RLC Lab Manual on Series and Parallel Resonance

NETWORKS AND ELECTRI CAL TECHNOLOGY LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRI CAL & ELECTRONI CS ENGINEERI NG

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SURAMPALEM

1
1. SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE-TIMING, RESONANT
FREQUENCY, BAND WIDTH AND Q - FACTOR
DETERMINATION FOR RLC NETWORK.

AI M: - To study the phenomenon of a) Series resonance b) Parallel resonance in AC circuits
and determine the Resonant frequency, Bandwidth, Q-factor and Selectivity.

APPARATUS:-

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM: CRO
R=314 L=100mH C=10Kpf

CIRCUIT DI AGRAM FOR SERIES RESONANCE

3143

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS RANGE TYPE
QTY
1 Function Generator 5V,50HZ DIGITAL 1No
2 Decade Resistance Box 314 1No
3 Decade Inductance Box 100mH 1No
4 Decade Capacitance Box 10Kpf 1No
5 Multi Meter 10V DIGITAL 1No
6 Connecting Wires

C=10Kpf

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM FOR PARALLEL RESONANCE

L=100mH
CRO
314

5V, 50HZ

Function
Generator
5V, 50HZ

Function
Generator



2

THEORY:

a) SERIES RESONANCE: A circuit is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage and
the current are in same phase. Consider a series RLC circuit as shown below.

R I L C

Voltage source
Of variable frequency

Current drawn by the above circuit is given by,
|
.
|
\
|
e
e +
=
C
1
L j R
V
I

Evidently, in the above circuit, the current and voltage in the same phase, if inductive
reactance and capacitance reactance are numerically equal.
As the frequency is varied, the inductive reactance increases and capacitive reactance
decreases as shown in fig 1.3.
Z

X
L

R

X
L
X
L
-X
C

X
C
f
r
frequency
X
C

VARIATION OF X
L
, X
C
AND (X
L
- X
C
) WITH FREQUENCY

The variation of (X
L
- X
C
) with frequency is shown in figure 1.3. Variation of
impedance with frequency is also shown. At the frequency f
r
, the two reactance are equal
and net reactance is zero. Therefore, at this frequency f
r
, resonance occurs. At resonance
following is the behavior of the electrical circuit.




3
1. Voltage and current in the circuit are in phase. Power factor of the circuit is unity.
2. Voltage across the inductance is equal to the voltage across the capacitance. The
entire applied voltage appears across the resistance.
3. If the impedance is plotted with the variation of frequency, at resonant frequency the
impedance is minimum and equal to R.

4. Power absorbed in the circuit its maximum.

The expression for resonant frequency is derived as follows.

X
L
=X
C

fC 2
1
fL 2
t
= t
Therefore,

LC 2
1
f
t
= : This frequency is called the resonant frequency f
r
.

I
I
r

2
max
I

I
max

BANDWIDTH OF A SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT

Variation of current through the series circuit as the frequency is increased as shown in
fig 1.4.
Half power frequencies of the circuit are f
1
and f
2
at which the power absorbed by
the circuit is half the maximum power absorbed.
Bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor are the terms used for describing the
behavior of the circuit. They are defined as,

Quality factor =
R
L f 2
Q
r
r
t
=
, where f
r
is the resonant frequency and
L is the inductance of the coil.
Bandwidth =(f
2
-f
1
)
Frequency
f
r
f
1
f
2




4
Selectivity=Bandwidth / f
r
=1 / Q
r

Q
r
=Quality factor =
C
L
R
1
.
Keeping the frequency constant and varying either inductance or capacitance can
also obtain the above phenomenon of resonasnce.

b) PARALLEL RESONANCE:

Consider the parallel circuit given below.

I I
L
I
C

R
L

Variable V,f R
C

L C

Remembering that the resonant condition occurs when the applied voltage, and
current drawn are in the same phase, we can conclude that resonance occurs when the
reactive components of currents in the two parallel branches are equal in magnitude and
opposite in phase. This happens when the susceptances of the two branches are equal and
opposite. That is

) 1 C R (
C
) L R (
L
2 2 2
C
2 2 2
L
+ e
e
=
e +
e

Solving for , we get

L CR
L CR
LC
1
2
2
= e

The circuit resonates at the above frequency. In practical circuits R
C
=0, we have
therefore

L
CR
1
LC
1
2
L
r
= e

For the circuit shown in fig 1.1(b) the resonant frequency is found as below.
Admittance Y=G+jB, where Y=Admittance
G=Conductance
B=Susceptance

Assuming that the inductance and capacitance are pure, resonant frequency is derived as
below.



5
For resonance B=0. That is B
L
=B
C
, Where B
L
is the susceptance of inductor L, and B
C
is the
susceptance of capacitor C. That is

) or ( C
L
1
e =
e

LC
1
r
= e ;
LC 2
1
f
r
t
=

In the case of parallel resonance, the bandwidth is defined as the band of frequencies
for which the impedance is greater than
2
1
times the impedance at resonance. Consider the
impedance characteristic given below. Z
r
is the impedance at resonance and Z is the
impedance of the circuit at any frequency.

I

Bandwidth

f
1
f
r
f
2
Frequency

BANDWIDTH OF A PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT

The bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor are obtained as below. R
C
the
resistance in the Capacitor circuit is negligible.

Bandwidth =f
2
-f
1

Quality factor =
R
L f 2
1
t

PROCEDURE:

a) SERIES RESONANCE:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram in 1.1(a)
2. Switch ON the experimental board by connecting the power card to the AC mains.
3. Apply the variable frequency AC voltage from the function generator to the input
terminals. Note the current by measuring the voltage across the 1K resistor with a CRO
4. Gradually increase the frequency and note down the voltage across the load resistance of
1K V
0
with the help of CRO
5. Tabulate the results as per table 1.1

2 I
min




6
TABULAR FORM:

a) PARALLEL RESONANCE:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram in 1.1(b)
2. Switch ON the function generator, which is voltage source of variable
frequency.
3. The output voltage across the 1K resistance is connected to CRO which
measures the voltage and hence the current through the load.
4. Gradually increase the frequency and at each frequency measure the current
and tabulate the results as per table 1.2

TABULAR FORM:

S.No. F I

S.NO
F V
PP
V
r ms
I
r ms




7

RESULT:

QUIZ:
1. What is the power factor of the circuit at resonances? Why?
2. Define magnification factor or quality factor of a choke.
3. A resistance R is connected in series with an inductance of Land capacitance of C
and an AC supply of variable frequency is applied. What is the value of
impedance of the circuit at half power frequencies?
4. At resonance, why a series circuit is called acceptor circuit and parallel circuit a
rejecter circuit.
5. A pure inductance of reactance 5 and a capacitor of reactance 5 are connected
in parallel and a voltage of 200V Ac is applied. Find the current in each branch
and the total current.




8
5V,
2KHZ
2. TIME RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER RL / RC NETWORK FOR
PERIODIC NON SINUSOIDAL INPUTS-TIME CONSTANT AND
STEADY STATE ERROR DETERMINATION.
AI M:
To study the time response of current of RL and RC networks for DC input voltages
and find the time constants.

APPARATUS:

CI RCUI T DI AGRM:
To CRO
1K 20 mH

I (t)

Function
Generator

TI ME RESPONSE OF R-L CI RCUI T

To CRO
10K 0.01F

I (t)
5V,
2KHZ
Function
Generator

TI ME RESPONSE OF R-C CI RCUI T.
QTY
1 Function generator 5V,50HZ DIGITAL 1No
2 CRO DIGITAL 1No
3 Decade Resistance Box 314 1No
4 Decade Inductance Box 100mH 1No
5 Decade Capacitance Box 10Kpf 1No
6 Multi Meter 10V 1No
7 Connecting Wires



9

THEORY:

If a D.C. voltage of E
dc
volts is applied to a circuit consisting of R and L, the
differential equation obtained from Kirchoffs second law can be written as

) e 1 (
R
E
L
L
Rt
dc

L
Rt
i
dc
i
dc
e
R
E
R
E
tr ss
= .. (1)

The solution i(t) consists of two parts as below

tr ss
i i ) t ( i + =

i
ss
=Steady state part of the solution, and
i
tr
=Transient part of the solution.

If the variation of i(t) is plotted against time, it will be obtained as below.

i (t)

R
E
dc

t

VARIATION OF I (t) WITH TIME FOR A DC VOLTAGE APPLIED.

Time constant is defined as the time taken for the current to reach 0.632 times the steady state
value of current. Its value can be shown to be equal to L/R.Consider the series circuit in
which the DC voltage is applied to the circuit consists of R and C as shown in 2.1(b).When a
DC voltage is applied to the circuit, the differential equation of the circuit using Kirchoffs
second law can be obtained as

}
+ = dt ) t ( i
C
1
Ri E
dc
. (2)
Differentiating the above equation term by term, we get

R
E
632 . 0
dc




10
0
RC
) t ( i
dt
di
(or)
0
C
) t ( i
dt
di
R
= +
= +

The solution of the above first order differential equation is

RC
t
dc
e
R
E
) t ( i

= , Where
R
E
) 0 ( i
dc
=
The variation of i(t) with t is obtained as below.

i(t)

E
dc
/R

0.368 E
dc
/R

t t

RESPONSE OF CURRENT WITH TIME

The time constant of the circuit is the time taken for the current to reach 0.368 E
dc
/ R. Its
value can be shown to be RC seconds.

PROCEDURE:

1) Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in the fig 2.1(a).

2) Connect the function generator to the input terminals of the trainer circuit
board.
3) Connect the terminals of the 1K resistor to the CRO which measures the
voltage across the resistor and hence the current in the circuit.

4) Apply a voltage of 5V square wave voltage at a frequency of about 2KHz
and note the wave form of current in the CRO.

5) From the waveform of current in CRO, measures the time-constant as
described in theory.



11
6) Vary the voltage applied to 8V and 10V and repeat

7) Make connections as per the input terminals of the trainer circuit board and
apply 5V with about 2KHz frequency and square wave.

8) Connect the function generator at the input terminals of the trainer circuit
board and apply 5V with about 2KHz frequency and square wave.

9) Note the waveform of current from the CRO and measure the time constant
as explained in theory.

10) Repeat the procedure given in (8) and (9) above, but with 8V and 10V
applied, keeping the frequency of the square wave constant.

RESULT:

QUIZ:
1. What is the significance of the time-constant of a circuit?

2. What is the definition for the transient part of the circuit?

3. Plot the variation of voltage across the capacitor in the RC circuit considered in
your experiment?

4. How does inductor behave at t=0, in an electrical circuit when any voltage is
applied? How does capacitor behave in the same circuit?




12
3. TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS-Z-Y PARAMETERS,
CHAIN MATRIX AND ANALYTICAL VERIFICATION.

AI M:

To find the Z and Y Parameters of a two port network.

APPARATUS:

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

THEORY:

A two port can be defined as a pair of terminals from which energy is drawn or to
which energy is supplied. A network, which has two pairs of terminals, is called a two-port
network.
QTY
1 Resistance 0.98K,0.467
K,0.815 K
3No
2 Multi Meter 0-10mA,0-10V DIGITAL 1No
3 TRPS 0-10V DIGITAL 1No
4 Connecting Wires
+
O K 815 . 0
V
A
A
+
+
V
+
+
MC ) V 10 0 (
MC
) V 10 0 (
O K 467 . 0 O K 98 . 0
MC ) mA 10 0 ( MC ) mA 10 0 (
V 5
V 5
2
S
1
S
1
2
1
1 1
2
X Y
1
X
1
Y
1
i
2
i
1
V
2
V NETWORK



13
For a network we have four variables taking two as the dependent variables and other
two as the independent variables. We can write two equations train which the Z and Y
parameters can be defined as below.

Z PARAMETERS: - (Open circuit or impedance parameters)

Taking I
1
and I
2
as the independent variables the equations can be written as

V
1
=Z
11
I
1
+Z
12
I
2
------------------- (1)
V
2
=Z
21
I
1
+Z
22
I
2
-------------------- (2)
Z
11
, Z
12
, Z
21
, Z
22
are called Z parameters. They are defined putting I
2
=0 in equation (1),
we get
V
1
=Z
11
I
1
or Z
11
=V
1
/ I
1
I
2
=0
Z
11
is called open circuit impedance or driving point impedance of port 1.
Similarly, Z
12
=V
1
/ I
2
I
1
=0
Z
12
is called open circuit reverse transfer impedance.
Z
21
=V
2
/ I
1
I
2
=0
Z
21
is called open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Z
22
=V
2
/ I
2
I
1
=0
Z
22
is called open circuit driving point impedance of port 2.
Since all the above parameters are obtained either by opening port (1) or port (2) they are also
called open circuit parameters.

Y PARAMETERS: - (short circuit or admittance parameters)
Taking V
1
and V
2
as independent variable equations for I
1
and I
2
are written as
I
1
=Y
11
V
1
+Y
12
V
2

I
2
=Y
21
V
1
+Y
22
V
2

Y
11
, Y
12
, Y
21
, Y
22
are called Y-parameters.
Short circuiting port (2), i.e., V
2
=0, then we get
Y
11
=I
1
/ V
1
V
2
=0
Y
11
is called short circuit driving point admittance or input admittance of port 1.
Y
21
=I
2
/ V
1
V
2
=0
Y
21
is called short circuit forward transfer admittance.
Y
12
=I
1
/ V
2
V
1
=0
Y
12
is called short circuit reverse transfer admittance.



14
Y
22
=I
2
/ V
2
V
1
=0
Y
22
is called short circuit output point admittance or driving point admittance of port 2.
Since the above parameters are obtained either by short circuiting port (2) [V
2
=0] or port (1)
[V
1
=0]. They are called short circuit parameters.
PROCEDURE:
Z-PARAMETERS: -
1) Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig 1a.
2) Open circuit the port 2-2
1
by opening the switch S
2
. Switch ON the supply by closing
switch S
1
at port 1-1
1
.
3) Note the readings of all meters and tabulated the readings.
4) Using the definitions the value of Z-parameters is calculated and tabulated.
5) Open circuit the port 1-1
1
by opening the switch S
1
. Switch ON the supply by closing
the switch S
2
at port 2-2
1
.
6) Note the readings of all meters and tabulated the readings.

Y-PARAMETERS: -

1) Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig.
2) Short circuit the port 2-2
1
switch ON the supply by closing switches S
1
at port 1-1
1
.
3) Note the readings of all meters and tabulate the readings as below.
4) Using the definitions, the value of Y-parameters is calculated and tabulated.
5) Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in 1c.
6) Short circuit the port 1-1
1
switch ON the supply by closing the switch S
2
at port 2-2
1
.
7) Note the readings of all meters and tabulated the readings as below.

TABULAR FORMS:

Z -Parameters

V
1
(V) I
1
(mA) V
2
(V) Z
11
(m) Z
21
(m)

V
1
(V) I
2
(mA) V
2
(v) Z
22
(m) Z
12
(m)




15

TABULAR FORMS:
Y-Parameters:

V
1
(V) I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) Y
11
(m) Y
21
(m)

V
2
(V) I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) Y
22
(m) Y
12
(m)

RESULT:

QUIZ QUESTI ONS:

1. Define two-port network?
2. Define Z and Y parameters?
3. What is meant by transfer impedance?
4. What does driving admittance mean?
5. What is the use of two-port network?




16
4. VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSI TION & RECIPROCITY
THEOREMS.

AI M:

To verify the superposition and reciprocity theorems experimentally.

APPARATUS:

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

QTY
1 Resistance 1K
0.46 K
0.1K
4.6 K
3No
1No
1No
1No
2 Multi Meter 0-10mA,0-20V DIGITAL 1No
3 TRPS 0-10V/1A DIGITAL 1No
4 Connecting Wires
SUPERPOSI TI ON THEOREM
+
O K 1
2
A
) mA 10 0 (
1
A
3
A
+
+

) mA 10 0 (
+
O K 1
O K 6 . 4
V 5
V 12
) mA 10 0 (



17

THEORY:
The superposition theorem is the fundamental theorem valid for all linear systems
including networks. Linear networks are networks, which contain only linear elements. The
elements like R, L, C and M are all assumed to be operating in their linear ranges. The V-I
relationships of these elements are linear. This theorem is stated as below.

In a linear network the overall response in any part of the network is equal to the
sum of the individual response due to each independent source considered separately with all
other independent sources reduced to zero.

The reciprocity theorem states the ratio of response to excitation is invariant to the
interchange of the position of the excitation and response in a single source network. If the
excitation is a voltage source, the response should be current and vice-versa. A network
obeying this theorem is called a reciprocal network.

1 2 1
2

V
1
Network I
1
I
1
Network V
1

1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1

(a) (b)

At the terminal 11
1
, let the excitation be a voltage source with voltage V
1
be applied to the
network N. Let the current I
1
through the terminals 22
1
be the response. Then the theorem
states that if at 22
1
an excitation of voltage V
1
is applied then the response current at 11
1
is
equal to I
1

RECIPROCITY THEOREM
O K 1
) mA 10 0 (
A
+

+
O K 1 . 0
O K 46 . 0
V 5



18
PROCEDURE:

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

1) Make the connections as per the circuit diagram in fig 4.1(a)
2) Switch ON the experimental unit by connecting the power card to the AC mains. The
two DC voltage sources V
1
and V
2
are obtained from a transformer connected to
bridge rectifiers.
3) Set the voltage sources V
1
to say 4V and keep the voltage V
2
at zero position. The
source
V
2
is short-circuited. Measure the currents A
1
, A
2
and A
3
and tabulate the results in
show in table Gradually increase the voltage of voltage source V
1
to 6,8 and 10V and
measure the
currents as in (3) above.
4) Keep the voltage source V
1
at zero volts and adjust the voltage of the second source
V
2

to 4V. Measure the readings of ammeters A
1
1
, A
2
1
and A
3
1
. Tabulate the results as in
show Table
5) Gradually increase the voltage to 6,8 and 10V and measure the currents as in 5.
6) Switch on both the sources V
1
and V
2
simultaneously and adjust the voltages of each
sources to 4,6 and 8V. Note the readings of ammeters A
1
11
, A
2
11
, A
3
11
when both the
sources are simultaneously present. Tabulate the results in table 4.2.

TABULAR FORM:

S.No.
Source
Voltage
of V
1

A
1
A
2
A
3
Source
Voltage
of V
2

A
1
1

A
2
1
A
3
1

S.No
Source
Voltage
of V
2

A
1
11

A
2
11
A
3
11




19
CALCULATI ONS:

With the source voltage V
1
=4 v, V
2
=0 let the readings of ammeters be A
1
, A
2
and
A
3
. With source voltages V
1
=0 and V
2
=6v, say the ammeter readings are A
1
1
, A
2
1
, and A
3
1
.
When both the sources are present say v
1
=4v and V
2
=6v, let the ammeter readings be A
1
11
,
A
2
11
, A
3
11
.

If A
1
11
=A
1
+A
1
1
; A
2
11
=A
2
+A
2
1
; A
3
11
=A
3
+A
3
1
super position theorem is verified.
Similarly, verification can be done for other values of source voltage.

PROCEDURE:

b) RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
1) Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig 4.1(b)
2) Apply the variable voltage V
1
at the terminals 11
1
and measure the current I passing
through the terminals 22
1

3) Gradually increase the applied voltage in steps and note the readings of ammeter.
Tabulate the readings as show in Table.
4) Disconnect the DC voltage source at 11
1
and connect it at 22
1
. Connect the ammeter
in the circuit 11
1
.
5) Apply the same voltages at 22
1
as you have 3 done at 11
1
. Now note the Currents
through 22
1
. Tabulate the results as in table 4.2.

TABULAR FORM:

S.No.
Voltage
At 22
1

Current
Through 22
1

Voltage
At 22
1

Current
Through 11
1

RESULT:

QUIZ:
1. What is meant by a linear element?
2. What is a bilateral element?
3. Can you use Superposition theorem to the power absorbed by a resistance? Why?
4. Distinguish between dependent and independent voltage sources.
5. What is an ideal voltage source?




20
5. VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM. VERIFICATION ON D.C, VERIFICATION ON A.C.
WITH RESISTIVE AND REACTIVE LOADS.

AI M: To verify the maximum power transfer theorem in
a) DC with a resistive load R
L

b) AC with a source impedance (resistance in series with inductive reactance) Z
and variable resistance R
L
.

APPARATUS:

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

QTY
1 VoltMeter 0-300V MI 1No
2 Ammter 0-1A MI 1No
3 Reactor Bank 0.6A/230V 1No
4 Rheostat 300/1.2A Wire
Wound
1No
5 TRPS 0-10V, 1A DIGITAL 1No
6 Connecting Wires
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM WITH DC
O K 467 . 0
2
T
O K 17 . 1 O K 8 . 0
1
T
+
V 5
V
+
MC
V) 20 0 (
A
+
B
L
R
A
0-20mA
O K 17 . 1



21

THEORY:

For DC circuits, the Maximum power transfer theorem states that Maximum power
will be transferred from the source to the load when the load resistance is made equal to the
source resistance. Consider the circuit given below.

R
g
S

T
1

+
V
th
R
L

-
T
2

ILLUSTRATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Let V
g
be the voltage of the voltage source and R
g
be its internal resistance / source
resistance. Let R
L
be the variable load which can be connected by switching ON the switch S.
When R
L
is varied, the maximum power transfer theorem states that power absorbed by the
load R
L
is maximum when R
L
=R
g
.

This can be proved as below.
From fig 4.2
) R R (
V
I
L g
g
+
=
Power absorbed by the load = I
2
R
L

fuse
fuse
240V/0-230V
5A
DPST
SWITCH
Reactor Bank
0.6A/230V A,C
R
L

V
MI
A) 1 0 (
A
. C . A
1
V 230
u
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
r
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
v 230 MI
300V) - (0
L
I
S
Ph
N
Variac
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM IN A.C.
500/1.2 A



22
L
2
L g
g
R .
) R R (
V
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

When R
L
is varied, P will be maximum when

( )
( )
0 R V 2 R R V 2 R R V 2 R V R V
R R R 2 R
) R 2 R 2 ( RL V V R R R 2 R
dR
dP
R R R 2 R
R V
P
0
dR
dP
2
L
2
g L g
2
g L g
2
g
2
L
2
g
2
g
2
g
2
2
L L g
2
g
L g
2
g
2
g
2
L L g
2
g
L
2
L L g
2
g
L
2
g
L
= + +
+ +
+ + +
=
+ +
=
=

R
g
2
R
L
2
=0
Therefore, R
L
=R
g

For AC circuits, with a pure resistance load, the maximum power transfer theorems
modified as Maximum power is transferred to the load of pure resistance R
L
if the value of
resistance is equal to the modulus of the impedance of the source. This can be proved as
below.

2
g
2
L g
g
X ) R (R
V
I current load The
+ +
=

Where V
g
=Source voltage
R
g
=Source resistance
X
g
=Source reactance

Power delivered to load R
L
is given be

2
g
2
L g
L
2
g
L
2
X ) R R (
R V
R I P
+ +
= =

Differentiating the above expression, dP/dR
L
can be obtained which when equated to
zero gives.



23
g
2
g
2
g L
Z X R R = + =

Consider a case when the load is complex impedance and the source also has a
complex impedance. It can be shown that the Maximum power is transferred to the load if
the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance.

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

a) FOR DC CIRCUIT:

1) Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2) Adjust the built in voltage shown to +5V.
3) Switch on the load resistance R
L
and keep it at the minimum position
4) Gradually increase the resistance and at each value of R
L
measure the load
current and the voltage across the load.
5) Disconnect the load. Decrease the voltage of the source to zero and short its
terminals. Measure the resistance of the network A to the left of T
1
T
2
.
This is called the source resistance R
s
.
6) Tabulate the readings as below.

TABULAR FORMS:

S.No. R
g
V
L
I
L
R
L
=V
L
/ I
L

Power
P=I
2
R
L

P
max
R
L




24
PROCEDURE:

a) FOR AC CIRCUIT:
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig 4.1 (b)
2. By adjusting the variac, apply 230V AC to the network
3. Close the switch S and connect the load R
L
. Take the readings of load
current and load voltage.
4. Gradually vary the load resistance R
L
and note the readings of ammeter and
voltmeter. Tabulate the result s an in table 4.1(b)
5. Open the switch R
L
and disconnect the supply. Measure the impedance of
the network to the left of the terminals T
1
T
2
.
6. Measure the source impedance Z
s
by applying AC of unknown voltage at
the terminals T
1
T
2
.

TABULAR FORMS:

S.No. Z
g
V
L
I
L
R
L
=V
L
/I
L

Power
P=I
2
R
L

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. State one practical example where maximum power transfer theorem is used.




25
6. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THEVENINS &
NORTONS EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS AND VERIFICATION BY
DIRECT TEST.

AI M:
To determine experimentally Thevenins and Nortons equivalent circuits and verify
the same by direct tests.
APPARATUS:

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

QTY
1 Resistance 470K 5No
2 Multi meter 0-10mA,0-10V DIGITAL 1No
3 Dual power supply 0-20V DIGITAL 1No
4 Connecting Wires
O 470
V
+
Source
DC V 10
S
+
2
T
O 470
O 470 O 470 O 470
A
) mA 10 0 (
1
T
CIRCUIT FOR THE VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS THEOREM
L
R
O 470
V
+
Source
DC V 10
S
+
2
T
O 470
O 470 O 470 O 470
A
) mA 10 0 (
1
T
CIRCUIT FOR THE VERIFICATION OF NORTONS
THEOREM
L
R



26
THEORY:
In many network problems, one has to solve a set of simultaneous equations for
finding several currents and voltages. But in some problems, only the current through a
branch or voltage across impedance is required. In many network problems, a network is
required to be reduced to a voltage source in series with impedance in order to match the load
for maximum power transfer. In such problems, the use thevenins theorem reduces the
computational work a great deal.

Suppose a load of resistance R
L
is connected to the terminals of a network a shown in
fig 6.2 (a) and it is required to find the current through the load resistance R
L
.

S I
L

+
NETWORK T
1

A R
L

T
2

_
I
L

Fig 6.2(a)
Application of the Thevenins theorem enables us to reduce the entire network A
to the left of T
1
T
2
by a single voltage source called Thevenins voltage source in series
with impedance called Thevenins impedance as below. This circuit is called the thevenins
equivalent circuit shown in fig 6.2(b).

Z
th
T
1

I
L

+

- V
th

T
2

THEVENI NS EQUI VALENT CIRCUI T

Then current through the load Z
L
when the switch is closed is given by

L th th L
Z Z / V I + =
Where V
th
is called the Thevenins voltage. It is equal to the open circuit voltage at T
1
T
2

where Z
L
is disconnected.Z
th
is called Thevenins impedance. It is the impedance of the



27
network of A when viewed from the terminal T
1
T
2
with all the voltage sources replaced by
their internal impedances and the current sources replaced by their shunt impedance.
Nortons theorem is the dual of the Thevenins theorem. It has the same advantages
as that of the thevenins theorem for finding solutions to the networks. Consider the same
circuit in fig 6.1(b) with the current source replacing the voltage source.

According to this theorem, the entire network to the left of T
1
T
2
can be replaced by a
single current source Ieq in parallel with the impedance Z
eq

I
eq
is called the Nortons equivalent current which is equal to the short circuiting
current when T
1
and T
2
are short circuited with the switch being kept open. Z
eq
is the
impedance of the network A when viewed through T
1
T
2
, replacing shunt impedances. The
Nortons equivalent circuit of the network in 6.1(b) is given below.

Z
eq

I
eq

NORTONS EQUI VALENT CI RCUI T

Current through the load is given by
)) Z Z /( Z ( I I
L eq eq eq L
+ = where Z
L
=Impedance of the load
I
L
=Load current

PROCEDURE:

VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS THEOREM:

1) Switch off the load R
L
of the trainer board. Switch ON the trainer by

connecting the power card to the AC mains. The required DC voltage source is obtained
by a
transformer and a bridge rectifier.
2) Adjust the DC voltage of the source to about 10v and measure the voltage at T
1
T
2
. This
voltage is called the open circuit voltage or thevenins Voltage V
th
.
3) By closing the switch S connect the load R
L
(330) and measure the load current I
L
1
.

4) Disconnect the load and the voltage source. Short-circuit the input terminals of the voltage
source. Measure the Thevenins equivalent resistance R
th
at the output terminals T
1
T
2.

5) Repeat the above procedure, choosing input voltages of 10V and load resistors 470 and
540 tabulate the result in Tabular form..




28
VERIFICATION OF NORTONS THEOREM:

1) Switch off the load R
L
of the trainer board.
2) Switch ON the trainer by connecting the power card to the AC mains. The required DC
voltage source is obtained by a Transformer and a bridge rectifier.
3) Adjust the DC voltage of the source to about 10v, remove or short circuit the load
resistance
and measure the current at T
1
T
2
. This Current is called the short circuit current or
Nortons
currentI
N
.Calculate the Nortons equivalent resistance.
4) By closing the switch S connect the load R
L
(330) and measure the load current I
L
1
.

5) Disconnect the load and the voltage source. Short-circuit the input terminals of the voltage
Source. Measure the Nortons equivalent resistance R
N
at the output terminals T
1
T
2.

6) Repeat the above procedure, choosing input voltages of 10V and load resistors 470 and
540 tabulate the result in Tabular form..

TABULAR FORMS:

1) THEVENI NS TABULAR FORM:

V
IN
V
TH
=V
OC
R
TH

R
L

I
L
I
L
1

2) NORTONS TABULAR FORMS:

V
IN
I
N
R
TH

R
L

I
L
I
L
1




29
CALCULATI ONS:
The value of the load current as per experiment =I
L

The value of load current as per the Nortons theorem=I
L
1

)) R R /( q (Re Ieg I
eq L
1
L
+ =
Therefore, if I
L
1
=I
L
, the Nortons theorem is verified.

RESULT:

QUIZ:
1. What is the principle of duality
2. In which of the following cases, the Thevenins theorem can be used
a) Non-linear or linear elements in source side and load side
b) Non-linear or linear in source side and linear elements on the load
c) Linear elements on the source side and linear or non-linear on load side
d) Only linear elements on both sides.
3. Four resistances, each of 1 are connected in a bridge network as shown below.
What is R
th
at the terminals AB?

1 1

A LOAD B
V

1 1

4. Write the Nortons and Thevenins equivalent circuit of the network in Question 3




30
7. MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. SHUNT
GENERATOR DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL FIELD
RESISTANCE.

AI M: To draw the magnetization characteristics of the given D.C.Shunt generator and
determine the
1) critical resistance 2) critical speed

APPARATUS:

S.NO NAME OF THE
APPARATUS
RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter (0-1A) MC 1
2 VoltMeter (0-300V) MC 1
3 Rheostat 1200/0.5A,
300/1.5A
Wire wound 2
4 Tachometer - Digital 1

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

Fuse
10A F
1

AA
3 pt Starter
+
+
(0 300 0
(0 1 A )
MC
+
L
1

L
2

L
AA
Z
Z
Z
Z
Supply C D
V
.
220
2
F
DPST
switch
V
A
A 1 / 600
A 1.5 / 300
A
A F
A
MAGNETI SATI ON CHARACTERI STI CS OF D.C SHUNT GENERATOR
1200/0.5 A



31
THEORY:
Magnetization characteristic of DC shunt generator is defined as The flux Vs
Field current graph at constant speed. Since, the induced e.m.f. in a dc shunt generator is
directly proportional to the flux , at constant speed, induced e.m.f. Vs field current can be
defined as Magnetization characteristic

The magnetization characteristic can be divided into the following sections

ab: The induced voltage oa corresponds to the value at zero field current. This value is equal
to the induced voltage due to residual magnetism. In the section ab, the flux produced and
hence the induced voltage increases in proportion to the field current and therefore the
characteristic is a straight line.

bc: At b called the knee point, the core of the field starts getting saturated and the increase in
flux or induced voltage is not in proportional to the field current thereafter.
At the point C, the core is almost saturated and any further increase in field current does
not produce a change in the flux or EMF.
The critical resistance of the field winding is defined as the max. resistance of the field
above which the generator fails to excite at a given speed. This is obtained by drawing a
tangent to the magnetization or open circuit characteristics of the machine (o.c.c) shown in
fig.

The slope of the straight line od drawn in fig represent a particular value of the field
resistance. With this reistance increases the slope and the point d goes lower and finally
od becomes a tangent. This corresponds to the tangent to the magnetization characteristic.
Thus the resistance of the field corresponding to the gives the critical resistance.

For the given resistance of the shunt field corresponding to od, suppose the speed of the
machine is decreased. Evidently all the points in the magnetization move lower and for a
particular speed, od becomes a tangent to it. This speed is called speed of the generator.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram in fig 1.1
2. By means of the 3-point starter, start the set and adjust the speed to the rated value.
3. With the switch S open, note the reading of voltmeter (E). This gives the voltage induced
in the armature due to residual magnetism.
4.Close the switch S and gradually increase the field current by moving the jockey.At each
value of field current I
f
, note the corresponding changes in the induced voltage in the
armature (E) , ensuring constancy of speed throught.
5.Cotinue the procedure given in 4 above, till the induced voltage becomes nearly constant.
6.Repeat the procedure from 2 to 5 with decreasing values of field current.
7. Tabulate the results below.

Rated Speed =1500rpm




32
TABULAR FORM:

S.No I
f
(Amps)
increasing
Eo(V)

MODEL GRAPH:

TYPICAL PLOT OF E.M.F E VS I
F
OF A DC SHUNT GENERATOR




33
CALCULATI ONS AND GRAPHS:

1.Plot E V
s
I
f
both for increasing and decreasing values of field currents.
2. Find the critical resistance of the field and the critical speed as explained in theory.

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. State three causes for d.c shunt generator to fail to excite.
2. What is armature reaction? What is its effect in a dc generator.
3. What is the function of interpoles.
4. What type of connection is used(lap or wave) for
(a) High current and low voltage
(b) Low current and high voltage
5. In a dc generator, the load current is 100amps. If the number of poles is 4, what is the
current in the armature conductors if it is
a) Lap wound
b) Wave wound.




34
DPST
SWITCH
H
8. SWINBURNES TEST ON D.C. SHUNTS MACHINE.
(PREDETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY OF GIVEN D.C.
SHUNT MACHINE WORKING AS MOTOR AND GENERATOR).
AI M :

To conduct the Swinburnes (No- Load) test on the given D.C. shunt machine and
predetermine its efficiency vs. load curve treating it as (a) Motor and b) generator

APPARATUS:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter 0-1A
0-2A
MC 2No
2
Voltmeter
0-300V
0-30V
MC 2No
3 Rheostat 600/1A,
300/1.5A
Wire wound 1
4 Tachometer - Digital 1

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM :

(0-300V)MC

SWINBURNES TEST

300/1.5A

(0-1A)MC
(0-2A)MC
Fuse
10A
O O O
1
L
2
L
starter . pt 3
L
A F
A
AA
1
F
2
F
Z
ZZ
V 220
Supply . C . D
A A
+

+
+
V



35
5A
FUSE

(0-2A)MC 300 /1.5A

30V (0-20V)MC
D.C supply

DETERMINATION OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE BY DROP METHOD.

THEORY:

In this test, the d.c shunt machine is run as a motor at the rated speed applying rated
voltage. The power input to the motor can be easily calculated from the readings of meters
and the constant losses are determined as below.
Power input to the motor =VI
0
, where
V =Rated applied voltage
I
0
=Line current taken by the motor at no load
I
a
=Armature current =I
0
I
f
where I
f
is the field current.
Armature copper loss =(I
0
I
f
)
2
R
0
, Where Ra is armature resistance in Ohms.
Field Copper loss =V I
f

W
c
=Constant losses =VI
0
(I
a
2
R
a
) watts

The constant losses Wc include iron (hystresis and eddy current losses), mechanical
(friction and windage) losses and the field copper loss.

The efficiency of the machine can be found out at a given load as below for (a) motor an d(b)
generator.
(a) Motor : Suppose the machine is treated as a motor : Efficiency at full load is
found as below.

Output of the motor at rated full load =VI
L
(I
a
2
R
a
+W
c
)
Efficiency q at full load =(VI
L
(I
a
2
R
a
+W
c
)) / VI
L

The efficiency at full load is found as below.
Line current =I
L
/ 2 at half full load.
Filed current (same as above) =I
f

1
L
2
L
A
AA
A
+
+
V



36
Armature copper at full load Ia =(I
L
/ 2) If
Armature copper losses at full load =(I
L
/2 I
f
)
2
R
a
watts
At half full load =
2 / VI
W R I
2
I
2
I
V
2
C a
2
f
L L
+
|
.
|
\
|

In the same way, described above, efficiency at full load, full load etc., can be
found out.
(b) Generator: If the d.c. machine is treated as generator, efficiency is calculated as
below. For full load,

Output of the generator =VI
L
, where V =rated voltage, I
L
=rated line current.
Wc, the constant losses are the same as determined above.
Armature current Ia =(I
L
+I
f
), I
f
is the same as before
Efficiency at full load =VI
L
/ (VI
L
=I
a
2
R
a
+W
c
)
Efficiency at half full load is determined as below.
Armature copper loss at half full load =((I
L
/2)+I
f
)
2
R
a

Efficiency at half full load =
+
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
c a
2
f
L L
L
W R I
2
I
2
VI
2
I V

Determination of Armature Resistance : The resistance of the armature can be determined
experimentally by drop method using the circuit show in fig 2.2. Due allowances must e
given for the temperature rise under running condition. The revised armature resistance,
assuming a temperature rise of 50
0
is calculated.

Let the room temperature be =t
0
0

Temperature under running condition =(t
0
0
+50
0
)
Let the temperature coefficient of copper be
0
o =1/234.5.
R
t0
= R
0
(1 +R
t0 0
o ) Where R
t0
=Resistance at room temperature as determined
above.
= R
0
(1 +(1/234.5)t
0
)
R
t0 +50
= R
0

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
0
0 0
0
5 . 234
50 t
1
R
t0 +50
= R
t0

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
0
0
0
0 0
0
t 5 . 234
50 t 5 . 234
ohms
R
t0+50
is called the hot resistance of the armature , which should be used for the armature
copper loss.



37
PROCEDURE :

1) Make connections as per the circuit diagram
2) Keep the rheostat (speed regulator) in the field circuit in the minimum position.
3) Switch on the D.C. supply and by means of the 3-point starter, gradually cut of the
starter resistance step by step and keep the starter handle in the ON position.
4) By varying the rheostat in the field circuit increase the speed of the motor to its rated
value.
5) Disconnect the supply and allow the machine to come to rest.
6) Make connections as per the circuit diagram given in fig 2.2
7) Switch on the 30 V d.c. supply and adjust the armature current to its rated value.
8) Take the readings of meters.
9) Tabulate the results in tabular form 2.

Speed =Rated speed =1500 RPM

TABULAR FORM:

S.No. V
L
I
L
I
f
I
a
=I
L
- I
f

TABULAR FORM:

ARMATURE RESI STANCE

S.No.
V
a
I
a
R
a




38
CALCULATI ONS AND GRAPHS:

As explained in theory, calculate the hot resistance of the armature. Also calculate the
efficiencies of the d.c. machine treating it as (a) motor and (b) generator, at full, full,
full and full loads and draw graphs.
(a) Efficiency vs. load as motor, and
(b) Efficiency vs load as generator

RESULT:

QUIZ :

1. What are the disadvantages of this rest?
2. Why the Swine Burnes test can not be used for D.C. series machines?
3. Why do you need starter for the D.C. motors?
4. What is the function of n0 volt and over load relays in the starter?
5. Why is a 4 point starter preferred in some motors?
6. What happens when the field circuit of a d.c. shunt motor is
accidentally open circuited while running?




39
9. BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR. DETERMINATION OF
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS.

AI M :
To conduct the brake test on the given D.C. Shunt motor and draw its performance
curves.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the equipment type range Quantity
1) Ammeter MC (0-1A),(0-20A) 2
2) Voltmeter MC (0-300V) 1
3) Rheostat Wirewound 300/1.5A 1
4) Tachometer digital - 1

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

(0-20A)MC
+
(0-1A)MC 300/1.7 A

A
(0-300V)MC

AA

Brake-load
-
Arrangement
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR BRAKE TEST

THEORY:
The brake test is a direct test on the d.c. motor. Therefore, the performance
characteristics correspond to the actual performance of the motor under running conditions.
This test can be used only for small motors. Because for large machines, dissipation of heat
produced on the pulley is a problem.
DPST
Switch
1
L
2
L
L A F
M
Z
Starter pt. 3
+
V
A
+
Y
1
S
2
S
A
+
Z Z
2
F
1
F
Supply
C . D
V 220



40
It utilizes a brake drum fixed on the shaft of the motor as shown in fig 7.2. A rope is
wound round the pulley and its two ends are attached to two springs balances S
1
and S
2
.
The tension of the rope can be adjusted with the help of handles on the frame. The force
acting tangentially on the pulley is equal to the difference between the two readings of the
spring balances S
1
and S
2
.
Let the radius of the pulley =R meters
Shaft torque T
sh
=(S
1
S
2
) R x 9.81 N M
Motor Output =T
sh
X w =T
sh
X 2N/60 where
W is the angular velocity of rotor in rad / sec. N is the speed of the motor in RPM.
Evidently, the output of the motor is utilized in overcoming the mechanical friction between
the pulley and the belt and heat is produced. Cooling of the pulley is therefore required to
dissipate this heat. The following performance curves can be drawn in this test.
1) Efficiency vs BHP
2) Speed vs BHP
3) Torque vs I
a
.
MODEL GRAPHS:

PROCEDURE:

1) Make connections as per the circuit diagram
2) Start the machine by means of the 3 point starter and adjust the speed of the
motor to its rated value.
3) Take the readings of all meters at no-load. Also note down the readings of
spring balances when the rope is removed from the pulley. Now put the rope
around the pulley and load the motor by gradually tightening it.
4) At each load, note the readings of meters, ad the spring balances. Cool the
brake drum by pouring cold water in the pulley when the motor in on load.
N
q
KW
q Efficiency
N Speed a
T
sh
T
N
' T ' Torque
' N ' Speed
a
I



41
Continue this process till full load is reached. Stop the machine and tabulate
the results as below. Measure the radius of the pulley.
TABLER FORM:

S.No V
L

I
L
I
F
I
A
S
1
(Kg)

S
2
(Kg) N(rpm) T n-m Input Output =output/input

CALCULATI ONS
V
L
=Line voltage

I
A
=I
L
- I
F

T=9.81*(S
1
-S
2
)*R where R=radius of the fully
Input =V
L
*I
A
watts
Output =T*W where W=2N/60 ,N=Speed of the motor in r.p.m.
Efficiency=Output/input

GRAPH :
Calculate the efficiency of the machine and torque at each load current and plot the
graphs
a) Efficiency vs BHP
b) Speed vs. BHP
c) Torque vs. Armature current, Ia
RESULT:

QUIZ :
1. Why the iron losses are constant in a d.c. shunt motor ?
2. What is the application of d.c. shunt motors ?
3. Why d.c. shunt motor is called constant speed motor ?
4. How do the hysteresis and eddy current losses depend on the speed ?
5. Why are the armature and pole cores laminated ?
6. What is the advantage of this test over the Swine Burnes test ?



42
10. OC & SC TESTS ON SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER.(PREDETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY
AND REGULATION AT GIVEN POWER FACTOR AND
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT).

AI M:
To conduct the open circuit (no-load) and short circuit tests on the 1-phase
transformer and determine.

a) Parameters of the equivalent circuit and
b) Efficiency and regulation at various loads and power factors.

APPARATUS:
S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter 0-10A
0-10A
MI
MI
2No
2 Voltmeter 0-150V
0-75V
MI
MI
2No
3 Watt Meter 2A,150V,60W
10A,75V,30W
LPF
UPF
2No

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM

1u VARAIC
230V/ (0-270V)
1KVA
1KVA
10A,75V,30W
UPF Wattmeter
(0-300V)
MI
(0-10A)MI
(0-2A)MI
SUPPLY . C . A , 1
Hz 50
V 230
|
SUPPLY C A
Hz
V
. . , 1
50
230

5A
A
B
E
C
A
V
fuse
fuse
TEST
C S . .
MI ) A 10 0 (
HV LV
V V 115 230
Ph
N

5A

LV
V

MI
V

) 150 0 (
fuse
fuse

C
M L
V

C
M L
V

F T auto
Hz V
/ , 1
50 ), 270 0 /( 230

C
B
Wattmeter LPF
W V A ) 60 , 150 , 2 (
TEST
C O . .
Ph
N
DPST
switch
A
A
V
HV
V V 230 115
E

DPST
switch
1u VARAIC
230V/ (0-270V)



43
THEORY:

The equivalent circuit of the 1-phase transformer referred to primary is given
below.

The approximate equivalent circuit is as given below.

R1 - Primary Resistance r2 - Secondary Resistance
x1 - Primary Leakage reactance x2 - Secondary Leakage
Reactance
R01 - Equivalent shunt resistance referred to primary which represents Iron loss
X01 - Equivalent shunt reactance referred to primary which represents the
magnetizing
current.
N1 - Number of Primary turns N2 - Number of secondary
turns.
V1 - Primary applied voltage V2 - Secondary terminal
voltage
V2 - Secondary terminal voltage referred to primary
E1 - Primary induced voltage.

D
A
O
L
1
V
1
2
V
1
E
C
I
W
I
O
I
2
2
2
1
r
N
N
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
2
1
x
N
N
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
r
1
x
01
R
01
X
D
A
O
L
1
V
1
2
V
2
2
2
1
1 1
r
N
N
r R
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
2
1
1 1
x
N
N
x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
C
I
W
I
O
I
01
R
01
X



44
O.C. Test :

Suppose the readings of all meters in this test are given below.

Applied Voltage =V1 reading of wattmeter W0
Current drawn =I0
I
C
, I
W
, R01 are calculated from the above readings as below.
Where I
C
, I
W
are the magnetizing Component, Iron loss (working) component of no load
current respectively.

V
1
I
0
Cos
0
=W
0
;
0
=No-Load p.f. angle.
I
C
=I
0
Cos
0
=W
0
/ V
1
I
0
sin
0
= ) Cos I I (
0
2 2
0
2
0

R
01
= V
1
/ I
C
, X
01
=V
1
/I
m
.
The reading of the wattmeter gives the iron loss of the transformer for the rated
terminal voltage applied in the test.

Iron Loss =W

S.C. Test:
In this test with the secondary / L.V. winding short circuited, a reduced voltage is
applied to the H.V. winding in this till full load current flows. Let following be the readings
obtained.
Applied Voltage =Vs

Watt meter reading =Ws
Current Drawn =Is
R
1
, X
1
and Z
1
are calculated from the readings as below.
R
1
=W
s
/I
s
2
; Z
1
=V
s
/I
s
; X
1
=
2
1
2
1
R Z
Copper Loss at full load i.e., I
full
=W
s

EFFI CI ENCY & REGULATION:

Efficiency of the transformer at a given load I2 and Power factor cos
2
is given
) ) I / I ( W W Cos I V ( / ) Cos I V (
2
full 2 s i 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + | = q
Regulation of the transformer at a given load I
2
and power factor Cos
2
| is found
from the formula.
% Regulation =((E
2
V
2
)/E
2
) x 100, Where E
2
and V
2
are related by the equation E
2
2
=
(V
2
Cos
2
| +I
2
R
2
)
2
+(V
2
Sin
2
| +I
2
X
2
)
2
; Where E
2
=Secondary induced voltage
V
2
=Secondary terminal voltage
The approximate formula of the above is given as
E
2
V
2
=I
2
R
2
Cos
2
| +I
2
X
2
sin
2
| .
Note: For all lagging loads
2
| is positive and for leading loads
2
| is negative in the above
formulae



45
TABULAR FORM:
a) O.C. Test :

S.No

V
OC

I
OC

W
OC

b) S.C. Test :

S,No V
SC
I
SC
W
SC

PROCEDURE:
1) Make connection as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. 1 (a) for the O.C. test.
2) Apply rated voltage to the primary of the transformer and note the readings of all
meters.
3) Make connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. 1(b) for the S.C. test.
4) By means of the variac, apply a reduced voltage till full load current flows in the
winding. Note readings of all meters.
5) Evaluate R01, X01, R1 and X1 and insert the values in the equivalent circuit.
6) Find the regulation and efficiency of the Transformer at , , and 1of full load
current and at power factors of 0.8 lag, unity and 0.8 leading.
7) Draw the approximate equivalent circuit and insert the values calculated as discussed
in theory.
8) (i) Taking Load current on the x axis draw efficiency vs load current graph at
various power factors.Taking load current on the x-axis draw the regulation vs Load
current curve for various power factors.

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. Why is the Iron Loss negligible in the S.C. test? Why is the copper Loss
negligible in the O.C. Test.
2. Under what conditions do you get negative regulation for transformer?
3. Using the approximate formula find the power factor for zero regulation?
4. Why are percentage values used more commonly for the resistance, reactance
and impedance of the transformer instead of absolute values?
5. What is the significance of leakage reactance in the transformer?
6. What steps are taken in the design of transformer to reduce the leakage fluxes?




46

11. BRAKE TEST ON 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
( PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTI CS ).
AI M:
To conduct the brake test on the given 3-phase induction motor and plot its
performance characteristics.
APPARATUS:

S.NO NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1) Ammeter MI (0-10A) 1
2) Voltmeter M (0-600V) 1
3) Wattmeter UPF 10A/600V/1500W 2
4) Tachometer digital - 1

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:
1

THEORY:
Brake test in a direct method of testing. It consists of applying a brake to a water
cooled pulley mounted on the shaft of the motor. A rope is wound round the pulley and its
two ends are attached to two spring balances S
1
and S
2
. The tension of the rope can be
adjusted with the help of swivels. Then,
The force acting tangentially on the pulley =(S
1
S
2
) Kgs.
MI
A) 10 0 (
STARTER
DELTA STAR
UPF
W V A 1500 , 600 , 10 / 5
fuse
fuse
fuse
2
W
2
W
2
V
1
V
B
1
L
2
L
TPST
3
L
2
U
1
U
L
I
R
ply sup . C . A
, Hz 50
V 415 , 3 u
2
S
1
S
MI
V) 600 0 (
1
V
2
V
MI
V) 600 0 (
V

C
M L
2
W
1
V
2
V
ROTOR
1
U
2
U
STATOR
2
W

C
M L
V
UPF
W V A 1500 , 600 , 10 / 5
Y



47

If R1 is the pulley radius, the torque at the pulley,
T
sh
=(S
1
S
2
) R kg. Mt.

If w is the angular velocity of the motor.
W =2tN/60, Where N is the speed in RPM.

Motor output =Tsh x w =2tN (S
1
S
2
) kg.mt.wt
=9.81 x 2tN (s1 S2) R watts.
Where R=radius of the fully =0.0115m

The motor input can be measured directly as in the circuit diagram 6. For finding the
performance characteristics, the speed of the motor can also be measured by a tachometer.

TABULAR COLOUMN:

S.No S
1
(Kg)

S
2
(Kg) W
1
(w) W
2
(w) V
L
(v) I
L
(a) N(rpm) T n-m S=slip Input Output q
=output/inp
ut

MODEL CALCULATI ONS:
Slip= N
s
-N/ N
s
N
S
=Synchronous Speed=1500 rpm
T=9.81*(S
1
-S
2
)*R where R=radius of the fully
Input =W
1
+W
2
,
Out put =T*W
Efficiency=Output/input

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in above.
2. Loosen the rope of the break drum such tat S
1
=S
2
=0.
3. Close the switch S and apply the rated 3-phase a.c. supply to the motor. Note
the readings of all meters.
4. Gradually increase the load by tightening the rope and note down the readings
of all meters and tabulate the results as shown below.



48
5. Starting from no-load, take the readings as the line current is increased from
, , , and 1 of its full value.
6. The output and input of the motors, Efficiency, Torque and slip can be
calculated and the performance characteristic.
a) Load vs. Efficiency
b) Load vs. Speed
c) Load vs. Torque
d) Load vs. Slip and speed are draw

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. What are the types of starters generally used for squired cage induction
motors?
2. How is the supply voltage related to the starting Torque?
3. In what respects slipping I.M. superior to squirrel cage?
4. What is the value of rotor resistance, which gives maximum starting torque?
5. For what value of slip, do you get maximum running torque in I.M?




49
12. REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS
I MPEDANCE METHOD.

AI M:
To determine the regulation of the given 3-phase alternator by
(a) Synchronous Impedance method and
(b) Ampere turn or m.m.f method.

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

Fig (a)

THEORY:

In this experiment the 3-phase alternator is driven by the D.C. shunt motor at rated
speed. The field is excited by a variable d.c. voltage output drawn from a rectifier.
The regulation of the alternator is determined by (a) synchronous impedance and (b)
M.M.F method from the O.C.C. and S.C.C tests.

O.C.Test:

The open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) or the magnetizing characteristic of the
alternator is obtained by plotting the variation of induced voltage E as the field current is
gradually increased. The shape of the O.C.C. is as shown in Fig. (b). This curve actually
1
L
fuse
Supply C D
V
.
220
L A F
A
AA
Z
ZZ
A 7 . 1 / 300O
+
A
A
V
X
X
S
S
S
XX
f
I
R
B Y
2
L
switch
TPST
output c d Variable . .
XX
fuse
fuse
RECTIFIER
+
+
fuse
MC ) A 2 0 (
MI ) A 10 0 (
MI ) V 600 0 (
1
F
2
F
DPST
switch
. .
230
C A
V
Ph
N
DPST
switch



50
shows a small voltage at zero field current due to the residual magnetism. But this is
neglected and not shown. In the initial stages when the field current is small O.C.C. is a
straight line since the field is unsaturated. With higher field currents E increases slowly and
finally reaches a fixed due to magnetic saturation.

S.C. Test:
In this the machine is run at constant speed and the armature terminals are short-
circuited. A reduced excitation is applied to the field. The S.C.C. is obtained by plotting
armature current I on the y-axis and the field current on the x-axis. This is characteristic is a
straight line as shown in fig. (b).

MODEL GRAPH & CALCULATI ON:
Regulation of alternator at a given load current I
a
and p.f. Cos is an index of the drop of
voltage with load. It is given by

% Regulation =((E-V)/V) x 100 -------- (1)
Where E is the induced voltage in the armature / phase.
V is the rated terminal voltage of the armature / phase.
The phasor diagram of the alternator is given in fig. (c)

Fig. (b)

E
2
=(V COS +I
a
R
a
)
2
+V sin +I
a
X
s
)
2
- - - - - - - (2)
Where E and V are phase values, and
I
a
= Armature current / phase
R
a
= Armature resistance / phase.
X
s
= Synchronous reactance / phase.

volts in E
ph
. C . C . O
. C . C . S
V
1
E
a
I
fa
I 2 f
I
Current Field



51
Note: For lagging power factor is positive and for leading power factors is negative.
Regulation by synchronous impedance method:
Suppose it is required to find the synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance
of the alternator at a load current of I
a
.

For the armature current I
a
, find the field current I
fa
required from the S.S.C. From
the O.C.C. find E
1
corresponding to I
fa
. Then Z
a
the synchronous impedance is given by
Z
s
=E
1
/I
a
.

X
s
, the synchronous reactance of the alternator is given by
Xs =
2
a
2
s
R Z , Where Ra is the a.c. resistance of the armature.
Knowing Ra and Xs, for a given rated terminal voltage V, Regulation at any given load
current and power factor can be found from equation (1) and (2).

Fig. c PHASOR DIAGRAM OF ALTERNATOR

Corresponding to I
fr
, find the induced voltage E from the O.C.C. then regulation at the
given load current and p.f. is given by
% regulation =(E V)/E) x 100

TABULAR COLOUMNS:

a) O.C.TEST:

S.NO. LINE VOLTAGE(V
L
) PHASE VOLTAGE(V
Ph
)=(V
L
) /3

u
a
I
s a
X I
a a
R I
s a
Z I
E



52
b) S.C.TEST:

S.NO. FIELD CURRENT(If) ARMATURE CURRENT(Ia)

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram for obtaining the O.C.C. or
magnetization curve. Keep the switch S is open.
2. Start the D.C. motor by means of the 3-point starter and adjust the speed of the
set to the rated value.
3. Switch on the rectifier and supply the field current to the field terminals of the
alternator.
4. Starting with zero field current, gradually vary the field current and obtain the
corresponding reading of voltmeter connected across the armature. Continue
this till you get nearly a constant voltage in the armature.
5. Plot the O.C.C. taking I
f
on the x-axis and E-phase on the y-axis. This will be
obtained as shown in fig 5(b).

6. For obtaining he S.C.C. make connections as per the circuit diagram in fig
5(a). Replace all the meters with meters of new ranges.

7. Start the set by means of the 3-pt starter of the d.c. motor and adjust speed to
the rated value by the field regulator.

8. Close the switch S. Switch on the rectifier. Starting with zero field current,
gradually increase the field current and note the corresponding armature
current. Continue this till full load current flows through the armature.

9. The d.c. resistance of the armature is found using the drop method. Allow
20% extra fro the skin effect and find the R
ac
.

10. Calculate Xs the synchronous reactance of the armature at a given Ia and find
the regulation from equations (1) and (2) as explained in theory. Similarly
find the regulation using the m.m.f. method as per the procedure given in
theory.

11. Draw the regulation vs. load curve graphs at (a) 0.8 lag (b) unity and (c) 0.8
lead power factors both the above methods.




53

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. How is armature reaction considered in the determination of regulation of
alternator?
2. Why synchronous impedance is called fictitious impedance? Is it constant for
all field currents?
3. The regulation determined by synchronous impedance method is called
pessimistic method, while the m.m.f method is called optimistic. Why?
4. Do you get zero or negative regulation for some loads? Explain.
5. What are the errors in the two methods of finding regulation?




54
1.SIMULATION OF DC CIRCUITS

AI M: Using pspice calculate the current through the resistors and voltage across resistors of
DC active network.

APPARATUS:
1) PC -1
2) Pspice software

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

THEORY:
The electrical circuits may consist of one or more sources of energy and number of
electrical parameters, connected in different ways. The different electrical parameters or
elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. The combination of such elements along with
various sources of energy gives rise to complicated electrical circuits, generally referred as
networks.

Network Element:
Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be connected to other
circuit element, is called a network element.
Network elements can be either active elements or passive elements. Active
elements are the elements which supply power or energy to the network .Voltage source and
current source are the examples of active elements. Passive elements are the elements which
either store energy or dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor, inductor and capacitor
are the three basic passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can store energy and resistors
dissipate energy in the form of heat.

Linear Network:
A circuit or network whose parameters i.e., elements like resistances, inductances
and capacitances are always constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage, temperature
etc. is known as linear network. The Ohms law can be applied to such network. The
mathematical equations of such network can be obtained by using law of super position. The
8
6.8K

V
BB

60V
V
BB

5
5
V4
4
R
2

3.3
K
V
1

7 R
3

V
3

3
R
1
2.2K
100mA I
VA
1
V
AA
120V
DC
1.5K
R4
6 9
0
2

1



55
response of the various network elements is linear with respect to the excitation applied to
them.
Active Network:
A circuit which contains at least one source of energy is called active. An energy
source may be a voltage or current source.
SPICE is a general purpose circuit program that simulates electrical circuits. SPICE can
perform various analyses of electrical circuits: the operating points of transistors, resistors,
inductors and capacitors and so on. SPICE contains models for common circuit elements,
active as well as passive and his capable of simulating most electrical circuits. It is versatile
program is widely used both in industries and universities. SPICE stands for SI MULATI ON
PROGRAM WI TH I NTEGRATED CI RCUI T EMPHASI S.

PROGRAM:
* Finding Current through Resistors & Voltages across them

* Sources Description
VAA 1 0 dc 120V
VBB 9 8 dc 60V
IS 0 6 DC 100MA

* Circuit Description
R1 2 3 2 . 2KOHM
R2 2 4 3 . 3KOHM
R3 5 7 6 . 8KOHM
R4 5 6 1 . 5KOHM

* Ammeter Simulation
VA 1 2 DC 0V
V1 3 8 DC 0V
V2 4 5 DC 0V
V3 7 8 DC 0V
V4 6 0 DC 0V
VB 9 0 DC 0V

* Output Description
. PRINT DC V (R2) V(2 , 3) I(R1)
. OP
. END




56

PROCEDURE:

1. Open microsim Text Edit and type the program.
2. Save the program with a file name.
3. Open the saved file in Pspice AD and check for errors.
4. If there are no errors, it give the indication that simulation completed successfully
5. Open File option in pspice AD and click examine output
6. Then a window containing the output will be opened.
7. Note down the results.

RESULT:




57
2.B-H CURVE OF A NON- LINEAR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT USING P-
SPICE

AI M:

To plot the BH characteristics of a non linear coupled inductors of value
L1=L2=500turns, K=0.9999(if the input current is varied very slowly from 0 to 15A,-15A to
15A, 15A to -15A, the load resistance of RL=1K, is connected to secondary of the
transformer. The parameters of the core are AREA=2.0, PATH=62.73, GAP=0.1,
MS=1.6E+6, ALPHA=1E-3, A=1E+3, C=0.5 and K=1500)

APPRATUS:
1) PC
2) P-spice soft ware

THEORY:
The most common curve used to describe a magnetic material is the BH curve or
hysteresis loop. If the magnetic force applied to a specimen of iron is increased from 0 to
some maximum value Hmax and the magnetizing force is gradually reduced to again zero. It
is found that the materials oppose magnetization and according the new BH curve for
decreasing values H lies above the original curve OA further more it is seen that when it is
returned to 0 vaule,again B is no longer 0 that has fixed value. Since the values of B
apparently lag behind those of H this effect is called Hysterisis.The finite value of B, OB is
appeared, when H is 0.Is called residual magnetism. It is necessary to apply ve
magnetizing force to fully demagnetize. Now if it is increased to the ve direction to H max
the curve still reach point D at which the flux decreasing is equal to the ve value of Bmax,
but the flux will be almost in opposite direction. Finally it is gradually reduced to 0 then
reversed and increased to its max value Hmax in original direction. The curve forming a
closed loop ABCDEFA is called Hysteresis loop (or) BH curve.

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM:

M
I
1

V
1
V
2

I
2

N
NP
NP-
NS+
NS -



58

PROGRAM:

*PW wave form for transient analysis
IN 1 0 PWL (0 0 1 -15 2 15 3 -15)
*Inductor representing the no of turns
L1 1 0 500
L2 2 0 500
R2 2 0 1000
*Completed inductors with K=0.9999 and made cmod
K12 L1 L2 0.9999 cmod
*Model parameters for cmod
.Model cmod core (AREA=2.0, PATH=62.73, GAP=0.1, MS=1.6E+6, A=1E-3, A=1E+3,
C=0.5, K=1500)
*Transient analysis from 0 to 35 in steps of 0.035
.Tran 0.05 3
.Probe
.End

MODEL GRAPH:




59
PROCEDURE:

1. Open microsim Text Edit and type the program.
2. Save the program with a file name.
3. Open the saved file in Pspice AD and check for errors.
4. If there are no errors, it give the indication that simulation completed successfully
5. Open File option in Pspice AD and click examine output
6. Then a window containing the output will be opened.
7. Select (K
12
) as the x-axis variable
8. Note down the results.

RESULT:

RLC Lab Manual on Series and Parallel Resonance

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NETWORKS AND ELECTRI CAL TECHNOLOGY LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRI CAL & ELECTRONI CS ENGINEERI NG

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