CONTENTS S.

No 1 Title STATUS OF MODERN AND TRADITIONAL MILK PRODUCTS IN INDIA 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 HERITAGE OF INDIAN MILK PRODUCTS MILK IN DAILY DIET PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF MILK CREAM BUTTER GHEE CONDENSED MILKS/ EVAPORATED MILK: DRIED MILK CHEESE ICE CREAM KHOA AND ITS PRODUCTS GULABJAMUN BURFI` KALAKAND MILK CAKE/PEDA/RABRI/KURCHAN CHHANA AND ITS PRODUCTS PANEER AND ITS PRODUCTS KHEER AND RELATED PRODUCTS 7 9 11 18 29 47 56 75 91 112 127 129 133 140 144 153 171 184 Page No 2

STATUS OF MODERN AND TRADITIONAL MILK PRODUCTS IN INDIA In the new millennium, the global dairy industry is in search of initiatives to enlarge its market. One factor that has lent urgency is the crisis created by a continuing decline in world dairy commodity prices. In April 2002, they touched a new low. This has occurred despite no significant change in the demand and supply of dairy products. The price drop has triggered a rethinking on the future shape of global dairy markets. The factors that are expected to re-shape the industry are: A shift in the global trade away from bulk milk commodities such as SMP, butter and butter oil towards value-added products such as cheese, yogurt, desserts and speciality milk powders. The sophisticated consumer now sees food-particularly dairy products-as a means of health and happiness. He is looking for delicacies that are delightfully tasty and healthy as 'well as authentic and exotic. The developed world is reviewing its policy focus on the "surplus" bulk commodities. The aim is to reduce the stock of subsidized bulk commodities so as to lighten the fiscal burden on the developed countries. Incentives may have to be given to develop dairy markets as well as production of valueadded milk products. The growing competitiveness, triggered by the WTO, has made the global dairy markets increasingly complex. Each year, a large number of new food products are being added in the marketplace in response to the consumer's search for delicacies that are novel but natural with a touch of mystery and class. At one end of the spectrum is the high-volume market for lowpriced products. At the other end is the niche market for high-priced products that are unique in terms of exotic taste and flavour. The dairy exporters have to identify which market they would like to tap-the low-profit "mass" market or the high-profit "class" market. World milk production is projected to rise to 615 million tonnes in 2005 from 534 million tonnes that was averaged during the 1993-95 period. By 2005, the milk output of the developing as well as developed regions would be almost on par at about 250 million tormes (Table 1.1.2). These trends are reflected in a study of the FAa Commodities & Trade Division that has made a ten-year projection for world milk production between 1995 and 2005. A notable feature of the scenario projected by the FAa study is the growing importance of milk from dairy animals other than cows. For example, the Indian sub-continent contributes a substantial 90 per cent to the world buffalo milk production. Overall, in the developing world, the milk from buffaloes, goats, sheep and camels accounts for 15 per cent of the world milk production, and this share is expected to increase in the corning years. Trends in dairy commodity export prices, 2001-2002

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April February 2001 2002 Skimmed milk powder 2,038 1,574 Whole milk powder 2,000 1,549 Acid casein 5,300 4,600 Cheddar cheese 2,025 1,987 Butter 1,275 1,094 Source: FAO Food Outlook, May 2002. Commodity March 2002 1,473 1,488 4,449 1,924 1,036 April 2002 1,371 1,416 4,280 1,880 1,001

Dairy markets in the new millennium are being increasingly shaped by the twin strands of globalization and localization. The spotlight is on the developing world that has shown a remarkable growth in disposable income accompanied by rapid urbanization. The share of this region would be 79 per cent in the projected increased milk production (Table 1.1.2). Significantly, in this growth, India alone is expected to account for a 30 per cent share. For most developed countries, the growth would be marginal, with their milk consumption and population expected to plateau. Changing Market Profile: Essentially, the following factors are moulding the market profile in the developing countries:

1. Increased urbanization and income growth: This global phenomenon has become a major force in the developing world. According to the UN projections, 22 out of 26 urban agglomerations of over 10 million population in 2015 would be in the developing countries. Already, this trend is reflected in India and China where tens of millions of people are moving from villages to cities and towns. With urbanization has corne increased disposable income and consequent demand for greater variety in value-added food, largely in decline in the demand for tirmed and dried milk powders and a rise in that of packaged, fresh dairy products. Its related spin-off is the growing importance of supermarkets in cities and the refrigerator in the urban kitchen of an average middle class family. 2.Health and pleasure: The consumer today demands health benefit in what he eats. On this basis, dairy products rank among the top. They enjoy a positive image in terms of quality and health benefits. For example, the probiotic yogurts, using live bacteria culture, are considered healthpromoting products. However, another trend that circumvents the fitness concern is a preference for "full-tasting" food products. More and more consumers are choosing full-fat products such as icecream, cheese or desserts for the real pleasure of eating, disregarding the health concern. This change is reflected in the increasing production of full-fat ice-cream since the early 1990s in the United States, reversing the earlier trend in favour of low-fat icecream. Similarly, in some countries, butter is once again seen as a "natural" product, and its consumption is gaining ground. 3.Eating out: In many countries, the main growth in food expenditure is in the area of food eaten outside the home. Even for meals eaten at home, greater emphasis is on the convenience that is

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provided by instant heat-and-eat dishes and snack foods. The rising food consumption outside the home has posed a new challenge to the dairy industry, as its products are so closely linked with the kitchen.

A highly visible manifestation of the eating-out phenomenon is the rapid growth of the "fast-food" industry. Its secret of success is that it converts a Rs 50-foodstuff into a Rs 500-meal, and this pattern has been repeated millions of times in hundreds of cities all over the world. The growth of this sector has also given a push to the consumption of dairy products like ice cream, milk shakes, and cheese which figure prominently on the fast-food menus.

How does the common man select the food he chooses to eat? A marketing consultant, Mr Xavier Terlet of XTC, a French market intelligence consultancy, has summed up this situation thus: Most people eat for pleasure. It dictates all consumer demands. It implies something different, a shift in habits. To satisfy the consumer's desire for pleasure, three new trends are emerging as far as taste is concerned in the popular dairy product segments: CD Authenticity: An emphasis on 'tradition', 'real', and 'purity' in tastes that offer a homely appeal (natural tasting, earthenware pots, etc). CD Variety: An abundance of new textures, colours and names that never cease to amaze consumers, designed to appeal to different segments. Products for adults are also becoming increasingly sophisticated (with fruits, cereals, creamy, thick textures). Children, meanwhile, prefer colourful and personalized products, small formats rather than refined tastes.

CD Exoticism: A constantly evolving trend that seeks to supplant 'ordinary' products by emphasising specific tastes, characteristics of faraway, exotic places (Africa, Asia, LatinAmerica, etc). The aim is to stimulate the imagination and whet the consumer's appetite.

Tradition Reinvented: Of late, dairymen have realized the need to change the image of milk as only a health/ nutritive product that people must consume (a sense of "compulsion") to a mod image of "like to" (a sense of choice) for pure pleasure. This would be possible by widening the choice of dairy products and adding into them authentic, exotic flavours.

One exciting group that can tickle the taste buds of the young generation is the wide range of ethnic dairy delicacies. Significantly, they have enough variety to serve both the' class' and 'mass' markets. A recent FAO publication lists over 300 ethnic products in about 100 developing countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Middle East (Table 1.1.3). Most of them have been popular from time

5
immemorial and offer a range that is delightfully different in terms of look, taste and flavour.

These products are part of the world heritage and embody the tradition of excellence. They are being "reinvented" by applying modern process technologies for mass production to meet the consumer's new demands in response to changing lifestyle that combines purity, quality and convenience with the nostalgia of a bygone era. They represent an exciting opportunity as well as a challenge before the world dairy industry to expand its market range. Their bigger operating margins also provide new avenues to the industry for value addition to add to its profitability.

Time is ripe to expand production and marketing of traditional sweets. Some of them are very fragile and delicate to process and handle. The manual skills required for their preparation are not easy to duplicate by machines. Besides, there is a need to incorporate into their processing the international norms of food safety and hygiene and to adopt latest packaging systems for extending their shelf life. Recent advances in dairy technology provide know-how to increase the shelf life of ethnic products.

The advent of convenience foods and their increasing acceptability has given a boost to the modernization of the traditional dairy sectoc. Bringing ethnic dairy products into the mainstream of dairy foods would also have a positive impact on the livelihood of the rural poor who form the bulk of millions of dairy producers in developing countries. This trend will help them get a better procurement price for the milk they sell. Heritage of Indian Milk Products The flavour of the new millennium is India's ethnic milk-based sweets, desserts and puddings. Each product has its distinctive wisdom as it evolved through the ages, continuing to surprise the gourmet even today. Milk and milk products are highly valued in Indian society as a source of nutrition. This concept has withstood the test of time, notwithstanding the cholesterol scare.in the West.

In India, milk sweets are an inseparable part of wedding ceremonies, feasts, festivals and social and religious occasions. Boxes of sweets are a harbinger of good news, be it a birth or betrothal in the family, anniversaries, success in examination, landing the first job, promotion and the like. The expression to convey the good news says it all: "Sweeten your mouth." rn fact, one of the most popular and oldest Bengali sweets is named" sandesh" (message).A box ofit accompanies the good news that a family wishes to announce in its social circle.

The products developed, either for direct consumption or as an intermediate base material, have followed ageold methods of preservation and conservation through heat desiccation, fermentation,

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coagulation and clarification. The aim is to recover the total solids to the maximum extent through tiny scale/household level processes and technologies that are adequate and appropriate to local situations, resources and food habits.

From time immemorial, milk and milk products have enjoyed an eminent position in the Indian food ethos. The value of their output exceeded Rs 1,000 billion in 2001 (Table 1.1.4). Of this amount, the output of traditional dairy products is estimated at over Rs 570 billion (Table 1.1.5), while the organized sector accounts for Rs 170 billion (Table 1.1.6). The share of the indigenous products branded mithais and ghee -in this sector is at present only Rs 56 billion, but it is expected to rise rapidly in the coming years. cheese and milk powders. They can do wonders for the organized dairy sector to better its prospects of financial stability and steady growth. A number of modern dairies have already taken to the production of popular milk products like burfi, gulabjamun, rasogolla, shrikhand, kheer, paneer, peda, curd, lassi. Some of these products have registered a high growth rate, ranging from 15 to 20 per cent. This development is also having a trickle-down effect on the traditional dairy sector which has taken up modernization of its age-old mithai-making methods and product formulations in the following ways: Inducting appropriate technologies for large-scale production; Using modern packaging systems and labelling to meet the emerging consumer demand for extended shelf life and product information; Evolving a quality assurance system to meet the international standards of food hygiene and product safety; and Collecting market intelligence to inspire confidence among prospective entrepreneurs to take to commercial production of traditional products in India and abroad. The market for value-added indigenous dairy products is set for a rapid growth. This development marks the second wave of India's White Revolution that is transforming the face of the dairy industry. The first wave made India the world's biggest milk producer and the biggest market. The second wave is boosting the organized sector and will make it a significant segment of the industry with its market share doubling from the present 10-12 per cent of milk processed. A new market of over Rs 50,000 million is expected largely from ethnic foods such as flavoured milks, dahi, paneer, buttermilk, lassi, gulabjamun, shrikhand and kheer. It will largely meet the new demand created by the increasing purchasing power and disposable income of the middle class in India's urban and rural areas.

Milk in Daily Diet Pastoral economy formed the basis of the Indian civilization, with dairying as its integral part. Dairying took roots in the north-west part of the country and spread virtually to the whole of the sub-continent. India is regarded as the first country to have developed products like dahi (yogurt), makkhan and ghee and to use them in daily diet.

In the Indian food ethos, milk mixed with cereals and pulses has been regarded as the staple food. Several references in the ancient Indian literature commend this blending for their 'satvik' (positive/godly) attributes. These have also been promoted as ideal food for persons pursuing spiritual and higher academic pursuits. Food in ancient India was not merely a means of sustenance of life, but part of a cosmic moral cycle. This belief, by and large, holds good even today in the Indian subcontinent, as is reflected in the popular proverb: "You are what you eat."

The manner in which a farm family uses milk is indicative of the evolutionary process of indigenous dairy products. Traditionally, farmers boil the milk immediately after milking, which extends its shelf life. Boiling of milk is specific to the Indian sub-continent and is necessary to store it without refrigeration. Farmers consume as much milk as they can in the morning along with their meals; and the remaining milk is converted into dahi in the evening, which is primarily done to preserve milk overnight.

The following morning, a small portion of dahi is consumed by the family and the bulk of it is churned to produce makkhan and ghee. The by-product of churning, chhach, is consumed by the family in liberal quantities, and the remaining is freely distributed in the neighbourhood among other villagers. Both dahi and lassi provide ways of consuming cultured products for better health. Hot milk is widely consumed before going to bed as a nightcap. The milk is, at times, flavoured with condiments such as almonds, cardamom, dry dates, etc. Evolution of dahi, makkhan, chhach and ghee, apart from adding to the variety of milk products, also provided ways and means of conserving milk nutrients for long periods.

Milk plays a major role as a source of animal proteins in the average Indian diet that is largely vegetarian. As much as 46 per cent of milk produced in the country is consumed as liquid milk that reflects its importance in the national diet. The average per capita milk availability in 2001 was 226 grams/day, exceeding the recommended level of 220 grams.

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Boiling milk before consumption is essential to extend its shelf life without refrigeration. Boiling does not affect the availability of calcium and vitamins (except C) in milk. Heating to the first boil results in destroying most of the pathogens. This practice explains the virtual absence of milk-borne diseases in the country.

Dahi (curd) is widely consumed along with meals. During dahi preparation, fermentation of milk with lactic cultures checks putrefactive changes and imparts an acid taste to the product, which is particularly refreshing in a hot climate. Following fermentation of milk, a greater amount of phosphorus and calcium is made available to the digestive system by their precipitation in the lower intestines. Thus, dahi in its different forms-chhach, lassi, kadhi, shrikhand, etcenhances the nutritive value of the average diet.

Makkhan and ghee provide as much as one-third of the fat in the Indian diet. Over the centuries, Indians have cultivated a liking f9r the aroma and flavour of ghee as a cooking medium for various food preparations, including sweets.

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF MILK Milk is the physiological secretion of normally functioning udder. It is a very complex substance having many characteristics and physical properties, the knowledge of which, is essential since it will be useful when milk is used to prepare products and when it is subjected to many processing to make it safe. Water is the dispersion media for other solids. It is in continuous phase of liquid to which the constituents are dispersed. Solids exist in 3 states of dispersion. They are, Coarse dispersion [particles greater than 0.001 mm] Colloidal dispersion [particles between 0.001 mm and 0.000001 mm] Molecular dispersion [particles Less than 0.000001 mm]. Materials in solution: Materials in solution are called materials in molecular dispersion. These include most of salts, lactose, part of albumin, globulin. A true solution is defined as one in which the molecules are dispersed individually. Some of the albumin and globulin, which are large in size, also exist in colloidal state. Materials in colloidal dispersion: Here the particles are microscopic but they are large enough to be held by an ultra filter. E.g. Calcium caseinate, part of albumin and globulin and calcium phosphate. These can be separated by dialyzing through appropriate membrane [semi permeable membrane]. For the suspension of these colloids, certain materials are required and these are called as stabilizers. In milk, the colloids themselves function as stabilizers to each other. Materials in coarse dispersion: Butterfat is suspended as tiny spherical particles called fat globules. Cellular constituents also come under this category [E.g. In mastitis, leukocyte count of milk exceed 5 lakhs]. Fat particles vary in size from 0.1 to 10 in diameter, with an average of 3.1 ml of milk will contain approximately 2-4 million fat globules.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK Milk acidity: pH of milk is approximately 6.6, which lies on the acid side of neutral (7). Fresh milk drawn from the udder possesses a certain acidity termed as natural acidity, which has to be distinguished from developed acidity in the form of lactic acid. Normal acidity or natural acidity is due to casein, acid phosphates and citrates and to a lesser extent by albumin, globulin and CO2. Natural acidity varies from one cow to another. It ranges from 0.08-0.30%. Colostrum has high natural acidity because of its high protein content. Acidity is higher than normal during the early lactation period. It falls to normal in about 2 months of lactation. Titrable acidity or total acidity is equal to natural acidity and developed acidity. Natural acidity is also called as apparent acidity. Developed acidity is also called as real or true acidity. Titrable acidity is used as rapid platform test for accepting or rejecting milk and to find whether the milk is suitable for heat processing, because the developed acidity lowers the temperature of heat coagulation of casein. 0.18 to 0.19% is taken as a deciding line between satisfactory and unsatisfactory milk samples. Milk of high natural acidity is usually high in their total solids content. They have a fair quantity of buffering substances like proteins, phosphates and citrates, which resist changes in pH when acids or alkali are added. So milk of high natural acidity is highly buffered. Such milk requires

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more lactic acid to develop before the pH reaches the isoelectric point of casein [pH 4.6] which means that a longer time will be required before such samples curdle at ordinary temperature. High natural acidity increases the keeping quality. Colour: Characteristic white colour or white opalescence of the milk is due to scattering of light by the colloidal particles. Yellow colour of the milk is due to the carotene. The intensity of yellow colour increases in cow milk when they are fed with green fodder. Buffalo milk is white in colour due to the absence of carotene which is efficiently converted to vitamin A. Dilute acid or rennet when added results in coagulation of casein and fat and the separated whey will be having a distinct greenish yellow colour due to the pigment riboflavin. The colour of the opaque object is the colour it results. The colours of the visible spectrum are absorbed. Thus an object is yellow because more yellow light is reflected to the eye than any other colour. (A white object reflects all the colours of the light that fall on it while a black object absorbs all of them). Flavour: A property very difficult to define. It is a combination of taste and smell. Milk has a characteristic mild, pleasant flavour. Sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chlorides. Some research workers attribute the rich flavour of milk to the fat present in milk. As lactation advances, lactose declines while chloride increases; the taste is deflected towards salty. A similar effect is caused by udder infections. When odouriferous substances like garlic are fed, milk gets the characteristic taste, by its passage to the milk from the blood. Milk also absorb the volatile vapours present in the atmosphere. Both these types can be avoided by feeding such feeds immediately after milking. Feeding molasses and beet by-products sometimes causes fishy flavour. Metals like copper acts as a catalyst to develop oily taints if it is present in a concentration of 3 ppm; it imparts a metallic taste. Cows suffering from ketosis produce milk with cowy odour due to entry of ketone bodies from blood to milk. As lactic acid develops, the flavour of milk changes towards characteristic sour odour. This is due to the production of various by products like butyric acid, diacetyl, etc. Specific gravity: The term specific gravity as applied to milk means the weight of the given volume of milk compared with the weight of same volume of water at the same temperature Average specific gravity of milk and its components at 60F (15.6C) Cow milk : 1.028-1.030 Skim milk : 1.035-1.037 Buffalo milk : 1.030-1.032 Water :1 Fat : 0.93 Protein : 1.346 Lactose : 1.666 Salts : 4.12 SNF : 1.616 The variation in specific gravity of different individuals milk is due to the flocculation in water, fat, protein, lactose and minerals of milk. There will be difference in specific gravity of liquid fat and solid fat. One of the peculiarities of milk fat is that there is appreciable time lag in adjusting its physical condition to a change in temperature. Addition of water lowers the specific gravity. High fat milk has low density. Removal of fat results in separated milk or skim milk or defatted milk, which has a higher specific gravity, can be restored by adding water.

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Specific gravity is lowered by addition of water, addition of cream or by increasing the temperature, while the contrary effect is caused by addition of separated milk or skim milk, removal of fat or lowering the temperature. Recknagel phenomenon: The specific gravity of freshly drawn milk is low. It increases by 0.001 as time advances. This is due to Partial cooling and solidification of fat Hydration of protein Loss of CO2 Escape of air bubbles. Surface tension: Surface tension is due to the force of attraction between molecules. When compared to water surface tension of milk is low. The surface tension of milk at 20C is 54.5 dynes/cm. It decreases as the temperature is raised (at 60C it is about 40-45 dynes/cm). The presence of fat lowers the surface tension. Whole milk has a slightly lower surface tension than skim milk and that of cream is still lower. Milk and cream on aging undergo a slight decrease in surface tension. Colloidal constituents like proteins also lower the surface tension along with fat globules. The substances, which lower the surface tension, will get concentrated at the liquid air interspace. When milk is warmed, calcium caseinate gather at the liquid air interspace together with small amount of fat globules, albumin & globulin. If milk is agitated similar concentration occurs around the air bubbles & the phenomenon of frothing or foaming occurs. Recknagel found that the specific gravity of freshly drawn milk was lower than the specific gravity subsequently obtained, after an hour or later. He found that the rise in specific gravity to be regular, more rapid at lower temperatures than at higher ones and to amount on an average of 0.001. This is called Recknagel's phenomenon. Viscosity:The viscosity of a substance refers to its resistance to flow. It is a measure of friction between molecules as they slide. Milk is considerably more viscous than water mainly on account of fat emulsion and colloidal particles. Homogenization increases viscosity. Increase in temperature causes reduction in viscosity. At 20C, milk will be half viscous as it is at 0C and at 40C, it will be 1/3rd viscous as it is at 0C. Oxidation-reduction potential: Incase of organic materials, oxidation is defined as the uptake of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. In the same manner, reduction may be defined as the process of loosing oxygen or gaining hydrogen. In ionic system, it can be demonstrated that phenomenon may involve loss or gain of electrons. In practice, the potential difference created by platinum electrode in a solution of an oxidant or reductant is measured by completing a circuit through calomel half-cells and a potentiometer. The voltage measured under these conditions reflects the oxidizing or reducing capacity of the solution. This potential is called as oxidation-reduction potential or O-R potential (or) redox potential and is designated by Eh. The O-R potential of milk normally falls within the range of +0.2 to +0.3 volts. In milk, the O-R potential is controlled by the following substances. Dissolved O2 Ascorbic acid Riboflavin Lactose Cysteine Cystine Milk under anaerobic conditions as in udder has O-R potential of 0.13 volts. It increases to +0.3 volts on contact with air in the atmosphere. The bacterial action reduces the O-R potential.

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Methylene Blue dye Reduction Test (MBRT) is based on the principle of lowering of the O-R potential through use of available oxygen by the microorganisms. Refractive index: Milk has a refractive index of about 1.35 and that of water is 1.33. So addition of water lowers the refractive index. Boiling point: Boiling point of any liquid is the temperature at which at the given pressure the material is in equilibrium both as a liquid and as a gas. This is the temperature at which the liquid phase will vaporize and the gas phase condense or liquefy according to the heat supply. Water boils at 100C under normal atmospheric temperature and pressure. The presence of dissolved substances increases the boiling point of a solution. Since milk contains several dissolved substances, it has higher boiling temperature than that of water. Because there is variation in the dissolved substances, the boiling point of milk also varies between 100.15100.17C [100.2-101.02]. Freezing point: The freezing point is the temperature at which, at a given pressure, a material is in equilibrium as both a solid and as a liquid. This is the temperature at which the liquid phase may freeze or crystallize and the solid phase may melt or liquefy. Pure distilled water freezes at 0C under normal atmospheric pressure. Milk freezes at a temperature slightly lower than that of water due to soluble constituents like lactose, soluble salts [chlorides] which lower and depress the freezing point [to an extent of 75% total depression]. Fat and protein, two variable constituents of milk will have very little influence on the freezing point depression. The range of value is 0.525 to 0.565C [-0.55C]. Season has no influence on freezing point. By determining the freezing point in milk, it can be ascertained whether water is added or not. The equipment used to determine the freezing point of milk is Hortvet cryoscope. Percentage of water added to milk = T-T' X 100 T T = normal freezing point [-0.550c] T' = observed freezing point of the given sample. The addition of 1% water to milk will raise the freezing point by 0.0060c. Limitations of freezing point estimation: It is unable to find out addition of separated milk. It is unable to detect the removal of fat in milk. Freezing point is seriously affected by the developed acidity. Electrical conductivity: In a pure solution, the conductivity is a function of the ionic concentration. In an heterogeneous system such as exists in milk, the fat and the colloidally dispensed substances obstruct the ions in their migration and decrease the conductivity. The electrical conductivity increases with increase in temperature. About 80% of current in milk is carried by chloride ions [chloride content increases during mastitis]. The electrical conductivity value of cow milk is 0.005 ohm-1 cm-1 at 25C. Adhesiveness of milk: When a piece of paper is moistened with milk, it sticks to surface of wood or glass or metal due to casein glue. Cream Raising: When milk is allowed to stand, fat rises to the top and eventually forms a layer packed with fat globules called cream. This is due to the difference in the specific gravity of serum and fat. One drop of milk contains about one lakh globules with the diameter varying from 0.3 to 10. Foaming:

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It is due to materials that lower the surface tension like milk protein and fat. Milk fat not only increases the foaming, but also increases the stability of the foam.

CREAM Cream has been known from time immemorial as the fatty layer that rises to the top of the milk when it stands undisturbed for some time. Cream may be defined as that portion of milk which is rich in milk fat or that portion of milk into which has been gathered and which contains a large portion of milk fat, or when milk fat is concentrated into a fraction of the original milk, that portion is known as cream According to the PFA rules (1976), cream, excluding sterilized cream, is the product of cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof, which contains not less than 25 per cent milk fat. Cream is rich in energy giving fat and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, the contents of which depends on the fat level in cream. Classification Cream may be classified broadly as: Market cream, which is used for direct consumption, Manufacturing cream, which is used for the manufacture of dairy products. The various types of cream are Table cream Light cream Coffee cream. contains 20-25% milk fat.

Whipping cream Contains 30-40 % milk fat, and Heavy cream Plastic cream contains 65-85 % milk fat. Composition of cream: The chemical composition of cream is given below. 1. Water 45.45-68.2 % 2. Fat 3. Protein 4. Lactose 5. Ash 6. Total solids 7. Solids not fat 25-60 % 1.69-2.54 % 2.47-3.71. % 0.37-0.56 % 31.8-54.55 % 4.55-6.80 %.

The formula for determining the solids not fat (SNF) content of cream is

100 - % fat in cream % SNF in cream = 100 - % fat in milk X % SNF in milk.

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Cream is obtained from milk by either gravity or centrifugal separation methods. The basic principle of cream separation is based on the fact that milk fat is lighter than the skim milk portion. At 16C, the average density of milk fat is 0.93 and skim milk 1.036. Hence when milk is subjected to force, the two components, viz., cream and skim milk, by virtue of their differing densities, separate from one another. Uses of cream: For direct consumption as table cream /coffee/ whipping creams, In the preparation of special dishes, In the production of plastic , frozen and cultured creams; In the manufacture of butter, cream, ice cream, butter oil and ghee Method of cream production Gravity method: When the milk is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, there is a tendency for the fat to rise is given by he following equation, which is known as Stokes Law: V= n where, V = G ds df r n = 2G (ds - df) r2

velocity or rate at which a single fat globule rises = acceleration due to gravity. = density of skim milk = density of fat. radius of fat globules. = viscosity of skim milk.

From the stokes law it can be observed that theoretically, velocity is increased by Increase in radius of fat globules: Increase in difference in densities of skim milk and fat Decrease in viscosity of skim milk. The rate of rise of fat globules in gravity methods is affected by Size of fat globules: as the size of fat globules increases, the rate at which cream rises also increases. Temperature: As temperature increase, viscosity decreases and hence the velocity increases. A clump or cluster acts like a single globule in so far as movement through skim milk is concerned. Gravity methods being very slow, are no, longer used commercially for cream separation. II. Centrifugal method: Centrifugal cream separators are similar to clarifiers in that they consists of a stack of conical discs housed in a separator bowl and rotated at high speed by an electric motor.

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The Separator The separator is a unit, which removes most of the milk fat from milk by centrifugal force. Its principal components are power source, a separator bowl, a set of gears and shafts, a product inlet and a product outlet for cream and skim milk. The separator bowl consists of an outer shell within which are a large number of cone shaped discs constructed so that between each pair is a very small space of not more than 0.5mm. As the milk enters the bowl, it is distributed into these spaces between the discs; it is immediately subjected to a tremendous force. While both the fat and skim milk subjected to the centrifugal force, the difference in density affects the heavier portion (skim milk) more intensely than the lighter portion (i.e. Cream) thereby the skim milk is forced to the periphery while the fat portion moves towards the centre. The skim milk and cream both form vertical walls within the bowl and are separated by being led trough separate outlets. Any insoluble particles in the milk, such as bits of curd or dirt etc., collects as separator slime and is thrown outward as the bowl operates. These pass along with the skim milk into the space between the outer edge of the discs and the inner face of the bowl shell. Such material is deposited on this face of the bowl shell, which is removed latter. Separator bowl operate at speeds as great as 20,000 rpm. The separator is a precision instrument and hence has to be in good condition and operated properly to get maximum skimming efficiency. Centrifugal force (F) = K X W X R X N2 Where W= N= mass of the revolving body, R.P.M of the revolving body.

R= radius of the circle in which body revolves., K= constant. Stokess law applied to centrifugal separation is as follows (ds-df) r2

V = n

N2.R.K.

Where V = velocity n = viscosity of skim milk r = radius of fat globule, ds = density of skim milk df density of fat, N= speed of the bowl R= distance of fat globule from the axis of rotation. K= constant. It will be seen from the above that the speed of cream separation is increased by:

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Greater radius of fat globule Greater difference in density between skim milk and fat Greater speed of the bowl Lower viscosity of skim milk Gravity and centrifugal cream separation have been characterized.

Characteristics of gravity and centrifugal cream methods Particulars Nature of separation forces causing Gravity methods Gravitational Extremely slow Vertical Low 0-25 0.2 or above Small recovered in Not more than 90 Centrifugal method Centrifugal Practically instant Horizontal High 18-85(can controlled) 0.1 0 or less Large. 99-99.5% be

Speed of separation Direction of movement of fat and skim milk particles Bacteriological quality of cream and skim milk Fat percentage of cream Fat percentage of skim milk Scale of operation Fat percentage cream

Factors influencing the fat percentage of cream The important factors that influence the fat percentage of cream by centrifugal cream separation methods are Position of the cream screw: The cream screw /outlet consists of a small threaded, hollow screw pierced by a circular orifice thorough which the cream emerges. This screw can be driven IN and OUT thus bringing it nearer to and away from, the center of rotation. Similarly the skim milk screw /outlet for the removal of skim milk, once the cream screw or skim milk screw has been adjusted, the cream separator delivers, under normal conditions, a definite ratio of skim milk and cream, which is usually 90:10 (or 85:15) by volume. By altering the position of the cream screw or skim milk screw the ratio of skim milk to cream changes. Thus when the cream screw is IN towards the axis of rotation, a higher fat percentage in cream is obtained and vice versa. This is because the force tending to discharge cream through the orifice is decreased while that tending to discharge skim milk remains unaltered. Smaller proportions o cream is therefore discharged, which, containing the same quantity of fat, shows a higher fat percentage. Screwing OUT the cream screw produces thinner cream. Similarly the skim milk screw OUT results in richer cream and vice versa.

17
Fat percentage in milk: The higher the fat percentage in milk, the higher the percent fat in cream. And vice versa. Since practically all the fat in milk is contained in the cream. Speed of bowls: Higher the speed of the bowl, the higher the fat percentage on cream, and vice versa. Rate of milk in-flow: The higher the rate of milk inflow, lower the fat percentage in cream and vice versa. Temperature of milk: The lower the temperature of milk during separation, the higher the fat percentage of the cream and vice versa. Amount of water or skim milk added to flush the bowl. The greater the quantity of water added to flush the bowl, the lower the fat percentage in cream, and vice versa. Factors affecting fat loss in skim milk during separation: The skimming efficiency (SE) of a cream separator refers to the percentage total fat from milk recovered in the cream. The higher the fat percentage in milk and/or the greater the fat loss in skim milk, the lower the skimming efficiency and vice versa. The factors affecting the fat loss in skim milk are Temperature of milk: The lower the temperature, higher the fat loss in skim milk and vice versa. For the efficient separation the temperature of milk should be above the melting point of fat, so that the milk fat in the fat globules is uniformly in liquid form. A satisfactory temperature for separation is around 40C. The milk is heated before separation to 35-40C in plate or tubular heaters for efficient separation. This is known as preheating /fore warming of milk. Speed of the bowl: The lower the speed, the higher the fat loss in skim milk and vice versa. At below rated speed, there will be more fat loss in skim milk because insufficient centrifugal force is generated for efficient cream separation. With above rated speeds, the skimming efficiency will not increase greatly. Rate of milk inflow: The higher the rate of inflow, the higher the fat loss in skim milk and vice versa. Position of cream screw: Upto 50% of fat in cream, there is little effect on the fat loss in skim milk, but when the cream fat test is greater than 50-60% there is greater fat loss in skim milk; if above 60% of cream is obtained still higher fat loss in skim milk results. Mechanical condition of the machine: Unsatisfactory mechanical condition of the cream separator causes greater fat loss in skim milk that include, vibration of the separator, conditions of discs, amount of separator slime in the bowl. Size of the fat globule: The greater the number of fat globules of less than 2 microns size, the higher the fat loss in skim milk and vice versa, as they escape the centrifugal force and to be recovered in cream. Degree and temperature at which milk is agitated before separation: The higher the degree and temperature of agitation the greater the loss in skim milk and vice versa. Presence of air in milk: The greater the amount of air, the higher the fat loss in skim milk. Acidity of acidity: The higher the acidity, the lower the efficiency of separation. The higher acidity, the lower the stability of casein particles, which in turn get precipitated and clog the bowl, there by lowering the efficiency of separation. Standardization of cream

18
This refers to the adjustment of the fat level in cream to the desired percentage conforming to standard requirements. The fat percentage in cream is usually adjusted to the prescribed level by the addition of calculated amount of skim milk by Pearsons square method. Pasteurization of cream Pasteurization of cream refers to the process of heating every particle of cream to not less than 71C and holding it at such a temperature for at least 20minutes, or to any suitable temperature time combination using approved and properly operated equipment. Objectives of pasteurization To destroy the pathogenic microorganism in cream so as to make it, and also resultant butter, safe for human consumption. To destroy undesirable micro organisms and inactivate the enzymes present , so as to prolong the keeping quality of the cream and butter, To complete the neutralization process. To eliminate some of the gaseous tainting substances. To make possible the removal of some volatile off-flavours Methods Holding pasteurization: The cream is heated to 71C for 20 minutes and then promptly cooled. HTST pasteurization: The Plate Pasteurizer is better suited to freshly separated sweet cream than neutralized cream, as the latter more easily forms burnt-on films on the plates. The maximum heating temperature may be 95-100C for 5-16 seconds. Vacuum pasteurization: This is a continuous process and removes the off-flavours effectively. This process dilutes the cream and it will lower the fat percentage of cream up to 6 - 8 %. Manufacture of different types of cream: Sterilized or canned cream: Sweet cream is standardized to 20% fat, pre-heated to 80C without holding and then double homogenized immediately, cooled to 16C filled into tin cans and immediately sealed. It is then sterilized at 118C for 12-15 minutes. Plastic cream: This is obtained by re-separating normal cream in a normal cream separator, or separating milk in a specially designed cream separator. Frozen cream. Objectives: To improve the keeping quality of cream during transportation over long distance, to store surplus cream for use during shortage mainly used by ice cream manufacturers who add sucrose to cream before freezing to prevent oiling off after thawing. First the cream is standardized to 40-50% fat, pasteurized at 77CC for 15 minutes cooled to below 4C and filled into paper /plastic container or tin can and sealed well and then frozen at 12C or below. Clotted cream: This is prepared by heating cream to 77-88C in shallow pan and then allowing it to cool slowly. The surface layer consists of clotted cream, which is skimmed off and strained.

19
Sour cream: This is a heavy bodied ripened cream of high acidity (0.6%) clean flavor and smooth textures made by inoculating sweet, pasteurized and homogenized cream with a culture of lactic acid and allowing fermentation to proceed until these qualities are obtained. Synthetic cream: This is mixture of flour, egg-yolk, sugar, water, and vegetable fat usually groundnut oil. Packaging and storage of table cream: Packaging: Table cream is packaged for retail sale in units similar to those for milk such as glass bottle, paper cartons LDPE sachets, plastic bottles etc. Storage and distribution: cream is stored preferably at 5-10C and distributed as early as possible, but preferably within three hours of removing from, cold storage. Defects in cream, their causes and prevention

Name of the defect Table cream Flavour Cooked flavour

Causes

Prevention

Excessive heating of cream during preparation. Feeding of milk-tainting feeds and weeds within 3 hours before milking

Proper heating of cream during pasteurization. I) Feeding of milktainting feeds and weeds soon after milking ii)eradication of tainting weeds milk

Feed and weed flavour

iii)vacuum pasteurization of cream Use of sour milk for separation. Highly acid/sour cream Acid development cream. in Using fresh, sweet milk for perpetration. Neutralization Proper tinning of milk or cream or cream holding vessels or using aluminum alloy or stainless steel as contact surface. Vacuum pasteurization of cream.

Oxidized /tallow.

/oily/metallic

Fat oxidation due to direct contact of milk with copper or iron, exposure of milk or cream to sunlight etc.

20
Rancid Fat hydrolysis due to lipase action in milk or cream. excessive homogenization pressure hot Using sour cream Addition of salts. Manufacturing cream a) Flavor. Barney Not keeping milk properly covered during production. Intake of bitter weeds by milch animals Bitter Lipase activity during cream separation. Keeping milk properly covered during production. Eradication of offending weeds. Checking lipase activity by avoiding the danger zone during 39-49C during raw cream separation. Storage of cream at 5C or below to check bacterial growth. Storage of cream at 5C or below to check the bacterial growth. Storage of cream at 5C or below to check the acid development. Poor ventilation milking byre/barn of Proper ventilation milking byre/barn of Inactivating lipase by proper pasteurization of milk and cream. .proper homogenization pressure using sweet cream Avoiding addition salts.

Miscellaneous Feathering coffee on

Growth of proteolytic bacteria in cream. Cheesy Growth of proteolytic bacteria leading to casein breakdown.

Coarse acid-/sour.

Uncontrolled acid development in cream.

Cooked, feed and weed , rancid, oxidized etc.,

Same as table cream

Same as table cream.

Fruity

development of byproducts of growth of certain undesirable microorganisms

Storage of cream at 5C or below to check microbial growth.

21
Utensil Using dirty utensils Using well cleaned utensils

Yeasty

Growth of lactose fermenting yeasts.

Storage of cream at 5C or below to check the yeast growth.

22
BUTTER Butter may be defined as a fat concentrate, obtained by churning cream, gathering the fat into compact mass and then working it. According to the PFA rules (1976), table creamery butter is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination there of, or from cream or curd from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof with or without the addition of common salt and annatto or carotene as colouring matter. It should be free from other animal fats, wax, and mineral oils, vegetable oils and fats. No preservatives except common salt and no colouring matter except annatto and carotene may be added. It must contain not less than 80 % by weight of milk fat, not more than 1.5 % by weight of curd, and, not more than 3% by weight of common salt. Diacetyl may be added as a flavoring agent but, if so used the total diacetyl content must not exceed 4 ppm. calcium hydroxide , sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate may be added, but must not exceed the weight of butter as whole by more than 0.2 %. Classification: Many kinds of butter are found in the market. This differs with the type of cream from, which they are made, and with variations in the manufacturing process. The types of butter are Pasteurized cream butter: Made usually from pasteurized sweet cream. Such butter usually has a milder flavour than that made from similar cream not pasteurized. Ripened cream butter: Butter made from the cream in which butter culture is added and incubated till the desired acidity and flavour are produced. Properly made ripened cream butter has a delicate flavour which is referred to as real butter flavour Unripened cream butter: Made from unripened cream. Salted butter : Butter to which salt has been added Unsalted butter: Contains no added salt. Sweet cream butter: Butter produced from cream in which the acidity does not exceed 0.2% in the churned cream. Sour cream: Made from cream in which the acidity exceeds 0.2%. Fresh butter: Butter that does not undergo cold storage. Cold storage butter: Butter stored at a temperature of about -18C for some time. Dairy butter (USA): Made on farm. It is usually made from unpasteurised sour cream, which has not been standardized for acidity. This butter generally has a sour flavour due to the high acid content of cream. Creamery butter: Made in a creamery or dairy factory. It is more uniform in quality than dairy butter. COMPOSITION According to PFA Rules (1976) Table/Creamery Butter should contain not less than 80% fat, not more than 1.5 % curd and not more than 3% common salt. The typical composition of Indian butter has been given below.

23
Constituent Butterfat Moisture Salt Curd Percent age 80.2 16.3 2.5 1.0

Butter is very rich in fat and fat-soluble vitamins.

Method of manufacture, packaging and storage Receiving milk Preheating Sampling Testing Grading receiving cream neutralization. Weighing

Separation Cream

24
Standardization (35-40% fat) Pasteurization or vacreation Cooling (20-22C) Ripening (20-22C) Ageing (5-10C) Churning Washing Salting and working Packaging and storage (-23 - -29C)

Details of manufacture: A) Receiving milk / cream: Unloading of cream: The cans of cream brought to the creamery/butter-making factory are unloaded on the receiving platform, which is at truck height, and arranged according to the route and the patterns. Grading: Purpose of grading is to pay for the product on the basis of its quality. Cream is graded on the basis of smell, taste, appearance, touch, acidity and sediment. The technique of grading cream consists in removing the lid of each can, inverting it and smelling it. Next the cream is examined for appearance and the presence of any extraneous matter. Cream for butter making is graded in accordance with the grades of butter that can be made from it. The cream grades are: First grade cream sweet or slightly sour Second grade cream - sour, coagulated Reject grade cream - markedly sour, fermented. Sampling: Before sampling, the cream in the cans is thoroughly mixed by a combined rotary and vertical movements of the plunger/stirrer. If required the lidded cans of cream may be sprayed with hot water to reduce cream viscosity, and facilitate mixing. Then a representative sample may be drawn for testing purposes. Weighing: The cans of cream, which have been accepted, are then weighed and the weight recorded for accounting and other purposes. First grade creams are tipped directly into the

25
main neutralization vats. The cream adhering to the inner walls of the cans is recovered by inverting the cans over steaming jet for short periods. Testing: The cream samples drawn are tested for fat, solids not fat, acidity, etc., by standard methods. Neutralization of cream: Neutralization of sour cream for butter making refers to a partial reduction in its acidity. Objectives: To avoid excessive fat loss in buttermilk that results from churning highly acid pasteurized cream. When pasteurizing sour cream, the casein curdles; thereby entrapping fat globules as the bulk of curd goes to butter milk this cause high fat loss. To guard against the production of an undesirable off-flavour in cream. To improve the keeping quality of butter made from high acid cream. Salted acid-butter develops a fishy flavour during commercial storage at 23 to 29C. Correct neutralization is done by Adoption of a definite standard of churning acidity. Butter for long storage, the cream acidity should be reduced to 0.06-0.08% before churning. Butter for early consumption the cream acidity should be reduced to 0.25-30 % before churning. Testing correctly for acidity take a sample of cream after through mixing, First partially neutralize acid cream with a known quantity of standard alkali, and then treat as above. Determine the lactic acidity of cream by titration of a fixed weight with a standard alkali using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Correct amount of neutralizers to be added: The considerations are The quantity of neutralizers to be added to a vat of cream varies with the acidity of cream, the final acidity desired in pasteurized cream and with the neutralizer compound used. It is necessary; first, to calculate the quantity of lactic acid to be neutralized per 100 kg cream. Then the amount of neutralizer required must be calculated. There are two groups of neutralizers available for use viz., lime (calcium hydroxide , and magnesium hydroxide) and soda (caustic soda, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and sodium sesquicarbonate) The requirement of two selected neutralizers are given in table. Types neutralizers of Theoretical (kg) 0.93 Practical. 0.83 Up to 0.30 per cent cream acidity. 0.91. Beyond 0.30 per cent cream acidity Calcium hydroxide 0.41 0.49

Sodium bicarbonate

Correct procedure for adding neutralizer The neutralizer should never be dry when added, but dissolved in clean, potable water and properly diluted, mixed with 10-15 times of its weight in water. The temperature of cream when adding the neutralizer should be preferably is 29- 32 C. The cream acidity should be determined to check to whether it has been correctly neutralized. Role of carbon dioxide in neutralization of cream with sodium bicarbonate

26
Fresh cream contains some dissolved carbon dioxide; acidic cream contain, more of it. The carbon dioxide reacts with sodium hydroxide during titration and shows a higher acidity test. But the carbon dioxide does not react with sodium bicarbonate neutralizer and consequently overneutralization results. Double neutralization with lime and soda. The following sequence is recommended First use lime neutralizer to bring down the cream acidity down to 0.3 to .4 %. Next use soda neutralizer to bring down the cream acidity to the desired level. The objectives of double neutralization are, to avoid the intense effect on flavour of a large amount of any one neutralizer with high acidity cream To avoid production of excessive carbon dioxide by use of sodium bicarbonate with high acid cream. Pasteurization / vacreation of cream. Cooling and ageing of cream. Cream is cooled by lowering its temperature, and aged by holding it at this low temperature for a few hours. After pasteurization, the cream has to be cooled and then aged to make churning possible. Cream will not churn until the butterfat on the fat globules has at least partially solidified: if insufficiently solid, due to improper cooling and ageing of the cream, the fat loss in the butter milk will be excessive and the butter obtained will have an unsatisfactorily, weak body. Under Indian conditions, the optimum temperature for the cooling and ageing of cream should preferably be 5-10C. Cooling cream to abnormally low temperatures and ageing at near about the same ones, renders the fat globules firmer that they coalesce with each other during churning only with difficulty, there by greatly prolonging the churning process. High cooling and ageing temperatures of cream shortens the churning period, yields large fat losses in buttermilk and produce butter, which has a relatively soft body. Low cooling and ageing temperatures prolong the churning period, decrease fat losses, and produce a firm body that has a satisfactory standing up capacity. The ageing periods should be at least 2-4 hours, preferably 15-16 hours. During ageing, crystallization of fat in the fat globules should satisfactorily complete. Shock cooling of warm cream with ice is not conducive to proper fat crystallization, since there is a subsequent temperature rise due to latent heat, consequent, inexhaustive churning and an unsatisfactory, weak bodied butter results. Ripening of cream: This refers to fermentation of cream with the help of desirable starter cultures. Objectives: 1. To produce butter with a pleasing pronounced characteristic flavour, aroma, uniformly from day to day. 2.To obtain an exhaustive churning, i.e., a low fat loss in buttermilk. The butter starter culture containing lactic acid producers such as Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris together with aroma (diacetyl) producers such as Lacotcoccus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum or L. citrovorum, in correct proportions, is added to the standardized, pasteurized and cooled (20-22C) cream at 0.5-2.0 per cent. After being thoroughly mixed, the cream is incubated at 21for 15-16 hours. The typical flavour of butter from ripened cream is mainly the effect of diacetyl, and to a smaller extent, of acetic acid and propionic acids. There is no dactyl in sweet cream. The normal diacetyl content of ripened cream butter is on average 2.5 PPM and very rarely over 4 PPM. Synthetic flavours: Cream ripening is expensive and time consuming and exacting. Further, most flavors enter into the buttermilk and wash water, and are loss to the butter, Hence the use of starter, starter distillate or synthetic flavours, which are mixed with sweet-cream butter during the working process to impart the characteristic flavour to the ripened cream butter or the finished product.

27
One way of improving flavour is to increase the citric acid content of cream or milk before fermenting begins. Churning Churning of cream consists of agitation at suitable temperatures until the fat globules adhere, forming larger and larger masses and until a relatively complete separation of fat and serum occurs. The object of churning is to produce butter from cream. The fat exists in the form of emulsion i.e. a continuous phase. This emulsion is fairly stable. As long as it remains intact, there is no formation of butter. The factors contributing towards the stability of this fat in skim milk emulsion are: Force of surface tension: this causes the fat globules in milk/ cream to retain their individuality and prevent butter formation. Phenomenon of adsorption: the surface layer of the fat globules contains an adsorbed, phospholipid protein complex, which resists deemulsion. Electric charge: the fat globules have negative charge and repel each other. The charge decreases as the cream acidity increases. Viscosity: increased viscosity retards churning. A greater concentration of fat globules in cream promotes a more profuse and rapid coalescence and aggregation than milk. Churning of cream Good churnability refers to clear breaking stage churning until the grains of butter are of the correct size. Exhaustiveness of churning - refers to fat losses in buttermilk, satisfactory washing and optimum churning period. Factors influencing churnability of cream and body of fat Chemical composition of fat: an increase in the proportion of soft fat shortens the churning period, diminishes the firmness of butter and increases the fat losses in butter milk and vice versa. Fresh green succulent feeds increase the proportion of soft fat and dry hard feeds increase the proportion of hard fat. Size of the fat globes; the higher the proportion of the small sized fat globules, the longer the churning time and the greater the fat loss in buttermilk and vice versa. Viscosity of cream: the greater the viscosity of cream, the greater the churning period and vice versa. Temperature of cream at churning: Under Indian conditions the optimum churning temperature ranges from 9-11C. A higher churning temperature causes a shorter churning time, higher fat loss and a weak body in butter, which is difficult to wash and from which it is difficult to remove curd particles properly. A lower churning temperature prolongs the churning period. Fat percentage of cream. The higher the percentage of cream, the lower the churning period. The fat percentage under Indian conditions will be 40 for cow milk and 35 for buffalo milk. Acidity of cream: according to Hunziker, acid cream churns more rapidly and exhaustively than sweet cream. However Mc Dowel believes that the reverse is the case. Load off churn: the butter churn should be filled with one-half to one third of its total capacity with cream. Overloading prolongs churning time, while under loading reduces total capacity of the churn. Nature of agitation: this is influenced by he size, type, and RPM of the churn, and affects the churning period. Pre-churning ageing period. Refers to cooling and ageing of cream. Churning: Preparation of churn: a new churn requires careful pre-treatment before use. An old churn requires proper sanitation and cooling, to render it clean. Filling the cream into the churn: the amount of cream filled should be slightly below the rated capacity.

28
Addition of butter colour: this is done to maintain the uniformity of yellow colour in butter throughout the year for consumer satisfaction. The amount of standard color added varies from 0 to 250 ml or more per 100 kg of butterfat. The butter colour should preferably be added to the cream in the churn. Butter colour should have the following properties: it should be harmless, free from off flavours, concentrated, permanent, and oil soluble. Butter colours are of following types: Vegetable origin; annatto and carotene. Annatto is obtained from the seeds of the annato plant (Bixa orellana) carotene is extracted from carrots and other carotene rich vegetable matter. Its use growing for it increases vitamin A potency. Mineral origin. harmless oil soluble coal tar dyes. Examples: yellow AB ( benzene Azo - naphthylamine), Yellow OB( ortho toluene Azo--naphthyl amine). Operating the churn: After initially rotating the churn for 5 10 min., the liberated gas is removed once or twice by opening the churn vent. Then the cream sample is drawn for the fat test. During the churning process there is invariably a rise in temperature from 1-3C. Churning is accompanied by foaming. Then comes the breaking stage. When the cream breaks away from the spyglass, which becomes clear. At this stage the fat in the skim milk emulsion breaks and very small butter granules of the size of pin heads make their appearance, it is sometimes necessary especially in the tropics, to add break water at this stage to reduce the temperature of churn contents, and thereby control the body of the butter. The amount and temperature of breakwater depends on the temperate reduction required. After the breaking the churning is continued until the butter grains are of the desired size (viz., pea size in large churns). In the tropics, addition of breakwater can be avoided by providing an air-conditioned butter making room and /or chill water spray over the butter churn. Factors affecting fat loss in buttermilk Fat percentage of cream: Lower the fat percentage of cream, the lower the fat percentage in butter milk, but the greater is the percent total fat loss in buttermilk, vice versa Size of fat globules. the greater the proportion of small sized fat globules, the greater the fat loss ,and vice versa Acidity of cream at churning. According to Hunziker, sour cream causes a lower fat loss than sweet cream; but according to Mc Dowell, the reverse is true. Physical properties of fat: the softer the fat, the more the fat loss and vice versa. Condition of cooling and ageing: insufficient cooling and ageing i.e. improper crystallization causes more fat loss and vice versa Conditions of churn: overloading, gross under loading and under churning all a cause a greater fat loss in butter milk. Washing : When the cream has been churned the churn is stopped in the proper position, a drain-plug fixed and the buttermilk removed thorough sieve. The purpose of washing is Remove all loose buttermilk adhering to butter grains so as to reduce the curd content of butter, thereby improving its keeping quality. To correct defects in the firmness of butter by proper adjustment of wash water temperatures, and To decease the intensity of certain off flavours After buttermilk has been drained chilled water is added to the butter grains in the churn. The temperature of water is usually1-2C lower than the churning temperature of cream and an amount equal to the quantity of buttermilk removed. Normally one wash is enough for good quality butter. The quality of water should be physically clean and bacteriologically and chemically safe. It is better to use freshly pasteurized and cooled water. Salting

29
Refers to addition of salt to butter. To improve keeping quality To enhance the taste. To increase overrun. Salt is usually added at the rate of 2.0-2.5 % of the butterfat. Excessive salt damages the quality of butter. The calculated amount of salt may be added to butter either by sprinkling the powder salt over the butter surface during working or it may be wetted in the least amount of potable water and then sprinkled over the butter during working. The salt is added in the form of a saturated solution of brine. Specifications of butter salt The salt should be a coarse grained and free from lump. It should pass completely through and IS sieve-85 (aperture 842 microns). 99.5 99.85 % sodium chloride on dry matter. Bacterial counts less than 10/kg. Completely soluble. High rate of solution. Negligible sediment. Working: This refers to the kneading of butter, Objectives: To completely dissolve, uniformly distribute and properly incorporate the salt. To expel buttermilk and to control the moisture content of butter, To fully incorporate the added makeup water in butter. To bring the butter grains together into a compact mass for convenient handling and packaging. During working, the moisture in butter is reduced to droplets of microscopic size, which are mostly sterile. The working should be continued until the butter has a compact body, closely-knit grain, a tough waxy texture, and an even distribution of salt and moisture. Indicator paper develops a coloured spot if free moisture is present. Both over working and under working should be avoided; the overworking damages the body and texture of butter and under working produces leaky butter. Working increases the air content of butter. Normally worked butter has an air-content of 0.510ml/100 g. The air content of butter is important because it affects I) the density of butter ii) its microbial spoilage; and iii) its oxidative spoilage. Packaging and storage of butter Objectives of packaging To offer protection against contamination and damage To protect the butter against loss in weight and degradation To provide ease and safety of transport; To provide a convenient form of disposal; To identify the contents and increase sales appeals, appearance etc. The packaging materials include Wood or timber, parchment paper/substitutes, aluminum foil /laminates, tin-plates cans etc. Tin plate cans are advantageous in tropical countries not only in preventing melted butter from escaping in hot weather but also in preventing absorption of foreign flavours. The packaging may be hand moulding and wrapping; or it may be mechanical moulding, patting, and wrapping. The standard butter-packaging machine is automatic or semi automatic. The weight of the packaged butter pats should be checked regularly as they come out of the machine.

30
Vacuum packaging of butter in tin cans does not significantly improve the keeping quality, because the oxygen enclosed in the butter or dissolved in the fat is only partially removed. Canned butter is not sterile. Storage: The temperature of cold storage of butter ranges from 23 to 29C. There is invariably some flavour deterioration of butter during commercial cold storage, thus a fishy off flavour develops in salted acid butter. Bacteriological deterioration plays a negligible part, while chemical degradation plays a leading one. Shrinkage of butter during storage of patted butter: Shrinkage refers to loss in weight and is caused mainly by evaporation of moisture from the butter pat. The extent of shrinkage depends on Type of wrapper. Moisture proof / greaseproof wrappers cause less shrinkage than other types. Condition of moisture in butter. The greater the quantity of free moisture in butter, the greater the shrinkage and vice versa. Size of pat: the smaller the pat, the greater the shrinkage and vice versa Temperature of storage: the higher the temperature of storage the greater the shrinkage and vice versa Relative humidity of storage air: the higher the humidity, the lower the shrinkage, and vice versa Period of storage: the longer the period, the greater the shrinkage ad vice versa Keeping quality of butter: The factors affecting the keeping quality are Temperature of storage: Copper and iron content the higher the content the lower the Salt content of butter keeping quality. Acidity content of butter Curd content of butter Air content of butter. Raw or pasteurized cream: pasteurization of cream increases the keeping quality. The method of packaging: sanitized high quality packaging materials and sanitary methods of packaging increase the keeping quality and vice versa Exposure to light lowers the keeping quality Sweet cream /unsalted butter has the maximum and acid cream /salted butter the minimum keeping quality under commercial cold storage. Over run in butter Over run may be defined as the increase in the amount of butter made from a given amount of fat. It is usually expressed as a percentage. Over run is caused by the presence of moisture, curd, salt etc., in butter. It is a source of profit to the butter maker and helps to check the efficiency of factory operations Types: Theoretical over run: Maximum obtainable, viz.25%. Since the minimum legal fat content of butter is 80%, the maximum amount of butter that can be made from 100 kg of fat are 100/80x100=125kg. This gives an overrun of 25 %, which is not obtainable in actual practice. Actual over run: On the basis of fat actually bought and butter made there from. Factors influencing over run: Inaccuracy in weight, fat test of milk, cream or butter: Fat losses in skim milk or buttermilk: Mechanical fat losses

31
Unavoidable fluctuations in the fat content of butter Weight allowances in butter packs or cream or butter Handling losses etc. Formula for calculation of overrun % OR = B- F F Where OR= overrun in butter B= butter made(kg) F= fat in churn (kg). Yield of butter This is calculated by the formula: F X (100+%OR) Y= 100 Where Y = yield of butter (kg) F = fat content of cream. (Kg) %OR = Percentage over run in butter (Ave. 20-22). Theories of churning: They are three main theories on the churning of cream in to butter. Viz. Fisher and Hookers phase reversal theory Rahns foam theory Kings modern theory. Fisher and Hookers Phase Reversal Theory: According to this theory, churning is a process of phase reversal, i.e. changing an oil-in-water type emulsion to a water-in-oil type emulsion such as butter. Agitation of cream in the churning process causes coalescence and clumping of fat globules until eventually the ratio of the surface area to the volume of fat units becomes so small that it can no longer contain all the buttermilk in stable form. The fat-in-water emulsion then suddenly breaks, yielding butter grains and free buttermilk. Drawback: Butter is not true water in fat emulsion. Microscopic studies reveal that a proportion of fat globules in butte is still intact in the worked butter. Rahns Foam Theory: According to this theory, the presence of foam/froth is essential for churning. It also postulates that there is a foam producing substance present in cream, which gradually solidifies as the cream, or milk is agitated. Foam is created during the churning period. The fat globules due to X 100

32
surface tension effect tend to concentrate and clump on the foam bubbles. The foam producing substance assumes a solid character and the foam collapses. The fat globules then coalesce and butter is formed. Drawbacks: Foam formation is not required in some continuous butter making processes. Kings Modern Theory: According to this theory, In cooled cream at churning temperature, the fat is present as clusters of fat globules; and within each globule it is present partly in liquid and partly in solid form. Churning breaks up the cluster and cause foam/ froth formation. The globules become concentrated to some extent in the film around the air bubbles in the foam and are thus brought into close contact with each other. The movement of the globules over one another in the foam film and the direct concussion between them causes a gradual wearing away of the emulsion protecting surface layer of the phospholipid protein complex. The globules then adhere together to form larger and larger particles. Eventually these particles become visible as butter grains. As the granules form , they enclose some of the air from the foam. The fat in the granules is still mainly in globular form. The working of butter grains cause the globules to move over one another, under the effect of friction and pressure, some of them yield up a portion of liquid fat. Others are broken up during working. Finally there is enough free liquid fat present to enclose all the water droplets, air bubbles and intact fat globules. Continuous butter making (CBM) A number of types of continuous butter making machines have been developed for commercial use. Advantages of CBM: More economical due to lower capital cost, lower running cost (reduced power, labour, refrigeration, steam, detergent etc.,). Reduced floor space, no expensive foundations to prepare, no time loss for fat crystallization, less in butter wastage, etc., More hygienic due to its being a closed system, free from air borne contamination. Disadvantages: Lack of uniformity on the quality. Difficulty in grading and analysis. Basic principles: The continuous methods of butter production developed since 1935 may be divided into three main groups. Groups I: Fritz process or churning process: this involves the use of high-speed beaters to destabilize the fat emulsion in the chilled cream, and thus cause the formation of grains of butter in matter of seconds. The buttermilk is drained away and the resulting grains worked in a kneading section prior to extrusion. Group II: Alfa-Laval process or the concentration and phase reversal process. This involves a system whereby cream of 30-40 per cent fat is concentrated in a special cream separator to 80-82% fat. After standardization, the concentrated cream or butter mix is subjected to combined cooling and

33
mechanical action, which causes phase reversal and the formation of butter, followed by its expulsion from the machine. Group III: Cherry Burrell process which again involves the concentration of 30-40 % cream. During concentration, the emulsion is broken and the fat, water, and salt content are standardized. This is followed by re-emulsification, cooling working, and finally extrusion. Defects in butter, their causes, and prevention Defects in butter may arise due to low quality milk or cream, and faulty method of manufacture and storage of butter. The common defects in butter, their causes, and prevention are given below. Name of the defect Flavour Acid /high acid / sour. Alkaline/neutralizer Bitter Using acid cream Under neutralization. over neutralization cream of Using sweet cream Optimum neutralization of cream. Optimum neutralization Eradication of offending weeds Checking lipase activity by avoiding the danger zone during raw cream separation. Causes Prevention.

Intake of bitter weeds by milch animals. Lipase activity during raw cream separation. Growth of proteolytic bacteria in cream.

Cheesy

Growth of proteolytic bacteria leading to casein breakdown Overheating of cream during pasteurization. Feeding of milk tainting feeds and weeds within three hours before milking. High acid salted butter in the presence of appreciable amounts of copper and / or iron content under commercial cold storage.

Storage of cream at 5Cor below to check bacterial growth. Optimum heating of cream during pasteurisation. Feeding of milk tainting feeds and weeds soon after milking. Unsalted sweet cream butter under commercial cold storage.

Cooked

Feed and weed

Fishy

34
Flat low diacetyl content in butter Low salt butter content in Adequate ripening of cream before churning. Correct salt content of butter. Optimum butter. washing of

Excessive washing of butter Rancid. Fat hydrolysis due to lipase action in milk or cream. Fat oxidized due to direct contact of milk / cream butter with copper or iron, exposure of these products to sunlight etc., Cream or poor quality held too long before churning. Butter stored insufficient temperature for periods. Yeasty b) Body and texture defects Crumbly Under working of butter Seasonal changes in fat composition Sudden chilling of butter soon after production. at low long

Inactivating lipase by proper pasteurization of milk or cream. Storage of milk/cream/butter in properly tined or aluminum alloy or stainless steel vessels, Vacuum pasteurization of cream. Avoiding storage of cream during churning. Correct temperature for storage of butter.

Oxidized/oily/metallic /tallowy

Stale

Using old, yeasty cream for churning.

Using fresh, sweet cream for churning.

Adequate butter

working

of

Controlled cooling ageing churning and washing temperatures. Avoiding hock cooling of butter soon after production.

Greasy

Overworking of butter Excessively temperature water. of high wash

Adequate butter

working

of

Correct wash temperature.

water

Gummy

High proportion of high melting point fats. Under working of butter Excessively high

Avoiding feeds containing high melting pint fats Adequate working of butter correct churning

Leaky

35
churning temperature of cream Over churning of butter Incorrect cooling ageing of cream. Excessively temperature water. Mealy or grainy of of temperature of cream Optimum butter churning of and

Correct cooling ageing of butter

high wash

Correct temperature of wash water. Correct neutralization of high acid cream with lime. Avoiding oiling off of fat during butter making. Adequate cooling ageing of cream. of

Incorrect neutralization of high acid cream with lime Oiling off of fat during butter making.

Spongy/weak.

Inadequate cling ageing of cream.

and

Churning cream at too high temperature High proportion of low melting point fats.

Churning cream at optimum temperature Adjusting churning conditions to take care of high proportion of low melting point fats. Adequate butter. working of

Sticky Gritty

Over working of butter n-dissolved coarse salt in butter Incorrect butter salting of

Proper grinding of butter Correct salting of butter.

c) Colour Mottled Inadequate washing of butter grains Improper incorporation of salt in butter Inadequate working of butter. Streaky/wavy Uneven butter. working of Adequate washing butter grains. of

Proper incorporation of salt in butter. Adequate butter. working of

Even working of butter Complete working of two or more lots of butter Adequate butter. working of

Incomplete working of two or more lots of butter. Dull /pale, Overworking of butter.

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Uses of butter Direct consumption . In the preparation of sauces. As a cooking medium In the baking and confectionery industries. In the manufacture of Ice cream, butter oil and ghee. In the production of reconstituted milk.

GHEE Ghee may be defined as clarified butterfat prepared chiefly from cow or buffalo milk. (To clarify means to make clear a liquid or something liquefied, by removing unwanted solid matter or impurities.) According to the PFA (1976), ghee is the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no colouring matter is added. Chemical composition of ghee Characteristics Requirements Cow Milk fat Moisture Unsaponifiable matter a) Carotene (g/g.) b) Vit.A (I.U./g) c) Tocopherol (g/g.) Free fatty oleic) acids (% 3.2-7.4 19-34 26-48 Max. 2.8 (agmark) 17-38 18-37 99 to 99.5 per cent Not more than 0.5 per cent Buffalo

Charred casein, salts of copper and iron, etc.,

Traces

Physico-chemical constants: Ghee is characterized by certain physico-chemical properties, which show some natural variations depending on such factors as, method of manufacture, age and condition of the sample, species, breed, individuality and animals stage of lactation, season of the year, region of the country, feed of the animal etc., Some of the important analytical constants or standards of mixed ghee produced under standard conditions are given below: 1) Melting and solidifying points:

37
The melting point varies from 28C to 44C, while the solidifying point varies from 28C to 15C. (As ghee fat is of a mixture of glycerides, it does not have a sharp melting or solidifying point). 2) Specific gravity: This varies from 0.93 0.94. 3) Refractive index: The Butyro-Refractometer (B.R), reading (at 40C ) varies from 40-45. 4) Reichert-Meissl (RM) Value: This is also known as Reichert value, and this should be normally not less than 28. However, ghee from cottonseed feeding areas, the limit is 20. 5) Polenske value (P.V): This should be normally not more than 2 (except for cotton-seed feeding areas, where the limit is 1.5) 6) Saponification value: This should be normally not less than 220. 7) Iodine value: This should normally vary from 26 to 38. (Cotton tract refers to the areas in the states where cottonseeds are extensively fed to the cattle and so notified by the state government concerned.) Methods of preparation: Ghee can be prepared by various methods, which are as follows: Country/Desi method Creamery butter method Pre-stratification method Direct cream method Continuous method Desi Method: Fresh or accumulated over a few days, makkhan (butter) is taken in a suitable open mud-pot or metallic vessel, and heated and stirred on a low fire to drive out the moisture. When practically all the moisture has been removed, a stage judged by experience, further heating is stopped and the vessel removed from the fire. On cooling, when the residue has settled down, the clear fat is decanted into suitable containers. Merits: Desirable flavour, body and texture Demerits: Extremely small scale in operation, problems in collecting and marketing Low keeping quality and vitamin content. Creamery butter method:

38
A standard method, where unsalted creamery butter is used. Butter is heated in an ghee boiler consisting of a steel jacketed pan with a stirrer, with steam supply and control valves. The butter mass, is cut into small pieces and heated on low heat and carefully stirred. Later after complete melting, the steam pressure is raised to bring the liquid mass to boil at a temperature of 90C. The contents are constantly agitated throughout the process of conversion of butter into ghee, to prevent scorching. The scum, gathering on the top is periodically removed, until there is profuse effervescence, followed by crackling sound, initially. When all the moisture have been driven out, the temperature of the liquid shoots up suddenly and end point is indicated by the appearance of effervescence for the second time together with browning of the curd particles. At this stage, characteristic ghee flavour emanates and the temperature now will be around 110120C . Heating is then stopped, and after cooling and sedimentation, the ghee is filtered through a muslin cloth and goes for granulation and packaging. Merits: Saving in labour, physical exertion and exposure to uncomfortably high temperatures and humidity during actual ghee making compared to the direct-cream heating method. Pre-stratification method: The two above mentioned practices of ghee making has the disadvantage of poor quality of the finished product characterized by an over-heated and smoky flavour, along with high acidity, making it greasy and with reduced shelf life. Hence research work has led to the evolving of a newer method/technique, which yields a higher grade product at lower cost, known as the prestratification process. The basic principle of this method is that, when butter is left undisturbed 80-85C for 15 to 30 minutes, it stratifies, i.e., separates into 3 distinct layers, viz., a top layer of floating denatured particles of curd, a middle layer of fat, and a bottom layer of buttermilk. This separation is called pre-stratification. The bottom layer of buttermilk contains 60-70 percent of solids-not-fat and also over 80 per cent of the moisture originally present in butter. The buttermilk is removed mechanically without disturbing the top and middle layers. Afterwards, the temperature of the remaining two upper layers (of denatured curd and fat) is raised to the usual clarifying temperature of 110-120C. Merits: 1.Econmy in fuel consumption as compared to direct clarification 2.Production of ghee with lower acidity and longer shelf life. Direct-cream method: Here, the cream obtained by normal separation of milk is heated in the same ghee boiler described for the creamery-butter method and the procedure for heating and moisture removal, final temperature of clarification, cooling and sedimentation, granulation and packaging also remain the same. Merits: Overall economy in labor compared to the creamery method Demerits: Low fat recovery Slightly greasy texture of ghee Continuous method: Objects:

39
1.To manufacture ghee on an industrial scale as an continuous process 2.To reduce human labor Advantages: Large scale handling Utilization of machines for a large number of operations Uniform demand on services High fat recovery Possibility of in-place-cleaning (IPC) No stirring, no scrapping and no laborious effort on the part of the ghee operators required. Final temperature of clarification: The final temperature to which ghee is heated during the manufacture depends upon the region of the country, normally it is around 110C in north India and 120C in south India. Cooling and granulation: (crystallization) Granularity in ghee is considered as an important criterion of quality and even purity. Granular form of ghee is assumed primarily to certain content of glycerides of high-melting saturated fatty acids, esp. palmitic and stearic acid. In this regard the buffalo ghee, which is more saturated, crystallizes more effectively than cow ghee. It has been observed that heating ghee to 60-100C, followed by rapid cooling, yields small grains in ghee; however, if the ghee is held for crystallization at a temperature about 1C above the melting point of ghee (cow ghee29C; buffalo31C), a large number of big grains result. Cold storage of ghee should be avoided, as it leads to a loss of granularity and the product develops a waxy consistency, when stored. Renovation of Ghee: This refers to the market practice of attempting to improve the old and rancid ghee, so as to make it marketable as a product of secondary quality. Some of the methods employed for the renovation of ghee include: Re-heating inferior ghee with curd, betel leaves, etc., and subsequently filtering it; Adding a yellow substance, such saffron, annatto, turmeric juice, etc to make it as cow ghee Blending an inferior ghee with a superior quality product. Neutralizing high-acid ghee: Market ghee sometimes develops large quantities of free fatty acid (oleic), which results from faulty methods of preparation and storage. This produces harmful effects in the body system. This is tackled by the process neutralization. In one, the neutralizer used is sodium hydroxide, and other is lime. Lime is more preferable than sodium hydroxide. First the high acid ghee to be refined, is heated to 60-70C, and finely ground, good quality lime (shell-lime), powdered to 60 mesh is then sprinkled on the surface @ 3 % of ghee. The temperature is quickly raised to108C with gentle stirring and mass is cooled and filtered at 60C. Antioxidants: Lipid oxidation is a chain reaction involving initiation, propagation and termination stages. The unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized to form odorless, tasteless hydro peroxides, which further degrade to yield carbonyls and other compounds, which give out the characteristic unagreeable oxidised flavour. The various factors which affect oxidation include, oxygen concentration, light intensity, contact with metals etc., Anti-oxidants are substances used to inhibit the progress of lipid oxidation, and may be either natural (e.g., Tocopherols, carotene,) or synthetic substances

40
(Butylated hydroxy anisole, Butylated hydroxy toluene, Hydroquinone, gallic acid esters etc.,) Metal-chelating agents, such as citric acid and phosphoric acid, EDTA act in conjunction with antioxidants and inhibit fat oxidation. Keeping quality of Ghee can be extended by the addition of antioxidants. Under the PFA Rules (1976), BHA at not exceeding 0.02 per cent can be added. Naturally, betel leaves and curry leaves are added while ghee making at 1 per cent level, which gives good flavour to ghee as well as it acts as antioxidant. The AGMARK ghee-grading scheme: Literally Agmark is an insignia - AG for agricultural and MARK for marketing with a view to develop the orderly marketing of agricultural produce on all India basis, the Indian legislature had passed the agricultural produce (grading and marketing) act 1937, this act provides for the grading of ghee on a voluntary basis. The Agmark grading scheme was introduced mainly to achieve the following objectives. To assure the consumer a produce of pre-tested quality and purity. To enable manufacturers of a high-grade product to obtain better returns. To develop an orderly marketing of the commodities by eliminating malpractices when transferring them from the producer to the consumer. AGMARK ghee specifications: S . N o 1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 7 . Tests All-India Regional Winter Summer

Baudouin Phytosterol test B.R. reading(40C ) R.M. value Polenske value Moisture Free fatty acids(%oleic acid) a) special grade Agmark red lable b) general grade Agmark green lable Not more than 2.5 Not more than 1.4 40.0-43.0 Not less than 28.0 1.0-2.0 Not more than 0.3

Negative Negative 41.5-44.0 Not less than 23.0 0.5 1.2 42.5-45.0 Not less than 21.0 0.5-1.0

41

Defects in ghee, their causes and prevention Name of the defect Flavour Smoky Causes Smoky fire used for boiling milk or converting makkhan into ghee in desi method. Excessive high temperature of clarification of ghee Excessive temperature clarification low of Prevention Using non smoky fire for boiling milk or converting makkhan in to ghee in desi method Optimum temperature clarification of ghee Optimum temperature clarification of ghee. of

Overcooked /burnt Undercooke d Rancid

of

Fat hydrolysis due to lipase action in milk / cream / curd / butter/kachcha ghee.

Inactivation of lipase by proper pasteurization heating of milk cream etc., Using optimum clarification of the Packaging in small containers for retail sale.

Oxidized/oil y/ Metallic

Fat oxidation due to direct contact of milk curd/cream/butter/ghee with copper or iron exposure of this product to sunlight etc.

Storage of milk curd / scream / butter / ghee in properly tinned or aluminum alloy /stainless steel vessels. Filling ghee up to the brim so as to avoid any head space air Avoiding storage of ghee at high temperature Avoiding use salted butter from ghee making avoiding long storage of ghee Storage of containers. ghee in opaque

Texture Greasy

Rapid cooling of hot ghee after clarification. Subjecting ghee to further heating and cooling treatments after preparation.

Slow cooling of hot ghee after clarification Avoiding further heating and cooling of ghee after preparation.

Colour Burnt

Excessively high temperature of clarification of ghee.

Optimum temperature clarification of ghee.

of

42

Sediment High Burnt

Incorrect ghee

straining

of

Correct straining of ghee. Optimum clarification. temperature of

Excessively high temperature of clarification of ghee.

Uses of Ghee Major uses As a cooking or frying medium In confectionery For direct consumption Minor Use: In indigenous pharmaceutical preparations (mainly cow ghee)

GHEE RESIDUE This refers to the charred light to dark brown residue which is obtained on the cloth strainer after the ghee, prepared by different methods, is filtered. It is by-product of the ghee industry. Essentially it contains heat-denatured milk-proteins, caramelized lactose and varying proportions of entrapped fat, besides some minerals and water. Type of Residue Chemical composition Wat er Fat Prot ein Lact ose Ash Ave.Yield (kg) (per 100 Kg) Butter / Cream (kg)

From Desi Butter Cow Buffalo 14.4 13.4 32.4 33.4 36 32.8 12 15.4 5.2 5.2 1.6 1.6

Ghee residue is a rich source of milk fat, proteins and minerals. Methods of recovery of gheeresidue includes, centrifugal and pressure techniques. Uses: For direct consumption.

43
For preparation of ghee-toffees For preparation of sandwich paste and 4.For preparation of burfi sweets

44
CONDENSED MILKS Condensed milks are the milks obtained by evaporating part of water of whole milk, or fully or partly skimmed milk, with or without the addition of sugar. The term condensed milk is commonly used when referring to full cream sweetened condensed milk while the term evaporated milk is commonly used when referring to full cream unsweetened condensed milk. Skimmed milk products are known as sweetened condensed skim milk and unsweetened condensed skim milk. The ratio of concentration of milk solids is about 1: 2.5 for full cream products and 1: 3 for sweetened condensed skim milk. According to the PFA (1976) the various condensed milks have been specified as follows: Unsweetened condensed milk (evaporated milk) is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination therefore, or from standardized milk, by the partial removal of water. It may contain added calcium chloride, citric acid and sodium citrate, sodium salts of orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3 per cent by weight of the finished product. Such addition need not be declared on the label. Unsweetened condensed milk should contain not less than 8.0 percent milk fat, and not less than 26 per cent milk solids.

Detailed Composition of the condensed milks (percentage) Type of condensed milk Condensed milk Evaporated milk Skim sweetened Water Total solids Fat Milk solids not Fat Protein Lactose Ash Total milk solid Sucrose

26.0 31.0 29.0

74.0 69.0 71.0

9.0 9.0 0.5

22.0 22.0 25.5

8.3 8.3 9.3

12.2 12.2 14.0

1.5 1.5 2.2

31.0 31.0 26.0

43.0 45.0

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Indian Standard Specifications for condensed milks Requirement for Characteristics Total milk solids (%wt.) Min Fat (% wt) Sucrose (% wt.) Min Acidity(% lactic) Max Bacterial count (per g.) Coliform count (per g) Yeast and mould count (per g.) Max Condensed milk 31.0 Not less than 9.0 40 0.35 500 Negative 10 Skim sweetened 26.0 Not more than 0.5 % 40 0.35 500 Negative 10

Food and Nutritive value of condensed and evaporated a milks: Both have high nutritive value, both are rich in fat and fat-soluble vitamins A, D E and K, body building proteins, bone forming minerals and energy-giving sucrose, evaporated milk is suitable for infant feeding since it makes a soft curd which is easily digested. Physico-chemical properties: Specific gravity/density: Evaporation of water in the manufacture of condensed milks raises their specific gravity/density, which is universally employed to control their composition. Baume hydrometers are widely used for this purpose. Freeing point: The freezing point of condensed milk is 14.9C and that of evaporated milk is - 1.3 C Colour and flavour: Heat treatment during manufacture of condensed milks tend to darken their color and develop cooked flavour, the darkening/browning-discoloration results from the interaction of the amino-compounds with sugar (casein and lactose) and is called as Maillard-type browning. The brown pigment is called as melanoidin. Role of Milk constituents in condensed Milks: Milk fat: Imparts a rich and pleasing flavour, soft body and smooth texture to both condensed and evaporated milks. Affects viscosity. Significant in flavour problems, such as rancidity, tallowiness, etc. Milk-Proteins: Technologically of great importance and their physico-chemical reactions to processing-heat largely determine the heat stability and viscosity of the condensed milks. Milk sugar: Plays an important role in the successful control of the texture of condensed milk. The size of the lactose crystals determines the relative smoothness

47
of the condensed milk, and is controlled by the procedure used for the cooling and crystallization of this product. Mineral salts: These-particularly calcium and magnesium together with citrates and phosphates control the salt balances and heat stability of milk. A disturbed saltbalance causes objectionable heat-coagulation of milk.

Method of manufacture, packaging, and storage of condensed milk. Receiving milk Filtration / Clarification (38-40C) Standardization Fore warming/preheating (115-118 C / No Hold) Condensing (2.5:1) Addition of sugar Homogenization Quickly cooled to 30C Seeded with 0.1 - 0.3 % lactose Vigorous stirring and slow cooling for 1 hour. Temperature of 15 c reached Stirring continued until packed. Storage at 10 c.

48

Details of manufacture: The basic principle in the production of condensed milk and evaporated milk is that high quality milk is filtered / clarified, standardized, fore-warmed and condensed /evaporated to the desired level. The concentrated product is preserved by the addition of sugar for condensed milk and by heat sterilization for evaporated milk. When the milk is received at the plant, its temperature should be at 10C or below. The milk should be clean, sweet, and free from off-flavours and odours and reasonably free form extraneous material. Contamination by antibiotics, pesticides and other chemical residues and metals is highly undesirable; abnormal milk should not be accepted. Acid development is objectionable for not only does this indicate an excessive bacterial count, but it also reduces the heat stability of milk. The various platform tests and laboratory tests usually performed on the intake milk to determine its acceptance /rejection are Alcohol test Clot on boiling tests. Alcohol test: To make this test, 5 ml of milk is placed in a test tube and an equal amount of solution with 68 % alcohol added, the mixture is shaken and any formation of clot or flake denotes a positive test, i.e., the milk is susceptible to heat coagulation. A disturbed salt balance affects alcohol coagulation in the same manner as heat coagulation. The test detects: abnormal milk including colostrum. Which is high in mineral salts and developed acidity in milk, mastitis milk likely to result in sweet curdling etc., It is more sensitive than the COB test. Alcohol index: determined by placing absolute alcohol in the burette and 10 ml of milk in a beaker. The number of ml of alcohol required for flake formation is known as the Alcohol Index (AI). An AI of 7 is indicative of good stable milk for acceptance, while 3 or less shows that the milk is fit for rejection. Alcohol alizarin test: This test not only determines the heat stability of milk but also the pH. Clot on boiling test: In this test, 5 ml of milk is placed in a test tube and kept in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes, after wards it is removed and examined for precipitation, if curd is observed, the milk is said to fail the COB test and should be rejected. Filtration/clarification: This is done in order to remove the visible foreign matter at a temperature of 3540C, and then cooled. Standardization: Standardization of the raw milk is carried out in 3 stages, for 1. The first standardization which establishes the desired fat / SNF ratio (usually 1:2.44, done in raw milk)) 2. The second, which establishes the desired ratio of added sugar to the total milk solids (done prior to condensing)

49
3.The third, which adjust the concentration of the finished product to the required, total solids Content (after finishing the batch, i.e., prior to homogenization) Forewarming / Pre-heating: Which is done for making the finished product free from microorganisms and enzymes, to ensure uninterrupted boiling in pan and to control age thickening in the finished product. The time temperature combination varies over 82-93C for 5-15 minutes. Tubular heat exchangers are commonly used. Addition of sugar: Sugar is added for preserving the condensed milk, without resorting to sterilization process, and cane or beet sugar is the commonly added as sweetening agent. Amount of sugar to be added: This ranges from 40-45 % in the finished product, which requires 18-20 percent sugar on milk basis. As per Hunziker, (scientist), advocated a sugar ratio (sugar-in water concentration) of 62.5 to 64.5 per cent. Sugar Ratio Determination (SR). This can be calculated either by using % SR = % sugar 100 - % TMS (or) % SR = % sugar X 100 % sugar + % water Where TMS stands for Total Milk Solids. Method of adding sugar and quality: Sucrose in granules or syrup of good quality is added. Liquid sugars (65 %) should be subjected to high pasteurizing temperatures to destroy the microorganisms before they are added to condensed milk. Sugar should be added towards the end of the condensing process. The dry sugar is dissolved in the least possible quantity of water. If added before condensing, an increase in viscosity and greater difficulty in the evaporation of moisture result. Further, the presence of added sugar in the fresh milk during forewarming increases the heat resistance and survival capacity of the microorganisms and affects the keeping quality. The sugar syrup should be filtered or passed through a centrifugal clarifier before adding to the product. X 100

50
Condensing: General: To obtain a concentrate (old term condensate), the water content in milk must be reduced by 70 %. There is removal of water and it is called concentration. Evaporating the water in suitable installations (evaporators) does the concentration, where the mass and volume are reduced, and the viscosity is increased. The parameters can be used for process control. The important aspects of milk concentrations are: Minimum reduction of nutritional values and organoleptic properties Minimum steam and water consumption Good process control and easy monitoring Basic information: Evaporation means the concentration of milk or liquid products: the water has to reach a boiling point; and the steam must have a pressure equivalent to ambient pressure. Vapour (steam) is removed by the pressure difference. (or) It consists of removal of water from the milk under partial vacuum at a low temperature using an evaporator. The evaporator is also called a vacuum pan and it is used for economy and quickness of operation and products of better quality is obtained. Evaporators and types of Evaporators The different types of evaporators can be classified as recirculation, falling film and plate evaporators, working either on a batch basis or continuously. There can be heat recovery ( in single-stage plants by preheating installations or multistage plants by using the energy of the vapor from one stage to heat the following stage). Residual heat is used to preheat milk. Batch evaporators are used in smaller plants whereas, continuous evaporators are used in larger plants. Evaporation installations can be either single-stage or multistage, which reduces the steam consumption up to 0.08-kg steam/kg evaporated water. (The normal steam requirement is 0.3 0.6-kg steam/kg of evaporated water). Technical specification of the concentrations processes: The capacity of an evaporator is expressed in kg water evaporated per hour The specific steam consumption is 0.3-0.6 kg steam per kg of evaporated water Specific cooling water consumption is 8-10 kg per kg evaporated water, with a cooling water temperature of 15C. Single stage recirculation evaporator: This evaporator has a capacity of 1000/l per hr of water. The product is pumped into a tubular heating section from the bottom, where heat is added to the steamvapour mix through a pipe. The product raises in the tube to the top, reaches boiling point and goes to a centrifugal separator, where the concentrated product and steam are separated. If desired concentration has not been reached, it is sent into the

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bottom of the evaporator through the pipe again and is recirculated. The separated vapor (steam) is again reused in the evaporator and balance transferred to a condenser and sent out. Falling film evaporator: This installation for manufacturing of evaporated milk has a water evaporation capacity of 6000kg/h, where the dry matter of milk is increased to 24%. Milk that is to be concentrated, is first heated to 70-80C, and then again pre-heated in tubular pre-heaters to 110-130 C. The steam pressure of the hot milk, due to heating, is first reduced in a flash vessel and then is evenly distributed into tubes installed on the upper part of the equipment. The product now, flows downward in the tubes in a very thin film, which is heated by the steam vapour and part of water is evaporated here. Now, the product-steam (vapour) mixture goes to the centrifugal separator, where they are separated. From here, the separated product is again sent to the next evaporator stage and the process is repeated, where further concentration takes place. Thus recirculation of the product is done to have a more uniform product with desired concentration. The steam (vapour) that is separated and extracted are condensed back and utilized for further heating. The whole plant is put under vacuum by using steam jet-operated vacuum nozzle. The product residence time in falling film evaporators is always the same. The advantages are as follows: Product passage with short contact times on the heated tubes Good heat conduction due to thin product Uniform residence time and therefore no different thermal load More economical from energy point of view Plate evaporator: The main differences between this system and the one mentioned above are that, this is a continuous operating system and moreover, here plate heat exchangers are employed instead of the tubular heating section for heating of the product. The advantages of this system are: Low Installation height Short contact time between the product and plates Flexible capacity by increasing or reducing plates Easy cleaning Vapour space: This refers to the portion of the body of the pan, which extends above the level of milk. It is here that the water contained in boiling milk is converted into the vapor. The walls of the vapour space are equipped with a manhole, thermometer, vacuum gauge, vacuum break, and observation glass and illumination glasses with lights. The milk intake pipe also enters through the wall of the condenser. The pipe connects with the fore warmer and discharges the hot fresh milk into the pan. Entrainment separator:

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This is used for the purpose of reclaiming the milk particles entrained by the vapour currents that pass from the vacuum pan to the condenser at a very high velocity to prevent excessive entrainment losses of valuable milk solids and to minimize the danger of troublesome pollution of milk-factory wastes. The entrainment separators may be either centrifugal type or deflector or reverse flow type. The entrainment separators serve by reducing the pollution loads as well as in effective recovery of the milk solids. Striking the Batch: This term indicates that the correct concentration of the product has been reached. When the boiling milk approaches the desired concentrations with visual indications of the final stage, i.e., settling of milk to a quite boil, assuming of glossy and glistening luster, forming of heavy roll from the periphery towards the centre etc., these signs should warn the operator as to the right time for striking the batch. The striking is confirmed with standard tests like determination of specific gravity/density etc., using Pycnometer Hydrometer test Refractometer test Viscosimeter test etc., The Baumes hydrometer test is the commonly used for condensed milk to find out the density. The specific gravity of the condensed milk is obtained by the formula: Specific gravity of condensed milk at 16 C (60 F), 100 =________________________________________________________ % Fat _____ Sp.Gr (1.6) The specific gravity is then converted to Baumes degree by the formula: Baume at 16 C = 145 _ 145 Sp.Gr.at 16 C (60 F) This is then corrected to the standard temperature used for the hydrometer test of the pan sample by the temperature correction factor 0.03 for each F of deviation from the standard. For condensed milk the Baume Hydrometer value ranges from 30 to 37 Be. + % MSNF __________ Sp.Gr + % Sugar 1.6 + % water

_________

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Finishing the batch: On striking the batch when the desired density has been reached, the condensing process is stopped. All the steam to the pan is shut off, the valve in the water line to the condenser is closed, the vacuum pump is stopped and the vacuum relief is opened. The above operation should be carried out in the order stated to prevent milk from burning on to the heating surface and condenser water from flooding the pan. When the vacuum has been dissipated, the condensed milk is drawn from the pan. Third standardization: As some manufacturers tend to prefer slightly over-condense the milk and then standardize it back to the exact concentration desired by the addition of the correctly calculated amount of water. Homogenization: Hot condensed milk is invariably homogenized before it is cooled and crystallized with the objective of getting a uniform fat emulsion and reduces fat separation to minimum during storage. A total pressure of 2500 psi, with 2000 psi in the first stage and 500 psi in the second stage are used. Cooling and Crystallization: Cooling process is an important step in the manufacture of condensed milk as this delays the tendency of age-thickening and discoloration in the product and moreover, the method of cooling decides the smoothness of texture of the finished final product. Lactose plays an important role in the control of texture of condensed milk, as it constitutes a highly concentrated solution in the product. The size and the number of the lactose crystals determines the smoothness of the product, which is once again controlled by the cooling processes, which the product receives, during its manufacture. Lactose crystallization: Under the existing hot conditions of the condensed milk manufacture only lactose-hydrate will crystallize. And this proceeds slowly due to the slow mutation of the highly soluble -lactose anhydride to the less soluble -lactose-hydrate from its super saturated form. As the smooth texture of the finished product is dependant not on the number of lactose crystals but only on the size of them, conditions are provided in the cooling process that causes mass crystallization. The mass crystallization is achieved by what is known as forced crystallization where the product is held at a particular temperature, which helps in mass crystallization, which

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is optimal for the seeding. The optimum temperature for forced crystallization is in the range of 30-40 C. Seeding of condensed Milk: Seeding refers the introduction of lactose in very fine powder form during the cooling process to provide nuclei for crystallization. Seeding at an optimum temperature is also done for mass crystallization and more importantly to yield uniform sized crystals. The seed material commonly used is powdered lactose (-lactose-hydrate) or dried milk or sweetened condensed milk from the previous batch that should be able to pass through a 200-mesh screen with sharp edges. The amount of seed material to be used is about 375-500 gm per 1000 kg of the original fluid milk or 0.1 0.3 % of condensed milk. The seed lactose should ensure uniform dispersion, hence blending the seed into a small amount of condensed milk and then adding this to the whole batch of the product with vigorous agitation helps to stimulate crystallization and that too formation of desired numerous small crystals is favored. Direct addition of the seed to the batch in dry form should always be avoided, as this causes lumpiness and aggregate masses in the product. After seed lactose is uniformly dispersed, cooling of the product may be continued slowly to 24 C over one hour and finally to 13-18 C with continuous agitation. Rapid crystallization leads to the formation of a large number of small crystals, giving a smooth texture to the condensed milk. After seeding and forced crystallization, cooling is resumed under constant agitation, as rapidly as possible until the final temperature is reached. Agitation is then generally continued for another hour or longer, and is sent for packaging. Systems of cooling: Batch, consisting of a vat with water jacketed sides and bottom and a powerful rotary agitator Continuous-flow, represented by internal tube arrangement with counter-current mechanism, and is used in large scale manufacture. Combined batch and continuous, a combination using internal tube cooler and a crystallizer tank. Vacuum cooling, which uses high vacuum as the cooling medium. Packaging and storage: Packaging is done in barrels, drums with polythene liners, or tin-containers. For retail market, fillers are used to pack in can. After filling the cans are sealed, labeled, and packed in cases for storage and distribution. The recent trend is to store the product, i.e., and condensed milk at 10 C or slightly below.

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EVAPORATED MILK: Flow diagram and manufacture Receiving milk Filtration/ Clarification (35-40 C) Standardization Forewarming/Pre-heating (115-118 C / No Hold) Evaporation (1 : 2.5) Homogenization I stage-2000psi II stage-500psi Cooling (7 C) Pilot Sterilization Test (117 C, for 15 min) Packaging Sterilization (116-118 C/ 15 min) Cooling (27-32 C) Shaking Storage (5-15 C) Filtration/clarification: This is done in order to remove the visible foreign matter at a temperature of 3540 C, and then cooled. Standardization:

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Standardization of the raw milk is carried out in 3 stages, for For desired fat/SNF ratio, (usually 1:2.44, done in raw milk) Desired ratio of added sugar to the total milk solids (done prior to condensing) To adjust the concentration of the finished product to the required total solids content (after finishing the batch, i.e., prior to homogenization). Forewarming/Pre-heating: Which is done for making the finished product free from microorganisms and enzymes, to ensure uninterrupted boiling in pan and to control age thickening in the finished product. The time temperature combination varies over 82-93C for 5-15 minutes or 115 118C for no hold. Tubular heat-exchangers are commonly used. Evaporation Evaporation means the concentration of milk or liquid products: the water has to reach a boiling point: and the steam must have a pressure equivalent to ambient pressure. Vapour (steam) is removed by the pressure difference. No sugar is added here and normally a continuous operation takes place. It is customary to slightly over-condense the milk to facilitate standardization later. Homogenization: After evaporation and before cooling, the evaporated milk is thoroughly homogenized to obtain a uniform fat emulsion and reduce separation of fat to a minimum during storage. The temperature is usually 49 C as the product is removed from the last part of the evaporator. Two-stage homogenization is generally recommended, 2000 psi in the first stage and 500-psi in the second stage. After which the samples are cooled to 7 C and stored. Pilot sterilization test: Purpose to determine the amount of chemical stabilizers (trisodium citrate or disodium phosphate) to be added to any given batch of evaporated milk for the most satisfactory heat stability. An approximate 10 percent solution of stabilizer is prepared for use, so that 0.1ml of the solution is equivalent to the addition of 1 g of dry salt for every 16 kg of evaporated milk. The amount of stabilizers to be added to any batch is determined by trial. The sample cans containing measured amount of stabilizer solution and a fixed quantity of evaporated milk are sterilized at 117 C for 15 minutes and then cooled rapidly to 24 C. As soon as they have been cooled the cans are opened, examined for smoothness and colour and tested for viscosity. According to Mojonnier and Troy, a viscosity of 150R on the Mojonnier-Doolittle viscosimeter represents the correct viscosity of evaporated milk as it comes out of the sterilizer. If the viscosity tests for pilot sterilized can show that no stability correction is necessary, the batch is ready to be filled into the cans. However if the tests show otherwise, stability corrections becomes necessary. Based on the pilot sterilization test, the calculated quantity of stabilizer should be added to the evaporated milk in the form of a solution using just enough water to dissolve it.

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Packaging The cans are now mechanically filled with volumetric fillers, the types of one used for this purpose are the sanitary can, the can with a solder seal, and the vent hole can. The temperature of evaporated milk when filling the cans should be neither high nor low, but around 5 C; a higher temperature cause foaming; while a lower temperature increases the tendency towards flipping. This refers to the sudden snapping of can ends from their slightly concave contour to a convex outward bulge, which is usually accompanied by an audible sound. The cans should be filled as nearly full as possible. Sterilization: Immediately after sealing and before sterilization, each can is tested by means of a dependable leak checker / detector, where the cans pass submerged in a hot-water bath. In case of leaky cans, air bubbles rise to the top: these cans are removed for repair. The filled and sealed cans, which have passed the test for leaks, are now ready for sterilization. The purpose of sterilization is to destroy all germ life and enzymes present, thereby preserving the product permanently. During sterilization, the temperature is raised to 116-118 C and held at this temperature for 15 minutes. If the cans cannot be sterilized within an hour or two, they should be then held under refrigeration. Batch method: This consists of a water steam boiler-like, horizontal steam drum, with hollow interior having a revolving frame, in which the cans are loaded. The sterilizer rotates at 6-12 rpm, with uniform distribution of heat. Continuous: Here the cans are progressively heated to a few degrees below the boiling point, and finally enter the sterilizing area proper. Later cooling process starts with the cans gradually moving through progressively less hot-water chambers and finally through cold water. Cooling: Immediately after holding time is over, the evaporated milk is cooled within 15 minutes to 27-32C. Rapid and uniform cooling is important. Bulging of the cans can be avoided by using cold water and in continuous system, cooler operates at 10 psi. Shaking: This is done to break mechanically, any curd, which might have formed during the process of sterilization to a homogenous smooth consistency. Storage: Though evaporated milk can be stored at room temperatures, a storage temperature of 5-16 C is generally used, which helps to keep the product acceptable even up to 2 years. Inversion of cans once in 3-6 months during storage will help to minimize fat separation.

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Uses of Condensed and Evaporated Milks: Condensed milk For reconstitution into sweet milk drinks In tea or coffee In ice-cream preparation In candy and confectionery In prepared foods b) Evaporated milks For reconstitution into milk for feeding infants and persons with weak stomach etc., In ice-cream; In tea and coffee Plain condensed milk: This is unsweetened condensed milk, made from whole milk, partly skim milk or entirely skim milk, and condensed to 2.5 to 4:1. It is used in ice cream factories and bakeries. The product is neither sterile nor preserved by sugar. Its keeping quality is similar to that of high quality, efficiently pasteurized milk. Superheated condensed milk: This is plain condensed milk superheated by blowing live steam during condensing, to increase the viscosity. Frozen condensed milk: This is plain condensed milk frozen to give it a longer storage life and is used in ice-cream factories mostly.

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Defects in condensed and evaporated milks, their causes and prevention: Name of the defect I. Condensed milk a) Microbial defects Contamination with and growth Aspergillus sps. Mould buttons Storage at temperatures high of Avoiding contamination with Aspergillus sps. Storage at low temperature (10-15C ) or below Vacuum packaging or gas Causes Prevention

Presence of oxygen in the head space of the package Contamination with species produce Bacterial thickening Storage at high temperature 3. Low sugar ratio Contamination with and Bloats (microbial) growth lactis of Torula which

Avoiding contamination with species which produce a rennin like enzyme Storage at low temperature (10-15C ) or below Optimum sugar ratio Avoid contamination with and growth of Torula lactis condensi (yeast) Avoid storage at high Temperature

rennin like enzyme

condensi (yeast) 2. Storage at high temperature Non-Microbial Incorrect cooling and Sandiness lactose due to Crystallization Excessively low temperature storage of

Correct cooling and Crystallization Correct temperature of storage

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1. ratio 2 Excessive sugar Optimal cooling and Crystallization of Optimal temperature of storage Optimum forewarming temperature and/or homogenization pressures Adding sucrose only at the end of condensing Storage at temperature (10 C ) Optimal sugar ratio II. Evaporated milk High heat treatment during Cooked flavour by the method Feathering in coffee conventional sterilization Ultra-high-temperature sterilization and aseptic packaging reduces-but may introduce the problem of more spoilage and cooked flavour Optimum viscosity low

Sandiness sucrose

due

to

Excessively low

temperature storage

Excessive forewarming temperature and/or homogenization pressure Age-thickening (physico-chemical) Adding sucrose before forewarming Storage at temperature Low sugar ratio high

of heating. Excessively viscosity high

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DRIED MILK Drying is the separation of a liquid from a compound or blend of compounds by evaporation. The product to be dried exists either in a solid or solidliquid phase. The separation is into a solid and a gas phase. Dried milk products are manufactured to reduce bulk so as to reduce packaging and the transportation costs, to improve the storage life of the product, etc., Definition: Dried milk or milk powder is the product obtained by the removal of water by heat or the suitable means, to produce a solid containing 5 per cent or less moisture. The dried product obtained from whole milk is called Dried whole milk or whole milk powder (WMP); and that from skim milk is known as Dried Skim Milk or Skim Milk Powder (SMP), or Non-fat Dry Milk (NFDM). PFA Legal Standards: Whole Milk Powder: According to the PFA Rules, (1976), whole milk powder is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof, or from standardized milk, by the removal of water. It may contain calcium chloride, citric acid and sodium citrate, sodium salts of orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acids, not exceeding 0.3 per cent by the weight of the finished product, and 0.01 per cent of butylated hydroxy anisole (by weight) of the finished product. Such additions need not be declared on the label. Milk powder should contain not more than 5.0 per cent of moisture and not less than 26.0 per cent of fat. The total acidity expressed as lactic acid should not be more than 1.2. per cent. The standard plate count may not exceed 50,000/g and the Coliform count may not exceed 90/g. The maximum solubility index should be 15.0 for roller dried and 2.0 for a spray dried product. Skim Milk Powder: According to the PFA Rules, (1976), skim milk powder is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof, by the removal of water. It may contain calcium chloride, citric acid and sodium citrate, sodium salts of orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acids, not exceeding 0.3 per cent by the weight of the finished product. Such additions need not be declared on the label. Skim milk powder should contain not more than 1.5 per cent of fat and the moisture may not exceed 5.0 per cent. The total acidity expressed as lactic acid should not be more than 1.5 per cent. The standard plate count may not exceed 50.000/ g. and the Coliform count may not exceed 90/g. The maximum solubility index should be 15.0 for roller dried and 2.0 for a spray dried product. Composition The average percentage composition of whole milk and skim milk powder is given in the following table: (Percentage)

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Type of dried milk Moisture Whole milk powder 2.0 Skim milk powder 3.0 0.8 35.9 52.3 8.0 27.5 26.4 38.2 5.9 Average composition Fat Protein Lactose Ash

Food and nutritive value Under modern methods, the nutritive value of milk is preserved to a great extent. While there appears to be only a slight destruction of lysine in spray drying, the severe heat treatment of roller drying destroys more lysine. Dry whole milk is a good source of vitamin A, calcium and phosphorus. It is also a valuable source of riboflavin. Milk drying systems The manufacturing process consists of unit operations of milk selection and pretreatment, concentrate manufacture, homogenization, drying and filling/packaging. The basic difference is in the type of drying, and can be achieved in several ways and means. Drying by Cold Treatment: Drying milk by freezing out the water and centrifuging. This system was proposed and patented as early as 1884 and is now obsolete. Drying milk by freezing and sublimation: This freeze-drying method, which seems to have been developed in 1945, consists of freezing the product and supplying heat, so that moisture is removed by sublimation by maintaining a vacuum in the vaporizing chamber. Drying by application of heat: Roller/Film/Drum drying Spray drying Dough or paste drying Foam drying Fluid bed drying. Pre-requisites: Milk selection and pretreatment: Milk is selected according to the requirements and clarified and standardized in the usual ways. Heat Treatment: Milk or milk products must be heat treated by an officially approved pasteurization process in order to inactivate possible pathogenic or other harmful

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germs and to inactivate most of the enzymes. Another intensive preheating, such as is normal for evaporated milk, is not required here, because the recontaminating germs cannot grow at the moisture levels available in the powders, and protein stabilization is not necessary. On the contrary, very gentle pasteurization is required in order to have the least whey protein denaturation. Among the other factors, the quality of skim milk powder is measured by the nondenatured whey-protein-nitrogen index (WPN index), which characterizes the heat treatment involved. From this heat classification the application or utilization of the powder can be derived. For certain applications, e.g., baby food, the classification of the gently heated proteins by the WPN is not sufficient, and other criteria such as the protein number (ratio of casein nitrogen and whey protein nitrogen Vs. total protein nitrogen), organoleptic evaluation of the reconstituted milk or the coagulation and acidification capability (e.g., for cheese manufacture) must be taken into account. For the manufacture of low-heat skim powder, the short-time heat treatment must be used; for high-heat skim powder, the process temperature is 90C for 30minutes. For the production of whole milk powder base, milk is heated to 90-95 C and held for 15-30 should, which is considered optimal. Homogenization: To improve the fat distribution, homogenization is advantageous during the manufacture of whole milk powder. If the base is fat-standardized by adding cream, partial-flow homogenization is possible before concentration. Other wise the concentrate is homogenized. Concentration: The objective of concentration is to remove a maximum amount of water from the milk and obtain a maximum dry matter content, as the drying process requires three times more energy than the removal of water in the evaporator. The milk is concentrated to its flow limits, i.e., dry matter will be 40-50 %. The concentration ratio selected is controlled by the finished product and the drying process; the ratios are as follows:Drum-dried milk powder Drum-dried skim milk powder Spray-dried whole milk powder Spray-dried skim milk powder 1 : 3.5-4 1 : 4-6 1 : 3.5 1 : 4-5

A further increase of the concentration ratio in the evaporator is characterized by a significant increase in viscosity and is very difficult due to the flow limits of the concentrate.

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Roller drying/drum drying Basic principle: The product to be dried is applied in a thin layer (film) onto the surface of one or two steam heated drums by using different application systems. The temperature on the drum surface is above 100 C, and heat can be transferred rapidly to the product. This helps in transferring moisture that is evaporated to the ambient air and removing it by airflow. After a three-quarter turn of the drum, the drying process is finished, and the film is removed from the drum by special knives (doctor blades) as a thin film, air-cooled, and milled into powder in a special mill. After intermediate storage in silos the powder is filled and packed. (OR) The principle of the roller drying process is that milk is applied in a thin film upon the smooth surface of a continuously rotating steam heated metal drum. The film of dried product is continuously scraped off by a stationary knife located opposite the point of application of the milk. The drier may consist of a single drum or a pair of drums. The milk may be pre-concentrated before it is being applied to the drum, and the degree of concentration varies with the design of the dryer. The rule is that a single-drum dryer can handle milk of higher concentration than that of a double dryer. The dried milk film is milled to break up the film. The particles of a roller drier powder are solid, flat, irregular flakes containing no air. The absence of occluded air retards oxidation, resulting in good keeping quality. Design and Operation of drum driers: Drum driers may be of the following types, Monocylinder/single drum drier with applicator Double drum drier with spraying device/double drum drier Double drum drier with sump

Flow diagram of drum drying system Milk concentrate (pre-condensed to 2:1) Adjustable pump Feeding Drying drum (150C, for 3 sec)

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Scraper (doctor blades) Grinder (Pulveriser) Sifter (removal of coarse particles) Dried Product Mono-cylinder with applicator: From the product trough, the concentrated milk is picked up by the concentrate drum and is transferred to the applicator drum. From the applicator drum the product is delivered to the surface of the drying drum which is steam heated and has an inside temperature of 115-130C, and rotates at 10-30 RPM. Ambient air flows over the surface of the drum, mixes with the vapor, and is sucked through the vapor hood to the outside atmosphere. The process is controlled by the film thickness by adjusting the applicator drum and drum speed. Double drum drier with spraying device: Here the drying process is similar to the above explained one, but the product application is through small spraying discs, which rotate in the concentrate trough and transfer a thin concentrate film, which is transferred onto the drying drum by the air flow. The concentrate droplets, which gain surface area by this process, undergo gentle and rapid drying. Double drum drier with sump: The key difference is the sump between the two drums resulting in direct application of the product onto the drum surface. Doctor knives remove the dried product as a thin film from the drum surface; in some cases the product is cooled on cooling drums before being milled. Technical notes: Control of drying, ratios, and capacities. Drum drying is influenced by the following factors: Thickness of the film Uniformity of the film Drying temperature and time, controlled by steam pressure, speed of the drum velocity Concentrate temperature and dry matter content or concentration ratio In order to achieve constant operation and therefore constant product quality all parameters must be kept constant, such as The drying time should be kept within 1.8-2.5 seconds. The specific steam consumption is 1.3-1.6 Kg/Kg of evaporated water and 4.3-5.0 Kg/kg of powder

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The drying capacity of drum driers is in the range of 300-2000 L of concentrate per hour with a dry matter of 45 %. Factors which affect the capacity of the drum driers include: Concentration ratio or dry matter content of the concentrate Viscosity of the concentrate Acidity of the concentrate (higher acidity decreases the capacity) Surface temperature the drum.

Advantages and Disadvantages (over Spray-drying System) Advantages Relatively low capital and operating costs Plant is movable and occupies little floor space Plant is easy to handle Suitable for operating small quantities of milk economically Produces milk of better keeping quality Disadvantages Produces milk powder with low solubility Produces a definitely cooked/scorched flavour in the reconstituted milk Spray drying Principle: Spray drying can be described as the instantaneous removal of moisture from a liquid. To achieve this, the liquid is converted into a fog-like mist (atomised), whereby it is given a large surface. The atomised liquid is exposed to a flow of hot air in a drying chamber. The air has the function of supplying heat for the evaporation and, in addition, it acts as carrier for the vapour and the powder. When the atomised product is in contact with the hot air, the moisture evaporates quickly and the solids are recovered as a powder consisting of fine hollow spherical particles with some occluded air. Exhaust air is removed on the side and passes through cyclones and filters (where entrained powder particles are separated and recovered). Flow diagram of spray drying system Air supply Air filter Air intake fan

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Air heater Air dispenser Milk concentrate Atomizer DRYING CHAMBER Dried product (Powder) Exhaust air fan Exhaust air hood Exhaust air Classification of spray dryers: Hydraulic pressure jet Pneumatic (compressed air) Centrifugal disc Methods of furnishing heat: Steam Gas Fuel oil Electricity Method of heating air: Direct (gas or fuel) Indirect (utilizing plate heat exchangers or coils) Position of drying chamber: Vertical Horizontal Direction of airflow in relation to product flow: Counter-current Parallel Right-angle Pressure in drier: Atmospheric (Inlet-170-250C, outlet-82C)

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Vacuum Method of separation of powder from air: Cyclone Multi-cyclone Bag filter Liquid dust collector Electrical dust collector Removal of powder from drying chamber: Conveyor Vibrator Sweep conveyor Air conveyed to cyclone Spray drying method: Receiving milk Only high-grade milk should be accepted. Cooling To preserve the quality of milk. Standardization This is done to adjust the ratio of fat and solids-not-fat in raw milk to meet the legal standards for composition in dried product. Raw milk is standardized by adding to it a calculated amount of skim milk or cream. The fat: SNF ratio here is standardized to 1:2.769. Pre-heating For efficient filtration/clarification milk is pr-heated to 71C. Filtration/clarification The chief object of this is to remove extraneous matter. This operation can also be done before standardization. Homogenization It is being done to improve the keeping quality and prevent fat churning while reconstitution. A pressure of 3000 psi (2500 psi on the first stage and 500 psi on the second) at 63 to 74C. Heat This main objective is to prolong the shelf life of the dried product by inactivation of lipase. The pre-heating should also ensure pasteurization, thus reducing the viable microorganisms. A combination of 82 C for 15 minutes is used in practice.

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Condensing Normally a concentration of 35-40 per cent total solids is produced, and the concentrate is continuously removed from the evaporator with the help of a density tester. Pumping The preheated concentrate at 71 C is forced through the atomizer at a pressure of 2500 psi. Spray drying The concentrated milk is dried with inlet air at 143-232 C and the exit air at 74 to 93 C depending on the product characteristics. Cooling The dry product should be removed promptly from the hot air stream to maintain better flavour and body characteristics and also keeping quality. The higher the temperature and the longer the time the product is above the melting point of fat, the greater the amount of free fat obtained thus adversely affecting keeping quality. Hence it is essential to cool the powder immediately to a temperature below the melting point. Sifting A 12-mesh screen is used for sifting dry whole milk. Packaging The powder-packaging unit should be isolated to reduce the spread of powder dust to the drier building. Of the several packing material used, fiberboard carton with an over wrap of foil laminated to paper, or with an inner lining of foil laminated to paper. A polythene bag inside the fibreboard carton is also used. Plastic coated paper bags are the latest. Powder packing should be carried out in a dry atmosphere, sealed promptly hermetically in moisture proof package to prevent caking of lactose and fat decomposition leading to off-flavours. Usually, in packaging of milk powders, the headspace is reduced followed by removal of oxygen, by injecting vacuum and then replacing it with nitrogen. Storage: Should be stored at temperatures lower than, 24 C, in a cool, dry place.

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Comparison of physico-chemical properties of drum-dried and sprays dried milks Properties Particle size Surface Shape Air cell Bulk density (g/ml) Flowability Dustiness Reconstitutability Flavour Colour and appearance Technical notes: Design and operation of drying installations. Drying installations consists of the following key components: Drying tower Hot air generation and transfer Product transfer Product and exhaust air removal Post drying installations Sensors and controlling devices Cleaning and disinfection systems Drying tower: A drying tower basically is a cylinder with a conical shape at the bottom, has height of upto 15 metres and a diameter of several meters. It is made from stainless steel and is insulated for energy conservation. Depending on the drying medium and product, different flow principles such as concurrent, mixed and counter-current flow are used. Hot air generation and transfer: The drying medium, air, is sucked in mostly from the production area by a fan, heated to the required product temperature by an indirect steam heating system Drum-dried 8-20M Wrinkled Irregular;angular rough edges Normally absent 0.3-0.5 Slightly lower -doLower Definitely cooked Slightly darker with Regular; spherical Normally present 0.5-0.6 Slightly higher -doHigher Same as pasteurized milk Same as milk usually Spray-dried 10-20M Normally smooth

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(steam = 8-12 bar), and then transferred to the tower after passing through several filters. For heat recovery reasons (20-25 %), a pre-heater can be installed before the air-heating device and operated with exhaust air. Product transfer: The product to be dried-mostly concentrate is transferred by a pump from the balance tank to the spraying unit (jet spray or centrifugal spray nozzle). In the design of jet spray nozzle, either single-component jet or dual-component jet nozzle may be used. In single type, product is pushed through the jet at high pressures, but in dual type, spraying is done by means of compressed air. Milk spray drying is most often done with a centrifugal spraying device. A spraying disk is driven by a motor and driving belts, at high speeds. Product is transferred via a tube into the spraying disc and is sprayed through the nozzles into the tower by the centrifugal forces. Product and exhaust air removal: To move the product from the bottom of the tower to the discharge openings, transport of different types are installed in a tower. Air blowing device- an air pipe rotates along the inside of the tower and blows product from the wall to the bottom. Hammering device- hammers bang on the outside of the tower in predetermined intervals, so that adhering powder will fall off. Bottom scraping device- a rotating scraping device transfers powder to the discharge openings. Product transfer devices are usually pipelines systems in which the product is transported by means of compressed air. Sometimes transport screws or belt conveyors are used. In order to accelerate the transfer of powder into the transport system, vibration transport devices are used. Exhaust air is removed in large-diameter pipeline systems with fans. For dust separation, several in-line cyclones are used, based on the principle of centrifugation. They consist mainly of a cylinder with a conical bottom, having an inlet and outlet for air. Filters are also used for dust separation. Cyclones: (cyclonic separator / centrifugal milk dust separator) Cyclones have been used for many years to separate the powder from the exhaust air. The principle of cyclone separation is based on the centrifugal force exerted on a particle similar to the principle of a centrifuge, with the efficiency of the cyclone varying inversely with the diameter of the cyclone and directly with the square of the tangential velocity of the air and with the mass of the particles to be separated. Today, mostly multi-cyclone are commonly used. It is usually a stainless steel cylindrical container with a cone-shaped bottom. The air leaving the drying chamber at a high velocity enters the cyclone tangentially, thus forming a rotary motion, and due to the present centrifugal force there, the solids are forced down to the peripheral wall and then to the bottom hopper. The cyclone is normally used for

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separation of particles between 5 and 200 microns. As the size of the particles decreases, the efficiency of the cyclones also decreases. The total loss of solids from a system of cyclones for a milk drier is often expressed as a percentage of the total powder production, although only a smaller portion of the powder (20-30 per cent) may pass through the cyclones, normally the loss is expressed in mg solids per standard cubic meter of air. Losses arising from cyclonic separators can be minimized through The use of wet collector or wet scrubber after the cyclones to trap the greater portion of the solids by scrubbing the air with water. By employing highly efficient cyclones used in the chemical industry which operates by introducing secondary air at high pressure, to increase velocity and thereby efficiency The third method is to insert a textile filter (fabric filter or bag collector) before the air is discharged to the atmosphere. Post drying installations: In order to achieve a defined product quality, powder is passed through a vibrating fluidized bed drier, which reduces the moisture of pre-dried product powder from up to 20 % to 1-2 % final moisture. At the same time, blending, agglomeration and instantanization processes can be done by spraying a liquid component, thus obtaining a coating of the powder particles ( e.g., with flavours for flavouring a product or lecithin addition for improvement of the solubility- lecithinization). Sensors and control devices: Modern drying installations are controlled and operated in an automatic or semiautomatic mode, using process controllers. This permits high operational safety, economy and stable product quality. Key parameters included temperature, pressure, flow rates, pH value, electrical conductivity and product moisture. Cleaning and disinfection systems: Drying installations are equipped with a circulating cleaning and disinfections system (CIP), which covers all areas in contact with the product. For this purpose, insertable jet nozzles rotated by the liquid pressure are installed in many areas from which the cleaning solution is sprayed, and these nozzles are removed after the cleaning process. Characteristics of the sprayed powder: Small liquid droplet small powdered particle rapid and gentle drying. The objective is to spray the product into the smallest possible droplets; however, this results in a very fine powder. Very small particles sizes result in a very high percentage of dust, which has the following effects: Bad solubility in water Rapid agglomeration of the powder in the exhaust air High percentage of powder in the exhaust air High density (weight for 1000 ml) and bad flowability Phenomenon of solubilization:

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During the solubilization process, following can be observed Penetration of liquid into the powder floating on the surface of the liquid Sinking of agglomerates into the liquid with further rehydration of the powder Dissolution of agglomerates Partial solution of components/nutrients. Solubility and flowability of the powder are closely related. Powders with good flowability can be rehydrated easily, for which additives such as aluminum silicate and calcium phosphate, crystalline sugar or crystalline calcium lactate can be added, to sticky and hygroscopic milk products. Defects in whole/skim milk powders their causes and prevention: S . N o A . 1 . Name defect of the Causes Prevention

Flavour Stale/Old 1.Long storage 2.Storage at temperatures high Short Storage Storage at low temperature (24C) or below Optimum pre-heating temperature Prompt cooling-andremoval of the dried product from the drying chamber Optimum moisture content during storage Optimum temperature Drum surface smooth Scraper sharp knives drying

3.Excessive high preheating temperatures 4.Delayed cooling-andremoval of dried product from drying chamber 5.High moisture content during storage 2 . Scorched / Burnt 1.Excessively high temperature (lipase not inactivated) 2.Drum pits surface has

kept kept

3.Scrapper knives blunt ( in drum drying) B 1 . Body and Texture Lumpy 1.Insufficient drying 2.Absorbtion of moisture (due to exposure to humid

Sufficient drying Preventing absorption of moisture (by using moisture-impervious

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atmosphere) 3.Drippage from pressure spray nozzle 2 . Caked 1.Absorbtion moisture of package) Using centrifugal disc atomizer Preventing absorption of moisture (by suing moisture-impervious package)

C 1 .

Colour and appearance Browning/ Darkening colour of Long storage Storage at temperature high Short storage Storage at temperature a low and

Delayed cooling-andremoval of dried product from drying chamber High moisture content during storage

Prompt cooling removal

Preventing absorption of moisture (by using moisture-impervious package)

Uses: Skim milk powder: In the preparation of toned, double toned and recombined milks; In tea and coffee In ice-cream manufacture In prepared food, breads and rolls, biscuits, cultured milk products and in indigenous sweets. Whole milk powder: In the preparation of reconstituted milk In tea and coffee In baby-food In candy and confectionery, bakery products etc., Cheese Cheese has been defined as a product made form the curd obtained from milk by coagulating the casein with the help of rennet or similar enzymes in the presence of lactic acid produced by added or adventitious microorganisms, from which part of the moisture has been removed by cutting and /or pressing which has been shaped in a mould, and then ripened by holding it at some time at suitable temperature and humidity.

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According to PFA rules (hard) cheese means the product obtained by draining after the coagulation of milk with a harmless milk-coagulating agent, under the influence of harmless bacterial cultures. It shall not contain any ingredients not found in milk, except coagulating agent, sodium chloride. Calcium chloride not exceeding 0.02 per cent by weight , annatto or carotene colour; and may containing certain emulsifiers and / or stabilizers, namely citric acid, sodium citrate or sodium salts of orthophosphoric acid and poly- phosphoric acid nor exceeding 0.2 per cent by weight ,wax used for covering the outer surface should not contain anything harmful to the health. In case the wax is coloured, only permitted food colours may be used. Hard cheese shall contain not more than 43%moisture and not less than 42% milk fat on dry matter. Hard cheese may contain 0.1 % sorbic acid or its sodium, potassium or calcium salts; 0.1% nisin. Scientific basis of cheese making; Milk Souring /ripening Clotting /coagulation by rennet Cutting and drainage of whey. Matting of the curd. Maturing /curing The above five steps are common for all types of cheeses, but the conditions vary considerably. Classification: World wide there are more than 2000 types of cheese, sometimes made by very different manufacturing processes. Cheese can be classified according to the following systems: Geographical considerations: country, valley, institution, town or region where first produced / marketed. Type of milk: cow, sheep, and goat, buffalo. Method of manufacture: Temperature of cooking, degree of acidity, fineness of cutting etc. these affect moisture retention which in turn affect the firmness and slow the rate of ripening. General appearance: flavour, size, colour, keeping quality. Physical appearance and rheological properties:

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Very hard- less than 25% per cent moisture Hard 25 to 36% moisture Semi-hard 36 to 40 % moisture and Soft cheese 40 % moisture. Chemical analysis: water, calcium, sodium chloride, casein, lactose, fat, acidity contents. Microbiological properties: bacterial ripened, mould ripened, unripened. etc. A summary of classification of some important variety is of cheeses
Country origin UK France Belgium Italy Germany Holland (The Netherlands ) Romadur. Cottage USA Sweden Switzerland Norway Hungary Liptau Cream(C) Munster Brick of Soft Semi hard Hard External mould ripened Camembe rt Parmesan( VH) Romano Provolone(W) Edam Gouda Cheddar Swiss(P ) Herrigard(p) Swiss/ Emmental, Sapsago Gammelost. Blue(G) Internal ripened Stilton Roquefort/blue( G) Gorgonzola mold

Cream( c) Neufchate l -

Lancashire - gruyere( p) Limburger( S) -

Cheddar Cheshire

Remarks: C=high fat content; G= a general name; P = propionic fermentation leading to holes (eyes) R = ripened; s= surface slime; U = un-ripened; W = washed (plastic) VH = very hard.

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The average composition of some of the important varieties of cheeses Name Brick Camembert CHEDDAR Cottage Cream Edam Limburger Parmesan Roquefort Moisture 42.5 47.9 36.8 69.8 42.7 38.1 54.8 17.0 38.7 Fat 30.7 26.3 33.8 1.0 39.9 22.7 19.6 22.7 32.2. Protein 21.1 22.2 23.7 23.3 14.5 30.9 21.3 49.4 21.4 Ash salt 3.0 4.1 5.6 1.9 1.9 6.2 5.2 7.6 6.1. and

Food and nutritive value of cheese. Cheese has high nutritive value It is and excellent source of milk proteins. a rich source of calcium and phosphorus and excellent source of several fat soluble vitamins, such as A,D,E&K; A concentrated source of energy. Cheddar cheese has about 400 calories /100 g. Palatable and digestible; there is practically no waste. Manufacture of cheddar cheese . Flow diagram of manufacture: Receiving of milk Preheating Filtration /clarification.

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Standardization Pasteurization (63 C/30min.) Adding starter cultures (ripening) Adding colour Adding rennet( clotting)31C. Coagulation ad setting Cutting Cooking (up to37C) Drainage of whey Cheddaring Milling Salting Hooping Dressing Pressing Drying Paraffining Curing/ maturing.

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Receiving milk: Only high-grade milk can yield high grade cheese. The quality of finished cheese depends upon the initial quality of milk from which it is made. Cheese is no better than the milk form, which it is made. Successful cheese factories follow a system of daily, efficient grading of all milk received. This consist of Determining the odour of milk. Inspecting the appearance of milk , Determining the sediment Performing MBRT, Resazurin and rennet curd tests on the milk. Determining the percentage of titrable acidity. Examining milk for bacteriophage, antibiotics, and inhibitory substances. After the milk has been examined for quality and accepted, it is weighed, then a representative sample is taken for determining of fat and casein contents etc. Filtration and clarification: To remove visible dirt in milk . The milk is usually preheated to 35 to 40C for efficient filtration and clarification. Standardization: In cheese making standardization refers to adjustment of the casein/fat ratio in cheese to 0.68 to 0.70. the objectives are To regulate the fat in the dry matter of cheese. To produce the maximum amount of cheese per kg. of fat in cheese milk. Pasteurization: The usual temperature time employed for pasteurization of cheese milk is 1.Holder 63c for 30min. HTST 72C for 15 sec. The objectives or advantages of pasteurization of cheese milk are To destroy all pathogens To destroy fault producing microorganism. To produce a more uniform product of high quality. To increase the yield. The chief limitations of pasteurization are It destroys the typical flavour and body of cheese . It entails a longer ripening period. It encourages the use of low quality milk. It increases the overall cost of cheese making.

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Homogenization: cheese milk is not normally homogenized. Addition of calcium chloride: Excessive heat treatment of milk causes the precipitation of a part of calcium salts in milk, this results in slower renneting action and a weaker curd, which can be corrected by the addition of 0.001 to 0.03 per cent calcium chloride to milk. Adding starter : Ripening or souring of milk refers to the development of acidity in milk from the time it is received in the vat until renneting. In cheese milk, ripening is done by the addition of starter. The starter is the heart of the cheese. A bad starter is almost certain to give low quality cheese. A good starter may make up for other defects, such as contaminated milk; there are different kind of cheese starters, such as those producing acids, aroma, special effects such as eyes etc. A cheddar starter usually contains S. lactis and /or S. cremoris . The usual time to add the starter is before all the milk has been received in the vat. The amount of starter added is to the extent of 0.5 to 1 per cent of the milk, and the temperature of addition is 30 to 31C. Before being added to the milk, the starter should be examined for its quality; it should then be stirred until smooth and creamy in consistency; then strained and added in the required quantity and mixed thoroughly and uniformly into the milk. Ripening in milk is measured by titration, rennet test and pH meter. Adding colour: The colour of cheese is usually an alkaline solution of annatto. The colour is usually diluted with approximately 20 times its volume of potable water for even distribution. The usual amount of colour is 30 to 200 ml or more for 1000 kg of milk. Renneting Adding rennet to milk in cheese making is commonly known as renneting or setting. Rennet is the crude preparation or extract from the abomasum, rennet contains two principal enzymes viz., rennin, and pepsin. Rennin is an extremely powerful clotting enzyme, which causes rapid clotting without much proteolysis. On the other hand pepsin induces proteolysis is leading to bitterness in cheese. Rennet is available as liquid or powder or as tablet. Commercial rennet should be stored in a closed vessel, in a dark room at below 10C. Rennet: it is a sulphur containing protein. One part can clot about 5 million parts of milk In cheese making one part of liquid rennet (2%) is used for about 5000 parts of milk. It is very sensitive to alkali. Heating to 70C at pH 6.8 7.0 will destroy it in 14 minutes. Factors affecting rennin action: Temperature : below 20C, rennin is almost inactive; from 30 to 48C it is about equally active, the optimum temperature being 41C. Above 50C the activity falls off rapidly. Acidity: the rate of clotting increases rapidly with small increase in acidity. Alkalis retard the clotting of by rennet.

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Calcium ions: coagulation of milk is very sensitive to changes in concentration of calcium ions, it is common practice to add calcium chloride to which has been severely pasteurized. E.g. at 80C for 30 seconds. This acts in three ways by lowering the pH value, increasing the calcium ion concentration and raising the colloidal calcium phosphate content. Inhibitory substances: Many colloidal substances interfere with rennin coagulation e.g. albumin, serum peptones, etc. Albumin and globulin retard coagulation (mastitis milk clots slowly with rennet; the alkalinity of such milk also contribute to this effect.). Boiling of milk resulting in denaturation of the protein removes the inhibitory effect. Five per cent peptone almost prevents clotting. Homogenization: This has an accelerating effect on rennet clotting, but decreases the curd tension. Heating the milk: Heat not only destroys rennin but also makes clotting of the milk by the enzyme less easy. The major reason for this is the removal or precipitation of calcium ion. Rennet preparations other than calf rennet: These include goat and lamb rennets, plant enzymes such as withania coagulans, ficus, papain etc Difference in behavior between animal and vegetable rennet: Although vegetable rennet clots cow and vegetable milks, animal rennet do not clot vegetable milks even if the calcium ion concentration is raised to that of cows milk. Bacterial rennet: The use of enzymes from microorganisms, particularly aerobic spore formers (Bacillus subtilis) and some of the gram-negative rods (Serratia marcesens) is a fairly new development in cheese technology. Adding rennet: Rennet is added when it has been determined that the acid is developing at the desired rate. Thus, when making cheese from ripened milk rennet is added when the acdity has increased from initial level by 0.02 %. The ideal temperature for setting raw milk under normal conditions is 30C and for pasteurized milk , 31C. The amount of rennet extract used should be such as to form curd that is firmer enough to be cut in 25-30 minutes after the addition of rennet. The amount of rennet, which should be added, depends on: i) Strength of the rennet ii) temperature of milk acidity of the milk composition of milk Usually, liquid rennet is diluted with 20-40 times its volume of (potable) water before it is added, to ensure proper distribution for uniform coagulation. The milk is thoroughly stirred during the addition of the rennet and also for 3 to 5 minutes afterwards. The vat is covered as soon as possible when the stirring is over, to keep the surface warm and protect it from contaminating dust particles. Coagulation: This refers to liquid milk changing to a semi-solid junket. The first signs of coagulation are that bubbles of air stirred into the milk surface take longer to break and a spatula dipped into the milk and withdrawn shows small flakes of curd.

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Cutting: This refers to cutting of the firm coagulum into cubes of a specific size. When to cut the curd: When a glass rod inserted at a 45 angle and lifted straight up makes a clean break in the curd, it is ready for cutting. If the curd is cut too soon, there will be a lower yield of cheese, if cut too late, cutting will be difficult and moisture expulsion delayed. Curd Knives: These consist of stainless steel wires or strips, 6 or 9 mm apart, one horizontal and the vertical. Method of cutting: The curd is usually first cut with the horizontal knife lengthwise, then with the vertical knife lengthwise and widthwise. Syneresis of cheese curd: This refers to the expulsion of whey and contraction of the curd. From the cheese-making point of view, the factors controlling the loss of whey and contraction of the coagulum are: cutting, temperature, acidity, agitation, time and salt. Behavior of curd after cutting: After the curd is cut, whey begins to appear between the cubes and a film begins to form on the outer surface of each cube. This film should not harden, i.e., become firm, too rapidly. Care has also to be taken to avoid breaking this film. Acidity of the curd after cutting: Decreases by 0.05 % to 0.08 % from that of milk at renneting. Stirring curd after cutting: During the first 2-3 minutes after cutting, the curd is not stirred. Then gentle stirring starts. The speed of stirring increases with the gradual firming of curd cubes. Matting is indicative of inadequate stirring. Cooking: This refers to the heating of curd cubes; it begins within 15 minutes of cutting. Regulation of heating: The heat is applied slowly to begin with. If the temperature is raised too rapidly, a condition similar to case-hardening will result, and the curd cubes will be hard on the outside but soft and water-logged inside. The rate of heating is such that the temperature rises to 32C in about 15 minutes and thereafter to a maximum cooking temperature (37 to 39 C) at the rate of 1 C every 4 minutes. Amount of heat required: This depends chiefly on the type of cheese required. For cheddar, a maximum of 37 to 39C is normal. Too high a temperature can reduce the souring rate and activity of the starter organisms. Drainage of whey (dipping)

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This refers to the removal of whey from the curd. When the cubes have been reduced to about one-half of their size at cutting, the acidity approaches a desirable limit and the cube attain a desirable consistency (elastic feel when squeezed), stirring is stopped and the cubes pitched. (Pitching refers to the curd cubes dropped to the bottom of the vat and piling them up together). The curd cubes are pushed away from the gate of the vat, a strainer is inserted in the gate, a curd-pail is hung on the curd out let, and the whey is drawn from the vat. Cheddaring: This refers to the combined operations of packing, turning, piling repiling the curd cubes. Packing: After the bulk drainage of whey, the curd cubes are kept closely together in two heaps with a channel in between. This is known as packing and takes 5 to 15 minutes after dipping. It results in the formation of two long slabs of curd. These are cut with a cheese knife into blocks or strips 15 to 20 cms wide Turning: As soon as the blocks (strips) of curd can be handled without breaking, they are rolled bottom-side in the vat. This is called turning and is carried out every 15 minutes till the curd is ready for milling and salting. Piling and repiling: Within 30 to 45 minutes of packing, blocks of curd are turned and laid one over another in twos or threes. This is called piling. Then the position of the curd block is altered and this is known as repiling. The cheddaring operation usually lasts for two hours or more and is very important not only for moisture control but also for improving body and texture. After cheddaring, the curd becomes drier, more mellow and silky and changes from a sorbo rubber-like material to one resembling chicken breast-meat. In the latter stages, it tends to tear apart in fibrous shreds and develops a characteristic nutty and buttery aroma. Milling: This refers to the mechanical operation of cutting the blocks of cheddared curd into mall pieces with the help of a cheese mill, with the following objectives: To promote the further removal of whey To enable quick distribution of salt in the curd To prepare curd for pressing into final form And also for de-odourization, cooling of the curd etc. Salting: This refers to the addition of common salt to the curd pieces. Salt in cheese affects flavour, body and texture, and keeping quality. Cheese without salt is often soft, ripen quickly and rapidly develop unpleasant flavors. Objectives For further removal of whey Hardening and shrinking of curd Retarding further formation of lactic acid Checking the undesirable fermentation Produce desirable quality characteristics

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Holding before salting: Salting may be delayed ( by more than 15 minutes if needed) when it seems desirable to develop more acid in the cheese curd to encourage further drainage of whey, or to aerate the curd to improve its flavour. When done: Cheese curd is normally salted: About 15 minutes after milling When a hot iron test shows threads 1 to 2 cm long When acidity is 0.4 to 0.5 % and When pH is 5.4 to 5. Amount of salt added: This depends on the amount of curd in the vat and salt desired, and generally varies from 1 to 2 % (average 1.5 %). Hooping: This refers to the curd being placed in hoops or moulds in which the cheeses curd is pressed into its final shape. For hooping operation all the added salt should have completely dissolved and the temperature at hooping should be 30-32 C. Hooping and pressing at too high a temperature causes an excessive loss of fat, decreased yield, development of abnormal flavours and exaggeration of bacterial defects. On the other hand, hooping and pressing at a too a low temperature result in an open texture, imperfect rind formation and lack of whey drainage. Dressing Refers to arrangement of the cheesecloth before and after pressing. Pressing This refers to the operation of forcing the particles of milled and salted curd in the hoops into the smallest possible space to give cheese its final shapes. Cheese pressing is done with the help of presses which may be, Screw or Pneumatic or Hydraulic or spring types. Drying This is done for rind formation in cheese. It involves first taking the cheese out of the hoop and then stamping of date, batch, variety name etc., and keeping in a drying room at 12 to 16 C for a few days. The cheese is turned at 24-hour intervals so that both ends and sides of the cheese can dry and form the desired rind. Paraffining: This refers to the operation of dipping the cheese for a few seconds in a bath of melted paraffin, whereby a thin coating of the paraffin is applied to the surface of the cheese. Objectives: To reduce the loss of moisture during curing To prevent extensive mould growth To protect it against insects

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Curing: The curing/ripening/souring/maturing of cheese refers to the storage of cheese for at least 2 to 3 months at a given low temperature (0-16C) during which its physical, chemical and bacteriological properties are profoundly changed, resulting in the development of a characteristic flavour, body and texture. The term green cheese is usually applied to hard-pressed cheese in the early stages of ripening before the characteristic flavour, body and texture of ripened cheese developed. The procedure involves dipping of cheese blocks quickly and completely in the melted paraffin held at 104-121 C for about 5 seconds, allowed to drain for 10 seconds. Changes during curing: Flavour: From a mildly acid taste and aroma in green cheese to the development of characteristic flavour of ripened cheese which is a blend of several odours and tastes of diacetyl, traces of butyric and caproic acid, esters of alcohol, salts of propionic and acetic acids in well aged cheeses. Body: The cheese becomes slightly harder, due to loss of moisture. There is a gradual change from the rubbery body in the green cheese to a mellow and waxy body in the ripened cheese. Texture: Curd cheese tends to acquire a fairly close to close texture. Chemical: The chief chemical changes which occur during the curing of cheddar cheese are: fermentation of lactose to lactic acid and small amounts of acetic acid, propionic acid and carbon dioxide; proteolysis; and a slight fat break down. The most obvious chemical changes are the breakdown of the proteins, the newly created solubility of about 25 % of total proteins in the cured cheddar cheese. In addition to fat breakdown, the ammonia produced by moulds and certain bacteria may have considerable effect on the bacteria and so assist in the growth of other types of bacteria. An increase in acidity and decrease in pH takes place for the first few days. The pH is lowest in cheese on about the third or fourth day after pressing, and is normally 5.10 to 5.05. It then decreases slowly and steadily during the curing period. Microbiological changes: In cheddar cheese type, which are low in moisture and close in texture sustain a steady changeover from Streptococci to Lactobacilli, some of which contribute to the flavour. Other types are of course present and the higher the proportion of

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miscellaneous types, the quicker is the curing and greater the possibility of offflavours. Shrinkage in Cheese: This refers to the loss in weight of cheese during curing/storage. Although a slight shrinkage is natural, excessive shrinkage should be prevented. Shrinkage is caused mainly by loss of moisture. Factors causing Shrinkage in Cheese: Temperature of curing: Higher the temperature, higher the shrinkage, and vive-versa Relative humidity of curing: Higher the humidity lower the shrinkage. Size (and shape) of cheese: Larger the size, lower the shrinkage and vice-versa Moisture content of cheese: Higher the moisture content, higher the shrinkage Paraffining of cheese: Paraffined cheese undergoes less shrinkage, than nonparaffined cheese. Ripening index Protein degradation measurements have been used systematically in studying the ripening of cheese. The rate of ripening is measured by determination of the ripening index Index = Yield: This is affected by the quality of milk, nature of manufacturing operations, the skill of the manufacturer, and curing procedures. % soluble nitrogen % total nitrogen X 100

COTTAGE CHEESE This is a soft, unripened cheese usually made from skim milk. It has mildly acid flavour and consists of small particles or flakes or curd, which have a meaty consistency. Creamed cottage cheese has cream mixed to it upto 4 % level. Both varieties are salted always.

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Cottage cheese can be prepared by both, direct acidification and by starter culture methods. In direct acidification method, any food grade acid, phosphoric, lactic acid etc., are used. Method of manufacture Receiving (pasteurized ) milk Adding calcium chloride Adding starter culture (lactic cultures) Adding rennet (0.01 %) Setting ( 30C) Cutting Cooking (upto 46C, over 2 hrs) Drainage of whey Washing and draining the curd Salting Creaming Packaging and storage Details of manufacture: Receiving of Milk The skim milk should be fresh, sweet, low in fat and bacterial count and clean in flavour. It should be pasteurized immediately after separation preferably by LTLT method as it produces softer curd. Adding calcium chloride:

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Calcium chloride is generally added to the skim milk at the rate of 1 ml saturated solution per 100 liters of milk, with the objective of increase the concentration of calcium for better setting Adding starter culture: A high quality starter consisting of either S.lactis, S.cremoris, S.diacetylactis, L.dextranicum, etc., singly or in combination is then added at 1 to 2.5 % levels and thoroughly mixed into it. Adding rennet: Rennet is added at 2-2.5 ml per 1000 litre of milk. It is diluted with water upto 40 times with water before adding. Setting: The temperature is set around 29-32C Cutting The most desirable acidity of whey at cutting is approximately 0.5 % (pH 4.6-4.7). The whey should be clear and free from curd particles. Cooking: This begins soon after cutting and continues for an hour or two until the temperature reaches 45C or until the curd becomes hard enough for removal of whey. Stirring during cooking is done very gently and at a minimum rate. Drainage of whey Whey is removed when the curd cubes no longer have a soft center and when a handful of them squeezed gently show slight elasticity. Washing and draining The curd is washed after removing all the whey to produce desired firmness and mildness in flavour. The wash water is at the temperature of 21C and after soaking for 15 minutes the water is drained. Second washing is done with water at 16C. Draining should be thorough; the cubes are placed in draining rack with perforations at the bottom, which can be wheeled into cold store rooms. Salting This is done when the free moisture has been drained from the curd. Salt can be added to the curd in the vat, or it can be dissolved in the cream for creamed cottage cheese. Salt is added @ 1 % of curd weight. Creaming This is done immediately after draining, if the product is to packed at once. Holding the curd overnight in a cold room before it is creamed makes it more firm when creaming. The amount of 20 % cream added is @ 4 % level of the curd weight. Packaging and storage Cottage cheese, creamed or uncreamed, may be packed in waxed / polythenecoated paper cups or in polythene bags. Storage is at 5Cor less. Yield The yield of cottage cheese before creaming depends essentially on

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The composition of the milk Manufacturing losses Moisture content of the cheese Approximately yield of cottage cheese is 15 %. Keeping quality of cottage cheese The keeping quality is short even under refrigerated conditions (5-10 C).

PROCESSED CHEESE PRODUCTS Introduction Processed cheese is produced by blending shredded natural cheeses of different types and degrees of maturity with emulsifying agents, and by heating the blend under a partial vacuum with constant agitation until a homogeneous mass is obtained. In addition to natural cheeses, other dairy and non-dairy ingredients may be included in the blend. Advantages of processed cheese: Reduced refrigeration cost during storage and transport, which are especially important in hot climates Better keeping quality, with less apparent changes during prolonged storage. Great diversity of type and intensity of flavour, e.g. from mild to sharp, native cheese flavour or specific spices. Adjustable packaging for various usages, economical and imaginative. Suitability for home use as well as for snack restaurants, e.g. in cheeseburgers, hot sandwiches, spreads and dips for fast foods. Processed cheeses are characterized essentially by composition, water content and consistency; according to these criteria, three main groups may be distinguished; processed cheese blocks, processed cheese foods and processed cheese spreads. More recently established sub-types of processed cheeses are: processed cheese slices and smoked processed cheese. The first sub-type belongs to the category of processed cheese blocks, while the second could be either block or spread. In addition, another group of processed cheese products should be mentioned, i.e., processed cheese analogues, which are usually based on vegetable fat-casein blends. Finally, the most recent development in cheese processing is processed cheese with a completely new look, i.e. natural cheese-like appearance. Developed in France, this product has an open texture, similar to traditional cheeses, with eyes of about 0.5 mm in diameter. Processing, principles and techniques: The manufacturing procedure for processed cheese consists of operations performed in the following order: (i) selection of natural cheese; (ii) computation of the ingredients; (iii) blending; (iv) shredding; (v) addition of emulsifying agent; (vi) (thermal) processing; (vii) homogenization (optional); (viii) packaging, (ix) cooling; and (x) storage.

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Selection of Natural Cheese: Proper selection of natural cheese is of the utmost importance for the successful production of processed cheese. In some countries, processed cheeses manufactured from only one variety of cheese of different degrees of maturity are very popular. E.g. processed Cheddar cheese in the UK and Australia, Cheddar, Gruyere and Mozzarella in the USA and Canada, Emmental in Western Europe. More frequently, processed cheeses are produced from a mix of various natural cheese types. This results in easier processing and a better flavour balance. The most important criteria for cheese selection are: type, flavour, maturity, consistency, texture and acidity (pH). Since it is possible to correct certain physical properties by skilful blending, some defective cheeses can be used in processed cheese manufacture. Natural cheeses with microbial defects should not be selected for processing. Computation of Ingredients: Computation of the ingredients is conducted on the basis of established fat and dry matter contents of the natural cheese components. Formulation of the material balance of fat and dry matter, including all blend constituents, added water and condensate from live steam used during processing, must be made in such a way as to yield a finished product with the desired composition. Additional adjustments of fat and dry matter are possible, if necessary, before processing is completed. Blending: This operation is strongly influenced by the desired characteristics of the final products. There is a general formulation for processed cheese (block-type) : 70-75% of mild cheese and 25-30% of semi-mature or mature cheese. For the production of processed cheese in slices, milk where a high content of elastic, intact (unhydrolysed) protein is necessary, this ratio is changed to 30-40% young cheese, 50-60% mild cheese and only 10% mature cheese. However, if a processed cheese spread is to be produced, the principal raw material is semi- mature cheese of shorter structure, i.e., with partially hydrolyzed protein. e.g. 30% young cheese, 50% semi-mature cheese and 20% mature cheese. Skim milk powder improves the spreadability and stability of processed cheese, but, if used in quantities exceeding 12% of the total mass, it may adversely affect the consistency and may remain undissolved. Milk protein co-precipitates, if added to the blend, increase the stability of the cheese emulsion, improve the physical characteristics of the final product and even act as an emulsifying agent. Milk protein co-precipitates should not exceed 5% in processed cheeses. Casein and caseinates, if added at not more than 5-7% to the blend, do not alter the flavour of processed cheese, while blend stability and structure are improved by the increased content of intact casein. Although ordinary whey powder is the most common whey product used in processed cheese, whey protein products with lower mineral and lactose contents are preferable, because they yield processed cheese with better flavours. Shredding (Grinding, Milling) This operation enables better contact between emulsifying agent and blend ingredients during processing. The cheese blocks are first cut into four pieces each, in order to facilitate grinding.

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Addition of Emulsifying Agents Addition of emulsifying agents is the last steep in preparing the blend for processing. Since the effects of emulsifying agents are responsible for the unique features of processed cheese production. Normally used emulsifiers are Citrates, Orthophosphates, Pyrophosphates and Polyphosphates. Processing: Processing means heat treatment of the blend, by direct or indirect steam, under a partial vacuum and with constant agitation. There are two basic types of cooking device: (i) round (doubled-jacketed kettle, up to 200 litres and (ii) tube-shape (about 4 m long, fitted with one or two mixings arms). In batch type, cheese is heated to 71 95C for period of 4 - 15 min, depending on various parameters, this heating also provides a pasteurization effect. Homogenization (Optional): Homogenization improves the stability of the fat emulsion by reducing the average fat globule size. It also improves the consistency, structure, appearance and flavour of the processed cheese. However, since it demands additional capital to cover increased operational and maintenance costs, and prolongs the production schedule, homogenization is recommended only for blends with high fat contents. Packaging: Hot processed cheese can be transported to filling (forming) machines by pumping through the closed pipeline system, or transferred in containers, which are not advisable, considering the risk of contamination. Processed cheese is usually packed and wrapped in lacquered foil, tubes, cups, cans, cardboard or plastic cartons and occasionally in glass jars. A newer development is the continuous formation, slicing and packing of the cheese slices, suitable for sandwiches. Slices may also be obtained by mechanically slicing rectangular processed cheese blocks. Cooling: There is a general rule for cooling processed cheese: it should be as fast as possible for processed cheese spreads and relatively slow for processed cheese blocks (rapid cooling softens the product). However, slow cooling can intensify Maillard reactions and promote the growth of spore-forming bacteria. Storage: The final product should be stored at temperatures below 10C although such low temperatures may induce crystal formation (calcium monophosphate, calcium diphosphate, calcium pyrophosphate,etc.,). General defects in cheese

Name of the Defect Colour Acid cut/bleached/faded

Causes

Prevention

Excessive acid development in cheese curd

Optimum acid development in cheese curd

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High/Unnatural Mottled Excessive addition of colour to cheese milk i)combining from two lots cheese Optimal addition of colour to cheese milk Avoiding it and even development of acid

ii)uneven acid development in cheese curd Finish appearance and

Cracked Paraffin

Excessive thickness of paraffin coating on cheese Incorrect filling and pressing of curd cubes Excessive acidity and/or moisture in cheese before curing

Correct thickness paraffin coating

of

Lopsided / hill sided /misshapen Rind rot

Correct filling and pressing of curd cubes Optimum acidity and/or moisture in cheese before curing

Body Curdy/rubbery i)low moisture content in cheese before curing ii)Low acid development in curd iii)over-salting cheese iv)insufficient cheddaring of cheese curd Texture defects Fish eyes/yeast holes Flavour Bitter Low quality milk Low quality starter iii) Excessive acid and/or moisture in cheese By using good quality milk, starter and maintaining optimal acid and moisture in cheese Contamination yeasts with Avoiding contamination with yeasts Optimal moisture before curing Optimal development Optimal salt level Proper cheddaring acid

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ICE CREAM Ice cream may be defined as a frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other dairy products together with sugar and flavour, with or without stabilizers or colour, and with the incorporation of air during the freezing process. According to the PFA rules (1976) ice cream is the frozen product obtained from the cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof or from cream and or on the milk products, with or without the addition of cane sugar, eggs, fruits, fruit juices , preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavours and permitted colours. It may contain permitted stabilizers and emulsifiers not exceeding 0.5 per cent by weight. The mixture must be suitably heated before freezing. The product should contain not less than 10% milk fat, 3.5% protein, and 36% total solids. However, when any of the aforesaid preparations contains fruits or nuts or both, the content of milk fat may be proportionately reduced but not less than 8 % by weight, starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5 %, with a declaration to that effect on the label. Classification Some of the frozen deserts can be classified as follows. Plain: Ice cream in which the colour and flavouring ingredients together amounts to less than 5 per cent of the volume of the unfrozen ice cream. Example: vanilla and coffee ice creams. Chocolate: Ice cream flavoured with cocoa or chocolate. Fruit: Ice cream containing fruits with or without additional fruit flavouring or colour. Fruits such as strawberry, apricot, pineapple, mango, banana, etc., may be fresh, frozen, frozen packed, canned or preserved. Nut: Ice cream containing nuts, such as almonds, pistachio, walnuts, cashew nut, etc., with or without additional flavoring or color. Milk ices or lollies: According to the PFA rules (1976) these refers to the frozen product obtained from the milk or skim milk or milk products with or without the addition of cane sugar, eggs, fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavours, and permitted food colours. It may contain permitted stabilizers not exceeding 0.5 % of the product. The mixture should be suitably heat treated before freezing. The product should contain not more than 2.0% milk fat, less than 3.5% proteins and not less than 20.0% total solids. Ices: Made of fruit juices sugar and stabilizers with or without additional fruit acid, colour, flavouring, or water, and frozen to the consistency of ice cream. Usually contain 28 to 30 per cent sugar, 20 25 per cent over run and no dairy products. Sherbet: made of juices, sugar, stabilizers and milk products. It is similar to an ice except that milk, either whole, skim, condensed or powdered, or ice cream mix, are used in place of all or, part of the water in an ice. Fancy moulded: Moulded in fancy shapes and composed either of one colour and flavour of ice cream or a combination of colours and flavours, or especially

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decorated. Examples: are brick ice cream, cakes, cake roll, moulds representing fruits, etc. Novelties: Novelty ice cream or frozen is an especially shaped and usually low priced package containing an individual serving whose main appeal consists in its shape, size, colour or convenience for eating. Soft ice cream: Sold as drawn from the freezer without hardening. Composition The composition of ice cream is usually expressed as a percentage of its constituents, i.e. a percentage of milk fat, milk solids not fat, sugar, stabilizers, total solids etc. markets. Its composition varies in different localities and in different

The ISI specifications foe ice cream are given below S.N O. 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Characteristics weight (g./litre/min. Total solids(%wt .min) Milk fat (% wt. Min.) Acidity (% lactic acid max.) Sucrose (%wt. Max.) stabilizers/emulsifiers(%wt. Max) Standard plate counts (per g.) Coliform count (per g.) phosphatase test. Requirements 525 36.0 10.0 (Tentative) 0.25 15.0 0.5 Not more than 2,50,000 Not more than 90 Negative.

Food and nutritive value Ice cream contains two to three times as much fat and slightly more protein than does milk. In addition it may contain other food products such as fruits, nuts, eggs, and sugar which enhance its food value. However, like milk, it lacks iron, vitamin C, and some of the trace minerals. Ice cream is a rich source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals of vital importance in building good bones and teeth. Being rich in lactose, ice cream favours greater assimilation of the calcium content on the diet. The protein content of ice cream rates high both in quantity and quality. The milk and egg proteins are complete, that is, they contain all the amino acids essential to animal life and are especially important sources of tryptophan and lysine which are lacking in many plant proteins. Ice cream provides these valuable proteins in a very palatable form. In fact, ice cream is the most palatable source of milk proteins to vegetarians. Ice cream is an excellent source of food energy. Having twice to three times the fat content of milk. And more than half of its total solids being sugar the energy value of

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ice cream is very high. It is therefore, a very desirable food item for growing children and persons who need to put on weight. Ice cream, is a rich source of essential vitamins, without which normal health and growth cannot be maintained. Thus it is an excellent source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin B and G (riboflavin) and a fairly good source of Niacin, vitamin E, and in fruit ice cream, of vitamin C. The digestibility and palatability of ice cream is also very high. Role of the constituents in ice cream Milk fat: this is high in food value, but expensive. It enriches and mellows the ice cream, giving it a full, rich, creamy flavour. If the milk fat is even slightly offflavoured, the defect will be noticeable. The fat also contributes to the body and melting resistance of ice cream while producing a smoothness of texture. Fat gives stability to the ice cream but impairs whipping ability. Milk solids not fat: they add very little to the smell, but improve its body and texture, however milk sugar adds to the sweet taste. The milk proteins help to make ice cream more compact and smooth. Milk SNF should be added in as large a quantity as possible without risking the danger of sandiness. They are high in food value and also inexpensive. Sugar: the main function of sugar is to increase the acceptability of ice cream. The desired sweetening effect is only produced by sucrose. Sugars are usually the cheapest source of total solids in the mix. Stabilizers: these are used to prevent the formation of objectionable large ice crystals in ice cream, especially during storage. Since they are added in very small quantities, they have a negligible influence on food value and flavor. Emulsifiers: these are used mainly to improve upon and provide a uniform whipping quality of the mixture, and to produce a drier ice cream with smoother body and texture. Flavor and colours: flavor increases the acceptability of ice cream, and colours its aesthetic appeal. Properties of mix The properties of practical importance on the mix are Viscosity: This is defined as the resistance offered by liquids to flow. Viscosity is considered an important property of the ice cream mix, and a certain amount of it seems essential for proper whipping and the retention of air. Two types of viscosity exists in ice cream mixes: Apparent viscosity: Which is a thickened condition that disappears with agitation, and Basic viscosity: which remains after the apparent viscosity disappears. The viscosity of ice cream mix is influenced by composition, kind and quality of ingredients, processing and handling of the mix , total solids concentration and temperature. Acidity and pH: The normal acidity of ice cream mixes is dependent upon the serum solids content, and is calculated by the formula: % serum solids in mix % Acidity of mix = % Acidity of milk x % serum solids in milk. The normal acidity of ice cream mix is 0.15%. The pH of ice cream mix should be 6.3. If the mix acidity is more, it may be neutralized with suitable neutralizers Eg.

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Sodium bicarbonate. It should be remembered that good ice cream couldn't be made from a highly acidic cream. Mix stability: This refers to stability or resistance to separation by the milk proteins in an ice cream mix. Instability results in separation of milk proteins as coagulated or precipitated material in the mix, and the resulting ice cream has a curdled appearance on melting. Mix stability is affected by high mix acidity, low citrate and phosphate content, high calcium and magnesium continent, high homogenizing pressure, high heat treatment, low ageing time, destabilizing effect of freezing etc. Specific gravity: the specific gravity or density of a ice cream mix varies with its composition and may range from 1.005 to 1.12. 100 Specific gravity at 16C = %fat + %sugar + %MSNF + %stabiliser 0.93 1.58 1 + water

Surface tension This refers to the force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid at its surface. The greater the attraction between the molecules, the higher the surface tension and vice versa. The unit of measurement of surface tension is dyne. The surface tension can be readily decreased by the addition of emulsifiers. Mixes with lower surface tension values will have excessive whipping rate , fluffy short body characteristics and susceptibility to the shrinkage defect. the normal surface tension value of ice cream mix may range from 48- 53 dynes/sq.cm. Freezing point: The freezing point of ice cream is dependent on the soluble constituents and varies with its composition. The mix constituents, which affect the freezing point directly, are sugar, milk sugar, milk salts, and any other substances that may have been added and are in true solution. Freezing point is indirectly affected by fat, protein and any other constituents not in true solution by replacing water. Glucose, sucrose and corn sugar depress the freezing point in the descending order. In fruit ice-cream the freezing point will depend on the type of sugar used in fruit preparations. An average mix has a freezing point of 27.5F. mixes with high sugar and milk solids not fat content s may range to 26.5F, while high fat ,low MSNF or low sugar content mixes may range to 29.5F. Whipping rate: A high whipping rate means the ability to whip rapidly to a high over run. The present hypothesis is that whipping ability is based on the tensile strength and the strength of the lamella (i.e. walls around the air cells). Whipping ability is improved by a high processing temperature, proper homogenization and ageing the mix for 2-4 hours.

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Smaller fat globules and less clumping of fat globules increase the whipping ability. Mixes made from butter, butter oil, or frozen cream have poor whipping ability . Egg yolk solids , fresh cream, buttermilk solids improve whipping ability. Sugar decrease the whipping ability except when added after homogenization , in which case it increases it. The construction and operation of freezer affect the whipping ability. The rate of whipping is measured by calculation the overrun at one minute intervals while the mix is being frozen in a batch freezer, normally within 3 to 5 minutes after the freezing process starts, the mix is frozen and within 7 minutes an overrun of 90 percent is obtained. In mixes, which have a rapid whipping rate, 90 per cent overrun may be reached in 5 minutes or less. Mixes requiring 8 minutes of more to reach 90 per cent overrun are considered to have slow whipping rate. Method of manufacture Selection of ingredients: The selection of ingredients is without doubt the most important factor in successful ice cream manufacture. A clean fresh creamy flavour of the ice cream can be secured only by the use of products, which have been carefully selected and handled. The selection of ingredients depend on Availability of milk products Perishability of the products Convenience in handling Effect on flavour body and texture of ice cream Cost and Equipment available. Ice cream ingredients may be grouped into dairy and nondairy products. I. dairy products: Source of fat: Sweet cream: this is the most desirable concentrated source of fat for use in a mix Frozen cream Plastic cream Unsalted butter Butter oil. Source of milk-solids- not fat: Skim milk Skim milk powder-this is most frequently used in the spray dried or flaked form. Condensed skim milk Sweet cream buttermilk. Sources of both fat and solids not fat: Whole milk. Whole milk powder Condensed whole milk Evaporated milk. II. Non-dairy products: Sweetening agents:

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Cane sugar or beet sugar. Corn sugar (dextrose) Corn syrup solids (dextrose+maltose) Corn syrup Invert sugar (glucose +fructose) Saccharin. Stabilizers: Gelatin- of animal origin. It was one of the first of the commercial stabilizers and still used, its advantages lies in its ability to form a gel in the mix during the aging periods as well as during the freezing process, and even after the frozen product is placed in the hardening room its peculiar gel stricture and its great affinity for waste prevent the formation of large ice crystals in ice cream and contribute to the smoothness on texture and firmness in body of the frozen product. The amount of gelatin used depends on several factors such as the source of gelatin whether from calf, pork skin or bone materials. Its gel structure is measured by bloom test. Commonly gelatin is used at the rate of 0.25 to 0.5 % for a 250 bloom gelatin. The ice-cream mix stabilized with gelatin usually requires about 4 hours of ageing to develop complete stabilizing properties, while other stabilizing materials do not require an ageing period. Sodium alginate of vegetable origin. The basic stabilizing principle algin is extracted from ocean kelp (seaweed) growing on the shores of California and in Japan. This product improves whipping ability and leaves a slightly cleaner flavour in the mouth. It dissolves properly only when added to the mix at about 68-71C. a slightly smaller amount is needed to produce the same stabilizing effect as gelatin. Guar gum of Indian origin. Carageenan Agar agar: Carboxy methyl cellulose Pectin Emulsifiers: They are substances which help to form emulsions. Glycerol Mono Stearate (GMS). Flavours: Vanilla- this is the most popular flavour all over the world. Vanilla flavouring is obtained from the perennial climbing plant Vanilla Planifolia Andrews, a member of the orchid family, vanillin is the principal flavouring material. The typical vanilla flavours is developed by fermenting the bean. Chocolate Chocolate and cocoa rank second only to vanilla as flavoring of ice cream. They are obtained from cocoa beans, the fruit of the perennial tree Theobroma cocoa, growing in such tropical regions as Mexico, Ghana, Brazil, Venezuela, Nigeria, Ecuador, The West Indies, African Gold Coast and The East Indies etc. Straw berry Pine apple Lemon Banana

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Mango Orange. Colour: Yellow Green Pink. Egg solids: Egg yolk solids improve the whipping ability. Fruits and nuts: Apple Banana Mango Pine apple Grape Almond Pistachio Cashew nut Walnut Groundnut. Figuring the mix: Knowledge of calculation of ice cream mix is helpful in properly balancing the mix, in establishing and maintaining a uniform quality and in producing ice cream that conforms to legal standards. Ice cream mix may be divided into two groups, namely simple and complex. Simple mixes require the least calculation and are made of ingredients, each of which supplies one constituent. Complex mixes are more difficult to calculate they include mixes where atleast, one constituent is obtained from two or more products. Complex mixes require the use of the Pearsons square, algebraic methods. The calculations are simplified by first finding the weight of ingredients needed to make 100kg of the desired mix. With the algebraic method, symbols such as X,Y, Z is used to represent the weights of dairy ingredients required for a 100 kg batch of mix. These symbols are then used in writing the three equations that express the weight of fat serum solids (SNF) and the total weight of dairy ingredients needed for 100kg of mix. Making the mix: The order in which ingredients are added is as follows: All liquid ingredients are placed in a jacketed vat provided with a power stirrer, and the agitation and heating started at once, the dry ingredients, including skim milk powder, sugar, and stabilizers are added while the liquid material is agitated before the temperature reaches 49C. Proper suspension to avoid lumpiness of the dry ingredients may be obtained by either mixing the dry materials thoroughly with part of the sugar before slowly adding it to the liquid, or by sifting / slowly adding these substances to the liquid. If gelatin is the stabilizer used, it is best added after it is thoroughly mixed with equal volume of sugar, and before the liquid material reaches 49C. Alternatively, it can be sprinkled on the surface of the cold liquid and allowed to soak before the mixture is heated or soaked in water and the mixture heated to completely dissolve the gelatin, which is usually added to warm (38-49C) mix.

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If sodium alginate is used, it should not be added until the temperature of the liquid material has reached at least 66C. The dry Dariloid is not allowed to soak but is stirred up with cold water and immediately dumped into the hot mix. If butter, plastic cream, frozen cream, or other products are used, they should be cut into small pieces and added after time has been given to allow for complete melting before the pasteurizing temperature is reached. With a few exceptions, colouring and flavouring materials are added when the mix is frozen. Pasteurization of mix: The Purpose of Pasteurization are It renders the mix completely free of pathogenic bacteria, It dissolves and helps to blend the ingredients of the mix. It improves flavour, It improves keeping quality, and it produces a more uniform products

The ISI specification for pasteurization temperature time combination for ice cream mix are as follows: Batch system- 68.5C for not less than 30min. HTST method - 80 C for not less than 25 sec. In batch system the heating and holding may be accomplished in the vat used for mixing the ingredients. Homogenization of mix The main purpose of homogenization is to make a permanent and uniform suspension of the fat by reducing the size of the fat globules to a very small diameter, preferably not more than 2 microns. The advantages of homogenisation are It prevents fat separation during ageing. Produces more uniform ice cream with a smoother texture. Improves whipping ability Shortens ageing period. Decreases the risk of churning occurring in the freezer and Leads to the use of slightly less stabilizer. The mix is usually homogenized at temperature from 63 to 77 C at pressure of 2500 to 3000 PSI with one valve, or 2,500 to 3000 PSI at the first stage and 500 PSI at the second stage will usually give good results for an average mix (with 3 to 12% fat). Cooling and ageing of mix. Cooling the mix immediately after homogenization to 0-5Cis essential, after which it should be held in ageing tanks until used. Ageing refers to holding the mix at a low temperature for a definite time before freezing. The ageing temperature should not exceed 5 C. The ageing time under commercial conditions may range from 3 to 4 hours, except for sodium alginate which requires no ageing. Ageing Improves the body and texture of ice cream Improves the whipping capacity Increases maximum overrun Increases melting resistance. Freezing the mix Freezing is one of the most important operations in the making of ice cream for upon it depends the quality, palatability and yield of the finished product. The freezing process may be divided into two parts. The mix with the proper amount of colour and flavouring materials generally added at the freezer, is quickly frozen

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while being agitated to incorporate air in such a way as to produce and control the formation of small ice crystals which is necessary to give smoothness in body and texture, palatability and satisfactory overrun in the finished product. When ice cream is partially frozen to a certain consistency it is drawn from the freezer into packages and quickly transferred to cold storage rooms where the freezing and hardening is completed without agitation. Classification of freezers Batch freezer: Horizontal position and direct expansion type. Continuous freezer: Horizontal position and direct expansion type. Soft serve freezer: Batch and automatic continuous freezer of the direct expansion type. Importance of rapid freezing: Rapid freezing is essential for a smooth product because ice crystals that are formed quickly are smaller than those formed slowly. Therefore it is desirable to freeze and draw the mix from the freezer in as short a time as possible. A continuous freezer accomplishes this in a few seconds, while batch freezer takes 6 to 10 minutes. Since the freezing continues after the ice cream is placed in the hardening rooms, the ice crystal formed during the hardening period are larger because they are formed more slowly than in the freeze. For this reason it is desirable to freeze the ice cream as stiffly as possible and yet have it liquid enough to be able to draw it out of the freezer. Factors influencing the freezing time: Mechanical: Type of freezer Condition of freezer walls and blades Speed of dasher. Temperature of refrigerant. Velocity of refrigerant passing around the freezing chamber. Overrun desired. Temperature at which ice cream is frozen. Rate at which freezer is unloaded. Characteristics of mix. Composition of mix. Freezing point of mix. Acidity of the mix. Kind of ingredients, particularly those carrying fat. Methods by which the mix is processed. Kind and amount of flavouring materials added. Changes occurring during freezing of ice cream mix. The function of freezing process is to freeze a portion of the water of the mix and to incorporate air into the mix. This involves: Lowering of temperature of the mix from the ageing temperature to the freezing point. Freezing a portion of the water in the mix Incorporating air into the mix. Cooling the ice cream from the temperature at which it is drawn from the freezer to hardening room temperature.

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The temperature of mix, which is put into the freezer drops very rapidly, this process, takes less than a minute or two. Mean while the rapid agitation reduces the viscosity by partially destroying the gel structure and by breaking up the fat globule cluster. The gel structure may restore itself partially during the hardening process in the hardening room. The rapid agitation hastens incorporation of air into the mix. When freezing point is reached the liquid water changes to ice crystals, which appear on the mix. These ice crystals are practically pure water in a solid form, and thus the sugar as well as the other solutes becomes more concentrated on the remaining liquid water. Increasing the concentration of these solutes slightly depresses the freezing point of the liquid portion, so that the temperature must be lowered before any more ice crystals will form. Thus, in freezing ice cream, the freezing point is continually being lowered by the formation of ice crystals and while the temperature drops, more ice crystals are formed, increasing the concentration of sugar and other solutes in the remaining liquid water until the concentration is so great that further freezing will not occur, thus all the water dose not freeze even after long periods in the hardening room. The first phase of freezing process accounts for the freezing of 3 to 6 per cent the water, depending on the drawing temperature. The second phase i.e. hardening process, this account for the freezing another 23 to 57 per cent, depending on the drawing temperature. Batch freezing: the batch freezer consists mainly of a freezing chamber and a dasher. The dasher consists of two parts viz., scraper blades and the beater, the dasher performs the following functions: Aids in transmission of refrigeration by keeping the mix in continuous contact wit the freezer walls, scrape freezer walls free of ice crystals, beats in air, continually pushes mix forward, which is essential for unloading the freezer. The freezing procedure in batch freezer consists of Preparation of the freezer: the freezer parts should be inspected to ensure that they are clean and dry. Then they should be assembled in accordance with the instructions from the manufacturer. The freezer is sanitized by running hot water or chemical (chlorine) sanitizers. Adding the mix: It is always desirable that the temperature of the mix be below 5C when it gees into the freezer. Colour and flavouring should be added only when some ice crystals have been formed. The total volume of the mix ,flavour, and colour should be about half the total capacity of the freezer chamber.

Freezing and incorporation of air The mix should now run into the freezer, the dasher should be started and then the refrigerant turned into the freezing chamber. This sequence must be maintained, the dasher must never be operated when there is no mix in the freezer. Neither should the refrigerant be turned on unless the dasher is in motion. Drawing of ice cream When ice cream is drawn from the freezer, it should be sufficiently stiff to ribbon or almost hold its shape, and yet soft enough to settle or lose its shape within a minute or two. The container or package into which the ice cream is drawn should be cooled sufficiently to prevent the ice cream melting; this melting may cause a coarse

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and icy texture around the edge of the package and also loss of overrun. Formation of air pockets within the container should be avoided, the freezer should emptied rapidly to prevent wide fluctuations in overrun in the package, Therefore avoid filling small packages directly from the batch freezer, Continuous freezing: Continuous freezers are of two types in the market One of these has two pumps just behind the freezer barrel; one pump pulls the mix from the supply tank and pumps it to the second one. The second pump operated at a speed approximately twice as great as that of the first pump. This has the effect of creating a partial vacuum between the two pumps. The valve device in the piping between the pumps allows for air to be sucked in. The amount of air incorporated can be regulated very accurately. The second pump pumps the mix and air into the freezer barrel. As the mix freezes, semi-frozen ice cream is forced out form the front of the machine. The second type operated in a very similar fashion as the first, however here the two pumps are at the front. One pump pushes the mix into rear end of the freezer and the other helps to pull out the semi frozen ice cream form the freezer. There is separate air pump that forces air directly into the freezer barrel. This second kind of continuous freezer is just as versatile as first one. Some important advantages of the continuous freezing method are Less stabilizer is needed. A shorter ageing period. Less flavouring material is needed. Smoother ice cream is obtained. Tendency towards development of sandiness decreases A more uniform yield is obtained with less variation between packages. Some disadvantages are Great care must be taken in handling the parts of the machine that fit with very small clearance. Operators and mechanics must have special experience and training in order to avoid operational difficulties and possible damage to the equipment. It is difficult to prevent excessive overrun. There is greater tendency for ice cream to shrink on volume after hardening. Initial cost of the equipment is high. Overrun in ice cream Overrun is usually defined as the volume of ice cream obtained in excess of the volume of the mix. It is usually expressed as a percentage. This increased volume is composed mainly of the air incorporated during the freezing process. The amount of air incorporated depends on the composition of the mix and the way it is processed; and is regulated so as to give that percentage overrun or yield which will give the proper body, texture and palatability necessary to a good quality product. Too much air will produce a snowy, fluffy, unpalatable ice cream while too little, a soggy, heavy product. The desirable overrun percentage in different ice creams is given below. Product Ice cream packaged Ice-cream bulk %OR. 70-80 90-100

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Softy ice cerium 30-50.

There are two basic or fundamental methods of calculating percentage overrun, viz., by volume and by weight. (volume of ice cream) (volume of mix) = volume of mix .

i) % O R

x 100.

weight of unit volume of mix ii) %O R = weight of unit volume of ice cream

weight of unit volume of ice cream x 100

Packaging of ice cream: When ice cream is drawn from the freezer it is usually collected in containers, which give it the desired shape or size for convenient handling during the hardening and marketing processes. The chief requirement for packages of ice cream are Protection against contamination An attractive appearance, ease of opening and reclosing and ease of disposal, protection against moisture loss and temperature fluctuations is also desirable. Ice cream packages are of two types Multi service: this type of container is seldom used in modern operation a; a tinned steel can is an example. They are cleaned, sanitized, and used repeatedly. Single service: this type of package has met with increasing favour, especially during recent years. The quantity filled may be for bulk or retail sale. Most bulk ice cream is packaged in fibre board cartons coated with wax or polythene wax blends for protection against moisture and oxygen. The most recent trends for such factory filled carry home packages are the all plastic cylindrical container with a reclosable lid. Retail ice cream may be packaged in cups, stick, or bars. Cups may be of paper or cardboard treated as above to make them impervious to moisture. The recent rends is towards mulitpacks. Hardening and storage of ice-cream The freezing process is continued without agitation in the hardening rooms until the temperature of the ice cream is reached 18C or below.. Here quick hardening is desirable. Most operators allow hardening time of 12 hours. The factors affecting hardening time are : speed of air circulation, size and shape of the ice cream package, temperature of cooling air, section of hardening room, temperature of ice cream drawn from the freezer, composition of mix and percentage overrun in the ice cream being hardened. The different hardening systems are I) Hardening rooms -12 to 45C. ii) Hardening tunnels -34 to -45C. iii) Hardening cabinets -23 to -26c. Ice cream can be stored in the room where the temperature is maintained uniformly at a point between 23 to 18C and the packages should be piled very close to delay change in ice-cream temperature. Distribution of ice cream:

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When ice cream is marketed the manufacturer usually transports it to retailer under refrigeration at the same temperature as is maintained in the retailers cabinet. The various means of refrigerating the distribution vehicle are dry ice refrigeration: Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide with a freezing point of 78C. It is used extensively for package deliveries. Refrigerated truck. This is most commonly used means of transport for ice cream in developed countries, the truck is refrigerated overnight, and loaded with hardened ice cream the following morning. Frozen brine: Jacketed metal containers, which contain calcium chloride solution of specific gravity of 1.1 are refrigerated to 21C and are then placed around the packaged ice cream, this arrangement is used by a few ice cream factories for air lifting of ice cream in this country. Softy ice cream There is a marked demand for the ice cream, which has generally come to be known as Softy. This term has been applied largely because this product is marketed in a soft condition and is ready for consumption shortly after it is drawn for the freezer, The problem involved in the preparation of softy ice cream are some what different from those encountered in the manufacture of regular ice cream. The composition of softy ice cream Composition Fat Milk Solids Not Fat Sugar Stabilizers and emulsifiers

Percentage 3-6 11-14 12-15 0.4 0.6

Softy ice cream is usually drawn from the freezer at around 8 to 7C. The overrun may range from 30 to 50 %.

KHOA Khoa / Mawa / Khava refers to the partially dehydrated (heat coagulated) whole milk product prepared by continuous heating of milk in a karahi over a direct fire, while also constantly stirring-cum-scraping by using a khunti till it reaches a semi solid consistency. Thereafter the pan contents are removed from the fire and worked up in to a solid mass known as khoa pat. According to PFA Rules (1976), khoa is the product obtained from cow or buffalo (or goat or sheep) milk, or a combination thereof, by rapid drying. The milk fat content should not be less than 20 percent of the finished product. Classification:

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Three main types of khoa, viz., Pindi, dhap and Danedar are prepared in the country. Composition: Chemical composition of Khoa (percentage) Composition of khoa Type of milk Cow 25.6 Moisture F a t 25. 7 37. 1 Protein Lactose As h 3 . 8 3 . 6 Iron (pp m) 10 3

19. 2 17.8

25. 5 22. 1

Buffalo

19.2

10 1

Methods of Production: Three methods have been known in the production of khoa. They are Existing practice Improved method Continuous method

Existing practice/trade practice: Required quantity of milk is taken as per batch and boiled in a karahi (vessel) of different shape and size over a brisk non-smoky fire. The milk is stirred vigorously and constantly with a circular motion by a ladle or khunti. During this operation, all parts of the pan with which the milk comes in contact are lightly scraped to prevent the milk from scorching. Constant evaporation of moisture takes place and the milk thickens slowly. However, no sugar is added and milk-dehydration continues until heat-coagulation of milk proteins begins and the concentrate becomes insoluble in water. There is change of colour at this stage, and heating is continued with greater control with increased stirring-cum scraping speed. Soon the viscous mass reaches a semi-solid/pasty consistency and begins to dry up. The final product is ready when it shows signs of leaving the bottom and sides of the karahi and sticking together, which is known as the khoa-pat . This is invariably made after removing the pan from the fire and working the contents up and down into a single compact mass.

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Improved method: This is followed in organized firms, where, the equipment, conditions of dehydration, and the quality of the milk used are given importance. The karahi and open fire substituted with stainless steel jacketed-pan or kettle, which is heated by water or steam. Milk is boiled till it assumes pasty consistency and then held at 85C and stirring at 100 rpm. Regarding the quality of the milk used, buffalo milk is preferred over cow milk as the latter produces soft, loose body and gives smooth a granular texture which is not relished. The milk should contain 4% and 5% fat respectively for cow and buffalo milk. Neutralization of acid milk improves the texture but does not improve the flavour of khoa. Starch adulterated milk gives hard khoa. Homogenization of milk produces softer body and fat leakage. Continuous method: Here milk is continuously heated in the steam jacketed drum heater, where it is partially concentrated. This is followed by another heating and concentration of the milk in open pans till a viscous semi-solid product is obtained and is removed mechanically. The equipment basically consists of A steam-jacket drum heater with a rotary scrapper and milk outlet Two open steam-jacketed pans with outlet valves Two sets of scrapers for the pans and A power drive for the scrapers. A cover is provided in the pan to prevent any dust or dirt falling into it. Physicochemical changes in milk on conversion into khoa: The following are the changes that are encountered while milk is being converted into khoa. Change of state: From liquid milk to solid khoa (due to considerable dehydration) Change in intensity of colour: From light to a more intense shade of colour with a tinge of brown. Homogenization of milk fat: The fat globules are appreciably subdivided due to vigorous agitation of the milk at a high temperature. Free-fat formation: Considerable free fat is produced due to rupturing of the fat globule membrane by the scraping action of the stirrer. Heat coagulation of milk proteins: The serum proteins are coagulated by the action of heat and concentration. Super-saturated solution of lactose:

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From a dilute solution in milk, lactose is present in khoa as a super-saturated solution. Partial precipitation of milk salts: A portion of the milk salts are precipitated by the action of heat. Increase in Iron content: From 2 to 4 ppm in milk, the iron content in khoa exceeds 100 ppm due to scrapping of the pan surfaces during the manufacture. Process mechanization: The traditional process for khoamaking was meant for domestic or cottage-scale operations. This method is labour and energy-intensive and the end-product varies in quality from batch to batch. Since desiccation is done under open atmospheric conditions, the microbiological quality of the product is open to environmental influences. Engineering a design for mechanized production and packaging of khoa presents many challenges. There is a lack of information on the thermodynamics of the various physico-chemical changes taking place during the process of manufacture. Such changes are critical determinants of the sensory and rheological characteristics of khoa. Nevertheless, several successful attempts have been made to mechanize the process for the large-scale manufacture of khoa in the organized sector. A prototype for mechanized production of khoa was developed in the 1960s at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Kamal. The process involved preconcentration of milk in a scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE), followed by final concentration in an open cascading open steam-jacketed pan with mechanical scraper agitators. A vat of conical design has also been developed for the mechanized production of khoa. The final product is removed from the bottom of the cone by a screw type positive pump. This equipment is quite suitable to replace traditional appliances for cottage scale operations. A roller dryer has also been used for the manufacture of khoa. Yield: The type of milk, cow or Buffalo, influences the yield by virtue of its total solids content. Buffalo milk with higher total solids give higher yield than cow milk. Normally the yield of khoa ranges from 17 to 19 % from cow milk and 21 to 23 % for buffalo milk. Over-run: The over-run in khoa refers to the the excess weight of khoa obtained over the amount of total (milk) solids used. It is influenced by the moisture chiefly. The formula for calculating overrun (OR) in khoa is: % OR = K TS X 100, TS Where, K = weight of khoa (in kg) TS = Weight of total solids in milk (in kg).

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Gulabjamun Gulabjamun is a nationally popular khoa-based sweet. Originally, it was made with khoa and maida (flour). As it looked like the monsoon fruit, jamun, and was flavoured with rose water, it got its name of gulabjamun. It is usually consumed hot. The gourmet version of gulabjamun has centre-cored honey with pistachio and cardamom seeds and is preserved in kesar (saffron) syrup. Product Description: Shaped both round and cylindrical, gulabjamun is golden to dark brown in colour and has a soft to firm body and smooth texture. It is soaked in thick sugar syrup. Variations include pantua and lalmohan, both Bengali treats with mixture of chhana and khoa. Technology: Traditionally, gulabjamun is prepared on a small scale. In this process, 300 grams of dhap type khoa of 40-50 per cent moisture is mixed with 100 grams of wheat flour (maida) and 3 grams of baking powder. After adding sufficient water, the mixture is kneaded into a uniform dough and then rolled into small round or cylindrical shape. They are then deep-fried in edible oil in a shallow pan until they acquire a golden brown colour. The fried balls are then put into 62.5 per cent sugar solution and allowed to soak for a few hours before being served hot. New technology for industrial production of gulabjamun has been developed using an assembly-line system and is in operation at the Sugam Unit of the Baroda District Cooperative Milk Producers' Union Ltd, Vadodara in Gujarat. A process flow diagram for the conversion of khoa into gulabjamun is shown in Figure 3.1.3. Canned gulabjamun is now being largely exported to the Gulf countries and America. Several dairy plants in India and abroad are producing gulabjamun on a large scale. Khoa with 60-70 per cent total solids is mixed in a planetary mixer with 19-22 per cent of maida and leavening agent (baking powder). The dough is divided into 8-gram portions and transported to the ball forming machine. Then the balls are shaped like a cylinder and are carried to a frying system containing oil at a temperature of 140C. After frying, the balls are soaked in 62.5 per cent sugar syrup sol~tion. The gulabjamuns swell and weigh about 16 grams each. The gulabjamuns are then packaged in plastic

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containers and an appropriate amount of hot syrup is added. Lids are applied on the cups and subsequently sealed. Packaged gulabjamuns are stored under refrigerated conditions. Canned gulabjamuns are stored at room temperature. Composition: The composition of gulabjamun on a drained weight basis is: fat (10%), protein (6%), sugar (42%) and other solids (14%). Acidity of the syrup for gulabjamun should not exceed 6 ml of O.lN sodium hydroxide, needed to neutralize 100 ml of the syrup. Concentration of the syrup should be maintained at 62.4 Brix. Rheological properties: Sponginess and other important sensory characteristics of gulabjpmun have been studied using the Instron Universal Testing Machine. Their values are presented in Table 3.1.13. Instron hardness and deformation energy were highly correlated with sensory firmness. Also, correlations were apparent between instrumental fracturability and sensory crumbliness and chewiness. Potential process modifications: The use of homogenizedmilk khoa did not improve the quality of gulabjamun. However, when made with this khoa containing 0.08 per cent baking powder, gulabjamun exhibited good acceptability. Various binders have been 1!Sed and the most widely used is maida. Its recommended proportion is 10 per cent of weight of khoa. Wheat flour and suji have also been tried. The results showed that pre-soaked suji has better functional properties than dried suji, which improved the organoleptic attributes of gulabjamun. Addition of trisodium citrate to the dough at a level of 0.5 to 0.8 per cent (w/w) of milk solids produced gulabjamuns of approved profile. The product was softer and

showed more springiness and consequently absorbed more sugar syrup, enhancing juiciness. Shelf Life: Gulabjamun along with sugar syrup is packaged in plastic containers as well as in metal containers. The shelf life of canned gulabjamun is about six months at room temperature. Dry Gulabjamun Mix: This mix (powder) has been a commercial product for many years. It is designed to allow the housewife to make gulabjamun at home. Traditionally, gulabjamun is made from khoa but the gulabjamun mixes are made from skim milk powder. Khoa is a perishable product and to impart long shelf life to the gulabjamun powder, skim milk powder substitutes khoa. In some cases; roller-dried

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whole milk powder may be used. The chemical composition of the gulabjamun mix is given in Table 3.1.14. The Godhra Dairy in Gujarat is producing gulabjamun mix, based on technology from NDDB. Skim milk powder-based gulabjamun mix: This formulation consists of roller-dried skim milk powder (43.4%), maida (25%), semolina (suji) (15%), butterfat/vanaspati (15%), baking powder (1.5%) and powdered cardamom (0.1 %). All the ingredients are mixed uniformly in a powerdriven mixer. Fat, after melting, is incorporated slowly to ensure thorough mixing. The mix is packaged into printed polyethylene bags or laminated pouches and stored in a dry place. Its shelf life is more than six months at room temperature. To make gulabjamuns, 100 grams of the mix powder is mixed with 50-55 ml of water or milk to make the dough, and the rest of the procedure is the same as for traditional gulabjamun

Whole milk powder-based gulabjamun mix: In this formulation, both skim milk powder and fat are replaced with whole milk powder. It consists of roller-dried whole milk powder (58.4%), maida (35%) and semolina (suji) (15%), baking powder (1.5%) and cardamom powder (0.1 %). The packaging and other conditions are the same as in the skim milk powder-based gulabjamun mix.

Gulabjamuns made from dry mixes lack typical khoa taste. There is a potential of formulating gulabjamun mix with khoa powder in place of milk powder. The reformulated mix is likely to yield better tasting product with distinct khoa flavour.

The mechanized system developed for the industrial manufacture of gulabjamun has the potential of being adapted for the mechanized production of lalmohan.

Burfi Burfi has been favoured as one of the most popular khoabased sweets all over India. The unique adaptability of khoa in terms of its flavour, body and texture to blend with a wide range of food adjuncts has permitted development of an impressive array of burfi varieties. Among these, fruit, nut, chocolate, coconut, saffron and rawa burfi are popular. These food adjuncts may be artfully used singly or in innovative combinations to delight a gourmet. The artful ingenuity of the sweetmaker in creating special qualities in

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burfi fetches higher consumer prices. The myriad combina-tions include burfi prepared with cashewnut as katli (a wafer-thin slice), almond, pistachio, coconut, mango, orange, mud apple, bottle gourd and potato. The sublime manifestation ofburfi is launj, made with pistachios. It is soft and chewy, resembling halwa-burfi. Technology: Preparation ofburfi is mainly confined to the non-organized sector, although during the past decade a promising endeavour has been made to produce burfi through mechanized systems. On the cottage scale, burfi is prepared in small batches, employing mild steel shallow pans. When prepared directly from milk, buffalo milk with a fat: SNF ratio of 1:1.5 is preferred. Depending upon the type of burfi desired, specially prepared quality of khoa may be selected. Khoa is thoroughly worked by hand to produce as smooth texture as possible. Heat from direct fire is applied for blending khoa with sugar at 30 per cent of khoa (either in crystalline or syrup form), and other adjuncts. Contents of pan are skillfully handled to produce desired attributes of flavour (mild or strongly cooked, caramel, nutty), body (moist, soft, semi-hard or hard) and texture (smooth, coarse, chewy, grainy). Flavouring materials are judiciously added in the pan at a suitable stage, but mostly towards the end of the cooking process. When desirable organoleptic attributes have been developed, the product is poured in trays or moulds in a uniform layer, thickness of which is . consistent with the final form of burfi. The product is allowed to set, as it cools under atmospheric conditions. Once properly set, burfi is cut into required shape and size and finally packed in paper or corrugated cardboard boxes or high impact polystyrene tubs. Industrial Manufacture: Investigations carried out at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Kamal, indicate that in the manufacture of burfi of acceptable quality, a Thin-film Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger (TSSHE) can be utilized for initial concentration of milk, followed by finishing operations in a processing kettle. Alternatively, a two-stage TSSHE assembly coupled with a conical double-jacketed vat or even a three-stage TSSHE assembly may be used. Cardamom and potassium sorbate are added at the rate of 0.1 per cent of khoa (w / w) as preservatives followed by hot packaging of the product into multi-layer co-extruded nylon barrier pouches under vacuum. This method permitted a shelf life of about 45 days at 30C. A mechanized process for commercial production of burfi was successfully developed by the NDDB and installed at the Sugam Dairy, Baroda (Fig 3.1.5), although

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no longer in use currently. The process line was conceptually linked with the continuous khoamaking unit. In this process for the production of plain burfi, all the ingredients, viz., khoa, sugar and additives, such as cardamom, nuts, etc. are first heat processed to blend uniformly in a planetary mixer. The processed ingredients are then fed to a Rheonshaping and forming machine. A die at the end of the encrusting machine permits imaginative choice of a wide range. of designs that may be imparted to shape the burfi emerging from the machine in a continuous uninterrupted flow. Burfi is then packed in corrugated cardboard boxes. For packaging, multi-layer coextruded nylon barrier film having structure PE/bonded layer and nylon/bonded layer have also been successfully tried. For preparation of the layered form of burfi, another 'pre-mix' is simultaneously formulated in another planetary mixer in addition to the basic khoa-based formulation as described above. The layered coating could be of chocolate, saffron, nuts or a suitable fruit pulp, such as mango. A dough of the coating is prepared in the second planetary mix, the consistency of which is crucial to permit passage through a encrusting machine as well as its application as a smooth and uniform layer on the khoa-based portion of the burfi. The two pre-mixes are then led to a encrusting machine. The thickness of the coating layer can be controlled through the operating parameters of the encrusting machine. Selecting variable extruding dies at the end of the layering barrel can help develop an imaginative range of product shapes and designs. Quality Factors: In commercial practices, burfi may be prepared directly through concentration of buffalo milk or alternatively by use of khoa. Due to regional or seasonal scarcity of either milk or khoa, plain concentrated milk or spray dried/roller dried skim milk powder/whole milk powder may also be used. When concentrated milk or dried milk is used as the source of milk solids, a slurry is made with desiccated milk in a shallow pan to form a semi-solid mass. When dried milk is used for the preparation of burfi, desiccation under atmospheric conditions after reconstitution is essential to produce free -SH groups from whey proteins that are required to develop the desirable cooked/pleasant caramelized flavour, typical ofburfi.

Fat content: The final product must have at least 20 per cent fat for imparting optimum mouthfeel to it. During the heat desiccation of milk accompanied by constant/ vigorous

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agitation, fat globule is ruptured resulting in the liberation of free fat. The presence of free fat during the final stages of desiccation is essential to impart desirable flavour, mouth-feel, body and texture characteristics to the product. A good sample of burfi should contain 67-69 per cent free fat. Stage of sugar addition: Finely ground sugar is preferable especially when the starting material is khoa or concentrated milk to ensure uniformity of mixing. Presence of large crystals of sugar leads to the development of a gritty texture in the finished product. Sugar should be mixed at not less than 50C and sufficiently processed with khoa using brisk mixing motion to ensure smooth texture in burfi. Effect of additives: A number of ingredients such as nuts, chocolates, fruits, saffron, etc. may also be incorporated in burfi during the manufacturing process. The nature of additives affects the flavour, body, texture and shelf life ofburfi. Recent R&D work has shown that addition of 0.015 per cent saffron to burfi improves the shelf life of the product by acting as a deterrent to micro-biological activity during storage. Corn syrup addition: Further R&D work has shown that up to 50 per cent of the cane sugar may be replaced advantageously with corn syrup (42 DE). Burfi samples prepared with a mixture of cane sugar and corn syrup displayed superior gloss on the surface, body and texture. Corn syrup also tends to inhibit the growth of bacteria and imparts a longer shelf life of the product. Desiccation temperature: Temperature of about 80C for heat desiccation is considered ideal. A temperature lower than 80C is inadequate to impart pleasant caramel flavour in the product. On the other hand, temperature of 90C tends to impart brown colouration as well as an objectionable cooked flavour. Physico-chemical Characteristics: The generic nomenclature "burfi" covers a wide range of product variations that include plain burfi, danedar burfi, dudh burfi, chocolate burfi, fruit burfi and coconut burfi. Their flavour, colour, body and texture vary. Flavour: Typically, burfi has a mildly caramelised and pleasant flavour. When additives like cardamom, chocolate, coconut, fruit, etc, are added, the mild pleasant flavour is further complemented to enhance both product appeal and value. Colour: The colour ofburfi may range from offwhite to creamy or light caramel,

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depending mainly upon the type of milk solids used as base material and also the extent of heat desiccation during the preparation ofburfi. Body: The body characteristics of burfi and its flavour vary considerably among product varieties. It may range from very loosely compacted to a closely-knit body. The texture could also vary from smooth to granular and crisp to chewy. A microscopic thin layer of free fat separates granules in the closely-knit mass. Texture: Light and scanning electron microscopy has been employed to study the structure ofburfi. The main structure consists of thread-like particles consisting of protein-protein bonding in which fat globules and sugar solutions are dispersed. Minute crystals of sugar may also be observed depending upon the type of burfi. A sheet structure covers the space occupied by sugar solutions. Values of the rheological properties of burfi have been recorded: hardness 35.2 mN, cohesiveness 0.15, springiness 5.25 mN, gumminess 5.49 mN, chewiness 28.80 mN, penetration value 7990 (0.1 mm), and viscosity 30,000-33,500 cpo The sensory texture descriptors of soft and hard types ofburfi are givel1.in Table 3.1.16. Equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of burfi: The shelf life of burfi is related to the ERH value. Lower the ERH value, longer the shelf life. The ERH value of a plain burfi sample has been reported as 70 per cent at 30e. The sample contained 15.15 per cent moisture (the corresponding equilibrium moisture content being 14.86%). Free fatty acids: The level of free fatty acids has a significant effect on the shelf life ofburfi. Fresh samples .. of burfi may contain traces of free fatty acids, i depending upon the severity of heat desiccation as well as the quality of khoa used. Under laboratory conditions, about 0.21 per cent free fatty acid (as oleic acid) was present in burfi. Hydroxy methyl furfural (HMF) content: The HMF content ofburfi reflects the intensity of heat treatment imparted during manufacturing, leading to degradation of the -amino acid group of lysine with the aldehyde group oflactose. The initial HMF content of the burfi sample is also indicative of the extent of browning that may take place during storage period. Freshly prepared samples ofburfi under laboratory conditions may contain 10.6 mmole of HMF per 100 grams, and market samples 16.2 to 20.7 mmole per 100 grams, of the TS content. Microbiological Quality: It is mainly governed by the initial quality of milk, quality of

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additives and the microflora of the environment. Despite desiccation of milk at near boiling temperature, the product is susceptible to atmospheric contamination. The standard plate count (SPC) of burfi has been reported to vary in the range of 240 to 1,100 cfu/ g, when burfi is prepared under controlled conditions. Freshly prepared market samples are reported to contain 1,000350,000 cfu organisms/g. Various bacterial species found in samples of burfi belong to the thermophillic and mesophillic species, including spores. Proteolytic and acid-forming bacteria tend to predominate in the normalmicroflora ofburfi. Among the moulds, the Mucor and Rhizopus spp., and among yeasts, Saccharomyces and Candida spp. are pre-dominant. Chromogenic yeasts and moulds may be also found in the stored samples ofburfi. However, a mechanized and enclosed system for burfi manufacture followed by mechanized packaging obviates the possibility of undesirable microbial contamination of the product. Several studies have been carried out to profile the microbiological changes during storage ofburfi. Under controlled conditions of preparation, the total viable count was found to increase from 2.50 to 4.47 (10g10 per g) during storage at 300e for 20 days. When 0.1 per cent potassium sorbate was used as a preservative, the rate of microbial growth was slower, reaching a level of 4.70 (1og10 per g) at the end of 60-day storage at the same temperature. The yeast and mould counts under identical conditions were found to be 3.09 and 2.70 (10g10 per g), respectively. Shelf Life: Both moisture content and free fat have a major influence on the shelf life of burfi, and both vary widely. Further, the manufacturing conditions and packaging as well as type of package also influence the . shelf life of the product. Rancidity: The high percentage of free fat in burfi makes it susceptible to oxidative rancidity. Due to the denaturation of milk lipase during the heat desiccation stage of khoa making, hydrolytic rancidity does not develop on storage of burfi unless the product has been contaminated in the subsequent stages of handling. Under controlled conditions of product preparation, the free fatty acid content (as oleic acid) of burfi may increase from 0.21 to 0.31 per cent. During its storage, keto-glycerides may also be formed. Studies have been carried out to extend the shelf life of burfi by incorporating antioxidants like propyl gallate and dodecyl gallate. Samples ofburfi containing 5-9 per cent moisture content with added antioxidants can be stored for a period of 12 months at

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20-30oe without development of rancid flavour. On the other hand, untreated control samples develop rancidity within six months. Packaging of burfi in metalized polyester film under vacuum further retards rancidity development. Acid development: Due to recontamination during postdesiccation process of khoa production, a large number of lactic acid-forming bacteria may be present in khoa . These make burfi vulnerable to microbial growth during storage. Under controlled conditions of preparation and storage, the pH ofburfi may drop from an initial value of 6.40 to 6.21 during the 20-day storage at 30e. Storage at 5-7e is recommended for prolonging the shelf life ofburfi. Browning: During storage ofburfi, carbonyl compounds are converted into DNPhydrazones. Methyl ketones, also associated with the pleasant flavour of the freshly prepared product, tend to be converted into the saturated aldehydes, which exhibit offflavour upon prolonged storage, especially at higher temperatures. During storage of burfi samples at 300e for 20 days, the HMF content has been observed to increase from an initial value of 10.57 to 12.30 mmole per 100 TS of the product. The use of antioxidants as preservatives tends to reduce the rate of browning only marginally. The rate of browning proceeds at a faster rate as -SH groups liberated during the heat processing are converted into -SS groups. Samples ofburfi prepared from roller-dried milk powder tend to undergo brown discolouration and flavour deterioration faster during storage as compared to samples prepared directly from liquid milk. Packaging: The current commercial practice of cutting burfi into pieces and packing them in paper cartons/ corrugated cardboard boxes is inadequate to guard against atmospheric and manual contamination. The product tends to pick up odours from the surrounding atmosphere and lose its typical pleasant aroma. At the same time, it is also prone to oxidative rancidity. Vacuum packaging ofburfi has been attempted under laboratory conditions with favourable results. Among packaging materials used 'are LOPE, aluminium foil, LOPEmetal laminate, cryovac film and metalized polyester. Metal container permits shelf life of 30 days at 30e. The use of film for packaging of burfi is useful in preventing the surface growth of microflora and also for reducing the development of oxidative rancidity. The surface of packaging film may be treated with hydrogen peroxide (0.5%). Cryovac pouches prove to be superior for packaging than polystyrene tubs, both

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in efficiency of storage and economy. Burfi packaged in pre-sterilized pouches was acceptable up to 30 days at 30C, while in Cryovac it could be stored for 180 days at 5e. Incorporation of 0.1 per cent sorbic acid further improves the shelf life to 190 days at 5e. An equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of 70 per cent (having moisture content of 15%) was optimum for storage at 30C. Higher ERH encouraged the mould growth and lower ERH impaired the textural quality of burfi. Loss of moisture from the product during storage at 30-37C also influences the rheological properties of burfi. The hardness was found to increase from an initial value of 30.2 to 38.6 mN, cohesiveness from 0.16 to 0.20, springiness from 5.25 to 7.32 mN, gumminess from 4.98 to 7.76 mN, and chewiness from 26.15 to 56.80 mN when burfi samples were stored at 30C for a period of 60 days. Kalakand The granular texture of kalakand represents an ingenious innovation (probably of more recent origin) over other forms of khoa-based sweets. It has been achieved through deliberate texturization of the concentrated mass of milk solids during the concentration process. This delicacy has been described in Annaji's Soundara Vilasa (17 AD) as 'milk thickened by boiling till it fell in flakes'. There are also references elsewhere of kene-payasa, a sweet concoction of cream. Presently, kalakand is popular all over the country, particularly in the northern, eastern and central parts. Product Description: Kalakand is prepared,py blending sugar with 'danedar' khoa. It is typified by a pleasant caramel flavour and granular texture. The granular mass is fused, and holds together a loosely compacted body. The colour of kalakand varies from offwhite to light caramel. So far, no compositional standards for kalakand have been laid down under either the PFA Act or the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Variations in proximate composition of laboratory made kalakand are given in Table 3.1.17. Size of Industry: Despite its wide popularity across the country, the manufacture of kalakand is confined to the non-organized sector to meet the local demand. Lack of suitable technology and packaging systems for large-scale industrial production severely limits the task of maintaining its keeping quality over a long period. This impedes production and marketing of the product by the organized sector. Due to the batch-wise nature of production as well as absence of a scientific approach, variations in the chemical and microbiological quality of product are wide.

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Technology: Buffalo milk, standardized to about 6 per cent fat and 9.0-9.5 per cent SNF, is generally preferred for the preparation of kalakand. Standardized milk is boiled in an iron karahi placed over a brisk and nonsmoky fire with continuous stirring by a khunti (ladle) in a circular motion with occasional scraping of the heating surface. Alternatively, a double-jacketed kettle may be used with steam at 1-1.2 kg/ cm2 pressure. After 10-15 minutes of boiling, 0.02 per cent of citric acid (of the volume of milk, in the form of 1-2% solution) is added to permit the formation of well-defined granules. At this stage, vigorous stirring is required to obtain a product of good quality. When a semi-solid state is reached, intensity of heating is reduced and sugar (67% by weight of milk) is added and stirred well. If desired, flavourings and chopped nuts may be added at this stage. Heating is continued for another five minutes to permit uniform mixing of additives with the semi-solid mass of milk. The finished product is transferred to a tray greased with ghee for cooling and setting. After cooling to room temperature, the firmly set product is cut into required shape and size, packaged and stored. Kalakand is also manufactured from Danedar khoa by mixing various ingredients such as sugar, aromatic spices, etc., over the fire in a shallow pan. The entire mass is potted in a thin layer and slabs of desired size are cut after cooling for final serving once the product forms a compact mass. Sensory Quality: The sensory attributes of kalakand such as colour, body and texture and the overall acceptability of the finished product are influenced by the fat level of milk, amount of sugar and strength and type of coagulant. Fat: Cohesiveness, the most desirable characteristic of kalakand, is optimum in the samples made with 6 per cent milk fat. Fat level in buffalo milk lower than 6 per cent yields less acceptable product. Sugar: Good quality kalakand in terms of colour, flavour and body and texture is obtained by using sugar at 7 per cent level. Although the product prepared with higher level is acceptable, it possesses an inferior colour due to browning. A sugar content of 11 per cent results in cooked flavour, syrupy body and excessive browning in the final product. Strength and type of coagulant: Citric acid at 0.02-0.05 per cent levels is commonly used to induce good granule formation during kalakand preparation. Use of 0.02 per cent citric acid results in kalakand possessing optimum chewiness, gumminess and hardness

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values. Use of tartaric acid leads to a pasty product. Aged whey (3%) yields a product exhibiting loose texture and slight bitterness, whereas the product made with alum is sticky, irregular in granule size and inferior in colour. Microbiological quality: Microbial counts of laboratory and market samples of kalakand are presented in Table 3.1.18. Besides microorganisms found in milk/khoa, kalakand may also contain those found in sugar and other flavourings and nuts used in its manufacture. The post-manufacturing contamination occurs in the product due to the environmental conditions of manufacturing, handling, packing and storage. Biochemical quality: Market as well as laboratory samples of kalakand were analysed for various biochemical characteristics. The market samples constantly exhibited inferior quality attributes as compared to the laboratory samples (Table 3.1.19). Sensory quality: Commercial samples of kalakand vary from a slightly cooked, sweet pleasant to cooked caramelized flavour, are whitish yellow to brownish colour, which may be attributed to the amount of sugar and the extent of heat treatment. The body and texture of the market samples is observed to be less chewy and having bigger granules. Packaging and Storage: Due to its high water activity level, kalakand is highly susceptible to microbial and enzymic spoilage. The packaging system should be so improved as to provide sufficient protection to the product against microbial and oxidation spoilage. Attempts have been made to prolong the shelf life of kalakand up to 21 days by wrapping it in parchment paper and storing under refrigeration temperature (8-1OC). The use of flexible films and laminates has been suggested for packaging with or without vacuum. Kalakand packaged under vacuum in metalized polyester and saran-coated cellophane/LDPE and stored in cartons remains acceptable for 50 days and 21 days at 6-lOoC and 30C, respectively. Laboratory studies for extending the shelf life of kalakand indicate beneficial effect of employing ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the surface of packaging material as well as use of potassium sorbate as a preservative. Kalakand samples with 0.2 per cent potassium sorbate had been added and were then packaged in polyethylene bags preexposed to UV irradiation for 20 minutes at 30 1C and stored at 30 1C and 37 1C remained acceptable up to 24 and 15 days, respectively. However, the control

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samples without potassium sorbate became unacceptable after the sixth and third day at the respective temperatures. The prevalent practice of packaging kalakand in parchment paper and cardboard boxes does not provide sufficient protection against environmental contamination, and the product becomes unacceptable for consumption after a short period of time. Even the use of flexible laminates may not be suitable for distant outstation retail sale of the product as they would not be able to counter transportation hazards, making the product unacceptable to consumers. Therefore, a suitable system for its packaging needs to be developed conforming to the requirements of the nutritional labelling and quality assurance consistent with international norms. Milk Cake Milk cake resembles kalakand except for its colour and flavour. It has typical grainy texture and distinct caramelized flavour, with layers of white to light brown colour from top to bottom. This value-added product offers entrepreneurs a new avenue to add to their profits, provided its traditional method of preparation is adapted in modem technology. Technology: Milk cake is produced in the nonorganized sector of the industry. Currently, its production entails energy and labour intensive inputs. Standardization of production process and product quality would enhance its popularity and profitability. Based on the traditional process of milk cake production, the following method can be adopted for its commercial production. Milk is standardized to 6 per cent fat and 9 per cent solids-not-fat (SNF). It is boiled in a karahi for three minutes and citric acid is added at the rate of 0.02 per cent (w Ivolume of milk). Desiccation is continued. When the volume is reduced to 50 per cent of the original milk, sugar is added at the level of 6 per cent (w Iv). Further desiccation is continued with fast stirring to obtain dough-like consistency. The hot dough is transferred to greased tray, and it is slowly cooled in an insulated box for five to six hours. Alternatively, the bottom of the tray can be cooled in chilled water to enhance colour differential in top and bottom layers. After the product is cooled, it is cut into desired shapes and packaged in parchment paper. To achieve longer shelf life, milk cake may be cooled in sealed

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moulds placed in an insulated box to slow down cooling and to produce desirable flavour and colour. Storage and distribution of milk cake should be at 5e. This formulation and processing regime can be further optimized to develop attributes as per regional preferences of consumers. In the traditional method, hot dough of milk cake is poured into trays. The bottom of the tray is cooled in iced water while the top of the tray is cooled slowly at room temperature exposing of this portion to high heat. It causes a differential in caramelization of top and bottom layers. The top layer gets a darker colour and stronger flavour. The rapidly cooled bottom layer retains white colour. To effect softness in the product, some milk cake producers add a pinch of sodium metabisulfite to the mixture prior to the removal of its heating vessel from fire. The R&D Group at NDDB, Anand, has undertaken the development of continuous line for the manufacture of milk cake for the Alwar Milk Union in Rajasthan. It is also working <on the design of a packaging system to increase the product's shelf life to about four to five weeks under ambient temperature. Peda Peda is a khoa-based indigenous milk product, popular all over India. According to industry estimates, the production of pedas exceeds that of any other indigenous milkbased sweet. It is prepared by mixing khoa with copious quantities of sugar. During production process, the stir-frying dries out the moisture, and sugar provides the preservative, giving peda a long shelf life, making it an ideal prasad. Peda is the sandesh (a Bengali delicacy) of north India. Peda is as popular in the north as sandesh is in the east. The best peda in the land comes from Brindavan in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and from Rajkot in Gujarat. Two finest purveyors of the art of peda making in Brindavan, the janambhoomi (birth place) of Lord Krishna, are Shankar and Brijwasi. The manufacture of peda is mostly restricted to halwais. Since peda has lower moisture content than burfi, it has a better keeping quality. Pedas are mostly offered as prasad during religious worship in temples as well as on various ceremonial celebrations. In some parts of Punjab, crushed peda is added to lassi to sweeten and enrich this delicious drink. During certain fasting festivals, the devotees are required to refrain from eating grain or cereal products. Peda is recognized as a pure food (prasad), suitable for consumption during the festival period and for breaking the fast on religious

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occasions. Product Description: Peda or doodh peda is prepared using khoa as base material. Khoa is mixed with sugar and then heated in a karahi made of food-grade metal. After heating, desired flavourings and nuts are added to the peda mass. The heat process removes some of the moisture of khoa. Sugar provides sweetness and exerts a preservative effect It is nearly half as sweet as Western style fudge, but is rich and satisfying. Technology: Peda is generally prepared by mixing khoa and sugar in the ratio 3:1. The khoa-sugar mixture is heated on a gentle fire till the mixture turns relatively firm. Then, the pan is removed from the fire. If desired, nuts and flavouring substances are added. The contents are mixed thoroughly and made into balls of 15 to 20 gram size by rolling between the palms after applying a little ghee to avoid sticking. The balls are flattened to give them disc shape. The product may also be formed into different shapes, using dies or moulds. Cardamom is commonly added for flavouring the peda. Some manufacturers also use permitted colours to prepare pedas of different colours. Incorporating 1-2 per cent cocoa makes chocolate pedas. For kesar or saffron peda, a preferred variety, saffron is mixed for added flavour and colour. Current Status: Recently, some plants have undertaken peda production using mechanized equipment and Rheon extruder. They use a planetary mixer for effecting uniformity from batch to batch. The R&D Group of NDDB, Anand, has recently developed a peda-moulding machine and a continuous peda line.

Figure 3.1.6 shows a flow diagram for the conversion of khoa into peda. Khoa is concentrated to 72 per cent total solids and heated to 60C in a steam-jacketed pan. After transferring khoa to a planetary mixing vessel, sugar and flavourings are added and mixed thoroughly. The peda mass is then stored at ()-4C for about 10 hours to bring the temperature down to 4-5C and then fed into the peda-shaping machine. The pedas are shaped, packaged and then stored under refrigeration.

The Rajkot District Cooperative Milk Producers' Union Ltd., Rajkot, Gujarat, has developed special equipment for making peda. Five litres of chilled buffalo raw milk containing 6 per cent fat and 9 per cent SNF is poured into a specially designed clean

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vessel, which is then placed on a heating furnace. Stirring is done manually right from the beginning. When milk comes to boil, 450 grams of sugar is added, and the stirring is continued. Desiccation of milk continues but it requires skill and experience to avoid over-heating or burning. The moisture content of the desiccated mass is reduced to 15 per cent (total solids: 85%). This takes about 15 to 18 minutes. At this stage, a slight grain formation is observed. The moisture content is further reduced to a level of 13.5 to 14 per cent. The vessel is then removed from the furnace, but the stirring is continued and the paste is well spread out on the walls of the vessel. The paste is then allowed to cool gradually. While still hot, it is placed in a large tray and the cooling process is continued. At this point, flavouring ingredients such as cardamom and saffron are added and thoroughly mixed in the tray. Then, pedas are formed manually to round balls of 20 grams each. A seal is slightly pressed over these balls to form a circular peda with round edge. Then, pedas are allowed to cool for 16 hours in a cold room (4C) before packaging. A set of six furnaces can process 600 litres of milk in an eight-hour shift, and 168 kg of pedas can be made with this equipment. Quality Factors: Peda is whitish yellow in colour and has a coarse grainy texture. Its quality is determined by the quantity of sugar added, heating parameters and storage conditions. Rabri Rabri is a concentrated, sweetened whole milk delicacy, containing several layers of clotted cream, and skimmed off from slowly evaporating milk. Rabri is in demand during festivals and other celebrations, specially in the northern and eastern parts of India. Product Description: Rabri is creamy white to caramelised in colour, possesses viscous body containing several layers of clotted cream with a chewy texture. It has a pleasant caramelised flavour. Technology: Buffalo milk is normally used for preparing rabri, owing to its high total solids and superior taste in the final product. Rabri is traditionally prepared by heating small quantities of whole milk at simmering temperature in a shallow karahi over an open fire. The milk is slowly evaporated, without being stirred, with frequent scraping at the bottom. The surface of milk, simmering in karahi, is intermittently fanned to permit

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formation of skin. Pieces of skin, which form on the surface of the milk, are continuously broken up and moved to cooler parts of the vessel. When the desired body and texture have been developed and the volume of milk has been considerably reduced, sugar is added. The layers of the clotted cream are immersed in the remainder of the concentrated milk. The whole mass is heated for a short period to mix the clotted mass uniformly into the concentrated milk. The endproduct has a pleasant caramel flavour and a thick consistency. It is then suitably flavoured, garnished with nuts and / or saffron and usually served in chilled condition. Figure 3.1.7 shows the flow diagram of traditional method of preparation of rabri. Physico-chemical Aspects: Rabri has a white to brownish colour with a pleasant caramelized flavour. It is of a creamy consistency and has a viscous body with several layers of clotted cream. Heating the product after immersing the layers of cream in the milk results in a honeycomb textured mass. Formation of clotted layer of milk solids on the surface of simmering milk seems to result from denaturation at the liquid-air interphase of milk protein, which entraps substantial amounts of milk fat globules. The product's chemical composition depends on the initial composition of the milk, the degree of concentration of the milk solids and the quantity of milk added. The approximate composition is as follows: Moisture Fat Protein Sugar Lactose Ash 30 per cent 20 per cent 10 per cent 20 per cent 17 per cent 3 per cent

Current Status: At present, rabri is a specialized product of halwais (traditional confectioners). Its manufacture is confined to the non-organized sector. Its traditional method of production is labour- and energy-intensive. The product profile varies from region to region. Standardization of the traditional process in terms of manufacturing techniques, sensory profiles, and compositional and physico-chemical attributes is necessary for attaining a product of uniform standard and assured quality. Once the method of manufacture and the quality aspects of rabri are standardized, application of scraped surface heat exchanger for direct conversion of milk into rabri i,n a single pass

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and the integration of packaging systems are areas of promising commerical development. It may be possible to make rabri in a batch procesS, suitable for commerical conditions. The product can be packed and sold in any of the modem type of containers. Khurchan Khurchan is a concentrated, sweetened whole-milk product. A major delicacy in its own right, khurchan has had its origin in the town of Haathras, Uttar Pradesh, an important destination on India's sweets atlas. It is popular mainly in the rural and semi-urban northern and central parts of the country. It is produced mainly on a cottage scale in the non-organized sector. Product Description: Traditionally, khurchan is prepared from buffalo milk. It has white to light cream colour. Typical body of khurchan consists of firm layers of milk solids. It has a rich, smooth but somewhat chewy texture. This product has a distinctive pleasant caramel! cooked flavour. Heat-clotted fraction of milk absorbs unclotted milk in the liquid phase, which imparts softness to the product. Table 3.1.21 presents composition of khurchan Technology: Manufacturing of khurchan is a highly skilled technique and requires considerable experience and constant attention. Buffalo milk is preferred for its richness and the quality it imparts to khurchan. In a batch-wise operation, a small quantity of milk, usually 500-700 ml at a time, is simmered over slow fire in a shallow pan (karahi). Milk is allowed to concentrate without excessive stirring. Temperature at which evaporation is done affects the colour of the finished product. Quicker evaporation at higher temperatures yields a whiter end-product, while slower evaporation at lower

temperatures makes the end-product somewhat brownish in colour. When almost 80 per cent water is evaporated, pan is kept for cooling. After cooling, thin layers of clotted milk are formed and are cut into layers with the help of khunti and then scraped. Its remaining concentrated liquid portion is poured over the solid layers. Then, powdered sugar (5% by weight of original milk) is sprinkled over it, which quickly dissolves into the liquid fraction of concentrated milk. If scraped before it is burnished and incorporated into the milk, it becomes the lachchedaar rabri. Basundi The exact origin of basundi is not known, but it has been prepared over several centuries in the western and southern parts of India. It is served during special festivities such as weddings and religious festivals. It is analogous to rabri and khurchan, which

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are popular in the northern and central parts of India. Product Description: Basundi is a heat-desiccated, thickened milk dessert, having white to light caramel colour, creamy consistency with soft textured flakes that are uniformly suspended throughout the product matrix. Basundi has a sweetish caramel aroma. Consumed directly as a dessert, it contains all the solids of milk in an approximate two-fold concentration plus additional sugar, with high food and nutritive value. Additives increase the calorific value of the product. Average composition range of the market samples ofbasundi is given in Table 3.1.22.

The manufacture of basundi is confined to the nonorganized sector. Its traditional method of production is labour-intensive and energy-wise inefficient. There are variations in the product profile from region to region. Standardization of the traditional process in terms of manufacturing techniques, sensory profiles, and compositional and physico-chemical attributes is necessary for attaining a product of uniform standard and assured quality. Size of Industry: The total production of basundi, estimated at 25,000 tonnes per annum, is mainly confined to the cottage scale in the non-organized sector. Basundi is a popular milk dessert in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Technology: Buffalo milk is preferably used for basundi owing to its high content of total solids. Traditionally it is prepared by heating whole milk at simmering temperature in a shallow karahi over gentle fire. Milk is thickened through evaporative heating with occasional scraping at the bottom. As a thin skin forms on the surface of the hot milk, it is periodically removed by means of a khunti (a long handle flat-surface iron scraper) and set on the cooler sides at the top of the karahi. With progressive boiling, more and more of the skin is formed, which is removed and collected on the top sides of the karahi. When no more skin is formed and the milk is concentrated to the consistency of the condensed milk, sugar (about 15-17% of concentrated milk) is stirred into the milk until it is fully dissolved. At this stage, the collected semi-dried skins from the top of the pan are scraped and mixed into the concentrated remnants of milk. The pan is removed from the fire, allowed to cool and the flavouring material added. Powdered cardamom (about 0.02% of

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concentrated milk) is added and mixed, along with saffron and borneol (edible camphor) (about 0.02% each of concentrated milk) and stirring continued till the desired plastic consistency is achieved. The end-product has a pleasant caramel flavour and a thick consistency. It is usually served chilled. Physico-chemical Aspects: Basundi has a white to caramelized colour with a pleasant caramelized flavour. It is of a creamy consistency and has a viscous body. Its chemical composition depends on the initial composition of the milk, the degree of concentration of the milk solids and the quantity of milk added. Characteristic features of basundi are given in Table 3.1.23. Innovations: It is recommended to standardise the fat content of basundi to about 5 per cent in case of buffalo milk and about 4 per cent in case of cow milk (fat:SNF ratio of about 0.5). Homogenization of milk at 75 kg/ cm2 at 65C imparts a distinctively superior and rich body to the finished product. Milk may be concentrated by the Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger (thin film) when the product is made by the mechanized process. Alternatively, skim milk may be preheated to 90C in a plate heat exchanger and concentrated by the Reverse Osmosis process to 22 per cent TS level. Then, cream is mixed to this milk concentrate for adjustment of the fat content. Conventional vacuum evaporator may also be employed for concentration of milk to a predetermined level. For consumer-level marketing, the final product , may be packaged in glass bottles, heat-sealable polypropylene cups with aluminium foil lids, metalised poly laminated pouches. Bulk packaging is used for institutional markets. For manufacture of long shelf life basundi, the UHT processing may be employed for the milk concentrate, followed by aseptic packaging.

Chhana Channa, India's traditional soft, cottage cheese, is a solid product formed by the acid precipitation of milk proteins. It is used as an intermediate base for a wide variety of milk-based Bengali sweets (misthans). Its preparation is mainly confined to the cottage sector, largely in the eastern parts of India, and, more recently, in Bikaner district of Rajasthan. It is claimed that more rasogollas are now made in Bikaner than in Kolkata where cow milk in large quantity is available. India's total production of chhana is

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estimated at 200,000 tonnes, and the value of channa-based sweets, around Rs 70,000 million. Product Description: Chhana has a standard of identity according to the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PF A) Act that does not differentiate between paneer and chhana. The PFA Act terms chhana as a product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof by precipitation with sour milk, lactic acid or citric acid. It should contain not more than 70 per cent moisture, and its milk fat content should not be less than 50 per cent on the dry matter basis (Total Solids). Milk solids may also be used in preparation of this product. Skim-milk chhana or paneer is the product obtained from skim milk of cow or buffalo by precipitation with sour milk, lactic acid or citric acid. It should contain not more than 70 per cent moisture, and its milk fat content should not exceed 13 per cent of the dry matter. A comparative chemical composition profile of chhana, paneer and other cheeses is given in Table 3.2.6. Production of chhana involves precipitation of casein along with entrapped fat and water-soluble components of milk (lactose, whey proteins, minerals, vitamins) by addition of an acidulant to milk at near-boiling temperatures, followed by removal of whey from the curd. Acidification of boiled/hot cow milk yields chhana as an off-white, mildly acidic, spongy coagulum. To obtain chhana of desirable body and texture, the pH of coagulation should be around 5.4, the temperature of milk at coagulation should be above 80C and the coagulation should be completed in less than one minute. The coagulum is collected in a cloth and hung on a peg to drain off the whey. Chhana contains a fairly high level of fat and proteins as well as some minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus. It is also a good source of fat-soluble vitamins A and D. So, its food and nutritive value is fairly high. Superior nutritive value of chhana is attributed to the presence of whey proteins that are rich sources of essential amino acids. Table 3.2.8 lists the nutritive value of chhana. The texture of chhana varies from smooth and pasty to crumbly, while paneer is generally sold as blocks or slices representing semi-solid cheese. Chhana differs from paneer in that no pressure is applied on it to remove the whey. It is, therefore, softer and spongier. The acids most commonly used for milk coagulation are lactic and citric acids. The lactic acid used may be in the form of food grade liquid ingredient or supplied

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through sour whey. Similarly, the citric acid may be in the form of crystalline food grade ingredient or contained in lime juice. Lactic acid tends to produce a granular product whereas citric acid produces a doughy product. Depending on its end-use, chhana may be soft or hard. For example, rasogolla requires soft chhana and sandesh, the hard variety. These two delicacies and their elegant variations utilize the bulk of chhana production, and optimum functionality is required in each case. Technology: Typically, cow milk is used for chhana making, since it yields a softer, spongier product that is more suitable for Bengali sweets. The buffalo-milk chhana is tougher and more compact than the cow-milk chhana. Milk is heated to boil in a large iron/ stainless steel karahi (wok) with continuous stirring. Chhana is usually prepared by mixing old chhana acidic whey with boiling hot milk. Dilution with whey contributes to making desirable smooth coagulum. In traditional production of chhana, a small portion of boiled milk (0.5--1.0 kg) is transferred to a smaller coagulating vessel. The required amount of coagulant (usually the previous day's sour chhana whey) is added to the hot milk and stirred with a wooden ladle till the coagulation is complete. The vessel contents are then poured over a piece of clean muslin cloth held over another vessel in which the whey gets collected. The coagulation process is repeated till all the milk is converted into chhana. The muslin cloth containing the curd mass is hung to further drain out whey and to cool the chhana simultaneously. The process for industrial production of chhana is similar to the traditional method (Figure 3.2.5). One exception is that the whole lot of boiled milk is coagulated in the large vessel itself by adding coagulant slowly with constant stirring of the milk ,till the clear whey appears. The coagulated chhana mass is then collected and strained through a muslin cloth. In small dairy units having facility for steam production, milk is heated to boil in a stainless steel steam-jacketed kettle, with continuous stirring. When milk starts boiling, steam supply is stopped. Thereafter, the condensate is removed and cold water circulated in the jacket. Coagulation of milk is effected by adding the required amount of coagulant in a thin stream within 60 seconds and mixing it with the help of a stirrer. When the whey is clear, chhana is removed and strained through a muslin cloth. Although buffalo milk is not preferred for production of quality chhana required for making sweets, it can be used in the following two ways: A mixture of buffalo and cow milk in the ratio of 1:3 yields chhana with soft body and smooth feature making it suitable for preparing both rasogolla and sandesh.

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Adding to the buffalo milk either a mixture of sodium diphosphate and disodium phosphate or sodium citrate at 0.01-0.02 per cent and storing the hot milk for some time before precipitation produces a soft chhana. Addition of sodium citrate and calgon converts some of the insoluble calcium into soluble salts in the buffalo milk, and this helps in production of softer chhana similar to that produced from cow milk. Figure 3.2.6 illustrates production of chhana from buffalo milk. Innovations: The traditional process of chhana manufacture allows a part of the whey proteins to drain along with whey and so gives lower yields. Further, it is less amenable to mechanization. On the contrary, the application of ultrafiltration in chhana manufacture has been found to increase the product yield because of recovery of whey proteins. It also facilitates easy automation and process control for large-scale manufacture of chhana. Chhana manufacture from retentates obtained by ultrafiltration of pasteurized or severely heated whole milk has been suggested. Through this process an increase of 31.4 per cent in the chhana yield on product basis and 16.4 per cent rise on dry matter basis were achieved. This process has been standardized with respect to heat treatment, concentration of coagulant and temperature of coagulation. As the severe heating of milk (90C/5 minutes) causes diminishing flux and higher energy consumption, it is desirable to prepare ultrafiltered retentate from pasteurized milk (72C/15 seconds) rather than from severely heated milk. The retentate obtained by ultrafiltration of pasteurized milk contains all the whey proteins with the milk casein, and they are not extensively denatured. Thus, to obtain a higher chhana yield, the ultrafiltered retentate from pasteurized milk is heated to 90C for 15 minutes and subsequently cooled to 70C prior to coagulation. The ultrafiltered diafiltered retentate obtained from skim milk was used for the manufacture of chhana by mixing the retentate with high fat content plastic cream and subsequently coagulating the mixture. The skim milk ultrafiltrated to retentate containing 26.73 per cent total solids was diafiltered with an equal volume of distilled water at 50C to decrease lactose content and to increase protein content in dry matter of retentate. The UF-diafiltrated retentate containing 23.57 per cent total solids was mixed with plastic cream (66% fat, 70.34% TS) to obtain a protein/ fat ratio of 0.722 in the chhana mixture. The chhana mixture is heated, cooled and subsequently coagulated with lactic acid to obtain chhana. The

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product was found organoleptically comparable with that manufactured by the traditional method. Another innovation is the development of a process for making chhana powder. The dry form displays significantly longer shelf life than the conventional chhana. It is estimated that dry chhana retains functionality and flavour for 3-4 months under ambient storage conditions. Figure 3.2.7 illustrates the production process for chhana powder. A chhana analogue can be prepared from soya milk. It may substitute cow milk chhana in some applications. It is lower in cost and is nutritionally almost at par with milk chhana. It contains no lactose. Soya chhana is a soft, gelatinous mass and has bland taste, unique body and texture resembling chhana made from cow milk. However, its overall acceptability from sensory point of view, specifically its beany flavour, comes in the way of its widespread consumption. Soya beans, after roasting, are soaked in boiling water at 100 C for 25 minutes prior to their grinding. Fibre from the ground mass is separated by filtration to yield soya milk. One kg of soya bean yields about 3 to 4litres of soya milk. Different coagulants can be used to obtain chhana from soya milk. They include: 2 per cent (v Iv) hydrochloric acid solution, 0.02 per cent calcium sulphate at 8090C or 6 per cent calcium lactate at 95C. Soya chhana may supplement cow-milk chhana. The more important factors affecting quality of chhana are described below: Coagulants: Coagulants used in chhana production are: lime or lemon juice, vinegar, ciiric acid, lactic acid, fermented milk or whey. However, the appropriate coagulant is a solution of citric acid (0.5-1.5%) or lactic acid (1-2%). A 4 per cent solution of calcium lactate is also suggested. The moisture content and the yield of chhana made with citric acid are 55-58 per cent and 17-18 per cent, respectively. The use of calcium lactate may give a higher moisture content (65-67%) and a yield of 24-25 per cent. The calcium lactate process not only retains more moisture in the product, but also significantly improves the recovery of milk solids. The functional characteristics of chhana made with calcium lactate are fairly acceptable. Chhana obtained from milk coagulated by lactic acid is preferred for rasogolla whereas the citric acid chhana is preferred for the manufacture of sandesh. Temperature and pH of coagulation: A relationship between the coagulation temperature and the final pH is found to have a bearing on the yield and quality of chhana. For better yield and quality of chhana, studies suggest a temperature range of 8D-85C at pH 5.4 for cow milk and 70-80C at pH 5.7 for buffalo milk. A higher

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coagulation temperature imparts graininess and hardness to the texture, while lower temperatures result in a sticky chhana with slow whey drainage problems. The impact of different coagulants and varying processing conditions on the chhana yield is presented in Table 3.2.10. Microbiological quality: The microbial spoilage of chhana is characterized by a heavy growth of moulds on its surface and a stale flavour at refrigeration temperature of 45C. The product develops a sour smell and a bitter taste at 22-25C and 37-39C while its surface is sparsely covered with fungi. The most common moulds contaminating chhana samples are Penicillium, Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizophus, Fusarium and ParciIlomyces. Contaminated chhana and its rasogolla, prepared by heating raw milk-containing staphylococci grown to a level of 108 to 109 du/ml, thermostable deoxy-ribonuclease and enterotoxins-showed the absence of staphylococci but the presence of the latter two. However, the non-selective enrichment of such chhana and rasogolla samples in BHI broth showed the growth of staphylococci to a level of 104 to 109 cfu/ g with an increase in thermostable deoxyribonuclease activity. It indicated the public health hazard posed by chhana and rasogolla made from raw milk heavily contaminated with enterotoxigenic strains of Staph. aureus. Packaging: There is a lack of appropriate packaging Chhana stored in tin cans showed the least chemical systems for chhana meant for marketing. At best, changes during storage at 37C. However, major changes vegetable parchment paper has been used for chhana were exhibited by chhana samples packed in different packaging, in tin cans and cellulose film/LDPE and stored at 37C has a shelf life of only three days. When poster-paper/ Al-foil/LDPE is used, refrigerated storage for chhana at 4-5C is required.

Tin cans and poster- paper / Al-foil/LDPE (55/60 g/m2, 0.02 mm 2150 gauge) also provided maximum protection against chemical deterioration as compared to other packaging materials. The storage of chhana in different types of flexible packaging materials tends to increase the water vapour transmission rates and oxygen transmission rates both at 5C and 37C. Shelf Life: Chhana is an extremely perishable food product. At ambient temperatures, its quality deteriorates within a day or two. Shelf life of chhana is influenced to a great

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extent by the storage temperature and nature of packaging material. The average shelf life of chhana from both cow milk and buffalo milk at 4C, 22C and 37C is about 10-12 days, 3-4 days and 2-3 days, respectively. The cow milk and buffalo milk chhana stored in tin cans and cellulose film/LDPE was found acceptable after 3 days at 37C and after 20 days at 4-5C. The shelf-life enhancement of chhana using sodium benzoate, sodium propionate and sugar has also been demonstrated. Under refrigeration, the shelf life is extended to six days. With a view to extending the shelf life of chhana, it can be produced in dry form that is appropriate for sandesh making. Rasogolla Rasogolla is undoubtedly the undisputed king not only of Bengali sweets, but of all Indian sweets. This soft, succulent ball of chhana (cottage cheese) soaked in sugar syrup has delighted the taste buds of millions of connoisseurs for more than hundred years. Its popularity has spread beyond the Indian shores to captivate epicureans the world over. Rasogolla was "created" in 1868 by Nobin Chandra Das, a scion of Bengal's famed sweetmaker family of K.c. Das. Product Description: Rasogolla is a delicacy, stored and served in sugar syrup. In size and shape, it resembles a ping-pong ball. Snow-white in colour, it possesses a spongy, chewy body, and smooth texture. Innovations and experimentations have led to the evolution of rasogolla into a multitude of forms and flavoursflattened into patties and blended with rabri floating in a fragrant milk bulk createci rasomalai, an all-time favourite. Rajbhog is another "incarnation" of rasogolla that is ballooned, and saffron added to fashion a goldenhued delight. There are also variations such as cardamom-centred and orange-flavoured. And, the latest from the house of K.c. Das is the nolen "gur"-flavoured rasogolla, with a faint tint of pink, popular during winter months when khajur gur is available. Those with poetic inclination call it "blushogolla". The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has laid down the standards for rasogolla (Table 3.2.12). Size of Industry: The rasogolla production is largely confined to the cottage and smallscale industry. In recent years, its marketing in cans has become a flourishing business, with a number of brands jostling for shelf space in retail stores. Bikaner in Rajasthan has emerged as a leading centre for the production of canned rasogollas and their marketing all over India as well as exports. Its annual production is estimated at 60,000 tonnes. The shelf life of canned rasogollas is three months. The development of canning in lacquered tins has helped in rapid expansion of the rasogolla market. The tins come in sizes from 400, 800 gm consumer packs to 15 kg packs for supply to wholesalers.

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Technology: Rasogolla is prepared by texturization of milk protein under controlled cooking conditions in boiling syrup. This gives rasogolla an interwoven fibrelike structure. The cont~olled cooking in sugar syrup imparts spongy characteristics to rasogolla balls and improves their sugar holding capacity (Figure 3.2.8). Rasogolla is prepared from soft, freshly-made cow milk chhana. Use of chhana made from buffalo or mixed milk is avoided because of its somewhat inferior body (less chewy) and texture (grainier). For rasogolla production, chhana is manually kneaded to a smooth paste. Then, the paste is portioned and rolled between palms to form balls of about 15 mm diameter and around 8-10 grams in weight. Each ball should have a smooth surface with no cracks. In case of buffalo milk, chhana needs to be modified by mixing it with flour (6% arrowroot, 2% semolina, 0.6% baking powder of the chhana weight) and subsequently kneaded manually to a smooth paste. One kg of chhana yields 90-100 rasogollas. To prepare cooking medium, three parts of sugar are mixed with one part of whey and two parts of water. In case of the buffalo milk chhana, three parts of water are necessary for making the sugar syrup. The pH is adjusted to about 6.8 with the addition of calcium hydroxide. The solution is boiled, and the scum that forms at the top is scooped off before it is ready for cooking .. Rasogolla balls are dipped in the cooking medium. The heating is regulated to impart a stable form to balls that are cooked for about 15 minutes. During cooking, a small amount of water and whey solution is continuously added to maintain its concentration. This makes up for the loss of water due to evaporation. The ratio of whey and water is so adjusted as to maintain the pH of the medium at about 6.8 during cooking. After cooking, the balls are transferred to a container with water at 30-35C for their texture stabilization and colour improvement. About 10 per cent of the cooking solution is replaced by fresh one, every time it is reused to cook another batch of rasogollas. Sugar syrup: After 5-10 minutes of texture stabilization in water, the balls are transferred to sugar syrup. The desired sugar syrup concentration in the final product is 45-50 per cent. This is achieved by dipping the texturestabilized balls first in 50-60 Brix sugar syrup for 1-2 hours, followed by second dipping in 40-50 Brix sugar syrup. Finally, the product acquires the desired sugar concentration after a balance is reached between the sugar syrup inside the balls and outside them. To exercise better control over the sugar syrup concentration in the finished product, dipping of the texturized balls may be done in three

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stages-first stage dipping in 50-60 per cent concentration, second stage dipping in 40-50 per cent concentration, and final dipping in 50 per cent concentration. Rasogollas are stored at or below 10C to obtain a more precise sugar concentration of 45-50 per cent in them.

Use of milk powder: The problems posed by shortage of milk during the lean season and short shelf life of chhana can be overcome by using milk powder. The suggested process involves dissolving the whole milk powder to 17 per cent total solids, heating the reconstituted milk to boiling, its filtration and cooling to 70C. Coagulation is done with either 1.0 per cent citric acid or lactic acid solution at 70C at pH of 5.5 followed by delayed straining (15 minutes). The coagulum, contained in muslin cloth, is cooled to room temperature by immersing it in running tap water, and then kept for draining for three and half hours. Later, chhana is kneaded to a smooth consistency and rolled into balls. These are cooked in boiling sugar syrup of 50-60 per cent concentration for 20 minutes and finally transferred to hot (60C) sugar syrup (40-50%) and cooled to ambient temperature before keeping them in refrigerated storage. Dried rasogolla mix: A process has been developed for production of dried rasogolla mix. Skim milk is concentrated to required total solids level by using ultraand dia-filtration process. A calculated amount of fat is added to the retentate before spray drying it. Certain additives and binders are dry blended in the retentate powder to yield dried rasogolla mix. Rasogolla prepared with dried mix is reported to have balanced flavour and spongy texture. Yield: The yield of finished rasagolla (drained) is 254 grams per 100 grams of cow milk chhana. In case of buffalo milk, the yield is 342 g/100 g chhana. About 90-100 rasagollas of diameter 30 mm can be made from one kg of chhana. Packaging: Rasogollas are usually packed in lacquered tin cans of one kg capacity, containing 14 pieces. The empty containers are first sterilized in hot air inside a closed chamber. Rasogolla balls with hot sugar syrup and permissible preservatives are filled in containers, and seaming tightly seals the lid. Sodium metabisulphite is used to maintain white colour of tinned rasogollas. Containers are kept in a tub containing chilled water to create partial vacuum by quick condensation of vapours inside the container. The shelf life of rasogollas in tin containers is around three months. Rasomalai

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Rasomalai was created by mingling the flattened rasogolla with North Indian rabri. The credit for its creation goes to Krishna Chandra Das in the early 20th century, some 50 years after his father Nobin Chandra Das had "invented" the spongy rasogolla. Marwaris of Kolkata acquired a taste for it and made it their own. The Bikaneri halwai also became adept at its making. Thus, rasomalai is now popular all over India, particularly in eastern and northern parts. Product Description: Rasomalai is marketed as flattened chhana patties floating in thickened sweet milk. It is a very delicate, chewy / spongy sweet that has a delectable taste. In essence, rasomalai is rasogollathat has been flattened and blended with rabri. It is refrigerated and served chilled. Technology: Chhana is kneaded into a smooth dough along with 1 to 4 per cent wheat flour. The dough is portioned and rolled into balls having a smooth texture without cracks. The balls are processed like rasogolla and subsequently stored in sweetened (56% sugar) milk thickened to one fourth of its volume. Light rabri is at times used instead of thickened milk to soak the chhana balls.

Rajbhog Rajbhog is a variety of rasogolla that is ballooned and so larger in size than rasogolla, being about 50-60 mm in diameter. It is blended with saffron that imparts an attractive golden yellow shade to it. A variation of rajbhog is kamalbhog that is blended with orange for flavour and colour. Technology: Chhana is kneaded into a uniform dough, mixed with a small amount of saffron and portioned and shaped into balls with hands. While shaping, a raisin or a nut is placed at the centre of the ball which is larger in size (almost twice) than rasogolla. The balls are cooked in a 50 per cent solution of boiling sugar syrup. Cooking is continued until a desirable body and texture is achieved. Thereafter, the balls are removed from the syrup and may be wrapped in silver foil. Khirmohan Khirmohan is a variation of rasogolla popular in the eastern region of the country. To prepare khirmohan, chhana is kneaded into a smooth dough along with 1 to 4% wheat flour. The dough is portioned and rolled into balls having a smooth texture without

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cracks. The balls are flattened into a round shape and processed like rasogolla. After cooking, the balls are dipped in concentrated milk, removed and sprinkled with grated khoa.

Sandesh Sandesh is the most popular chhana-based sweet delicacy of the eastern parts of India, especially West Bengal. In the traditional custom of West Bengal, a good news "message" to friends and relatives is sent along with some "sandesh" (Bengali/Hindi word for "message"). Sandesh has been known for centuries and may even have been a khoa-based product till the evolution of chhana-based sweets. Literary works of the sixteenth century mention about Bengali feasts where sandesh was served. Utilization of chhana for sandesh production is greater than for all other Bengali sweets, including rasogolla. It is claimed that about 80 per cent of chhana produced in Kolkata is converted into sandesh. Chhana obtained with citric acid is usually preferred for the manufacture of sandesh. Traditionally, sandesh is sold by number of pieces rather than by weight. Sandesh started as a simple, sweetened chhana known as "kachagolla". Soon, it began to be cast in various shapes to resemble flowers, fruits, shells and fish, using appropriate moulds. To enhance its looks and flavours, various sweeteners were used like palm jaggery, sugarcane, jaggery and sugar. It was flavoured with jackfruit, orange peel and rose essence. The use of palm jaggery gives a distinctive flavour and sweetness to sandesh. Product Description: Sandesh is known for its palatability, aroma and as a rich source of milk proteins, fat, sucrose and fat-soluble vitamins. It has a firm body and smooth texture. Three distinct varieties of sandesh are popular: soft grade (naram-pak), hard grade (karapak), and raw grade (kachagolla). The most common variety is the soft grade sandesh. It has a soft body and smooth texture with fine grains uniformly distributed. It contains a relatively smaller amount of sugar and has higher moisture content than the hard grade. Kara-pak has a firm body and dry appearance. Kachagolla is known for its raw chhana-like flavour, moist appearance, soft body and coarse, grainy texture. Another variety, known as nolen gurer sandesh, is prepared from khajur gur (date jaggery) during winter months when dates are available in plenty. It is considered a delicacy and fetches a much higher price. Sandesh is conventionally packaged in

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paperboard cartons or in tree leaves. Technology: Cow-milkchhana (30-45%) and sugar are mixed and kneaded together and heated in a shallow vessel after addition of colour and flavour. Although sandesh is largely manufactured in the non-organized sector, a process has been standardized for its industrial production. It is labour-intensive and energyinefficient. Mechanization of the existing technology with concomitant standardization of sensory profiles and compositional and physico-chemical attributes will help to attain a product of uniform standard and assured quality. The production process of soft grade sandesh is described in Figure 3.2.9. Physico-chemical Aspects: The physico-chemical attributes of sandesh vary widely with the type of product. The chemical profile of market samples of three types of sandesh is listed in Table 3.2.13. Application of extrusion technology in the manufacture of sandesh has been attempted. A vented extruder with vent ports in the barrel for the volatiles and moisture to escape during the process is promising. A screw type kneader was used for mixing chhana and sugar to achieve homogeneity of the mixture critical for sandesh manufacture. Sandesh obtained from this continuous production method was superior in quality to the market product. The shelf life of this product packed in polyethylene bags was 16 days at 10 5e.

Chhana-Murki This product is very popular in the northern and eastern regions of India. In the northern parts of the country, it is served during weddings and feasts. Product Description: Chhana-murki is a sweet prepared from a chhana base. It has the shape of small cubes, coated with sugar and has a firm body and closeknit texture. A similar sweet is chhana-pulao, in which chhana is shaped into ri<;e-like grains and coloured golden. Technology: Chhana is kneaded and formed into a 10 mm thick flat slab. It is then cut into small cubes of about 10 mm. The cubes are cooked in boiling sugar syrup (of three-string consistency) in karahi for five minutes with gentle stirring. The karahi is removed from the fire and stirring is continued till the sugar is coated uniformly around

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the cubes. The cooked cubes are then removed from syrup. After cooling, the cubes are sprinkled with flavours and colour and decorated with dry nut flakes. Prospects for mechanization: Potential exists for adapting suitably designed extrusion machine for forming chhana-murki cubes, spray coating them with sugar syrup and tumble drying them in a tunnel drier. Cham-Cham Cham-cham originated in eastern parts of India. It is a sweet prepared from chhana with a firm body and closeknit texture. It is coated with sugar or khoa. Technology: Chhana is kneaded into a uniform dough, portioned and shaped by hand into balls. The balls are cooked in a 50 per cent solution of boiling sugar syrup. Cooking is continued until a desirable body and texture have formed. Thereafter, the balls are removed from the syrup and cut into half. A layer of khoa is sandwiched between the two halves and its surface coated with sugar or khoa powder before wrapping it in silver foil. Prospects for mechanization: The mechanized process for khoa production has potential for integration with encrusting machine for forming and layering of chamcham. Chhana Podo This baked sweet, resembling milk cake, is immensely popular in Cuttack district of Orissa in eastern India. Its surface has a directly caramelised colour and flavour. Buffalo milk chhana is preferred for this sweet. Chhana podo is prepared by mixing chhana and suji. A paste is prepared and filled in a shallow container. Its surface is coated with ground sugar and covered with salleaves. Burning coal is placed on the salleaves and the tray placed near the furnace to provide warmth for cooking that is accomplished through the steam formed by the burning coal on the surface. It makes the surface directly caramelis.ed and imparts a sweetish fragrance to the product. The process know-how and the design of equipment for the large-scale production oLchhana podo is in operation in Orissa, based on technology developed and standardized by the NDDB, Anand.

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Surti Paneer Among the few best varieties of paneer in India, Surti paneer is a soft cheese prepared with crude rennet, salted and kept steeped in acid whey for 2-3 days. Its name is derived from the Surat town in Gujarat in western India where it was probably first prepared and marketed. Once a popular product, not much of it is marketed today. Technology: Fresh buffalo milk, containing 6 per cent fat, is pasteurized and cooled to room temperature (35C). About 0.5 to 2 kg of this milk is placed in a coagulating vessel whose temperature is maintained at 35C. Good quality lactic starter at 0.5 per cent of milk is added and thoroughly mixed with milk. This is followed by addition of rennet (6-7 ml/lOO litres milk). The strength of the added rennet should be such that it gives a clean cut in the curd at the end of about 60 minutes. After mixing adequately, the renneted milk is allowed to set till a firm coagulum fit for basketing is obtained. The temperature during this process is maintained at35C. The curd is then ladled out with a vertical slant in thin slices, and filled into specially made bamboo/ wicker baskets. These baskets are kept ready by cleaning them with scalding water and soaking them in a 10 per cent lukewarm salt solution for about 10 minutes, and then thinly dressing them with salt. Each successive layer of curd put into the baskets is uniformly sprinkled with salt. Salting is done at 4-5 per cent of the raw cheese. After filling, the baskets are placed on a draining rack to allow the drainage of whey. Generally, at the end of 50 to 60 minutes, individual pieces of cheese are firm enough to be handled without breaking. These are then carefully turned upside down in their respective baskets. After draining for a further 30-40 minutes, the cheese pieces, on attaining the desired firmness and consistency, are turned a second time. The collected whey is strained and kept in a vessel. The cheese pieces are removed from the baskets and put into the whey. These are left steeped in whey for 1236 hours for increased acceptability. When kept steeped in the whey, Surti cheese has a fairly firm body and smooth texture with no internal cracks. It has a slightly salted, mild acid, curd flavour. Bandel Cheese An indigenous variety of soft cottage cheese from cow milk, Bandel cheese derives its name from its place of origin-Bandel, a Portuguese colony in eastern India.

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Product Description: Bandel cheese is an indigenous, unripened variety of salted soft cheese. Similar in characteristics to Surti cheese, it is made in perforated pots. It resembles directly acidified cheeses of South America. Technology: Cow milk is heated to 80C and salt is added at 1-1.5 per cent of the milk taken. Milk is cooled to about 45C and coagulated, using either a lactic culture or whey. The coagulum is transferred to small perforated pots covered with muslin cloth to facilitate whey drainage. After a while the containers are turned upside down to impart a spherical shape to the cheese. After whey removal, the content is removed and pressed between the palms to flatten it to a circular shape. The product is consumed in this form. Another variety of this cheese exists in the form of Dacca cheese, where the product formed after removal from the perforated pots is smoked in a fire to impart a characteristic smoky flavour to it.

Regional Products Ksheer Sagar: Buffalo milk is concentrated to the consistency of evaporated milk with a distinct caramelized flavour and colour, after which sugar is added. Chhana is kneaded and formed into either rectangular blocks or small balls, and allowed to soak in the concentrated milk before serving. Sita Bhog: It is prepared by mixing maida with chhana and grinding the mixture to a pasty form. Noodle-like strands are prepared by pressing the mixture through a sieve. These are deep-fried in refined oil and immersed in sugar syrup. Buffalo milk chhana is preferred for the preparation of this product. Chhana Gaja: This sweet is prepared by kneading chhana with 50 per cent sugar mixed with suji and maida. The kneaded chhana paste is given a ball shape and cooked in concentrated boiling sugar syrup till dark brown in appearance. Chhana Jhele: This is a chhana-based product popular in the Neempara region near Bhubaneswar in Orissa. It is very similar to the pantua of West Bengal. Chhana jhele is prepared by kneading a paste of chhana, maida and suji in pre-determined proportions. Balls of approximately 30 mm diameter are made out of the kneaded material and deepfried in oil. The extent of surface browning during frying varies from light golden brown to deep brown. The fried balls are placed in sugar syrup to permit formation of sugar

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granules so that a crunchy texture is imparted to the product. Chhana Kheer: It is prepared by concentrating milk over an open fire to a thick consistency, resembling evaporated milk with distinct caramelisation. Immediately prior to serving, raw granular chhana is sprinkled over the sugar-caramelized milk. Chhana Pakora: Its preparation involves mixing of chhana with maida, gram flour and sugar and kneading the mixture to a paste. The paste is sprinkled over hot oil for frying. The fried pieces are soaked in sugar syrup till they become quite hard. Rasaballi: Its preparation involves kneading chhana, maida and sugar and rolling the mixture flat. Rectangular pieces are cut and fried in palmolein oil till they turn brown in colour. They are then soaked in a light sugar syrup. No sugar granulation is permitted in this sweet. Buffalo-milk chhana is preferred for this product. Shosim: Also known as somar, it is a product of Nepalese origin and is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of sherghum, the Nepalese cottage cheese. The fermentation is done in previously used, airtight, wooden or earthen vessels, containing non-descriptive type of microorganisms. It is used in Nepalese diet in the form of soups. Kalari: It is a dairy product quite popular in the Dogra community of Jammu region in North India. It is mostly used as a fried snack with a dash of salt, pepper or red chilly. After frying, the product gets a golden yellow and crisp outer layer with a soft interior with cheesy flavour. It is prepared from fresh cow or buffalo or mixed milk. Milk is first standardized to 4-5 per cent fat and about 8.8 per cent SNF. Milk is boiled in a suitable vessel and tempered to 70-75C. At this stage selfsoured lassi is added with constant stirring till coagulation occurs and clear whey forms. The coagulum is collected and made into balls of about 2-3 cm diameter. These balls are then flattened manually. The flattened pieces are allowed to dry first in shade kept over cloth in a wooden basket. Finally these are sundried over a period of three days, during which a cheesy flavour develops. The Jammu Cooperative Milk Federation has been manufacturing and marketing this product. Table 3.2.14 presents the composition of kalari.

Paneer

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Historically, the origin of paneer can be traced to the nomads of southwest Asia who were the first to develop various types of cheese. Among these is the unique Iranian cheese called 'Paneer-Khiki', originally developed by the well-known 'Bhakhtiari' nomadic tribe. When salted, it is known as 'Paneer-e-Shour'. The word 'paneer' means container and 'khiki' means skin (rennet from the skin of goat or sheep is used to make it and hence the name). White paneer is a staple food of nomads of Afghanistan. A similar product, white unripened cheese, is know.n as Kareish in Egypt, Armavir in the Western Caucasus, Zsirpi in the Himalayas, Feta in the Balkans, and Queso Criollo, Quesodel Pais, and Questo Llanero in Latin America. Similar products are also found in South and Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean Islands. In India, in the last few decades, the popularity of paneer has spread from the northern parts to all over the country. Its growing popularity has led to its integration into the Indian cuisine. Now, it enjoys the status of a national delicacy. Product Description: Paneer is obtained through heat/ acid coagulation of the casein component of standardized buffalo milk, entrapping through complex physico-chemical interactions almost all the fat, a part of denatured whey proteins and colloidal salts, as well as a part of the soluble milk solids (in proportion to the moisture content retained). Typically, paneer is marble white hi. appearance, having a slightly spongy body, close-knit texture and possessing a sweetish-acidic-nutty flavour. The regulatory standards for chhana and paneer are identical. It has been defined under the PFA Act, 1954, as follows: "Paneer means the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof by precipitation with sour milk, lactic acid or citric acid. It shall not contain more than 70.0 per cent moisture, and milk fat content shall not be less than 50.0 per cent of the dry matter. The milk fat content of skim milk paneer shall not exceed 13.0 per cent of the dry matter".

Size of Industry: In India, paneer production has been largely confined to the nonorganized sector of the dairy industry. An estimated one per cent of the country's total milk production is converted into paneer. Its annual production is estimated at 150,000 tonnes. The cost of paneer production is low because of its significantly higher yield and short preparation time (since ripening is not required). The yield ranges from 17 to 18 per cent. More and more dairy plants are going in for paneer production by the batch process. One private sector dairy plant located in western

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Uttar Pradesh is reportedly handling about 25,000 litres of milk per day for paneer production. Cooperative dairy plants also produce refrigerated and frozen paneer under brand names such as Amul and Vita. Paneer's ability to withstand frying temperatures has facilitated marketing of fried paneer snacks or an entree item in a meal with or without a suitable batter and breadcrumbs. Technology: Although paneer can be made from cow, buffalo or mixed milk, buffalo milk is preferred. In the traditional production process, buffalo milk (6% fat; 9% SNF) is boiled in a vessel. To coagulate the milk while still hot, a suitable coagulant (lime/alum/citric acid) is added, with slow stirring. Formation of clear whey is indicative of complete coagulation. Stirring is stopped, as the coagulum tends to coalesce. After the formation of large lumps is complete, contents of the vessel are poured over a muslin cloth to separate the coagulum from whey. The coagulum so obtained is lil!htlv Dressed to facilitate formation of Daneer blocks of suitable size, followed by their immersion in chilled water to impart them a distinctive texture. The cooling results in reabsorption of some water, and this treatment presumably imparts the characteristic springy and rubbery body to paneer. It displays integrity of texture and retains its shape and form during the frying or cooking of culinary dishes. It is usually wrapped in parchment paper, or loosely packed into polythene pouches. Alternatively, paneer blocks are floated in chilled water troughs at retail points and sold. Industrial process: A process for industrial scale production has been developed, using the available cheese/casein/tofu manufacturing equipment. Significant R&D at the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) and several agricultural universities has resulted in the optimization of processing variables. The paneer production process is illustrated in Figure 3.2.1. Selection of milk: For paneer production, buffalo milk is preferred to cow milk because cow milk tends to give a soft, meaty texture to paneer. The skim-milk paneer has an undesirable chewy, rubbery and hard body. To obtain good quality paneer, milk must be fresh and must conform to hill microbiological standards. Otherwise, growth of psychotropic organisms and mesophils would result in the breakdown of casein, compromising the flavour, quality and yield of paneer. Off flavours of microbial or biochemical origin, if present in raw milk, are likely to be transferred to paneer.

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Heat treatment: The standardized milk is subjected to a specific heat treatment prior to an acid-induced precipitation and curd formation. The objective is to prepare milk for rapid isoelectric precipitation, control the moisture content of paneer, develop typical body and texture, create conditions conducive for destruction of pathogenic and other microflora inherent in milk and ensure safety as well as keeping quality of the finished product. Standardized milk is heated in a plate heat exchanger from 4C to 86C and pumped into a water/steam-jacketed cheese vat. By circulating cold water in the jacket, milk is allowed to cool to 76C in about 10 minutes, prior to acid blending. The high heat treatment imparts a desirable cooked flavour. Coagulation: Acid/heat coagulation of milk at 76C at pH 5.3-5.4 is traditionally effected by the use of lemon juice, fermented milk or acid whey. Lemon or limejuice or vinegar imparts a typical flavour to the product. Industrial processes utilize citric acid as a coagulant of choice. Other coagulants include lactic acid, mineral acids (hydrochloric, phosphoric), glacial acetic acid and calcium lactate. The type and concentration of acid and mode of its delivery and blending into the hot milk directly influence the paneer yield and moisture retention. Usage levels and cost determine the selection of a food-grade acid. Some microbiologists suggest the use of whey cultured with Lactobacillus acidophilus or a yogurt culture for coagulating milk so as to take advantage of anti-microbial metabolites and bacteriocins. The latter are known to extend shelf life by inhibiting the growth of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria. For milk coagulation, citric acid is generally used as 1-3 per cent solution. Its preferred concentration is one per cent in the coagulant which is heated to 76C for addition into milk A high acid concentration tends to impart an acid flavour to paneer. Sufficient acid is gently but quickly blended with the milk (within one minute) to reduce the'pH to 5.3-5.4. Normally, about 1.8-2.0 kg of citric acid is required to coagulate 1,000 litres of milk After coagulation, clear greenish yellow whey separates out, allowing the curd to sink to the bottom of the cheese vat. Coagulation temperature influences the moisture content of paneer. An increase in temperature from 60 to 86C decreases moisture in paneer from 59 to 49 per cent. Paneer obtained at a coagulation temperature of 76C has the best organoleptic'quality as well as the most desirable frying quality in terms of shape retention, softness and integrity. Variation in pH of coagulated milk has a significant effect on paneer's processing and quality parameters. For example, when the coagulation pH is increased

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from 5.1 to 5.4, moisture in paneer increases from 50 to 59 per cent and the paneer yield rises from 21 to 25 per cent. The sensory quality of paneer is considered best at pH 5.30-5.35, the recommended pH for coagulation. Whey drainage: The coagulated milk is allowed to separate into curd and clear whey. Within 10 minutes of coagulation, the curd chunks sink to the bottom of the cheese vat. At this point, a strainer is fitted into the outlet of the cheese vat. The whey drainage valve is then opened, and the whey flows into a surge tank, partitioned by a strainer to retain any fine curd, escaping from the cheese vat. Hot whey accumulates in the second section of the surge tank from where it is pumped out, cooled to 4C and stored in a whey tank for further processing or disposal. Hooping: The curd is transferred to hoops, lined with cheesecloth. The hoops have perforations on all sides to facilitate whey drainage. Hoops may vary in capacity from 2 to 10 kg. Prior to placing the lid on the hoop and applying pressure, extra curd is added to facilitate block formation of paneer. The paneer curd at this stage looks and tastes somewhat like scrambled eggs. This is because of the similarities between the egg white proteins and milk whey proteins. The paneer production also results in liberation of sulphydryl groups. For developing a table cheese for sandwich application, salt as well as flavouring materials (pepper, onion, garlic or caraway seeds) and suitable preservatives may be added prior to the hooping step. Addition of 2 per cent salt also ensures an extended shelf life as well as safety against many pathogens, facilitating cheese consumption in an uncooked condition. Traditionally, for culinary purposes, the unflavoured and unsalted paneer is preferred. Pressing: Four to five paneer hoops, containing 7.5 to 10 kg of paneer, are placed one above the other, and a 70-100 kg weight is placed on the top. Alternatively, a hydraulic press may be used to exert a low pressure of 2-3 kg/ sq cm onto the curd. The pressing time is around 10-15 minutes, after which the wrapped block of paneer is ejected from the hoop for quick cooling. Moisture content, shear strength and porosity of paneer depend on the applied pressure. For optimum sensory quality, it is recommended that paneer blocks be subjected to a pressure of 2-3 kg/ sq cm. Cooling: The paneer blocks are cooled to about 4C to facilitate their easy cutting and extended shelf life. For cooling, the cut blocks are immersed in cold water (4C), containing 3-5 ppm chlorine for 1-2 hours. The blocks are then mechanically cut into

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convenient retail sizes (200 or 500 grams) and packaged into pouches made up of appropriate plastic film to maintain safety and integrity during distribution and retailing. Yield: It depends on the fat and solids-not-fat content of the starting milk as well as on the moisture, fat and protein retained in paneer. Under optimum conditions of manufacture, 100 kg of standardized milk yields about 18-20 kg of paneer, containing 51-54 per cent moisture. This yield corresponds to a 63-67 per cent milk solids recovery in paneer. Paclazging: Paneer is highly susceptible to chemical and microbial changes. Therefore, its packaging should protect it against these changes, maintain quality, effect sales appeal and provide consumer convenience. Various packaging materials used for preserving paneer at refrigeration temperature include coextruded laminates acting as moisture barrier, oxygen barrier films, polyethylene sachets, heat-induced shrink film and waxcoated parchment paper. Flexible packaging films like polypropylene (of higher gauges) and retort pouches hold a great promise for packaging the long shelf-life paneer. Shelflife: Since paneer is obtained by direct acidification at elevated temperatures, its microflora come from cooling water, environmental contamination due to air, equipment, workers and packaging materials. This results in post-manufacturing changes in fat and protein integrity of paneer and loss of its moisture. Packaging materials, sanitary conditions, and storage temperature and period are critical factors in maintaining quality and minimizing microbial, chemical and physical deterioration, as described later in the next subsection on chhana. Fresh paneer made from standardized milk generally exhibits a total plate count of several thousands colonyforming-units (cfu) I g. Storage at the ambient ~mperature for two to three weeks causes the total count to increase rapidly to tens of millions dul g. The pH of paneer drops from 5.5 to 4.5 with concomitant separation of visible free moisture in pouches. Without the use of sorbic acid or other preservatives, paneer retains optimal quality for about a week. Domestically I cottage-scale produced paneer remains fresh for twothree days. Shelf-life extension for a longer period would make its marketing possible to distant places. Addition of sorbic acid to milk (0.15%) and wrapping paneer in waxed paper, coated with sorbic acid, may extend its shelf life to five weeks at the ambient temperature. The sorbic acid content of the paneer should range from 0.15 to 0.30 per cent. Dehydration and deep-freezing extend the shelf life of paneer. However, textural

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problems may be observed in partially dehydrated paneer. It has to be protected from drying out during storage. Paneer packaged in moisture-barrier film pouches provides the best shelf life of several months in cold storage. Amul markets its paneer in frozen form so as to extend its shelf life to cover the period of transportation and storage at the retail outlet. More work is needed to delineate the effect of packaging paneer in pouches made from laminates of various films with built-in moisture and oxygen barriers on the product's shelf stability period. It is essential to understand public health hazards as well as product spoilage patterns during an extended shelf life of paneer. Recommended treatments for extending the shelf life of paneer are presented in Table 3.2.2.

Defects in Paneer: Many defects in flavour and texture of paneer can be traced to the microbiological and organoleptic attributes of the starting milk. Table 3.2.3 lists some commonly found defects in paneer and how to prevent them.

The use of buttermilk-blended buffalo milk for paneer production has been found feasible. Buffalo milk is standardized to 5.9 per cent fat by addition of buttermilk, a byproduct of butter manutacture. 1 illS Dlena nas oeen found to significantly increase the moisture retention capacity of the final product. Its use also gives about 1 per cent more yield than does the non-blended milk. Work carried out on low-fat paneer has established that addition of skim milk powder to milk resulted in slightly improved flavour, body and texture of the finished product, particularly after cooking. Coagulation at lower temperature (65C) produces a slightly softer product of better textural characteristics. Technology Assessment: The available cheese/ casein manufacturing equipment has been adapted in the batch process developed for industrial production of paneer. This adaptation permits handling of 1,000-5,000 litres of milk per batch. Double-jacketed vats, hoops and mechanical presses are being currently utilized for paneer production in the organized sector. At the Sugam Dairy, Vadodara, a mechanical device has been devised to cut paneer into brick-shape blocks of predetermined weight. The cut surface of paneer blocks is smooth in appearance, as wire knives are employed in this mechanical device. These blocks are vacuum packed in polythene pouches. The inbuilt bactericidal advantage gained in heatacid coagulation from thermal

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processing under acidic environment may be lost during subsequent stages of processing if subjected to manual handling and exposure to environment. Thus, paneer's shelf life may be limited to only a day or two at ambient temperature. A maximum shelf life of three-four weeks has been achieved under refrigeration conditions through application of antimicrobial/ antifungal agents on pilot scale operations. The traditional approach suffers from the following limitations: Nearly half the milk solids are wasted in the form of whey, with no chance of economically utilizing the precious milk nutrients thus causing environmental pollution; Quality varies from batch-to-batch; 'In-process' quality control does not exist; The advantage of heat/acid coagulation cannot be consolidated to extend shelf life; Manufacturing and packaging operations are not fully mechanized; Energy conservation, mainly thermal energy, from hot whey is inadequate after completion of the coagulation process; and Paneer making by batch operations seems to have reached its peak of technical development. Innovations: Currently, two innovative processes show promise. First, the in-package sterilization UF process, is based on the principle of first standardizing/ concentrating the milk to the desired composition, followed by concomitant 'texturization/heat steriliza- can considerably reduce the time required for panner process permits retention of greater amount of whey solids in paneer and consequently gives higher yields. The process involves standardization of pasteurized milk to a fat content of 1.5 per cent and SNF to 9.0 per cent, followed by ultrafiltration to a total solids content of 30 per cent. To this glucono o-lactone is added @ 0.9 per cent prior to filling in retortable metalised polyester pouches of 200 or 500 ml. These sachets are then sterilized in an autoclave at 113C for 14 minutes, during which concomitant thermal texturization also takes place resulting in formation of a long shelf life product. This process permits integration of various unit operations involved in paneer production with energy efficient and newly-emerging technologies for developing a fully mechanized/ continuous manufacturing system. It also helps to overcome the inability of the existing technology to consolidate the bactericidal effect of heat/ acid coagulation to extend the shelf life of paneer. The problem of re-contamination is overcome by heat

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processing in an enclosed environment of a hermetically sealed package, which also serves as the final form for retail marketing. A similar synergistic approach has been successfully employed to upgrade traditional! small-scale technologies in the case of Latin American white cheese in USA and Tofu in Japan. The continuous process (Figure 3.2.2) also permits a uniform consistent quality of paneer and enhances its shelf life from four to ten months due to hot packaging. The product yields are also higher by about 10 per cent over all conventional processes due to the capture of the fine particles, which are normally lost with the whey. Pilot studies on the UF process indicate excellent scope for scaling up of operations on an industrial scale. Consumer acceptability trials in metropolitan cities have been exceedingly favourable. The chemical composition of paneer made by the UF process resembles that of the traditional process paneer (Table 3.2.4). Studies on the microstructure of long shelf life UF paneer show certain changes characterized by fusion of granulated protein bodies as well as fat. Individual protein granules were linked to each other by short bridges displaying thread and core structure. Frying/ cooking of paneer resulted in considerable incorporation of fat into the matrix leading to more open and porous structure . Another innovative mechanized process of paneer production has been developed at the Indian Institute of Technology (lIT), Kharagpur, by Agarwal (1996) . Buffalo milk is preferred because cow-milk paneer is too soft to withstand deep fat frying and common cooking operations. Normally, paneer is made by pressing the curd and cooling the pressed curd in chilled water. The texture of paneer is affected by the initial thickness of curd, applied pressure, duration of pressing and the time of chilling the pressed curd. Pressing and chilling of curd by the centrifugal method can considerably reduce the time required for paneer production (Figure 3.2.3). This process can also be used for the mechanized production of chhana. Physico-chemical Changes During Paneer Manufacture: The coagulation process in paneer manufacture occurs because of the chemical and physical changes in casein brought about by the combined heat and acid treatment. This treatment leads to formation of large structural aggregates of casein from the normal colloidal dispersion of discrete casein micelles in which milk fat and coagulated serum proteins are entrapped together with whey. During formation of coagulum, major changes include the progressive removal of tricalcium phosphate from the surface of casein and its

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conversion into monocalcium phosphate. Further, calcium is progressively removed from calcium hydrogen caseinate to form soluble calcium salt and free casein. ' Microstructure of Paneer: The manufacturing process and the milk components such as casein micelles, whey proteins, fat globules, lactose and minerals with additives determine the texture and microstructure of paneer and other dairy products. Microstructure also influences some physical properties of the product such as firmness, elasticity, susceptibility to syneresis and mouth-feel. For studying the microstructure of dairy products, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has proved to be a very useful tool, especially in tandem with other electron microscopic techniques. In paneer, the building units, namely, casein micelles, are several times larger than the starting milk. Gels prepared by coagulating the hot milk with citric acid possess a coarser structure than heat-induced milk gels. The most significant character of the gels obtained by coagulating the milk heated to 90C at pH 5.5 was the formation of a unique structure of the casein particles. Development of such a core'-and-lining structure depends on the temperature at which the milk is coagulated and the final pH value. The casein micelle swells from 100 to 300 nm as a result of heat treatment of milk. Raw cow milk paneer resembles American cottage cheese in microstructure with a uniform density of small protein particles. In contrast, buffalo milk paneer has more densely packed and fused protein particles. Intact fat globules with casein particles attached to the fat globule membranes are frequently seen in rawpaneer.

By flavouring the curd with onion, garlic, caraway seeds or hot pepper spices, various flavoured LAW cheeses are marketed for table purposes. These can be used as a snack in salads, as cooking cheese in casserole dishes, grated for use in pizza and other foods, or included as an ingredient in the manufacture of processed cheese. Frying in vegetable oil has a massive impact on the paneer structure. The SEM showed that compaction severely suppressed or even caused to vanish the granularity of the protein matrix observed in raw paneer. Apart from the solid compaction of core-andlining structure effected by frying, the presence of deviated core- and-lining structure can also be seen at higher magnification. Cooking in salt water restores, more in cow milk

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paneer than in buffalo milk paneer, both the granular structure and the core-and-lining structure of protein particles. Products Analogous to Paneer Latin American White (LAW) cheeses (Queso Blanco) are found throughout Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands. They are known by various names (Table 3.2.5). These cheeses are made from whole IDi1k, skim milk, cream or their mixture. The use of coagulating agents varies with the type of cheese. The production process involves curdling hot or warm milk with rennet, fruit juice or vinegar. Generally, LAW cheeses are white, creamy in taste, highly salted and acidic in flavour. They possess the body and texture of young, high-moisture Cheddar and can be sliced for sandwich use. For producing process cheese with LAW cheese, the formulation involves 2.05 kg of ground white cheese, 113.5 grams butter, 178.8 grams water and 56.8 grams disodium phosphate emulsifier. These ingredients are cooked in a steam-jacketed kettle to 70C for four minutes. After holding for one minute, the mixture is cooled in polyethylene-lined boxes. Inclusion of aged cheddar cheese for flavour gives a very desirable processed cheese. In contrast to paneer, LAW cheeses are highly salted products. Like paneer, they are largely consumed fresh, but can be fried with or without butter to prepare nutritious snacks of excellent eating quality. The pressed form is hard and crumbly with a slightly open texture. Some pressed cheeses are ripened for two weeks to two months. Manufacture Methods: LAW cheeses are made on farms as well as in industrial plants. The farm product is soft or semi-soft cheese and it is called Queso de Matera in Venezuela. The industrial product is relatively soft and is called Queso Pasteurizado. The farm cheese is made from raw milk and is highly salted (8-25% salt on wet basis). Consequently, it acquires a drier body than the industrial product. Transportation time from farm to consumer varies from days to weeks and may result in some ripening changes. In the farm cheese production, direct acidification and rennet coagulation are interchangeably used for curd formation. Queso Enchilado is based on renneted cheese curd which, after pressing as a 12 kg block and holding for ten days, is immersed in chili sauce to give it a spicy, hot taste. Queso Oaxaca is a soft cheese resembling Mozzarella. Pasteurized milk, starter and

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rennet are its basic materials. The curd is cooked at 39C, at a pH of 5.2. Dry salting to a level of 4-5 per cent salt follows stretching the curd by hand in hot water. While hot, the curd may be moulded into various forms, including braided shapes; then it is cooled and packaged in plastic pouches. The methodology for LAW cheese manufacture differs in many countries. A typical manufacturing procedure for LAW cheeses is showt:'- in Figure 3.2.4. Soya-Paneer (Tofu): Acceptable soya paneer can be prepared from combinations of soyamilk and skim milk or soyamilk and buffalo milk. Calcium-enriched soyabean curd is made by a new coagulation method, in which a coagulant named calcium saccharate, a compound of calcium hydroxide and sucrose, is added to soyamilk. The curd formed is sterilized and the pH is adjusted to 5.7-5.9 with citric or ascorbic acid. The curd is then filled into containers, which are heat sealed and heated for 20-60 minutes at 75-95C. In tofu manufacture, hexametaphosphate or polyphosphate can be added to delay the coagulation of soyamilk until

coagulant

glucano delta lactone, the mixture is

2

subjected to high-pressure

homogenization at 30 kg/ cm , between 2 and 30 minutes. The homogenized soyamilk is subsequently filled into containers and allowed to set. . The tofu thus prepared has good taste and textural properties. Thus, tofu of acceptable paneer-like qualities can be prepared either from soyamilk alone or from an admixture of soya and buffalo milks. Due to synergism. in unit operations involved in the manufacture of tofu and paneer, there is great potential of mechanization of paneer production using continuous tofu manufacturing equipment. A process has been developed at the Soy Research Centre, Ibaraki, Japan, for fully mechanized/semi-continuous production of tofu on commercial scale. The adaptation of this process for commercial production of paneer has been found feasible after preliminary investigations done on the equipment in collaboration between the National Food Research Institute, Japan and NDRI, Kamal. Chapter VI Shrikhand Shrikhand is a semi-solid, sweetish-sour fermented milk product, prepared from dahi (curd). Whey is drained off from dahi to yield chakka. Sugar, flavour, colour and spices are thoroughly mixed into chakka to form a soft homogeneous mass that resembles

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sweetened quarg of Germany. Shrikhand is a popular dessert and forms part of a meal on festive occasions, particularly in the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Like dahi, it is very refreshing, particularly during summer months. Product Description: Shrikhand is obtained from chakka or skimmed milk chakka to which milk fat is added. It may contain fruits, nuts, sugar, cardamom, saffron and other spices. It should not contain any colouring and artificial flavouring substances. The standards prescribed for shrikhand by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PF A) are given in Table 3.3.10. Technology: The shrikhand manufacturing process consists of the following steps: Coagulation of milk by fermentation with starter culture to obtain acidic curd or dahi; Preparation of chhaka by draining whey from the curd; and, Blending additives like sugar, colour, flavour, and spice to reach a desired level of composition and consistency. Traditional method: Milk of cow or buffalo, or mixed milk is heated to boiling and then cooled to 30-35C. It is inoculated with dahi (lactic culture) @O.5to 1 per cent from the previous day's production. Milk is left at room temperature (30-35C) until it sets firmly. It is then stirred and hung in a muslin cloth for 10 to 12 hours, to drain off whey (in some traditional practices, curd wrapped in a muslin cloth may be placed over an inclined bed of clean, washed and dried sand in a shallow container). The product so obtained is called chakka or maska. The chakka yield is about 65 kg per 100 kg of milk, depending upon the composition of milk. The chakka is mixed with the required amount of sugar (usually 50--100 per cent of curd quantity), flavour, colour, herbs and spices. Commonly used additives include saffron, cream, charoli, almonds, nutmeg, cashew nut, mango pulp, raisins, and seasonal fruits. The shrikhand yield is about 1.5 to 2.0 kg per kg of chakka used. Shrikhand is served chilled. Consumers in Gujarat prefer its sweet variety while those in Maharashtra prefer the tangy / soury variety. Innovations: A fully mechanized/ continuous process has been developed for industrial production of shrikhand. Its manufacture has also been taken up at a number of centres in Maharashtra and Gujarat. The first modem plant has been established at the Baroda

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District Cooperative Milk Producers' Union Ltd. (Sugam Unit) in Gujarat. It has been producing and marketing shrikhand since the 1980's under the brand names of 'Sugam' and 'Amul' in plastic cups of sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 grams. The industrial production involves the following steps: Preparation of curd: Skim milk (9% SNF, 0.05% fat) is heated to 90C for 15 seconds in a HTST pasteurizer, cooled to 30C and inoculated with 0.25-0.50 per cent dahi culture of mixed strains. After eight hours of incubation period, the required acidity (0.8 to 1.0% lactic acid) is achieved, and~the curd is ready for further processing. Preparation of chakka: Chakka/maska is prepared by separating the whey from dahi. Earlier, a 28" diameter basket centrifuge at 1,100 rpm was used that produced 80 kg of curd per hour. Now, the process has been upgraded by using a quarg separator. Its capacity is 2,500 kg of curd per hour. Preparation of shrikhand from chakka: Shrikhand is prepared by adding sugar at the rate of 80 per cent of the amount of chakka and mixed in a Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger (SSHE). Required amount of plastic cream (80% fat) is added along with sugar to chakka so as to give at least 8.5 per cent fat in the finished product on dry matter basis. The processing conditions for the manufacture of shrikhand have been standardized. The final product contains 5 per cent fat, 42 per cent sugar and 60 per cent total solids. The acidity of the product is usually between 1.10 and 1.40 per cent (expressed as lactic acid). The protein content of the product is 10.5 per cent. The process for shrikhand manufacture has been upgraded further and is shown in Figure 3.3.3. Starter cultures: The use of right type of culture is essential for the manufacture of shrikhand. A mixed culture containing Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis/Leuconostoc, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris in the ratio of 1:1:1 may be used. Other recommended cultures are yogurt containing Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (1:1) or LF-40, a culture compromise of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis. Separation of whey from curd: It is carried out in a quarg separator that can handle 2,500 kg of curd input per hour. This permits to scale up the production to 8 tonnes/ day with

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installation of other equipment of matching capacity. This process has been further refined for enhancing shelf life of shrikhand by pasteurization (heating and holding process). Mixing of chakka with cream and sugar: The mixing capacity in the earlier process was limited since the planetary mixer could only handle UP to 40 kg/batch. However, by using a scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE), handling per batch may be increased up to 500 kg in 10 minutes. Two such SSHEs may be installed in the production line to facilitate continuity in production. When one mixer is in use, the other empties its mix to the shrikhand cooling tank. Packaging of shrikhand: In the earlier process, the use of pre-formed polystyrene cups for packing shrikhand limited the packaging capacity to 1,000 cups/hour. By employing a form-fill-seal (FFS) machine up to 6,000 cups may be filled/packed per hour. Shelf Life: The keeping quality of shrikhand depends largely on its initial inicroflora like yeast, mould and other foreign organisms. Under ambient conditions (30C), it tends to spoil within 2 to 3 days. Under refrigerated conditions (4C), it may keep up to 40 days without spoilage. The industrial process used to get best shelf life involves pasteurization (65C/10 minutes) of shrikhand and its subsequent freezing. The frozen product can be kept in good condition from six months to twelve months at -18C. Physico-chemical Aspects: They vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. However, no consistent region- specific variations in shrikhand have been encountered in the market surveys as shown in Table 3.3.11. Further, the chemical composition of shrikhand sold in Gujarat is given in Table 3.3.12. Chakka Powder Manufacture of chakka powder involves preparation of dahi followed by partial removal of whey from it. The chakka is then ground in a colloid mill to obtain a smooth and uniform consistency in slurry. The slurry containing fat is heated to 38C and then homogenized in a singlestage homogenizer at a pressure of 100 kg/ cm2 A spray drier is used to make the powder using-185C inlet and 85C outlet air temperature. Figure 3.3.4 shows the steps in the production of chakka powder from standardized milk. The proxima te composition of chakka and shrikhand powder is given in Table 3.3.13.

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Shrikhand Wadi Shrikhand wadi, a popular product, has its origin in the western region of India .. It is an extension of shrikhand. It is obtained by desiccating shrikhand to a hard mass by heating in an open pan over direct low fire. Approximate Compostion: Moisture: 5-6 per cent, fat: 7-8 per cent, protein: 8-10 per cent, lactose: 15-17 per cent, ash: 0.75-0.8 per cent, sugar: 63-65 per cent,lactic acid: 1.0...-1.2 per cent.

Kheer/Milk-based Puddings/Desserts In the Indian food ethos, cereals, pulses and milk have been strongly engrained as staple foods. References abound in the ancient Indian literature on blending of these staple foods for their "satvik" (godly) attributes. These have been recommended as ideal foods for persons pursuing religious and higher academics. The traditional Indian milkcereal combinations range from the wispy and evanescent to the substantial with a long shelf life, usually prepared with desi (indigenous) ghee/clarified butter and grain. Cereal-based milk products are popular all over India. Each region has its own distinctive products range in this category. Lord Ganesh, the elephantheaded, pot-bellied god, who is revered at the start of every auspicious occasion, is propitiated with the laddu, a sweet confection in the form of a ball of varied materials such as khoa, cereal grains, lentils, whole wheat flour, semolina, gram flour, nuts and candied fruits, held together with thick jaggery or sugar syrup. Traditional Indian cookery includes several innovative blends of wheat and milk. Besides wheat, other cereals that are popular include millets, rice and sorghum, used in preparation of milk-based cereal delicacies. So far, their production has remained confined to the domestic level. However, the physicochemical characterization of these products is underway on a scientific basis. The supporting "R&D has also aimed at developing suitable equipment and packaging systems to facilitate their commercial manufacture. Tapping the enormous marketing potential of cerealbased milk products will depend upon improving their shelf life and bringing uniformity in product quality and food safety. A tradition-bound country, India attaches great significance to festive occasions. Such celebrations are marked by distribution of cereal-based milk sweets. On all such occasions, kheer, a sweet confection based on rice, occupies a prominent place on the

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festival table. Kheer is prepared as a ritual 'pucca' food. Rice is first lightly fried in ghee before boiling with milk and sugar till milk thickens. Kheer from jowar is mentioned in the fourteenth century Padmavat of Gujarat. Today, other cereals and cereal products (vermicelli, sevian, pheni) are also used in kheer preparation. A thin variation of kheer is payasam that is popular in southern region. The cereal-based sweets continue to be made much in the traditional manner with whole wheat flour, milk and sweeteners such as honey, bura, jaggery, palm date etc., mawamishri and mishtaan-dried fruits, nuts, candy and sugar. The favourite among them include pinni badam (almonds), kaju (cashew nuts) ki katli and piste (pistachio) ki lauz. Another popular sweet delight is burfi in its numerous forms including the classical Rangalur pithey (sweet potato cake) khoa or nukti-keladdu and patishapta (khoa-filled pancake), lavang latika (khoa-stuffed samosa) secured with cloves both dipped in sugar or gur syrup or delicacies of beguiling complexities which require extraordinary skill to prepare. Another delectable dessert in this category is Hyderabad's "dahi ki lauz", a rare steamed dessert, richly coated with saffron and garnished with pistachio. A wide range of vegetables, fruits and nuts are used in its preparation for enriching it. Sevian, another cereal-based product, comes both in thin form resembling vermicelli and in thicker variety resembling spaghetti. Traditionally a Muslim delicacy, it is made in numerous households in Delhi and Lucknow. During the Ramzan month, halwais (traditional sweet-makers) make the product in large lots by extruding maida dough. Rajasthan has a regional speciality, ghevar, in this category. Occupying a place of pride, ghevar is served with a topping of rabri. Likewise, sago globules, commonly called sabudana or java-arisi, are products made from starchy materials such as tapioca. Sabudana kheer is consumed by sick and convalescing persons. Similarly, dahi is mixed with the gruel (khichadi) prepared from various cereals and millets and garnished with ghee. This easy-to-digest combination is commonly consumed when the digestion is somewhat impaired or when light meal is preferred. Khichadi keeps the body in an energetic state without inducing sleep or lethargy. Cereals and milk are blended to compensate for deficiency of lysine. Proteins from cereals and millets in combination with milk make up deficiency in the protein quality. Cereals also constitute a source of calcium, iron, and the B vitamins. Addition of pulses in milk-based desserts can make up the deficiency of methionine in the proteins of

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pulses.

Kheer

India's favourite dessert par excellence, kheer is a sweet milk-rice confection. It has the status of a royal treat. No feast is considered complete without kheer. Hindu mythology refers to kheer as the celestial nectar, 'Amrit' or elixir, and gives it a place of prominence among foods as the secret of immortality-the life-giving food. The Hindi word kheer is derived from the Sanskrit 'ksheer' for milk and 'kshirika' for any dish prepared with milk. Kheer is popular all over the country. As a pre-eminent milk delicacy, it has been associated with festivities and celebrations from time immemorial.

A sweetened dish of rice cooked in milk first finds mention as 'payasa' in Buddhist-Jain literature in 400 Be. It seems unchanged to this day, being called payasam in South India and payesh in Bengal. Payasam and payesh both mean milk. Similar to payasa is the kheer of north India and the prathaman of Kerala. Its extension is the paramanna, a ritual kheer-like confection, given to a six-month old infant as his first solid food.

Kheer is prepared on all ritual and festive occasions as an auspicious item of food to placate the gods. Kheer khand bhojan is synonymous with a rich spread, while kheerpuri is the common man's idea of a great repast. Kheer is must at Diwali, India's national festival. Kheer and payasam are also made with sevian (Indian vermicelli), fruits (mangoes, apples, dates), vegetables (bottle gourd and sweet potatoes), makhaana (lotus puffs), sago and nuts (almonds, pistachio). Product Description: Kheer is a heat-desiccated, cerealbased sweetened and concentrated milk confection. Kheer prepared from buffalo milk is whiter and thick bodied and is, therefore, preferred over that obtained from cow milk. In addition to milk, kheer also contains substantial amount of non-dairy ingredients such as rice, sugar, sabudana, semolina, etc., as well as nuts and spices such as saffron and cardamom, almonds, pistachio, etc. It is considered to be a nutritious food for people of all ages. It is characterized by a sweet, nutty and pleasant flavour that is highly acceptable to the Indian palate. It closely resembles 'rice pudding', a popular dessert in the United States and in north and central Europe.

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Despite region-specific variations, kheer generally constitutes a homogeneous mass of milk and rice, in which the two major constituents-milk and rice-flow together. Concentrated milk engulfs cooked rice grains that adhere to each other. Usually, it is said that the weight of kheer after cooking should be almost equal to the weight of the raw milk taken. This is achieved as a result of swelling and cooking of rice grains, which upon gelatinization undergo three:-four times weight gain. Colour of the product will generally depend on the extent of heat treatment given and may range from almost white to slightly brownish. However, a rich creamy shade is highly preferred. Size of Industry: In the absence of organized manufacturing and marketing, no data are available on kheer's annual production. However, several brands of ready-toreconstitute kheer mixes are gaining acceptance at the regional level, especially in the states of Maharashtra, Kamataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Most of them are reconstituted in milk and offer convenience to consumers. The kheer mix is a blend of processed rice or semolina, ground sugar and dry fruits. Kheer has the enormous potential to make a sizable contribution to the growing market of traditional dairy products. An urgent need is to develop suitable processes for commercial manufacture of kheer both in liquid and dry forms. Technology: Kheer is a partially desiccated product, similar to khoa, the ratio of concentration being three to four as compared to six for khoa. Preparation of kheer involves immersion of pre-soaked rice (~% by weight of milk) in simmering milk followed by sugar addition (6-8%) and heating the mixture further till the rice softens and shows signs of gelatinization, leading to substantial thickening. Chopped nuts and cardamom are then usually added. Kheer making has undergone a limited modification in that the open pan process employing direct fire has been successfully replaced by the steamkettle. In the modified method, kheer is prepared by partial dehydration of whole milk, with sugar and rice added to it, in an open pan over direct fire. It is obtained by cooking of rice in sweetened milk and simultaneously concentrating the latter. Process Upgradation: A steam-jacketed kettle for manufacture of kheer was employed, using the steam process. Kheer was made from cow milk with 4 per cent fat, using 2.4 per cent rice (pre-soaked) and 5 per cent sugar. Later, different compositional variables were studied. It was observed that a superior quality kheer could be prepared from buffalo milk containing 5 per cent fat and 9.7 per cent SNF, with an added 5 per

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cent rice and 12 per cent of sugar. Following further process modifications, an acceptable product was obtained by mixing sweetened condensed milk (diluted to 30% TS by adding buffalo milk) with pre-cooked rice (6%). Processes have been developed in the United States and Europe to produce kheer-like products that go by the names of milk-rice ('Milch Reis' in Germany) and rice pudding. Rice grains (broken or whole) are exposed to saturated steam at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure (> 0.03 bar) in an autoclave for sufficient time to gelatinize a major portion of starch. The rice grains are then mixed with milk for consumption in the form of a kheer-like product. Production of in-can sterilized creamed-rice dessert has also been reported in which short-grained rice releasing starch on cooking was used. Homogenization of milk was found to improve the product quality. Gradual heating up periods and agitation were necessary during autoclaving to prevent localized overheating. Even though browning and age thickening were reported, the product had a shelf life of 12 months. Rice pudding has also been manufactured employing a scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE). Rice and milk are pumped into this system, heated up to 115C, held for 26 minutes in a holding tube and then cooled down to 80C in another cylinder. The rice pudding is transferred to a sterile buffer tank, and then filled into plastic pots. Flame sterilization has also been successfully used for canned milk-rice puddings. The pudding mix is packed in cans, which are immediately closed and run into the heating section (137.8<: for 40-60 seconds). Selection of Rice: Taste, appearance and nutritional criteria decide the type of rice required for preparing kheer and rice pudding. Types of rice generally used include brown rice, long grain rice, and medium grain rice. Rice-based dairy desserts, traditional or otherwise, may be prepared from rice in different forms, viz., whole or broken grains and grain fractions. A product containing whole rice grains is popular. Since different types and varieties of rice have widely varying cooking characteristics, they exert a considerable influence on the quality of kheer as well as its texture and other sensory attributes. In kheer making, the processing/ cooking is critical for the product quality. Evaluation of raw rice before and after cooking would provide important guidelines for selecting the suitable rice variety for kheer preparation.

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In a recent study on manufacture of long-life kheer at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Kamal, several types of rice were analyzed for their suitability for kheer making. These included whole grains and brokens of three varieties-basmati, parma! and parboiled. Basmati brokens were considered most suitable for kheer making on the basis of various tests such as alkali spreading value (index of gelatinization temperature) and gel consistency test. Usually, glutinous or waxy rice that has very little amylose content becomes very sticky on cooking. Hence, it is not preferred for kheer making. High amylose rice (indica type) varieties are normally used for kheer making in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Cooking Characteristics of Rice: Depending on the end use, rice processing may involve any of a wide range of unit operations such as cooking, flaking, roasting, puffing, etc. However, cooking or heating in the presence of water is the most common process, and the only one relevant to the traditional kheer-making process. Amount of water needed to cook rice is an indication of the approximate increase in size of the grain (swell). However, rice grain increases more than twice in volume, even if it is cooked in only twice its volume of water. Long grain rice tends' to swell more than short grain rice, and parboiled rice swells less than nonparboiled rice. Brown rice or unpolished rice swells somewhat less than polished rice. Rice swells more when cooked in milk than in water. Texture of the cooked rice is an important determinant of its acceptability. It is particularly significant in relation to a product like kheer.

Long-life Kheer: Though kheer is popular throughout India, its limited shelf life, even under refrigeration, imposes severe restrictions on its commercial manufacture and marketing. If a process could be developed to produce kheer in shelf-stable form, it would offer significant value addition and product diversification to the Indian dairy industry. However, processing of 'particulate products poses certain challenges to food processors. The problems associated with thermal processing of heterogeneous products such as milk-rice (or kheer) may be sought to be circumvented by adopting newer technologies such as microwave heating, scraped surface heat exchangers,

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sterilization in retortable pouches, etc. In-package thermal processing offers certain unique advantages such as flexibility of scale of operation and obviate the need for aseptic packaging. Further, thermally processed and packaged desserts are expected to have adequate shelf life to facilitate their transportation and shipping over long distances for widespread marketing. A process has recently been developed at the NDRI, Kamal, for in-package cooking and sterilization of kheer in retort pouches with the objective to enhance its shelf life at ambient temperature (Figure 3.5.1). Sterilization is done in steam-air environment, using a Rotary Pilot Scale Retorting System, employing a constant rotation of 2 rpm. Retort temperature and pressure are set at 121.1C and 15 psi, respectively. An overpressure of 30 psi is maintained to prevent bursting of pouches. Concentrated milk, raw rice (washed and soaked at 30C/30 minutes) and sugar are filled in retort pouches (size 200 mm x 170 mm) having a configurationofpolyester, aluminium-foil and 350-gauge cast polypropylene. Kheer obtained by this process exhibited proximate composition of 6.21 per cent fat, 10.75 per cent protein, 28.67 per cent total solids, 0.74 per cent ash and 10.97 per cent carbohydrates. The product had a shelf life of more than four months at 37C. Physico-chemical Characteristics: During kheer manufacture, the changes in milk concentration are accompanied by physical changes in the rice grains being cooked. Both these changes contribute to rheological changes in the milk-rice mixture. Concentration of milk over a period of time also increases the fat and protein content in the final product. Results of several studies on the effect of varying fat content of milk on the average chemical composition of kheer are given in Table 3.5.1. Gelatinization of starch is the most prominent change during cooking of rice. It results in uptake of water by the starch granules accompanied by expansion of the network of the starch molecule chains. Swelling and softening of the gelatinizing rice grains are concomitant processes. Gelatinization of rice may take place even during soaking if the soak-water temperature is high enough. When the rice is milled, the cells of the grain are fractured and some of the embedded starch grains are exposed on the surfaces of the individual particles. If the rice grains are agitated during cooking, many of these starch granules are dislodged. These thicken the liquid around the individual particles of the rice, resulting in cooked rice with individual pieces embedded in a thick starch paste

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of a gooey consistency. Further, during the gelatinization or cooking process, water is believed to disrupt the protein matrix, part of the protein bodies and the starch granules. Amylose diffuses out of the granules that eventually collapse. This seems to enable a starch-protein interaction. Even though changes in kheer during storage have not been analyzed because of its inherent poor shelf life, changes during storage of long-life kheer have been fully characterized. The pH of long-life kheer is in the range of 6.04 to 6.10. This lowering of the pH may be attributed to the concentration effect of milk solids as well as the heat treatment given to the product in the retort. Rheological properties of kheer serve as important acceptability parameters. Studies on body and texture of kheer have found improvement in the sensory score from 6.9 to 8.5 (on a 9-point hedonic scale) when the fat content of milk is increased from 3 to 5 per cent. The pre-soaking of rice at 30 or 50C for 30 minutes improved the body and texture. Higher visual consistency and lower grain hardness contributed to an appreciably higher texture acceptability score for basmati rice kheer. Viscosity of the milk-rice mixture increased logarithmically with increase in total solids. It was also observed that a creamy consistency of the shear-thinning liquid fraction was generally preferred. However, the overall textural acceptability of the product appeared to be determined by both the liquid phase viscosity and cooked grain tenderness. Shelf Life: Short shelf life has been a major deterrent in large-scale commercial manufacture and marketing of kheer in traditional form. The shelf life of kheer when hot packed in tin cans was found to be only 2-3 days at 37C that could be extended up to 3-4 days by adopting thermal treatment and up to 8-10 days by employing nisin as a preservative. The shelf life of steam kettle-processed kheer was only 7-8 hours at 30C and 9 days at 5e. Even the use of sodium metabisulphite could not appreciably improve the shelf life of kheer at 30e. Increase in shelf life of thermally processed kheer to more than 6 months at room temperature has been achieved by using nisin at a concentration of 200 IU/g of the product. Nisin has been used to lower the process value for some canned Indian dishes including kheer. Products have been processed at different temperatures after the addition of nisin and following inoculation with Bacillus stearothermophilus NCA 1518. Results indicated that the level of nisin required for adequate processing and the

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processing time needed for kheer were 400 IUlg and 6 minutes respectively. Dried Kheer Mix As attempts to use preservatives to extend the shelf life of kheer met with a limited success, efforts began in the 1980s to produce instant kheer mixes. Production of kheer in a dry form suitable for ready reconstitution could help overcome the probl~m of its shelf life. Manufacturing Method: The procedure for the production of the instant kheer mix involves separate preparation of the instant milk-rice powder, representing the liquid fraction of kheer as well as instant rice, representing the particulate phase. Fresh buffalo milk (6.9% fat and 9.5% SNF) is standardized to a fat: SNF level of 5.0 : 9.1 for the manufacture of kheer mix powder. Standardized milk is heated at 60C for 15 minutes in the pre-heater of the triple-effect evaporator and then concentrated to 35 per cent total solids. Homogenization of the milk concentrate is done at a pressure of 183 bar during first stage and 36 bar during second stage. Homogenized milk concentrate is mixed with ground rice and sugar and the resultant milk-ricesugar slurry is heated to a temperature of 80C for gelatinization of rice in a steam-jacketed heating-cummixing vessel. The milk-rice-sugar slurry representing the simulated liquid phase of kheer is dried in a twostage spray dryer. This kheer mix powder is blended with ground sugar. Using a fluidized bed dryer instantizes rice. Instant rice grains are separately packed in polythene pouches. Kheer mix powder can be packaged in metallized polyester LDPE bags, and. a separate polythene pouch containing instant rice can be placed in them. This process is shown in Figure 3.5.2. Reconstitution of kheer mix involves rehydration of instant rice in boiling water for 10 min followed by dispersal of the powdered component into the ricewater mixture. The reconstituted product could be suitably flavoured and enriched with dry fruits, etc. This product has been found to have a high acceptance rating in a consumer study. Such a dry mix has great commercial potential in the Indian dairy products market. Physico-chemical Characteristics: In a systematic study, instant kheer mix powder was stored at 30, 37 and 45C to predict its shelf life at ambient conditions. Several important parameters that might influence product quality and in turn its acceptability were monitored. These included colour (absorbance), thiobarbiturric acid test (oxidative

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stability), total and free hydroxy methyl furfural contents (browning indices), wettability, flowability, bulk density, dispensability, insolubility index, particle density,

Payasam Payasam is a milk-based delicacy popular in the southern parts of India. It resembles kheer of North India and has similar ritualistic connotations. Payasam forms an integral part of the cultural ethos of South India, closely associated with ritualistic ceremonies such as weddings, religious functions, and birth and death anniversaries. The manner and time of consuming payasam during a meal is also strictly laid out. A wedding feast in South India is served on a large banana leaf, with cold items laid out at specified positions. Among them is a small serving of thick vermicelli payasam, which is consumed to start off the meal. The meal also ends invariably with another variety of payasam, served in larger portions and treated as a dessert. In Bengal, a similar delicacy called payesh (made of rice and thickened milk) accompanied by fruits like mango is served at the end of a festive meal. Product Description: There are several varieties of payasam with distinct characteristics that may be attributed to the area of their origin and traditional methods of preparation. The popularity of different varieties also differs from state to state. While vermicelli payasam is relished in all the four southern states, a variety with khus-khus (poppy seeds) is a speciality in Karnataka, palada payasam in Kerala and Thirattupal in Tamil Nadu. Shirkurma and Gil-e-Firdaus are special varieties of Hyderabad city, where there is a predominantly Muslim population. In Karnataka, paramanna is a prized kind of rice payasam in milk, which is repeatedly extolled in ancient textS' as the finest type of payasam. This ritual confection of rice~dn.;illk with honey and sugar is given to an infant ashis/her first solid food at the annaprasanna ceremony. Wedding feasts in Kerala include payasams based on milk, coconut milk, rice, dal and bananas. Payasams of Kerala containing a combination of coconut milk and milk are termed as prathamans. Besides milk and/ or coconut milk, the prathaman contains fruits or dal or paper-thin shreds of a rice-roll, cooked separately and added to the sweetened milk to give palada prathaman. Table 3.5.2 lists the regional varieties of payasam of South India. Classification: Based on the use of ingredients other than milk and sugar, payasam is

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classified as pulse, cereal, tuber crop product, fruit and seed-based (Table 3.5.3). Pulse-based Payasams: The common pulses used for the preparation of payasam are green/Bengal gram dal. A sweet payasam of horse gram is a common "shraddha" food item. The quantity of dal used is about one-fifth of the weight of the product. The pulses are either cooked in water directly or after roasting in ghee, they are added to milk and boiled. Sugar or jaggery may be used as the sweetening ingredient. When jaggery is used, it is added after removing the preparation from the fire, or after reducing the heat, to avoid coagulation of milk. Even other additives such as coconut gratings, raisins and cashew nuts are added after the temperature of the product is reduced. Whenever coconut milk is used, as in the prathamans of Kerala, the product is never reheated to avoid coagulation. Domestic preparation involves roasting/frying of Bengal gram/green gram dal (lentil) with a little ghee, followed by steaming to soften the da!. It is then cooked with milk (1 : 1). In the last stages of cooking, jaggery, grated coconuts, cardamom and dry fruits are added to taste. For the preparation of prathaman payasam, green gram dal (200 grams) is first roasted with a little ghee, followed by cooking in water. Water is drained off, and dal is mashed. The mashed mass is mixed with 500 ml of milk, and cooking continued. Towards the middle stage of cooking, molten/strained jaggery (600 grams) is added and cooking continued after adding coconut milk (prepared by three successive extractions of one full grated coconut). The mixture is brought to a gentle boil. Final garnishing is done with roasted cashew nuts and raisins. Cereal-based Payasams: The main ingredient of the cereal-based payasam is rice or wheat. Significant differences exist in the traditional methods of preparation. To prepare halu kheeru payasam, soaked rice is ground to a fine paste along with coconut and cardamom and then cooked in milk. The product is garnished with a fair amount of dry fruits. The godhi payasam is similar to this, but ground wheat is used instead of rice. To prepare pal payasam medium-sized rice grains are cooked in milk. It is a concentrated product, which generally contains no additives other than sugar. While the quantity of rice used is one-fifteenth of the amount of milk in pal payasam, it is as high as half the quantity of milk in halu kheeru payasam. Superior quality rice

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(basmati) is 'USed for preparing Gil-e-Firdaus. The rice (one-tenth of the quantity of milk) is fried in ghee and a fair amount of additives of dairy origin (khoa, malai and condensed milk) and non-dairy origin (almonds, pistachio and cashew nuts) are used in the preparation of Gil-e-Firclaus. Domestic preparation of halu kheeru payasam involves pre-soaking of 250 gram rice for 1 hour. To the washed rice, 100 grams of coconut and 1 gram of cardamom is added and the mixture is ground to a fine paste. Milk is added to the paste (1 : 1), and the mixture is boiled. Boiling is continued till fully cooked. In the last stages of cooking, 500 grams of sugar is added and finally, garnishing is done with saffron and raisins. Halu kheeru payasam may be served hot or cold. Besides the above described payasams, some other varieties are prepared from vermicelli, rice suji, wheat suji, beaten rice and a rice dough-product (ada). Vermicelli payasams: Shyavige and shirkurma are the common vermicelli-based payasams. In the preparation of shirkurma, a specialty of Hyderabad city, condensed milk is used in addition to milk. Sweetened condensed milk (800 grams), cooked dry dates and fried raisins are added in the final stages of cooking. For making shyavige, 100 grams vermicelli is first roasted in ghee. Then one litre milk is added and cooking continued for 30 minutes. Finally sugar, raisins and powdered cardamom are added. Shyavige may be served either hot or cold. Rice suji-based payasam: It is called Akki nutchu payasam. Suji from basmati rice is used for preparing it. Usually, rice suji is cooked in water. However, the finer version of the product is cooked in condensed milk. To prepare akki nutchu payasam, rice suji (500 grams) is first roasted light brown in ghee and then cooked with one litre of milk and 600 grams of sugar. To this cardamom, saffron and dry fruits are finally added before serving hot or cold. Wheat suji-based payasam: Its two main varieties use the wheat suji along with coconut paste and papads made of wheat suji dough. The papads are deep-fried in ghee and constitute the major suspended ingredient of payasam. To prepare wheat suji payasam, 400 grams of suji is first roasted in ghee, and then cooked in water till soft. To this 200 grams of coconut paste and 1 litre of milk are added and cooking continued. Finally, sugar (600 grams), cardamom and raisins are added and served.

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Avalakki (beaten rice-based) payasam: Beaten rice consists of flat flakes of rice, brownish gray in colour. To prepare avalakki payasam, 300 grams of avalakki is deep-fried in ghee. It is then cooked with one litre of milk. Towards the end of cooking, sugar (400 grams), cardamom, saffron and raisins are added and payasam served. Ada-based payasam: This variety is called palada payasam. Ada is a cooked product made from rice dough. Its preparation is a long process since the rice dough is cooked for a long time to obtain a consistency at which it can be cut into flakes. The texture of ada flakes should be tough so as to withstand vigorous stirring during the preparation of palada payasam. Ready-to-use ada is now commercially marketed in Kerala. Flow diagram for preparation of palada payasam is shown in Figure 3.5.3. Tuber crop-based payasams: Sago is a granular product processed from tuber crops such as tapioca. Sago-based payasams, either alone or in combination with pulses, are popular in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. One variety in this category is Sabakki payasam. To prepare it, 300 grams of sago is first washed and cooked in water till soft. Water is drained off and further cooking is done with one litre of milk and 500 grams of sugar. When cooking is over, payasam is garnished with powdered cardamom and dry fruits. Fruit-based payasams: Mango and jackfruit are commonly used in fruit-based payasams. In the mango variety, mango extract is used while fried pieces of jackfruit are used to prepare jackfruit payasam. In Kerala, the mango prathaman and chakka prathaman make use of coconut milk, milk and the respective fruits. In Karnataka, mavino payasam is made by boiling one litre of milk with 500 grams each of mango juice and sugar. When cooked, it is garnished with powdered cardamom and served hot or cold. Alternatively, for making halasina payasam, in place of mango juice, cut pieces of jackfruit may be used. Seed-based payasams: Khus khus (poppy seeds) form the main suspended ingredient in this payasam. About 300 grams of khus khus is ground to a fine paste with grated coconut (200 grams) and a small quantity of rice (40 grams) before addition of one litre of milk. The sweetening agent may be either jaggery or sugar (500 grams). The mixture is boiled till fully cooked. This form of payasam is preferably served cold. Physico-chemical Characteristics: They vary widely in different types of payasam depending on the ingredients used. In general, payasam is thinner in consistency than

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kheer, although its varieties range from free flowing to solid. The payasam colour varies from white, light cream, cream and light brown to brown. It is distinctly brown in payasams which contain jaggery as a sweetening ingredient. They have a pleasant cooked flavour, while some have added nutty or fruity flavour. Caramel flavour is associated with those products that are concentrated by heating during preparation. Caramel flavour may also be present if condensed milk is used as a raw material. Cardamom is the most popular flavouring ingredient used in payasam. Product profiles of payasam varieties are listed in Table 3.5.4. The chemical composition (total solids, total suspended solids, fat, protein, reducing sugar and sucrose) of selected varieties of payasam estimated at the Southern Regional Station of the NDRl at Bangalore is given in Table 3.5.5. Excellent scope exists for mechanizing the payasam manufacture process to tap its wide popularity. A number of options exist for integrating new technologies, such as UHT equipment for particulate foods, retort sterilization in flexible pouches, etc., with the commercial processes. Long shelf-life forms of payasam packaged in flexible pouches or polystyrene cups would need to be adopted for marketing on a national network.

Phirni A delicious variant of kheer, phirni is prepared by cooking milk with rice paste and sugar. Generally served in shikora (earthen cup), phirni is covered with a thin silver foil (vark). In Hyderabad, phirni is made with pineapple bits and is named Gil-e-Firdaus or "clay from paradise", an obvious reference to the shikora. Not much work has been done on its industrial production. Ingredients (a) Milk: Buffalo milk or mixed milk (pH 6.5 to 6.7, titratable acidity 0.14 to 0.16%), fat (6.0 to 6.2%) and SNF (9.0 to 9.2%) is usually used for phirni preparation. (b) Rice: Generally Basmati rice is used. It is washed with cold water and macerated wet in a mixer to

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Mishti Doi For centuries, mishti doi, also known as payodhi and lal dahi, has been a wellestablished dessert in the eastern parts of India. It is a popular dessert in West Bengal where it is served with the meal accompanied by dried sweets. It is a delicacy of choice during religious festivities and is considered an auspicious item to serve while starting a journey, or any important work. In combination with rasogolla, mishti doi is regarded an extra special dessert on ceremonial occasions both in the rural and urban Bengal. The product is commonly available in earthen pots of different sizes. According to ancient Bengali literature, milk meant for curdling was first thickened by boiling before adding caramelized palm jaggery, cane jaggery or sugar and then allowed to set as curd to yield mishti doi. This was often done in an earthen vessel, which contributes a characteristic earthy flavour and to some extent helps in absorbing free whey at the end of the fermentation process. Mishti doi preparation is mainly confined to domestic or cottage scale operations. Due to lack of standardization in the composition and quality of raw materials, and manufacturing techniques, the market quality of the product varies considerably. However, standardized mishti doi is now being marketed in metro cities by dairy plants. Product Description: Mishti doi is a fermented milk product, having creamish to light brown colour, firm consistency, smooth texture and pleasant aroma. In the absence of PF A/BIS standards, there could be different grades of mishti doi depending on the percentage of fat, SNF, and sugar in the product to meet the wide variety of consumer tastes. However, typical composition of mishti doi is given in Table 3.3.7. Technology: Traditionally, mishti doi is prepared from cow or mixed milk. It is first boiled with a required amount of sugar and partially concentrated by simmering over a low fire during which milk develops a distinctive light cream to light brown caramel colour and flavour. Thi~ is then cooled to ambient temperature and cultured with dahi (lactic) culture. It is then poured into earthen vessels of consumer/bulk size and left undisturbed overnight for fermentation. When a firm body curd has set, it is shifted to a cooler place or preferably refrigerated. Use of earthen vessel absorbs any whey that may tend to

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separate during storage and distribution. Mishti doi is served chilled. Industrial Production: A technological process has been developed for the manufacture of mishti doi in the organized sector. It facilitates use of a wide range of milk products (Table 3.3.8) for sourcing milk solids in the production of mishti doi. By combining the ingredients in proper portion, a basic mix for mishti doi can be prepared, keeping in view the final compositional standard of the product in terms of fat, SNF, and sugar. Extreme care is needed in the selection and use of the raw material and sweeteners. The ingredients should be fresh, wholesome and of good microbial and sensory quality. Their quality has a direct bearing on the final product. When fresh raw milk is used for production of mishti doi, its acidity should not be more than 0.16 per cent. It should be clot-on-boiling negative and free from off-flavours. The most common sweetener used is cane sugar. It should be of high bacteriological quality and free from extraneous matter. Corn sugar, com syrup, maltose or beet sugar can be used to swee,ten mishti doi or to partially substitute sugar if these are commercially available and priced cheaper than cane sugar. In some special varieties of mishti doi, fresh palm jaggery (gur) is used as a sweetener. Mishti doi is coloured and flavoured commonly with caramel. Caramel is prepared by caramelizing sugar and is available commercially in the form of a viscous liquid. The pH of this caramel should be close to the pH of the product (around 5.0). The quality standards for commercial caramel are given in Table 3.3.9. Synthetic flavours like caramel, vanilla, cardamom and rose may also be used with or without nuts and fruits for developing a wide range of mishti doi formulations. Milk fat is the most expensive constituent of mishti doi. It enriches the characteristic top layer of mishti doi, giving it a creamy rich flavour. The main contribution of SNF in mishti doi is the body and textural characteristic of the product. Compared to milk fat, it is less expensive. Sugar is added to sweeten mishti doi and give it a smooth body and texture. It is the cheapest source of total solids in the product. Starter Culture: The most critical step in the manufacture of the product is the selection of starter culture, since it affects the flavour and acidity development in the presence of

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sugar and caramel at relatively higher SNF levels. Mixed strain culture may be used since it yields a superior product and performs more reliably under variable conditions. Optimum performance of the mishti doi culture is expected in a narrow temperature range of 42 1C. A good culture develops 0.7 per cent acidity within 6-8 hours with 1 per cent inoculum. Process: Milk and cream in required proportions are mixed in a multipurpose vat, connected to a conical hopper /venturi assembly for reconstitution of SMP to increase the total solids level. Sugar is also dry blended at this stage. Caramel is added @ 0.1 to 0.12 per cent before starting the heating of the mix. If caramel is added to the mix above 50C, undesirable flakes would be formed. The mix is heated to 80-90C in a vat or a plate pasteurizer. It is necessary to have a filter in the process line to filter all suspended matter and lumps. Heat treatment at various temperatures has been tried out. It has been observed that heating the mix to 85C and holding for 15 minutes yields a product of desirable quality and texture. After holding, the product is cooled to 40-4SoC either in the plate heat exchanger or by circulating water in the multi-purpose vat. The bulk culture is stirred to a fine and smooth mass, and added to the mix @ 1 per cent and mixed well. The culture should be added to the mix at about 43C so that after the mishti doi mix is filled in sanitized cups, the temperature should be around 41C. Lids are heat sealed on cups to make them airtight and prevent leakage of the mix. The sealed cups are then placed in trays/ crates, which can be stacked on trolleys with minimum shaking. Enough air space should be left in the cup after filling to avoid the top web /lid touching the top surface of the product. If this happens, the top fat layer of the product will get peeled off, cracked or broken, leaving an undesirable appearance. Too much of head space would give the impression of empty cups. Incubation: Mishti doi mix is incubated at 42+1C for about 6 to 8 hours till the acidity develops to about 0.7 to 0.8 per cent, expressed as lactic acid. Trolleys with filled and sealed cups are moved in the incubation rooms with least disturbance. The time for incubation depends upon the activity of the starter culture used. During and after incubation, the product should be handled with minimum mechanical shock to retain a uniform texture in it. Storage: Once the desired level of acidity (0.7%) is developed, the product should be

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shifted to a cold store (4C) with minimum disturbance as the product at this stage has very weak body and unstable top layer. Excessive shaking will result in cracks on the top layer or in the curd mass itself. The cold store temperature should be OC for the storage of the product for a longer period. If the temperature is below OC, freezing can take place. This will affect the body of the product due to ice crystals formation that disrupt the gel structure of the curd and result in a floppy body. Therefore, care should be taken to maintain the cold store at proper temperature to prevent any freezing of the product. Transportation and Distribution: Mishti doi cups should be properly crated or cartoned. They should be transported in an insulated box, with cooling pad inside the box for marketing. The retailers should be instructed to keep the product under refrigeration until it is sold to the consumer. Mishti Doi stored below lOoC retains good quality for about 3 days without any significant deterioration in flavour and bacteriological quality. If stored below 4C, its shelf life is increased to about five days. Keeping mishti doi at room temperature is not advisable, since its acidity starts increasing slowly. Novelties: Mishti doi is in many ways similar to the western dairy product, yogurt. Initially, there used to be only plain yogurt which was liked for its typical mild acidic taste. Now, there are varieties of yogurt with many combinations of flavours, fruits and nuts. Similarly, several varieties of mishti doi can be prepared to compete with yogurt by adding flavour (cardamom, vanilla, butter scotch), fruits (mangoes, bananas), grains and nuts (almond, pistachio). Mishti doi can also be made without cream layer on the top by homogenizing the mix. The resultant product would have a smooth body and texture and reduced tendency for wheying off.