Quantum Computing Technical Seminar

Submitted to M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology (Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING In TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

For the Academic Year 2012-13 Submitted By

RASHMI G K 1MS09TE041
Under the guidance of Internal Guide: Prof. P.Parimala
Asst. Professor Dept. of Telecommunication Engg, MSRIT, Bangalore 560 054

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING, M.S.RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, (Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU), BANGALORE 560054 Feb 2013 1

M.S.RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU) Vidya Soudha, Jnana Gangothri MSR Nagar, Bangalore- 560 054, Karnataka

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Technical seminar work entitled Quantum Computing carried out by Rashmi G K (1MS09TE041), a bonafide student of M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Telecommunication Engineering, of the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum during the year 2012-2013. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the Report. The Seminar Report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Seminar work prescribed for the said Degree.

Prof. P. Parimala Asst. Professor Dept of TC Engg. MSRIT 2

Dr.K.Natarajan Professor and Head, Dept. of TC Engg, MSRIT

Declaration
I, Rashmi G K, student of B.E., Telecommunication Engineering, M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560054, hereby declare that the Technical Seminar entitled Quantum Computing has been carried out independently by me in M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560054 under the guidance P. Parimala, Asst. Professor, Dept of Telecommunication Engg, MSRIT, Bangalore. I declare that the work submitted in this report is my own, except where acknowledged in the text, and has not been previously submitted for the partial fulfillment of the degree at the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum or any other Institution/University.

Place: Bangalore Date: Engineering)

Rashmi G K B. E. (Telecommunication MSRIT, Bangalore- 560054

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

No work is complete with due recognition being given to persons who made it possible. My project is no exception. I would like to place on record, profound gratitude for those who have mattered the most in the successful completion of the project. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. P. Parimala, the internal guide and the contact faculty for her constant encouragement, continuous feedback and sparing her valuable time for discussion. I am grateful to Dr. Vijay Kumar B P, ex-Prof. and Head, Dept of Telecommunication Engineering for his moral support given at various stages. I am grateful to Dr. K. Natarajan Prof. and Head, Dept of Telecommunication Engineering for his moral support. I wish to express my gratitude to the B.E. seminar coordinator; prof. Venu K N. I also wish to express my sincere thanks to our principal Dr. S Y Kulkarni for his inspiration and support at various stages of the project. Last but not the least I would like to thank our staff members, all those who have helped me in the completion of the project.

Rashmi G K

ABSTRACT
A computer whose memory is exponentially larger than its apparent physical size; a computer that can manipulate an exponential set of inputs simultaneously; a computer that computes in the twilight zone of Hilbert space is quantum computer. Relatively few and simple concepts from quantum mechanics are needed to make quantum computers a possibility. The subtlety has been in learning to manipulate these concepts. Is such a computer an inevitability or will it is too difficult to build? The subject of quantum computing brings together ideas from classical information theory, computer science, and quantum physics. This review aims to summarize quantum computing. The review begins with an introduction to classical information theory and computer science. The principles of quantum mechanics are then Outlined. Quantum entanglement in general, forms the essential new ingredient which distinguishes quantum from classical information theory, and, arguably, quantum from classical physics. Shors algorithm is described in detail. The review concludes with an outline of the main features of quantum information physics, and avenues for future research.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List Figures.................................................................................................7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 8 BRIEF HISTORY.......................................................................................10 DATA REPRESENTATION......................................................................11 QUANTUM PHYSICS APPROACH13 SHORS ALGORITHM..15 APPLICATIONS.19 CONCLUSION21 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS22 REFERENCES.23 of

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Qubits explained Figure2: CNOT gate

1.Introduction
The basic idea behind quantum computing in the merging of computer science, information theory and quantum mechanics from classical physics for better efficiency of operation of systems. Information is the most important element of any system. Information can be represented in many ways. It can be analyzed provided we know how it was encoded. Today's advanced lithographic techniques can squeeze fraction of micron wide logic gates and wires onto the surface of silicon chips. Soon they will yield even smaller parts and inevitably reach a point where logic gates are so small that they are made out of only a handful of atoms. On the atomic scale matter obeys the rules of quantum mechanics, which are quite different from the classical rules that determine the properties of conventional logic gates. So if computers are to become smaller in the future, new, quantum technology must replace or supplement what we have now. A bit is a fundamental unit of information, classically represented as a 0 or 1 in your digital computer. Each classical bit is physically realized through a macroscopic physical system, such as the magnetization on a hard disk or the charge on a capacitor. A document, for example, comprised of n-characters stored on the hard drive of a typical computer is accordingly described by a string of 8n zeros and ones. The key difference between classical computer and a quantum computer lies in this aspect, where a classical computer obeys the well understood laws of classical physics, a quantum computer is a device that harnesses physical phenomenon unique to quantum mechanics (especially quantum interference) to realize a fundamentally new mode of information processing. In a quantum computer, the fundamental unit of information (called a quantum bit or qubit), is not binary but rather more quaternary in nature. This qubit property arises as a direct consequence of its adherence to the laws of quantum mechanics which differ radically from the laws of classical physics. A qubit can exist not only in a state corresponding to the logical state 0 or 1 as in a classical bit, but also in states corresponding to a blend or superposition of these classical states. In other words, a qubit can exist as a zero, a one, or simultaneously as both 0 and 1, with a numerical coefficient representing the probability for each state.

To explain what makes quantum computers so different from their classical counterparts we begin by having a closer look at a basic chunk of information namely one bit. From a physical point of view a bit is a physical system which can be prepared in one of the two different states representing two logical values --no or yes, false or true, or simply 0 or 1. For example, in digital computers, the voltage between the plates in a capacitor represents a bit of information: a charged capacitor denotes bit value 1 and an uncharged capacitor bit value 0. One bit of information can be also encoded using two different polarizations of light or two different electronic states of an atom. However, if we choose an atom as a physical bit then quantum mechanics tells us that apart from the two distinct electronic states the atom can be also prepared in a coherent superposition of the two states. This means that the atom is both in state 0 and state 1. In a traditional computer, information is encoded in a series of bits, and these bits are manipulated via Boolean logic gates arranged in succession to produce an end result. Similarly, a quantum computer manipulates qubits by executing a series of quantum gates, each a unitary transformation acting on a single qubit or pair of qubits. In applying these gates in succession, a quantum computer can perform a complicated unitary transformation to a set of qubits in some initial state. The qubits can then be measured, with this measurement serving as the final computational result. This similarity in calculation between a classical and quantum computer affords that in theory, a classical computer can accurately simulate a quantum computer. In other words, a classical computer would be able to do anything a quantum computer can. A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic level. Alternate definition: A quantum computer is a computation device that makes direct use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. The basic unit of a quantum computer is a quantum bit or 'qubit', and their ability to be in two simultaneous states is what makes quantum computers so fast.

2.Brief History
The idea of a computational device based on quantum mechanics was first explored in the 1970's and early 1980's by physicists and computer scientists such as Charles H. Bennett of the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Paul A. Benioff of Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, David Deutsch of the University of Oxford, and the late Richard P. Feynman of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The idea emerged when scientists were pondering the fundamental limits of computation. They understood that if technology continued to abide by Moore's Law, then the continually shrinking size of circuitry packed onto silicon chips would eventually reach a point where individual elements would be no larger than a few atoms. Here a problem arose because at the atomic scale the physical laws that govern the behavior and properties of the circuit are inherently quantum mechanical in nature, not classical. This then raised the question of whether a new kind of computer could be devised based on the principles of quantum physics. Feynman was among the first to attempt to provide an answer to this question by producing an abstract model in 1982 that showed how a quantum system could be used to do computations. He also explained how such a machine would be able to act as a simulator for quantum physics. Later, in 1985, Deutsch realized that Feynman's assertion could eventually lead to a general purpose quantum computer and published a crucial theoretical paper showing that any physical process, in principle, could be modeled perfectly by a quantum computer. 1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor very large numbers in polynomial time. 1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with O(N) complexity

10

3.Data Represenation
In the classical model of a computer, the most fundamental building block, the bit, can only exist in one of two distinct states, a 0 or a 1. In digital computers, the voltage between the plates in a capacitor represents a bit of information: a charged capacitor denotes bit value 1 and an uncharged capacitor bit value 0. In a quantum computer the rules are changed , we use an atom as a bit , qubit which exists in the classical 0 , 1 state and coherent superposition of both. Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or electrons and their respective control devices that are working together to act as computing memory and a processor A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

Fig.1

11

Quantum gates

Classical computational gates are Boolean logic gates that perform manipulations of the information stored in the bits. In quantum computing these gates are represented by matrices, and can be visualized as rotations of the quantum state on the Bloch sphere. As in the case of classical computing, where there exists a universal gate (the combinations of which can be used to compute any computable function), namely, the NAND gate which results from performing an AND gate and then a NOT gate, in quantum computing it was shown (Barenco et al., 1995) that any multiple qubit logic gate may be composed from a quantum CNOT gate (which operates on a multiple qubit by flipping or preserving the target bit given the state of the control bit, an operation analogous to the classical XOR, i.e., the exclusive OR gate) and single qubit gates. One feature of quantum gates that distinguishes them from classical gates is that they are reversible: the inverse of a unitary matrix is also a unitary matrix, and thus a quantum gate can always be inverted by another quantum gate.

Fig.2

12

4.Quantum Physics Approach

Superposition of qubits is what gives quantum computers their

inherent parallelism. According to physicist David Deutsch, this parallelism allows a quantum computer to work on a million computations at once, while your desktop PC works on one. A 30-qubit quantum computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer that could run at 10 teraflops (trillions of floating-point operations per second). Today's typical desktop computers run at speeds measured in gigaflops (billions of floating-point operations per second).

Quantum computers also utilize another aspect of quantum mechanics known as entanglement. One problem with the idea of quantum computers is that if you try to look at the subatomic particles, you could bump them, and thereby change their value. If you look at a qubit in superposition to determine its value, the qubit will assume the value of either 0 or 1, but not both (effectively turning your spiffy quantum computer into a mundane digital computer). To make a practical quantum computer, scientists have to devise ways of making measurements indirectly to preserve the system's integrity. Entanglement provides a potential answer. In quantum physics, if you apply an outside force to two atoms, it can cause them to become entangled, and the second atom can take on the properties of the first atom. So if left alone, an atom will spin in all directions. The instant it is disturbed it chooses one spin, or one value; and at the same time, the second entangled atom will choose an opposite spin, or value. This allows scientists to know the value of the qubits without actually looking at them. Quantum computers encode information as a series of quantum-mechanical states such as spin directions of electrons or polarization orientations of a photon that might represent a 1 or a 0, might represent a combination of the two or might represent a number expressing that the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of many different numbers at once. Superposition is essentially the ability of a quantum system to be in multiple states at the same time that is, something can be here and there, or up and down at the same time. 13

Entanglement is an extremely strong correlation that exists between quantum particles so strong, in fact, that two or more quantum particles can be inextricably linked in perfect unison, even if separated by great distances. the particles remain perfectly correlated even if separated by great distances. The particles are so intrinsically connected, they can be said to dance in instantaneous, perfect unison, even when placed at opposite ends of the universe. This seemingly impossible connection inspired Einstein to describe entanglement as spooky action at a distance. What is required to build a quantum computer? Simply put: we need qubits that behave the way we want them to. These qubits could be made of photons, atoms, electrons, molecules or perhaps something else. Scientists at IQC are researching a large array of them as potential bases for quantum computers. But qubits are notoriously tricky to manipulate, since any disturbance causes them to fall out of their quantum state (or decohere). Decoherence is the Achilles Heel of quantum computing, but it is not insurmountable. The field of Quantum Error Correction examines how to stave off decoherence and combat other errors. Every day, researchers around the world are discovering new ways to make qubits cooperate.

14

5.Shors Algorithm
The problem we are trying to solve is: given an odd composite number integer , strictly between values of composite. Moreover, for the algorithm to work, we need not to be the power of a prime. , for , and , that divides because any even value of trivially has the number , find an as a prime is indeed

. We are interested in odd

factor. We can use a primarily testing algorithm to make sure that

This can be tested by taking square, cubic, ..., -roots of

and checking that none of these is an integer. (This actually excludes that Since for some integer and .)

is not a power of a prime, it is the product of two co-prime numbers , two of them being of one, other than and and . The aim ; such a

greater than . As a consequence of the Chinese remainder theorem, the number has at least four distinct roots modulo of the algorithm is to find a square root will lead to a factorization of the quadratic sieve. In turn, finding such a is reduced to finding an element of even period with a

, as in other factoring algorithms like

certain additional property (as explained below, it is required that the condition of Step 6 of the classical part does not hold). The quantum algorithm is used for finding the period of randomly chosen elements , as order-finding is a hard problem on a classical computer. Shor's algorithm consists of two parts: 1. A reduction, which can be done on a classical computer, of the factoring problem to the problem of order-finding. 2. A quantum algorithm to solve the order-finding problem.

Classical part 1)Pick a random number a < N 2)Compute gcd(a, N). This may be done using the Euclidean algorithm. 15

3)If gcd(a, N) 1, then there is a nontrivial factor of N, so we are done. 4)Otherwise, use the period-finding subroutine (below) to find r, the period of the following function: , i.e. the order which of in or , which is the smallest positive integer r for

1. If r is odd, go back to step 1. 2. If a r /2 1 (mod N), go back to step 1. 3. gcd(ar/2 1, N) is a nontrivial factor of N. We are done. For example: : , gcd(4 1, N)

Quantum part: Period-finding subroutine The quantum circuits used for this algorithm are custom designed for each choice of N and the random a used in f(x) = ax mod N. Given N, find Q = 2q such that , which implies . The input and

output qubit registers need to hold superpositions of values from 0 to Q 1, and so have q qubits each. Using what might appear to be twice as many qubits as necessary guarantees that there are at least N different x which produce the same f(x), even as the period r approaches N/2. Proceed as follows: 1. Initialize the registers to

where x runs from 0 to Q 1. This initial state is a superposition of Q states.

2. Construct f(x) as a quantum function and apply it to the above state, to obtain

16

This is still a superposition of Q states. 3. Apply the quantum Fourier transform to the input register. This transform (operating on a superposition of power-of-two Q = 2q states) uses a Qth root of unity such as given to distribute the amplitude of any states, and to do so in a

state equally among all Q of the

different way for each different x:

This leads to the final state

This is a superposition of many more than Q states, but many fewer than Q2 states. Although there are Q2 terms in the sum, the state can be factored out whenever x0 and x produce the same value. Let

be a Qth root of unity, r be the period of f, x0 be the smallest of a set of x which yield the same given f(x) (we have x0 < r), and

b run from 0 to

so that is a root of unity in the final

Then

is a unit vector in the complex plane (

and r and y are integers), and the coefficient of state is

17

Each term in this sum represents a different path to the same result, and quantum interference occursconstructive when the unit vectors nearly the same direction in the complex plane, which requires that along the positive real axis. 4.Perform a measurement. We obtain some outcome y in the input register and in the output register. Since f is periodic, the probability of measuring is given by point in point

some pair yand

Analysis now shows that this probability is higher, the closer unit vector integer. Unless r is a power of 2, it won't be a factor of Q. is to the positive real axis, or the closer yr/Q is to an

4. Perform Continued Fraction Expansion on y/Q to make an approximation of it, and produce some c/r by it that satisfies two conditions:

A: r<N B: |y/Q - c/r| < 1/2Q.

By satisfaction of these conditions, r would be the appropriate period r with high probability. 5. Check if f(x) = f(x + r) If so, we are done.

6. Otherwise, obtain more candidates for r by using values near y, or multiples of r. If any candidate works, we are done. 7. Otherwise, go back to step 1 of the subroutine.

18

6.Applications
This new conceptualization of quantum computing will result in the following benefits : Increase in computing power Advances in security Artificial Intelligence The sci-fi concept of teleportation. If functional quantum computers can be built, they will be valuable in factoring large numbers, and therefore extremely useful for decoding and encoding secret information. If one were to be built today, no information on the Internet would be safe. Our current methods of encryption are simple compared to the complicated methods possible in quantum computers. Quantum computers could also be used to search large databases in a fraction of the time that it would take a conventional computer. Other applications could include using quantum computers to study quantum mechanics, or even to design other quantum computers. Utilizing quantum parallelism, quantum computers will well serve the purpose of performing difficult mathematical calculations that are impossible using semiconductor computers. Quantum Cryptology: advances in security The expected capabilities of quantum computation promise great improvements in the world of cryptography. Ironically the same technology also poses current cryptography techniques a world of problems. The ability to break the RSA coding system will render almost all current channels of communication insecure. Artificial Intelligence The theories of quantum computation suggest that every physical object, even the universe, is in some sense a quantum computer. Ultimately this suggests that computers will be capable of simulating conscious rational thought, maybe the quantum computer will be the key to achieving true artificial intelligence.

19

Teleportation Teleportation is the ability to make an object or a person to disintegrate in one place while a perfect replica appears in another. In physics, teleportation has never been taken seriously because of the uncertainty principle. According to the uncertainty principle, the duplicating process will disturb or destroy the original objects; the more an object is duplicated, the more it is destroyed. The detail information regarding how the duplication is made and how the original object is destroyed is unknown. Therefore, it will reach a point where one cannot extract enough information from the original to make a perfect replica. However, scientists at IBM and elsewhere have discovered a way to make a perfect replica using a distinctive feature of quantum mechanics called EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) effect. Quantum computing provides at least a theoretical basis for teleportation.

20

7.Conclusion
Quantum computers seem to be a good technology to succeed classical computers. However, there still are a lot of problems which have to be solved first. Some of the biggest are the decoherence, data storage, the need of a noise free environment and the question which is the best hardware scheme for quantum computers. Once scientists can use atoms to complete complex computations, the day when a computer will be the size of 1 atom. These new machines can be deployed in ways that are not available today. For example, a nanomachine can be built and programmed to enter human cells to fight diseases or even resuscitate those who have just died. Yet, this approach will not be available until scientists can manipulate atoms using the quantum physics approaches of entanglement and superposition. In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shors algorithm to successfully factor 15. What algorithms will be discovered next?

21

8.Future enhancements
At present, quantum computers and quantum information technology remains in its pioneering stage. At this very moment obstacles are being surmounted that will provide the knowledge needed to thrust quantum computers up to their rightful position as the fastest computational machines in existence. Error correction has made promising progress to date, nearing a point now where we may have the tools required to build a computer robust enough to adequately withstand the effects of decoherence. Quantum hardware, on the other hand, remains an emerging field, but the work done thus far suggests that it will only be a matter time before we have devices large enough to test Shor's and other quantum algorithms. Thereby, quantum computers will emerge as the superior computational devices at the very least, and perhaps one day make today's modern computer obsolete. Quantum computation has its origins in highly specialized fields of theoretical physics, but its future undoubtedly lies in the profound effect it will have on the lives of all mankind.

22

9.References
1. Daniel Klck, Quantum Computers, Department of Computer Engineering, Polytechnic University of Cottbus 2. A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?" (1935) (http://prola.aps.org/pagegif/PR/v47/i10/p777_1/p777) 3. A. Barenco (Oxford), C. H. Bennett (IBM), R. Cleve (Calgary), D. P. DiVincenzo (IBM), N. Margolus (MIT), P. Shor (AT&T), T. Sleator (NYU), J.Smolin (UCLA), H. Weinfurter (Innsbruck), "Elementary gates for quantum computation" (Physical Review A, March 22, 1995 (AC5710)) 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum computer. 5. http://www.howstuffworks.com/quantum-computer.htm. 6. http://www.qubit.org 7. http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2013/03/quantum-computingphotons 8. http://iqc.uwaterloo.ca/welcome/quantum-computing-101 9. http://www.buzzfeed.com/willio/quantum-computing-explained-in-simpleterms-460x 10. http://www.techradar.com/news/computig/the-mind-blowing-possibilitiesof-quantum-computing-663261

23