in the carriage of cargo. Low machinery weight enables the ship, light or laden, to maintain a level trim which is hardly possible for a ship fitted with slow speed crosshead engine. (d) The speed of engine and propeller shaft being independent to each other, best designed speed can be selected for both. A free selection of propeller revolutions ensures maximum propeller efficiency. (e) The medium speed application affords possibilities of number of combinations, such as, in line and vee engines in single or multi-engine layouts. The same engine can be used for other duties like driving alternator or cargo pump in ports. Multi-engine plant enhances the reliability and safety factor. It also combines the advantage of certain routine work being carried out at sea.
(f) The initial cost of a geared installation may be 30 % less than that of the conventional two-stroke crosshead engine. The spare parts are not only cheaper, but also easier to handle store or transported. (g) As the engines are worked on clean distillate or light blended heavy oil, the rate of wear of pistons, rings and liners are considerably less. While these are the advantages claimed, there are disadvantages which would tend to limit the use of these engines in ship for main propulsion purpose. The disadvantages are:(a) High lubricating oil consumption (1.2 gm per b.h.p hour as against 0.5 gm per b.h.p hour in crosshead engines) (b) Short service life of exhaust valves. (c) More maintenance work (d)High load on bearings needing more frequent attention and replacement. (e) Very high noise level. Comparison of different speed engines Slow speed(65/70-150 rpm) Advantages (a) No gearing as engine can be directly coupled to an efficient propeller. (b) (c) Can use 2 cycle as acceptable time is available for scavenging. Will operate on poor quality fuel (H.V.F. upto 3500 s)
(d) Crankcase can be separated from the combustion one using a diaphragm around the piston rod. This reduces oil contamination, lessens the risk of crankcase explosions, allows under piston augmenting of scavenge etc. (e) (f) Vibration frequency low producing less noise and fatigue. Parts are large with heavy scantlings hence reducing stress. (a) Size- The engine is very heavy and demands a large headroom to allow dismantling (withdrawal of piston and rod) All engine parts are large and heavy demand lifting equipment for handling
Disadvantages
(b)
(c)
The engine must be built ashore and then re-assembled in ship. This may give problems due to poor alignment as the initial fitting is carried out on a very rigid base.
6.1(3) Define a two stroke and a four stroke diesel engine and their scavenging process. Also differentiate between: a) loop scavenging b) Uniflow scavenging.
Two Stroke engine It is one in which the operating cycle is completed in two piston strokes corresponding to one crank shaft revolution. In two stroke engine, the piston is solidly connected to a piston rod which is attached to a crosshead bearing at the other end. The top end of the connecting rod is also joined to the crosshead bearing. Ports are arranged in the cylinder liner for air inlet and a valve in the cylinder head enables the release of exhaust gases. The incoming air is pressurized by a turboblower which is driven by the outgoing exhaust gases. The crank shaft is supported within the engine bedplate by the main bearings. A-frames are mounted on the bedplate and house guides in which the crosshead travels up and down. The entablature is mounted above the frames and is made up of the cylinders, cylinder heads and scavenges trunking. Four Stroke engine A four stroke engine is one in which the operating cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston. Depending on the direction of piston travel and process taking place in the cylinder during his travel, the strokes are referred to as suction (induction), compression, working (expansion) and exhaust strokes. The engine is made up of a piston which moves up and down in cylinder which is covered at the top by a cylinder head. The fuel injector, though which fuel enters the cylinder, is located in the cylinder head. The inlet and exhaust valves are also housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs. The piston is joined to the connecting rod by a gudgeon pin. the bottom end or big end of the connecting rod is joined to the crankpin which forms part of the crankshaft. With this assembly the linear up and down movement of the piston is converted into rotary movement of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is arranged to drive through gears the camshaft, which either directly or through pushrods operates rocker arms which open the inlet and exhaust valves, The camshaft is timed to open the valves at the correct point in the cycle. The crankshaft is surrounded by the crankcase and the engine framework which supports the cylinders and houses the crankshaft bearings. The cylinder and cylinder head are arranged with water-cooling passages around them. Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles
The main difference between the two cycles is the power developed. The twostroke cycle engine, with one working or power stroke every revolution, will, theoretically, develop twice the power of a four-stroke engine of the same swept volume. Inefficient scavenging however and other losses, reduce the power advantage to about 1.8 for a particular engine power the two-stroke engine will be considerably lighter-an important consideration for ships. Nor does the tow-stroke engine require the complicated valve operating mechanism of the four-stroke. The four stroke engine however can operate efficiently at high speeds which offset its power disadvantages; it also consumes less lubricating oil. S No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 1 9 2 0 Two stroke engine One revolution is one working cycle and power produced Twice the power of a 4 stroke engine of the same swept volume Insufficient scavenging. Engine is lighter & simple in design No complicated valve operating mechanism. Slow speed engine (115 RPM) No reduction gear to propeller shaft Fewer parts than 4 stroke Mechanical efficiency is high because no moving parts like Cam followers, R/A, valves etc., Easily reversible. Excess lubrication Uniform torque Hence lighter fly wheel Used for Main Engine There is Cross Head/Piston Rod Diaphragm divides combustion space and crank case. Installation Dismantled from yard and shifted to the new vessel More Head room and heavier lifting arrangement required. Less vibration Cumbersome maintenance due to heavier parts Less noisy Four stroke engine Two revolution is one working cycle and power produced. 50% power of two stroke engine Good scavenging Heavier & complicated Valve operation. Medium speed engine (720 RPM) Reduction gear required More parts Mechanical efficiency lower. No reversing mechanism Less lubrication Heavier fly wheel. Used for Alternators and some times for M.E using gear box. There is no Cross Head/Piston Rod There is no Diaphragm. Hence combustion space and crank case are one unit. Completely assembled engine delivered to the vessel Less Head room and lighter lifting ar5rangement required More vibration due to high speed` Easy maintenance More noisy
Scavenging A basic part of the cycle of an internal combustion engine is the supply of fresh air and removal of exhaust gases. This is the gas exchange process. Scavenging is the removal of exhaust gases by blowing in fresh air. Types of scavenging The methods of charging have differed from one engine design to another in slow speed diesel engines. The systems employed may be generally into two main groups. (a) (b) Uniflow and Reverse flow.
Uniflow scavenging - In the uniflow system the scavenging air enters the cylinder form one end and leaves through the other. Air flows in streams with slight induced rotational motion. The charge is not allowed to change direction and hence intermixing is minimum. The scavenge efficiency is the highest. The system is particularly suitable in slow speed engines with long stroke and large area of escape for exhaust gases. It is achieved; (i) by two pistons working in one cylinder as in opposed piston engine. In this system the top piston controls the exhaust ports and the bottom piston controls the inlet ports. (ii) by a poppet valve arranged at the cylinder cover which provides a large instantaneous opening for exhaust gases to escape with sufficient rapidity so that the desired pressure drop in the cylinder is created without turbulence at exhaust.
(iii) by an exhaust piston controlling the exhaust ports, while the air inlet ports are covered and uncovered by the power piston
Reversed flow scavenging The engines employing a reversed flow system of scavenging are structurally simpler. Depending on the relative positions of exhaust and air ports, the reversed flow systems are again divided into: (i) Full loop scavenging with exhaust on top of air ports at the same side of engine. The method of loop scavenging is similar to the cross flow except the exhaust and scavenge ports may be found on the same side.
(ii) Cross scavenging with scavenge ports facing the exhaust ports.
The principal advantages of a reversed flow scavenge system lies in its simplicity. There are however a number of disadvantages which are listed below: of intermixing between the charge air with the exhaust gases. As a result the purity of charge is less and charge temperature is higher. (b) A sharp difference of temperature exists within a small area around scavenge and exhaust ports. Consequently the possibility of thermal cracks appearing at the bars and the chance of thermal distortion of the liner are greater. (c) The exhaust back pressure may rise due to narrowing of exhaust passage by deposit of unburnt carbon. The scavenging of the cylinder will be adversely affected. (d) The piston rings will wear out unevenly resulting in their being leaky earlier.
(a) There is a greater possibility
6.1(4) Explain reasons for supercharging and indicate typical supercharging pressures. Another method of scavenging is by a turbo-charger (or turbo-blower). This is a turbine-compressor; the turbine uses energy from the engine exhaust gases and drives an air compressor which supplies air to the engine for scavenging and supercharging. The main structure of an exhaust gas turbocharger may consist of four separate casings which can be bolted together in various positions to suit different arrangements of engine ducting. Exhaust gases from the diesel engine enter the single stage gas turbine though the water cooled cast iron inlet casing, expand in the nozzles thereby gaining in velocity, and pass through the turbine blades whilst driving the turbine rotor. The exhaust gases leave the turbine though the water cooled outlet casing and flow to the atmosphere, in some cases via a waste heat boiler. Combustion air for the diesel engine enters the centrifugal air compressor through a silencerfilter. The air is compressed and delivered from the compressor to an air cooler and then to the engine cylinders. In some engines a scavenge pump unit is formed by sealing the under piston space from the crankcase and fitting appropriate valves. This unit is usually incorporated in series with a turbo-charger as a booster units, is useful for starting and slow running conditions when insufficient air is being delivered by the turbo-charger. Sometimes, electrically driven blowers are fitted for starting and slow running of the engine then under full power conditions the air supply from the turbocharger outstrips delivery from the electric blower which causes the latter to be automatically shut off. Supercharging
Supercharging is a process of charging air into the engine cylinder used to indicate that the weight of air supplied to the engine is increased, to burn more fuel to get more out put power of the engine. At the beginning of compression stroke, the cylinder is full of air at atmospheric pressure. If the pressure at this point is increased above atmospheric pressure is called pressure charged of super charged. Amount of air in naturally aspirated engines breath limited by area of inlet passage & attainable air velocity. Power developed by diesel engines depends on : Quantity of air in engine breadths per unit time. Proportion of air utilized Thermodynamic efficiency of cycle.
Two methods increase quantity of air rotational speed of engine & increasing air density at intake Supercharging increases Mean Indicated Pressure (MIP) Improves scavenging and combustion and lower exhaust temperature. Improves pressure a temperature of inlet air /scavenge air.
How are modern two-stroke and four stroke engines pressure charged?
Modern diesel engines are pressure-charged by utilizing the energy in the exhaust gases to drive a gas turbine connected to a rotary blower. The blower compresses air so that it is delivered under pressure to the engine cylinder. Because the air is under pressure, a greater mass can be contained in the cylinder and so more fuel can be burnt per stroke, which increases the power developed. Engines pressure charged in this way with exhaust gas turbo driven blowers as often referred to as turbo-charged engines. Super-charging or Pressurecharging When the piston of a normal oil engine is beginning the compression stroke, the cylinder should be full of air at atmospheric pressure. If means are adopted to cause the pressure at this p9oint of the cycle to be greater than that of the atmosphere the engine is said to be super charged or pressure charged. The two terms are synonymous. Turbo-charger A modern exhaust gas turbo-blower is essentially a single stage impulse turbine connected through a common shaft to a centrifugal type air blower. The turbine and blower are housed in a circular casing divided into two separate spaces by a circular division plate, which may be water- cooled or protected heat insulation on the exhaust gas side. The section of the casing which houses the turbines is fitted with one or more flanged exhaust-gas inlets, which lead to nozzle-blade ring assembly. The exhaust gases pass through this ring and air is directed on to the turbine rotor blading. The gases enter the moving blades the turbine rotor at high velocity. The passage of the gas through the rotor blades causes a change of
direction in the gas flow, resulting in a change of momentum, which exerts a force on the turbine blades. This force causes the rotor to revolve at high speed. The exhaust passes from the rotor into a circular space connected to the exhaust gas outlet branch. The air-blower casing is fitted with filters at the air inlet to the casing. The entry passages after these filters are usually fitted with splitters to guide the air through the passages and reduce the draught losses caused by a change in the airflow direction. Sound absorbent material is used to cover the inside of the air passages and the splitters, to reduce wind and blower noise.
6.1(5) Explain what are indicator diagrams and how following can be read or calculated from it: a) Peak pressure b) Compression pressure c) indicated horse power Power Measurement There are two possible measurement s of engine power; the indicated power and the shaft power. The indicated power is the power developed within the engine cylinder and can be measured by an engine indicator. The shaft power is the power available at the output shaft of the engine and can be measured using a torsionmeter or with a brake. The engine indicator An engine indicator is shown in Fig. It is made up of a small piston of known size which operates in a cylinder against a specially calibrated spring. A magnifying linkage transfers the piston movement to a drum on which is mounted a piece of paper or card. The drum oscillates (moves backwards and forwards) under the pull of a cord. The cord is moved by a reciprocating (up and down) mechanism which is proportional to the engine piston movement in the cylinder. The stylus draws out an indicator diagram which represents the gas pressure on the engine piston at different points of the stroke, and the area of the indicaor diagram
produced represents the power developed in the particular cylinder. The power can be measured knowing the sealing factors, spring calibration and some basic engine details. Torsionmeter
If the torque transmitted by a shaft is known, together with the angular velocity, then the power can be measured, i.e. shaft power = torque x angular velocity The torque on a shaft can be found by measuring the shear stress or angle of twist with a torsionmeter. (a) Peak pressure
Combustion chamber pressure curve Pressures and temperatures are shown on the sketches where appropriate. The draw card is an extended scale picture of the combustion process. In early marine practice the indicator card was drawn by hand-hence the name. In modern practice an out of phase (90 degrees) cam could be provided adjacent to the general indicator cam. Incorrect combustion details show readily on the draw card. There is not real marked difference between the diagrams for 2-stroke and 4-stroke. In general the compression point on the draw card is more difficult to detect on the 2-stroke as the line is fairly continuous. There is no induction exhaust loop for the 4-stroke as the spring used in the indicator is too strong to discriminate on a pressure difference of say 1/3 bar only. (b) Compression pressure Compression curves Compression diagram is also given in the fig with the fuel shut off expansion and compression should appear as one line. Errors would be due
to a time lag in the drive or a faulty indicator cam setting or relative phase difference between camshaft and crankshaft. Normally such diagrams would only be necessary on initial engine trials unless loss of compression or cam shaft on the engine was suspected.
(c)
Brake horse power
The brake horse power is calculated from the torque and the rev/min. The brake men effective pressure (Pb) is obtained by analogy with the indicted horsepower formula:
Where
Pb = B.H.P x 3300 L x A x N x nc Pb is in lb/in2

L is in ft A is in in2 N is rev / min
in imperial units
Where
Pb = B.H.P x 4500 L x A x N x nc Pb is in Kg/cm2

B.H.P is 10 metric horse power L is in m A is in cm2 N is rev / min
in metric units
Pb =
Where
Brake Power L x A x N x ncx100
in S.I units
Pb is in bars
Brake powers is in kW L is in m A is in m2 N is rev / sec
In general the determination of brake horsepower is less open to error than is the determination of indicated horsepower. Brake mean effective pressure is therefore commonly used as a basic measurement of load when comparing the performance of engines. Brake specific fuel consumption (B.S.F.C) is obtained by dividing the fuel used in unit time by the b.h.p and the brake thermal efficiency is given by 100x3300 BSFCxCVxJ or per cent, imperial units
100x4500 BSFCxCVxJ or
per cent, metric units
3.6x106
per cent, S.I units
BSFCxCVxJ
Two stroke engine power diagrams
Two stroke cycle power card

Bottom centre dead
1. scavenge port closed 2. exhaust port shut-commence of compression 3. fuel injection 4. top dead centre 5. 7post combustion expansion 6. exhaust port opens
6.1(6) Describe a fuel injector and reasons for using high pressure fuel
Fuel Injection The function of the fuel injection system is to provide the right amount of fuel at the right moment and in suitable condition for the combustion process. There must therefore be some form of measured fuel supply, a means of timing the delivery and the atomization of the camshaft. This camshaft rotates at engine speed for a two-stroke engine and at half engine speed for a four-stroke. There are two basic systems
hydraulic operations. The most common system is the jerk pump: the other is the common rail. The Fuel Injector A typical fuel injector is shown in Fig. It can be seen to be two basic parts, the nozzle and the nozzle holder or body. The high pressure fuel enters and travels down a passage in the body and then into a passage in the nozzle, ending finally in a chamber surrounding the needle valve. The needle valve is held closed on a mitred seat by an intermediate spindle and a spring in the injector body. The spring pressure, and hence the injector opening pressure, can be set by a compression nut which acts on the spring. The nozzle and injector body are manufactured as a matching pair and are accurately ground to give a good oil seal. The two are joined by a nozzle nut. The needle valve will open when the fuel pressure acting on the needle valve tapered face exerts a sufficient force to overcome the spring compression. The fuel then flows into a lower chamber and is forced out through a series of tiny holes. The small holes are sixed and arranged to atomize, or break into tiny drops, all of the fuel oil, which will then readily burn. Once the injector pump or timing valve cuts off the high pressure fuel supply the needle valve will shut quickly under the spring compression force. A priming or air venting arrangement is fitted to the fuel supply passage. All injectors should be primed before starting an engine after any period of idleness. Fuel injectors on large slow speed diesels are arranged with internal passages which are circulated with cooling water.
Reasons for using high pressure fuel

All slow speed two-stroke engines and many medium speed four-stroke engines are now operated almost continuously on heavy fuel. A fuel circulating system is therefore necessary and this is usually arranged within the fuel injector. During injection the high-pressure fuel will open the circulation valve for injection to take place. When the engine is stopped, the fuel booster pump supplies fuel which the circulation valve directs around the injector body. Before fuel can be injected into a cylinder the pressure must rise to the point at which the fuel valve lifts. The pressure required will depend on various factors, but will be between 245 and 445 bar. In some of the latest generation of engines, the fuel injection pressures may go up to about 1000
bar; in some medium speed engines using low-cost fuels, higher injection pressures going up to about 1250 bar may be used. Jerk pump system In the jerk pump system of fuel injection a separate injector pump exists for each cylinder. The injector pump is usually operated once every cycle by a cam on the camshaft. The barrel and plunger of the injector pump are dimensioned to suit the engine fuel requirements. Ports in the barrel and slots in the plunger or adjustable spill valves serve to regulate the fuel delivery (a more detailed explanation follows). Each injector pump supplies the injector or injectors for one cylinder. The needle valve in the injector will lift at a pre-set pressure which ensures that the fuel will atomize once it enters the cylinder. Common rail system The common rail system has one high pressure multiple plunger fuel pump. The fuel is discharged into a manifold or rail which is maintained at high pressure. From this common rail fuel is supplied to all the injectors in the various cylinders. Between the rail and the injector or injectors for a particular cylinder is a timing valve which determines the timing and extent of fuel delivery. Spill valves are connected to the manifold or rail to release excess pressure and accumulator bottles which dampen out pump pressure pulses. The injectors in a common rail system are often referred to as fuel valves. Injector pump The injector pump is operated by a cam which drives the plunger up and down. The timing of the injection can be altered by raising or lowering the pump plunger in relation to the cam. The pump has a constant stroke and the amount of fuel delivered is regulated by rotating the pump plunger which has a specially arranged helical groove cut into it. The fuel is supplied to the pump through ports or openings at B (fig). As the plunger moves down, fuel enters the cylinder. As the plunger moves up, the ports at B are closed and the fuel is pressurized and delivered to the injector nozzle at very high pressure. When the edge of the helix at C uncovers the spill port D pressure is lost and fuel delivery to the injector stops. A non-return valve on the delivery side of the pump closes to stop fuel oil returning from the injector. Fuel will again be drawn in on the plunger down stroke and the process will be repeated.
The plunger may be rotated in the cylinder by a rack and pinion arrangement on a sleeve which is keyed to the plunger. This will move the edge C up or down to reduce or increase the mount of fuel pumped into the cylinder. The rack is connected to the throttle control or governor of the engine. This type of pump, with minor variations, is used on many diesel engines. Sulzer Type Fuel pump (Variable rare injection)
The Sulzer differs from the Bosch scroll pump in that it operates with a plain plunger, timing being effected by operation of valves. The cam, which is driven via gears by the crank shaft forces the plunger up the barrel thereby delivering fuel to the injectors during the period that both suction valve and discharge valve is shut. The eccentric cam which alters the timing of spill is rotated via the fuel rack driven from the governor. The eccentric cam altering the opening and closing of the suction port, may be altered manually or driven off an engine management system to change the beginning of injection.
COMBUSTION:
Combustion process of the fuel takes place in three distinct phases. First phase of combustion Ignition delay period is the time-span between commencement of injection and the start of ignition. The fuel emerges into the cylinder as small liquid particles, which are surrounded by not compressed air. They receive heat from the air and more volatile constituents of the fuel vaporize. During the ignition delay period a large part of the fuel charge is prepared for combustion.
During the ignition delay the injector continued to inject fuel and, if this has build up a sufficient quantity, the rapid combustion and pressure rise will be quite violent, causing detonation and shock loading creating a noise termed diesel nock.
First phase of combustion Rapid / Uncontrolled combustion usually occurs just after ignition of fuel vapor. After ignition commences flame propagation proceeds very quickly in the fuel vapor or air mixture, accompanied by rapid temperature and pressure increase. Towards the end of the rapid pressure rise a point is reached where the rate of pressure rise falls away quickly, and the curve flattens out towards the maximum pressure point. The point where the rate of pressure rise changes near and approaching the maximum pressure point is the end of the second phase of combustion.
Third phase of combustion Controlled combustion is regulated by the rate at which fuel continues to delivered. Shows only a mall pressure rise, as the rate is decreased due to downward movement of the piston. The end of injection occurs approximately at or slightly beyond the maximum pressure point.
6.1(7) State typical value of a) Brake Thermal efficiency b) mechanical efficiency c) break specific fuel consumption per hour
Brake thermal efficiency It is the objective of the marine engineer to keep the injection sett8ings, the air flow, coolant temperature (not to mention the general mechanical condition ) at those values which give the best fuel consumption for the power developed. Thermal efficiency (Th) is the overall measure of performance. In absolute terms it is equal to Heat converted into useful work Total heat supplied As long as the units used agree it does not matter whether the heat or work is expressed in pounds-feet, kilograms-meters, BTU, calories, kWh or joules. The recommended units to use are now those of the SI system. Heat converted into work per hour Where N Heat supplied = NkWh = 3600 NkJ = the power output in kW =MxK
Where M And K Therefore Th
= mass of fuel used per hour in kg = calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg = 3600 N MxK
It is now necessary to decide where the work is to be measured. If it is to be measured in the cylinders, as is usually done in slow-running machinery, by means of an indicator (though electronic techniques now make this possible directly and reliably even in high speed engines), the work measured (and hence power) is that indicated within the cylinder, and the calculation leads to the indicated thermal efficiency. If the work is measured at the crankshaft output flange, it is net of friction, auxiliary drives, etc., and is what would be measured by a brake, whence the term brake thermal efficiency. (Manufacturers in some countries do include as output the power absorbed by essential auxiliary drives but the present editor considers this to give a misleading impression of the power available. Additionally, the fuel is reckoned to have a higher (or gross) and a lower (or net) calorific value, according to whether one calculates the heat recoverable if the exhaust products are cooled back to standard atmospheric conditions, or assessed at the exhaust outlet. The essential difference is that in the latter case the water produced in combustion is released as steam and retains its latent heat of vaporization. This is the more representative case and more desirable as water in the exhaust flow is likely to be corrosive. Today the net or lower calorific value (LCV) is more widely used. If we take the case of an engine producing a (brake) output of 10000 kW for an hour using 2000 kg of fuel per hour having an LCV of 42000 kJ/kg (Brake) Th = = Mechanical efficiency Mechanical efficiency = output at crankshaft output at cylinders
=
3600 x 10000 2000 x 42000
X 100 %
42.9 % (based on LCV)
bhp ihp
kW (brake) kW (indicated)
The brake power is normally measured with a high accuracy (98 percent or so) by coupling the engine to adynmometer at the builders works. If it is measued in the ship by torsionmeter it is difficult to match this accuracy and, if the torsionmeter cannot be installed between the output flange and the thrust blowck or the gear box input, additional losses have to be reckoned due to the friction entailed by these components. The indicated power can only be measured from diagrams where these are feasible and they are also subject to significant measurement errors.
Fortunately for our attempts to reckon the mechanical efficiency, test bed experience shows that the friction torque (that is, in fact, all the losses reckoned to influence the difference between indicated and brake torque) is not very greatly affected by the engines torque output
6.1(8) Indicate a heat balance diagrams of a diesel engine 6.1(9) Sketch a section through a) Piston showing cooling arrangement b) engine bed plate showing girders, main bearings and tie bolt housing.
Piston
Bed Plate
Tie bolt housing arrangement
Bearings
Lubrication system for bearing and guides, etc, should be simple and effective. If we consider the lubrication of a bottom end bearing, various routes are available, the object would be to choose that route which will be the most reliable, least expensive and least complicated. We could supply the oil to main bearing and by means of holes drilled in the crankshaft convey the oil to the bottom end bearing. This method may be simple and satisfactory for a small engine but with a large diesel it presents machining and stress problems. In one large type of diesel the journals and crankpins were drilled axially and radially, but to avoid drilling through the crank-web and the shrinkage surfaces the oil was conveyed from the journal to the crank pin by pipes. A common arrangement, mainly adopted with engines having oil cooled pistons, is to supply the bottom end bearing with oil down a central hole in the connecting rod from the top end bearing. With any of the bearings (expecting ball or roller) the main object is to provide as far as possible a good hydrodynamic film of lubricant (i.e a continuous unbroken film of oil separating the working surfaces). Those factors assisting hydrodynamic lubrication are:(a) Viscosity. If the oil viscosity is increased there is less likelihood of oil film break down. However, too high a viscosity increases viscous drag and power loss.
(b) Speed. Increasing the relative speed between the lubricated surfaces pumps oil into the clearance space more rapidly and helps promote hydrodynamic lubrication.
(c) Pressure. Increasing bearing load and hence pressure (load/area) breaks down the oil film. In design, if the load is increased area can be increased by making the pin diameter larger-this will also increase relative speed. (d) Clearance. If bearing clearance is too great inertia forces lead to bearing knock. This impulsive loading results in pressure above normal and breakdown of the hydrodynamic layer.
Hydrodynamic lubrication should exist in main, bottom end and guide bearings. The top end bearing will have a variable condition, e.g. when at T.D.C relative velocity between crosshead pin and bearing surface is zero and bearing pressure near or at maximum.
6.1(10) List the normal operating pressures and temperatures in a diesel engine for a) exhaust gas b) inlet air c) circulating water inlet and outlet d) lubricating oil e) fuel
S No Description (a) Exhaust gas (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Inlet air Piston cooling water outlet Cylinder cooling outlet Lubricating oil (before the engine) Fuel Pressure Temperature Max 300 mm 250 (ideal) 350oC (max) (water gauge) 150-200 mm (water gauge) 2.0-2.8 kg/cm2 55-60oC 1.5 kg/cm2(approx) 1.5 -2.0 kg/cm2 1 1.5 kg/cm2 60-65oC 40-45o C -
6.1(11) Draw line diagrams of following systems: a) fuel oil b) lub. oil c) piston cooling d) jacket cooling e) fuel valve cooling
Jacket water cooling system
Fuel valve cooling system
lub oil cooling system
Jacket Water System
Electronic cylinder lubrication
6.1(12) Sketch an air reservoir with its fittings and safety devices and state typical air pressure
Regulations (a) There must be at least two starting air receivers, the total capacity of which will give 12 starts for a reversing engine or 6 starts fo a non-reversing engine with CPP. (b) There must be at least two compressors (c) In addition to these there must be a compressor which can be started by hand i.e. with a dead ship. Note: this is not necessary if one of the compressors is run off the emergency switchboard (d) (i) A relief valve must be fitted to the HP discharge and be sufficient size to ensure that the pressure rise does not exceed 10% of the pressure when the compressor is running and the outlet bottle are shut.
working valves on the
(ii) A relief valve or bursting disc on the hp cooler casing in order to protect the casing from overpressure in the event of cooler tube failure Note: Bursting discs are generally preferred because they fail and stay failed giving complete protection. A relief valve will reseat when the compressor is stopped allowing water to enter the air side. (iii) A drain must be fitted at each stage
Diesel start air system The components of the air start system are taken to include compressors and storage bottles in addition to the engine air start arrangement. The minimum of tow compressors should be matched to the starting air requirements of the engine. The compressor after coolers should be protected by a bursting disc. All high pressure lines in the system to be of solid drawn pipe.
Air Receivers There must be a means of access to allow cleaning and inspection of internals. The internal surface should be protected by a coating which is flexible enough to move when the metal distorts. Copal varnish is generally used because it has these properties and will not easily oxidise. Usually precautions are taken the same as for an enclosed space when entering. Ventilation is required to the solvent fumes in the varnish. Drains must be fitted in the lowest part of the receiver. Receivers must be protected by means of a relief valve, if the relief valve can be isolated from the receiver than a fusible plug or plugs must be fitted. These are usually fitted because in the event of a fire near to the bottle they will fail and release the entire contents of the bottle rapidly. A relief valve however will only release air down to its closing pressure which is set point less blowdown. If the structure of the bottle becomes weakened by the heat then its ability to withstand even the reduced pressure is weakened a possible rupture could occur. The inlet and outlet valves are to be arranged to prevent direct flow through the bottle with insufficient residence time for moisture to precipitate. Valves are to be of the slow opening type to prevent excessive pressure rises. All attachments should be via a support plate Safety devices The automatic valve (Main air start block valve) prevents connection between the air receiver and air start manifold unless actually in the process of starting. This minimises the risk of an explosion in the air manifold actually propagating back to the air receiver where a much more severe explosion is possible. Safety devices are incorporated in the air start manifold in order to dissipate the energy of an explosion thus keeping its effects local. Such devices include flame traps, relief valves and bursting discs. Relief valves are fitted on each cylinder to prevent excess pressure. Relief valves are also provided on the cooling water jackets. These come in action in the event of air leaking into the jacket and creating excess pressure. Oil traps and drain traps are provided so that oil or water does not pass into the air receiver. Compressors may be fitted with decompression arrangement in which the LP suction valve is kept open. This is used while starting to keep the starting current within limits. It may also be provided on compressors, which keep working continuously with automatic pumping arrangements. The compressors will stop pumping air when the receiver is full and start pumping when the pressure drops. The decompression valve is loaded by air pressure from the receiver. All receivers must be fitted with relief valves, which discharge outside the engine room. In the event of fire in the engine room, air should not get released into the engine room and help the fire. Valve should open at 3% above the design pressure. Air filling line and starting air supply line should be separate. Drain is provided on the receiver. If the drain valve is not at the lowest point, an internal
pipe leading to the bottom must be fitted, for effective draining. Oil or water should not pass into the starting air system. Air receivers may also be fitted with fusible plugs, which melt in the event of fire in the vicinity. Receiver capacity should be enough to provide air to start a reversible engine 12 times or a non-reversible engine 6 times without recharging.
6.1(13) Explain the purpose of following: a) sheathing on high pressure fuel line b) lagging on hot surfaces c) guards over moving machinery.
(a) Lagging on hot surfaces All steam machinery, equipment and pipes must be adequately lagged to reduce radiation loss and provide protection to the personnel working. It is to be done in such a way that personnel working in the space should be comfortable enough to undertake any kind of repairs. The surface temperature should not exceed 60oC. Pressure gauges and thermometers must be provided as required. (b) Guards over moving machinery Appropriate guards preferably metallic, to be placed for appropriate machinery with regard to moving parts in order to prevent any untoward accidents. The following to be kept in mind prior placing guards over moving machinery:(i) Personal safety (ii) Rag pieces or jute should not get into the shaft of the moving machinery (iii) No leakages/drains should fall on running shaft / rotor which lead to short circuit of the motor
(c) Sheathing on high pressure fuel

In all modern ships, sheathing on high pressure fuel is undertaken as a preventive measure in order to avoid any untoward incidents like fire, in the engine room. In case of leakage or burst in the high pressure fuel line, chances of scattering of fuel over engine hot surfaces may pose endanger to the hygiene of the compartment as well as a potential hazard to the fire. A leak off line is provided along with high pressure fuel line to lead the drain to a separate storage space in case of any leakage through an alarm
6.1(14) Explain the purpose of turning gear and interlocks Turning gear
Diesel engines are fitted with many safety gadgets. Main diesel engine is fitted with a turning gear, which turns the engine at very slow speed during maintenance, warming up and shutting down. This gear must be disengaged before the engine can be started on air. Compressed air used for starting has to pass through the turning gear interlock before it reaches the control valve.
Interlocks The engine should not start in a wrong direction. Reversing system interlock and the wrong direction alarm ensure this. This interlock will block the starting air if the fuel pump cams, starting air distributor, exhaust valve drive shaft are not in the position corresponding to the direction indicated by the telegraph. These blocks are operated by lub oil pressure in sequence. Thus this interlock also incorporates the safety to prevent starting of the engine if the lub oil pressure does not develop sufficient pressure. Lub oil pressure also controls a servo valve on the fuel oil line. If the lub oil system fails and there is no pressure in the line, fuel to the engine will be automatically cut off and the engine will come to a halt. 6.1(15) Describe how engine speed is varied and how overspeeds are prevented (How is the speed of a main engine controlled? What types of device can be used to control speed?)
The speed of main engines is controlled primarily by the fuel-lever or fuel-wheel setting. The fuel lever or wheel controls the fuel pump settings which in turn control the amount of fuel injected per working cycle into each cylinder. Provided the load on an engine did not change the speed of the engine would remain constant for any fuel lever setting. Unfortunately this condition occurs only in very smooth water; as soon as a ship starts to pitch the propeller rises and falls and the load on the engine changes. If the speed of the engine were controlled only by the fuel-lever setting, the speed would rise and fall with the pitching of the vessel and the corresponding load changes. Small changes in engine speed can be tolerated. But in bad weather when the ship is pitching heavily it is possible for the propeller to come clear of, or nearly clear of, the water, and in such circumstances the speed of the engine could rise dangerously. A similar situation could arise if the propeller shaft fractured and /or the propeller was lost. In order to keep the engine speed within reasonable bounds in heavy weather, or in the event of shaft failure, a governor overrides the fuel lever and reduces the fuel injected into the cylinders, so preventing the engine speed from rising further.
There are four types of governor used for this purpose, the inertia type governor; the mechanical type governor with spring loaded sleeves and flyweights; the mechanical hydraulic-type governor; and the electronic governor. The inertia-type governor was at one time used only on main engines, to limit the maximum speed when the engine was racing in heavy weather. A propulsion engine directly driving (no clutch between engine and propeller) a screw propeller will always have a load on the engine. As the speed of the engine is increased the power demand on the engine follows the cube law. That is the power given out by the engine varies as the Power or Torque (P) cube of the speed. Within load changes where the engine does not over-speed, an engine driving a generator will have a slight decrease in 3 speed as the load on the engine pN increases, provided the voltage is kept at a constant value. The change will Speed (N) be linear or follow the form of a graph where Y = MX+C. Fig shows the torque speed relationship of an engine propelling a ship. The relationship is similar when an engine is driving a centrifugal pump or a centrifugal fan.
Overspeed trip
Overspeed trips are fitted on engines where the governor does not fail safe. Their function is to shut off the fuel supply to the cylinders in th4e event of the speed of the engine rising to a dangerous level. They are always fitted on steam turbo alternators or generators. The overspeed trip usually consists of a bolt with a relatively heavy head. The bolt is fitted at the forward end of the engine shaft where no torque is transmitted. It is fitted in a space bored out across the diameter of the shaft. The bolt is held in place by a nut and supported by a spring. When the engine overspeeds the centrifugal force exerted by the bolt head overcomes the support of the spring and flies outwards until restrained by the nut and compression of the spring. The bolt head in the thrown position strikes a trip lever which is also thrown and shuts off the engine fuel eventually bringing the engine to rest. The means whereby the fuel is shut off varies with the make of engine. As some motor ships have a steam turbo alternator it is worth mentioning that in many turbo sets the overspeed trip often works through the lubricating oil low pressure cut-out and steam stop valve. In other cases the overspeed t4ip operates through a system of levers and links to the turbine steam stop valve. When the overspeed trip operates, the pawl holding the steam stop valve open is released and a spring closes the stop valve. The tripping speed can be adjusted by adding or removing thin spacing washers under the spring so that its compression is altered.
A small permanent magnet alternator driven from the engine camshaft in conjunction with a rectifier can also be used with an electronic governor to prevent the engine racing. When, the engine speeds up, the voltage increases. At some level it will operate the governor to reduce the fuel supply to the engine and prevent a dangerous increase in engine speed.
6.1(16) Explain what is oil mist, when does it become dangerous and the working and maintenance of an oil mist detector
Crankcase oil mist detector (Obscuration) (set point 2.5% L.E.L) Oil mists can be readily detected at concentrations well below that required for explosions, therefore automated detection of these oil mists can be an effective method of preventing explosions. Shown above is the Graviner oil mist detector. This is in common use in slow speed and high speed engines. The disadvantage of this type if system is that there is a lag due to the time taken for the sample to be drawn from the unit and for the rotary valve to reach that sample point. For this reason this type of oil mist detector is not commonly used on higher speed engines. Modern detectors often have the detection head mounted in the probe, the probe is able to determine the condition of the crankcase and output an electrical signal accordingly. The assembly consists of the following:(a) Extraction fan-draws the sample from the sample points through the reference and measuring tubes via non-return valves. (b) Rotary valve-This valve is externally accessible and is so marked so as to indicate which sample point is on line. In the event on exceeding the set point, the valve automatically locks onto that point so giving a clear indication of the locality of the fault condition. (c) Reference tube-measures the average density of the mist within the crankcase, as there will always be some mechanically generated mist.
(d) Measuring tube- measures the opacity of the sample by means of a photoelectric cell as with the measuring cell. To exclude variables in lamps a single unit is used with beams directed down the tube by mirrors. The photoelectric cell gives an output voltage proportional to the light falling on it. In this way the opacity of the sample is measured, the voltages generated in the cell in the measuring and reference tubes are compared in an electronic circuit. The difference is compared to a potentiometer varied set point which if exceed initiates an alarm circuit. The alarm circuit, dependant on installation, will generally declutch the drive to the rotary valve, give an output signal to the engine room alarm monitoring system and an output to the engine protection system causing it to slowdown. The rotary valve also has a position marked 'O' at which air is supplied to both tubes, and zero automatically (and manually if necessary) adjusted at each cycle. In addition at position 'L' an average sample of the crankcase is compared to air. Crankcase oil mist detector (light scatter) The disadvantage of obscuration types is that they are generally slow to operate and suffer from inaccuracies and false alarms caused by such things as a dirty lens. Light scatter do not suffer from these problems, are faster reacting and do not need to set zero during engine operations. The relationship between the light landings on the sensor is nearly proportional to the oil mist density therefore the unit can be calibrated in mg/l. It is possible to have the sensor and a LED emitter in a single unit which may be mounted on the crankcase. Several of these can be placed on the engine each with a unique address poled by a central control unit. The results of which may be displayed on the control room. Having these heads mounted on the engine removes the need for long sample tubes which add to the delay of mist detection. This makes the system much more suitable for use with medium and high speed engines were otherwise detection would be impossible. Crankcase doors (non relieving) The older type consisted of doors lightly held by retaining clamps or clips. With doors of this type a pressure of 0.5psi would give a permanent set of about 25mm, the doors would be completely blown off by pressures of 2 to 3 psi. Modern large slow
speed engines have two types of crankcase door, a large securely held heavy mild steel square door which allows good access for heavy maintenance. A second smaller round dished aluminium door at around x-head height which allows entry for inspection. Due to the curved design the door is able to withstand pressures well above the set point for the relief doors. Actions in the event of Oil Mist detection The consequences of a crankcase explosion are extremely serious and the greatest possible caution in the actions taken should be exercised. Should the oil mist detector activate an alarm condition, then personnel should take steps to ascertain if the fault is real. They should initially assume that it is, the bridge should be informed and the engines slowed if the oil mist detector has not already done so. Should the bridge require maneuverability, and it is essential that the engine be operated then consideration of evacuation of the engine room should be made. Otherwise the engine should be stopped and turned on gear until cooled. The Graviner Oil Mist detector indicates via markings on the rotary valve which sample point has the high readings. By inspection of the Graviner, and by viewing crankcase (or thrust, gear case) bearing readings it is possible to ascertain whether a fault condition exists. Under no circumstances should any aperture be opened until the engine has sufficiently cooled, this is taken as normal operating temperatures as an explosion cannot occur when no part has a temperature above 270'C (Cool flame temperature). Once cooled the engine can be opened and ventilated (the crankcase is an enclosed space). An inspection should be made to locate the hot spot, the engine should not be run until the fault has been rectified.
6.1(17) State approx. exhaust gas temperatures at a) discharge from cylinder b) at inlet to and outlet from exhaust gas turbine
(a) (b) 250-350oC 60-70oC
6.1(18) Define Turbocharger Surging and action to be taken when it occurs.

Surging Takes place if the air mass delivered by the blower falls at a faster rate than the air pressure of delivery. With all blowers it is possible to produce a graph showing the effect. Surging gives an unpleasant noise. The initial action in order to prevent a blower surging is to reduce engine load. Blower efficiency is highest closer to the surge line and so if a high efficiency is demanded there is little leeway against surging. In practice the fitting of blowers is a compromise between reasonable blower efficiency and an acceptable degree of safeguard against surging.
Surging is a condition whereby an imbalance in demand and supply of air from the turbocharger causes a rapid deceleration. This is accompanied by a loud barking noise and vibration. It was not uncommon on pulse systems in heavy weather; it is less prevalent in modern constant pressure designs but may begin due to reasons explained later. The normal characteristic of a turbocharger running at constant speed is one of reducing possible pressure ratio for increasing air flow demands. This characteristic is exaggerated when frictional losses are taken into account. As described above from maximum efficiency the air leaving the compressor wheel should enter the inducer at an optimal angle. Failure to do so leads to losses and a characteristic shown. It should be noted that this shows a relationship at a specific instant of Turbocharger speed. It would be possible to plot many lines of constant speed on the graph. The point at which surging occurs could be plotted for each and a surge line drawn. Moving the plant operating line towards the surge line can lead to an increase in turbocharger efficiency.
The stable operating point is at A though which passes the respective engine operating line ( this line indicates the relationship the engine requires between Air flow and pressure), the unstable point leading to surging is at B. If the air flow through the turbocharger reduces The effect would be a decrease in pressure at the receiver. However the pressure ratio of the turbocharger (running at constant speed) would Increase. The effect of this is to return the system back to its stable point A. For an engine operating on the line passing through B then the effects of a reduced air flow will be a corresponding reduction in compressor pressure ratio. The engine however requires increased air flow which the turbocharger cannot supply and the result is surging. Theoretically this effect begins where the constant pressure line is flat. Conditions leading to Surging Turbochargers are generally specified in relation to set ambient operating conditions and then matched to engine load requirements. Deviation away from this due to such things as changes in ambient conditions and changes in engine speed/load relationship has to be taken into account. It is very unusual for a modern turbocharger to such. However, surging may begin after several years of stable operations. Some possible reasons are as follows:o
o o o o o o
For multi blower installations surging can occur due to a difference in maintenance of cleaning causing one or more to operate at pressure ratio's above its capability Similarly difference in blower component wear, this is particularly true for such things as increased blade tip clearance change in engine speed/ load relationship- say due to hull fouling cylinder power imbalance faulty injectors or timing dirty air filter dirty air cooler (air side)
o o o o o
High air cooler cooling water temperature dirty turbine nozzle ring deposits on blades or impeller damage to blades It is also possible that components downstream from the blower exhaust such as a fouled exhaust gas boiler can also lead to surging
6.1(18) Define scavenge fire and action to be taken when it occurs. Scavenge fires Carbonized lubrication oil, unburned fuel oil and carbon from the residual products of the combustion spaces area accumulated in the scavenge spaces with the funning of the engine. Under certain faulty running condition of the engine, these may ignite causing a fire in the4 enclosed scavenge space, known as scavenge fire. The underside of a two stroke engine piston is frequently utilized as an air pump either to supply air or to boost up pressure of air at the intake of engine cylinder. The space is enclosed for this purpose and is also in communication with the scavenge air box common to all cylinders. In this space there is normal accumulation of carbonised cylinder lubricating oil, unburnt fuel and carbon from the residual products of combustion. The dry carbonaceous deposits at the lower part may ignite under certain faulty operating condition initiating a fire in the enclosed scavenge air box. This is scavenge fire. Such a condition may arise due to the following circumstances occurring either singly or in combustion. (a) A prolonged blow-by owing to ineffective sealing of combustion space, Leaky piston ring, sticky ring, broken ring, badly worn-out liner, scoring and scuffing at the liner surface, faulty lubrication (quality, quantity or timing), insufficient ring axial clearance are some of the probable causes listed which will adversely affect proper sealing of the combustion space.
(b) An overheated piston arising out of continued slow burning in the cylinder. Faulty atomization, faulty fuel pump timing, low compression, ineffective sealing, failure of coolant circulation due to scale formation, generation of frictional heat are some of the reasons for which the piston may accumulate higher temperature level in its body. The heat will be dissipated to the underside causing heating of the air space. (c) A blow back of the exhaust gases through the scavenge ports. Such a blow back is possible due to a rise in exhaust back-pressure. Carbonizing of parts, fouling of grid before turbine inlet, fouling of turbine blades, chocking of silencer etc. are some of the reasons listed.
Detection
A scavenge fire is likely to be initiated first in the space at the immediate vicinity of the piston. It should be detected at the stage. A scavenge fire will manifest itself by the following indications: (a) An increase in the exhaust temperature of the affected cylinder as the cylinder is not receiving fresh air. (b) A drop in revolutions of the engine as the power generation in the affected cylinder is less. (c) Black smoke with exhaust. (d) Discharge of spark, flame of smoke through drain cocks from scavenge air box. (e) Evidence of local overheating of scavenge air box. (f) Visible evidence of fire if a transparent window is provided (g) Cooling outlet temperatures of the affected cylinder will indicate a rise. (h) Rise of pressure and temperature of air, in the air box below the piston. A temperature rise will be sensed and signaled by a transducer if provided which is amplified to energize an alarm circuit. (i) As the fire spreads there will be more smoke in exhaust and further drop in revolutions or sign of overloading.
Actions to be taken (Preventive actions)
If the fire is localized, the affected cylinder will have to be isolated. Prompt action should extinguish the fire. (a) The fuel pump plunger of the affected cylinder is lifted up and the fuel inlet valve to the pump should be shut. (b) The speed of engine is to be reduced (c) The coolant flow rate through the piston and jacket can be increased (d) The rate of lubrication in the affected cylinder may be increased (e) Drains are to be shut to prevent a blow of sparks in the engine room
(e) Nobody should be standing near the scavenge space relief doors After the fire is extinguished an investigation should follow to ascertain the cause of fire. Crankcase or scavenge doors must not be opened until the engine is sufficiently cooled.
If the fire spreads
(a) Inform the bridge and stop the engine (b) the scavenge air duct before the engine is flapped and the smothering gas charged (c) cooling and bearing circulation is maintained till the engine is cooled. After the engine is sufficiently cooled down, it is necessary to open the scavenge boxes of all cylinders for cleaning of deposits and burnt products. The cause of fire should be ascertained and rectified. Some of the probable places where damage may occur as a result of fire are: (a) the piston rod stuffing box gland (b) the piston rod and cylinder liner surfaces (c) the alignment of piston and straightness of piston rod (d) scoring or crack on liner (e) the diaphragm below the piston for detection of crack (f) the tie-rods near the fire should be retensioned.
6.1(20) Construction and operation of Turbocharger

Turbochargers
For Combustion of a fuel, an adequate quantity of air is required. For a Turbocharger system capacity should be sufficient to ensure that the air demand is met when the turbocharger is not at its optimum. In a four stroke diesel engine, this air is induced during a down stroke in one of the two engine cycles per power stroke. The exhaust gasses are removed by the preceding upstroke. For a two stroke no such cycle for scavenging and air replenishment exists. Instead, air under pressure is supplied at the end of the power stroke providing a new charge of air and removing the exhaust gasses. The period allowed for scavenging is limited as the longer the exhaust port or valve remains open so the shorter the travel of piston is available for compression. The greater the mass of air that can be supplied, the more efficient the scavenging process will be, and also the greater mass of air will be available for the combustion of an equally greater mass of fuel. The mass of air is increased by increasing the pressure at which it is supplied. Pressure charging can be obtained by a number of means including scavenge pumps, chain driven rotary blowers and exhaust gas driven blowers.
Exhaust gas driven blowers or Turbochargers make use of gas in the cylinder which theoretically could be expanded further, the power that would be developed could be used for driving an engine driven scavenge pump. In practice it is more
efficient to use this exhaust gas in the turbocharger as further expansion of the gas would require an increased stroke. Increased stroke would mean increased engine height with problems of crankshaft construction, cylinder lubrication and effective scavenging coming into play. The work that could be extracted from this low pressure gas would be limited and more efficiently extracted in a rotary machine.
Construction Axial
Centrifugal
Centrifugal turbochargers are generally cheaper to produce than axial flow. In addition for smaller sized radial units the effects of blade leakage are less important They are very common in automotive systems where they are suited to the manufacture of large volumes of standard design. Axial flow may be selected even when there are centrifugal alternatives as it is better suited to individual modifications and is able to operate better on heavy fuels. A turbocharger is made basically in two linked parts, the gas side and the air side. The gas side is made out of cast iron, is in tow parts and is generally water cooled. The turbine inlet casing carries the nozzle blade shroud ring and forms the bearing housing. The turbine outlet casing forms the main part of the blower which includes the mountings. In addition it forms a shroud for the shaft and contains bled air passageways for supplying air to the labyrinths seals. Compressor The air side casing is also in two parts but is made of aluminium alloy. The inlet casing may be arranged to draw air form the engine room or from the deck, both methods via a filter and silencer arrangement. The advantage of drawing air form outside the engine room is that it will tend to be cooler and less humid. An advantage of drawing from the engine room would be simpler ducting arrangements and that the engine room tends to be slightly pressurized. The main parts of the Compressor are the Compressor wheel (made up from a separate Inducer and Impeller on larger designs), the diffuser, and the air inlet and outlet casing.
With the wheel rotating a unit of air massing the compressor wheel experiences circumferential velocity (v)at its distance from the wheel centre line (radius r). A radial velocity is experienced of value v2/r which causes it to move radially outwards. The unit of air leaves the compressor with a resultant velocity the angle of incidence of which should, by careful design, match the inducer inlet angle. This leads to maximum compressor efficiency. The effects of frictional losses, whether due to surface imperfections or fouling of the compressor wheel will result in changing the angle of incidence and thus a drop in efficiency Surging Takes place if the air mass delivered by the blower falls at a faster rate than the air pressure of delivery. With all blowers it is possible to produce a graph showing the effect. Surging gives an unpleasant noise. The initial action in order to prevent a blower surging is to reduce engine load. Blower efficiency is highest closer to the surge line and so if a high efficiency is demanded there is little leeway against surging. In practice the fitting of blowers is a compromise between reasonable blower efficiency and an acceptable degree of safeguard against surging. Surging is a condition whereby an imbalance in demand and supply of air from the turbocharger causes a rapid deceleration. This is accompanied by a loud barking noise and vibration. It was not uncommon on pulse systems in heavy weather; it is less prevalent in modern constant pressure designs but may begin due to reasons explained later. Rotor This may again be thought of two parts; the gas side and shaft and the air compressor side. They are usually made of two materials. The advantage of making the compressor end of a lighter aluminium alloy material rather than using the same material throughout, is that it reduces the total mass of the rotor , is more easily cast into intricate shapes, and the rotational inertia is reduced. Must be capable of maintaining strength at high temperatures so material is usually a chromium steel. The impeller is made of an aluminium alloy and for larger compressors may have a separate inducer section at the eye. Whatever the form of construction is undertaken it must preserve the rotor balance and that means refitting in the same position after removal from the rotor. Blades The blades shown above are twisted and tapered to allow for the increased blade velocity with increased radius. Blades must be capable of withstanding the high exhaust temperatures and also the highly corrosive
environment of the exhaust gas. Stainless steel is frequently used. The blades are made lose fit for the following reasons;
o o o
To allow for thermal expansion To prevent force fit stress adding to centrifugal stress (stops the material 'yielding') Help dampen vibrations from the gas pulses as the blades pass the nozzles (especially when partly or wholly blocked)
Bearings Most main engine turbochargers are water cooled in order to keep temperatures reasonable. On the most modern of turbochargers this cooling water has been reduced in quantity to that is required for cooling the bearings. The space between the compressor and turbine is filled with insulation material. There are some smaller blower designs which by design can be cooled by air flow. As no cooling jacket is required it is convenient do place the bearings in between the turbine and compressor wheels. This allow for better rotor support. Plain white metal bearings may be used; these have an indefinite life but require lube oil to be supplied at pressure. They also require a header system to supply oil in the event of the main supply pump failure. A common system is by supplying from the main engine lube oil system via a header system similar to that employed with steam turbines. Plain bearing Lube oil system Care should be taken to ensure that the bearings are adequately protected when the engine is stopped as the blower is liable to turn due to natural draught. Locking the blower, isolating the blower from the scavenge belt by use of a slide valve, putting covers over the blower suction or continuation of supply of lube oil after engine stoppage may be used. Ball or Roller bearings require good amount of lubrication and may be supplied by means of a shaft driven gear pump from an integral sump. The gear pump is operated by rotation of the rotator. Ball and roller bearings have a definite life and must be changed on running hours bases, typically every 15,000 Hrs. For turbochargers fitted with plain bearings a double-sided thrust is fitted at both ends. This takes the form of a collar on the rotor acting on white metalled 'Mitchell' type segments. Double-sided thrusts are fitted to locate the turbine during rolling and
pitching. Generous oil quantities are supplied to bearings in order to allow for cooling as well as lubrication Labyrinth Seals These are provided at each ends of the rotor and between the turbine and compressor and serve to prevent the passage of exhaust gas and also to prevent oil laden air being drawn into the eye of the impeller from the bearing. Oil seals in the form of thrower plates are also fitted at the bearings to prevent the passage of oil along the shaft. Labyrinth seals consist of projections on the rotor which almost touch the casing.
Principle of the Labyrinth Gland The leakage of steam is reduced by the use of labyrinths; these provide a torturous path for the gas to follow to exit the turbine reducing the pressure across a series of fine clearances. Within the cavity where the flow is turbulent, the velocity of the gas is increased with an associated drop in pressure. The kinetic energy is the dissipated by the change in direction, turbulence and eddy currents.
6.1(21) Construction and operation of Governor and overspeed trip

Mechanical governors These falls into the oldest class of governors whose history goes back to the invention of the steam engine. Watt type The governor assembly is directly driven from the engine. Flyweights are rotated and act to draw the slide up the drive shaft due to centrifugal force pushing them out. Electric Governors Electric governors have become in favour due to their compact size, rapid response and high reliability allied to low maintenance costs. The main part of the governor is the controller and signal amplifier. This receives a D.C. signal proportional to the engine speed and compares it to a speed set signal. The difference between the measured value (engine speed) and the set value is the offset, this offset value is passed to the output circuit which produces an appropriate output signal . In this case, a signal which raises or lowers the fuel rack by an amount dependent on the degree of offset. This system is inherently stable due to the feedback layout. For this system the engine speed is measured using an alternator driven off the camshaft- this is a common arrangement. The speed set signal is typically supplied by the bridge control arrangement via the engine management system. An arrangement for a generator set might replace the camshaft driven alternator with a tapping off the alternator output. The frequency of the alternator output is now the measured value. In addition a load sensing element can be
introduced detecting changes in current flow. For increased current, that is an increased electrical load, the governor can act to supply increased fuel before the engine has begun to slow.
Overspeed trip
Overspeed trips are fitted on engines where the governor does not fail safe. Their function is to shut off the fuel supply to the cylinders in th4e event of the speed of the engine rising to a dangerous level. They are always fitted on steam turbo alternators or generators. The overspeed trip usually consists of a bolt with a relatively heavy head. The bolt is fitted at the forward end of the engine shaft where no torque is transmitted. It is fitted in a space bored out across the diameter of the shaft. The bolt is held in place by a nut and supported by a spring. When the engine overspeeds the centrifugal force exerted by the bolt head overcomes the support of the spring and flies outwards until restrained by the nut and compression of the spring. The bolt head in the thrown position strikes a trip lever which is also thrown and shuts off the engine fuel eventually bringing the engine to rest. The means whereby the fuel is shut off varies with the make of engine. As some motor ships have a steam turbo alternator it is worth mentioning that in many turbo sets the overspeed trip often works through the lubricating oil low pressure cut-out and steam stop valve. In other cases the overspeed t4ip operates through a system of levers and links to the turbine steam stop valve. When the overspeed trip operates, the pawl holding the steam stop valve open is released and a spring closes the stop valve. The tripping speed can be adjusted by adding or removing thin spacing washers under the spring so that its compression is altered. A small permanent magnet alternator driven from the engine camshaft in conjunction with a rectifier can also be used with an electronic governor to prevent the engine racing. When, the engine speeds up, the voltage increases. At some level it will operate the governor to reduce the fuel supply to the engine and prevent a dangerous increase in engine speed.

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Opposed piston engines

Slow speed engine

Medium speed engine (300-1200 rpm)

Brake horse power

Pb = B.H.P x 3300 L x A x N x nc Pb is in lb/in2

Pb = B.H.P x 4500 L x A x N x nc Pb is in Kg/cm2

Brake Power L x A x N x ncx100

Brake powers is in kW L is in m A is in m2 N is rev / sec

per cent, metric units

per cent, S.I units

Two stroke engine power diagrams

Two stroke cycle power card

Reasons for using high pressure fuel

Where M And K Therefore Th

3600 x 10000 2000 x 42000

42.9 % (based on LCV)

Tie bolt housing arrangement

Jacket water cooling system

Fuel valve cooling system

lub oil cooling system

Jacket Water System

Electronic cylinder lubrication

working valves on the

(c) Sheathing on high pressure fuel

6.1(18) Define Turbocharger Surging and action to be taken when it occurs.

Actions to be taken (Preventive actions)

If the fire spreads

6.1(20) Construction and operation of Turbocharger

6.1(21) Construction and operation of Governor and overspeed trip

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