1.2 Advantages Types of Prestressing Section4.6 2IN1

Prestressed Concrete Structures
Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon Prestressed Concrete Structures
Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon
1.2 Advantages and Types of Prestressing

This section covers the following topics. Definitions Advantages of Prestressing Limitations of Prestressing Types of Prestressing
Unbonded tendon When there is no bond between the prestressing tendon and concrete, it is called unbonded tendon. When grout is not applied after post-tensioning, the tendon is an unbonded tendon.
Stages of Loading The analysis of prestressed members can be different for the different stages of loading. The stages of loading are as follows.
1.2.1 Definitions
The terms commonly used in prestressed concrete are explained. The terms are placed in groups as per usage.
1) Initial
: It can be subdivided into two stages. a) During tensioning of steel b) At transfer of prestress to concrete.
2) Intermediate Forms of Prestressing Steel Wires Prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel. Strands Two, three or seven wires are wound to form a prestressing strand. Tendon A group of strands or wires are wound to form a prestressing tendon. Cable A group of tendons form a prestressing cable. Bars A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire. 3) Final
: This includes the loads during transportation of the prestressed members. : It can be subdivided into two stages. a) At service, during operation. b) At ultimate, during extreme events.
1.2.2 Advantages of Prestressing

The prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete (RC) without prestressing. A fully prestressed concrete member is usually subjected to compression during service life. This rectifies several deficiencies of concrete.
The different types of prestressing steel are further explained in Section 1.7, Prestressing Steel.
The following text broadly mentions the advantages of a prestressed concrete member with an equivalent RC member. For each effect, the benefits are listed.
Nature of Concrete-Steel Interface Bonded tendon When there is adequate bond between the prestressing tendon and concrete, it is called a bonded tendon. Pre-tensioned and grouted post-tensioned tendons are bonded tendons.
1) Section remains uncracked under service loads Reduction of steel corrosion

Increase in durability.
Full section is utilised

Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness) Less deformations (improved serviceability).
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Increase in shear capacity. Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures. Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading. 2) High span-to-depth ratios Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces) Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below. Non-prestressed slab Prestressed slab 28:1 45:1
T-section
Double T-section
Hollow core
Piles
For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.

Reduction in self weight More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections More economical sections.
L-section
Inverted T-section
I-girders
Figure 1-2.1
Typical precast members
3) Suitable for precast construction The advantages of precast construction are as follows.

1.2.3 Limitations of Prestressing

Although prestressing has advantages, some aspects need to be carefully addressed.
Rapid construction Better quality control Reduced maintenance Suitable for repetitive construction Multiple use of formwork
Reduction of formwork
Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete.
The use of high strength materials is costly. There is additional cost in auxiliary equipments. There is need for quality control and inspection.
Availability of standard shapes.
1.2.4 Types of Prestressing

The following figure shows the common types of precast sections. Prestressing of concrete can be classified in several ways. The following classifications are discussed.
Source of prestressing force This classification is based on the method by which the prestressing force is generated. There are four sources of prestressing force: Mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and chemical.
External or internal prestressing This classification is based on the location of the prestressing tendon with respect to the concrete section.
Electrical Prestressing In this type of prestressing, the steel wires are electrically heated and anchored before placing concrete in the moulds. This type of prestressing is also known as thermoelectric prestressing.
Pre-tensioning or post-tensioning This is the most important classification and is based on the sequence of casting the concrete and applying tension to the tendons. External or Internal Prestressing External Prestressing When the prestressing is achieved by elements located outside the concrete, it is called Linear or circular prestressing This classification is based on the shape of the member prestressed. external prestressing. The tendons can lie outside the member (for example in I-girders or walls) or inside the hollow space of a box girder. This technique is adopted in
bridges and strengthening of buildings. In the following figure, the box girder of a bridge Full, limited or partial prestressing Based on the amount of prestressing force, three types of prestressing are defined. is prestressed with tendons that lie outside the concrete.
Uniaxial, biaxial or multi-axial prestressing As the names suggest, the classification is based on the directions of prestressing a member.
The individual types of prestressing are explained next.
Source of Prestressing Force Hydraulic Prestressing This is the simplest type of prestressing, producing large prestressing forces. The Figure 1-2.2 External prestressing of a box girder (Reference: VSL International Ltd.)
hydraulic jack used for the tensioning of tendons, comprises of calibrated pressure gauges which directly indicate the magnitude of force developed during the tensioning.
Mechanical Prestressing In this type of prestressing, the devices includes weights with or without lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks with or without gear drives and wire-winding machines. This type of prestressing is adopted for mass scale production.
Internal Prestressing When the prestressing is achieved by elements located inside the concrete member (commonly, by embedded tendons), it is called internal prestressing. Most of the applications of prestressing are internal prestressing. In the following figure, concrete will be cast around the ducts for placing the tendons.
Post-tensioning The tension is applied to the tendons (located in a duct) after hardening of the concrete. The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage device (at the end blocks). The following figure shows a post-tensioned box girder of a bridge.
Figure 1-2.3
Internal prestressing of a box girder
(Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)
Pre-tensioning or Post-tensioning Pre-tensioning The tension is applied to the tendons before casting of the concrete. The preFigure 1-2.5 Post-tensioning of a box girder (Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)
compression is transmitted from steel to concrete through bond over the transmission length near the ends. The following figure shows manufactured pre-tensioned electric poles.
The details of pre-tensioning and post-tensioning are covered under Section 1.3, Pretensioning Systems and Devices, and Section 1.4, Post-tensioning Systems and Devices, respectively.
Linear or Circular Prestressing Linear Prestressing When the prestressed members are straight or flat, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called linear prestressing. For example, prestressing of beams, piles, poles and slabs. The profile of the prestressing tendon may be curved. The following figure shows linearly prestressed railway sleepers. Figure 1-2.4 Pre-tensioned electric poles (Courtesy: The Concrete Products and Construction Company, COPCO, Chennai)
Full, Limited or Partial Prestressing Full Prestressing When the level of prestressing is such that no tensile stress is allowed in concrete under service loads, it is called Full Prestressing (Type 1, as per IS:1343 - 1980).
Limited Prestressing When the level of prestressing is such that the tensile stress under service loads is within the cracking stress of concrete, it is called Limited Prestressing (Type 2).
Partial Prestressing Figure 1-2.6 Linearly prestressed railway sleepers When the level of prestressing is such that under tensile stresses due to service loads, the crack width is within the allowable limit, it is called Partial Prestressing (Type 3). (Courtesy: The Concrete Products and Construction Company, COPCO, Chennai)
Circular Prestressing When the prestressed members are curved, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called circular prestressing. For example, circumferential prestressing of tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures. The following figure shows the containment structure for a nuclear reactor which is circularly prestressed.
Uniaxial, Biaxial or Multiaxial Prestressing Uniaxial Prestressing When the prestressing tendons are parallel to one axis, it is called Uniaxial Prestressing. For example, longitudinal prestressing of beams.
Biaxial Prestressing When there are prestressing tendons parallel to two axes, it is called Biaxial Prestressing. The following figure shows the biaxial prestressing of slabs.
Figure 1-2.7
Circularly prestressed containment structure, Kaiga Atomic Power Station, Karnataka
Non-prestressed reinforcement Duct for prestressing tendon

Figure 1-2.8 Biaxial prestressing of a slab
(Reference: Larsen & Toubro Ltd, ECC Division, 60 Landmark Years)
(Courtesy: VSL India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai)

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Multiaxial Prestressing When the prestressing tendons are parallel to more than two axes, it is called Multiaxial Prestressing. For example, prestressing of domes.
1.3 Pre-tensioning Systems and Devices

This section covers the following topics. Introduction Stages of Pre-tensioning Advantages of Pre-tensioning Disadvantages of Pre-tensioning Devices Manufacturing of Pre-tensioned Railway Sleepers
1.3.1 Introduction
Prestressing systems have developed over the years and various companies have patented their products. Detailed information of the systems is given in the product catalogues and brochures published by companies. There are general guidelines of prestressing in Section 12 of IS:1343 - 1980. The information given in this section is introductory in nature, with emphasis on the basic concepts of the systems.
The prestressing systems and devices are described for the two types of prestressing, pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, separately. This section covers pre-tensioning.
Section 1.4, Post-tensioning Systems and Devices, covers post-tensioning. In pretensioning, the tension is applied to the tendons before casting of the concrete. The stages of pre-tensioning are described next.
1.3.2 Stages of Pre-tensioning

In pre-tensioning system, the high-strength steel tendons are pulled between two end abutments (also called bulkheads) prior to the casting of concrete. The abutments are fixed at the ends of a prestressing bed.
Once the concrete attains the desired strength for prestressing, the tendons are cut loose from the abutments.
The prestress is transferred to the concrete from the tendons, due to the bond between them. During the transfer of prestress, the member undergoes elastic shortening. If the tendons are located eccentrically, the member is likely to bend and deflect (camber). The various stages of the pre-tensioning operation are summarised as follows. 1) Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments 2) Placing of jacks 3) Applying tension to the tendons 4) Casting of concrete 5) Cutting of the tendons.
In pre-tensioning large anchorage device is not present.
1.3.4 Disadvantages of Pre-tensioning

The relative disadvantages are as follows.

A prestressing bed is required for the pre-tensioning operation. There is a waiting period in the prestressing bed, before the concrete attains sufficient strength.
There should be good bond between concrete and steel over the transmission length.
During the cutting of the tendons, the prestress is transferred to the concrete with elastic shortening and camber of the member.
1.3.5 Devices
The essential devices for pre-tensioning are as follows.

The stages are shown schematically in the following figures.

End abutment Steel tendon Jack Prestressing bed
Prestressing bed End abutments Shuttering / mould Jack Anchoring device Harping device (optional)
(a) Applying tension to tendons
Prestressing Bed, End Abutments and Mould (b) Casting of concrete

Cutting of tendon
The following figure shows the devices.

End abutment Mould Jack
(c) Transferring of prestress Figure1-3.1 Stages of pre-tensioning
Anchoring device
Prestressing bed
Figure1-3.2
Prestressing bed, end abutment and mould
1.3.3 Advantages of Pre-tensioning

An extension of the previous system is the Hoyer system. This system is generally The relative advantages of pre-tensioning as compared to post-tensioning are as follows.
used for mass production. The end abutments are kept sufficient distance apart, and several members are cast in a single line. The shuttering is provided at the sides and
Pre-tensioning is suitable for precast members produced in bulk.

between the members. This system is also called the Long Line Method. following figure is a schematic representation of the Hoyer system
The
Jack
A series of moulds
Elevation Threaded rod
Prestressing bed
Figure 1-3.3 Schematic representation of Hoyer system
Mould
Strands
The end abutments have to be sufficiently stiff and have good foundations. This is usually an expensive proposition, particularly when large prestressing forces are required. The necessity of stiff and strong foundation can be bypassed by a simpler solution which can also be a cheaper option. It is possible to avoid transmitting the heavy loads to foundations, by adopting self-equilibrating systems. This is a common solution in load-testing. Typically, this is done by means of a tension frame. The Figure 1-3.5
Plan
Stress bench Self straining frame
The following figure shows the free body diagram by replacing the jacks with the applied forces.
following figure shows the basic components of a tension frame. The jack and the specimen tend to push the end members. But the end members are kept in place by members under tension such as high strength steel rods.
Loading jack High strength steel rods
Load by jack
Test specimen
Plan
Tension in strands
Figure 1-3.6
Plan or Elevation Free bodies
Free body diagram of stress bench
Figure 1-3.4
A tension frame
The following figure shows the stress bench after casting of the concrete.
The frame that is generally adopted in a pre-tensioning system is called a stress bench. The concrete mould is placed within the frame and the tendons are stretched and anchored on the booms of the frame. The following figures show the components of a stress bench.
Elevation
Plan
Figure 1-3.7 The stress bench after casting concrete
Jacks The jacks are used to apply tension to the tendons. Hydraulic jacks are commonly used. These jacks work on oil pressure generated by a pump. The principle behind the design of jacks is Pascals law. The load applied by a jack is measured by the pressure reading from a gauge attached to the oil inflow or by a separate load cell. The following figure shows a double acting hydraulic jack with a load cell.
Figure 1-3.9
Chuck assembly for anchoring tendons
(Reference: Lin, T. Y. and Burns, N. H., Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures)
Figure 1-3.8
A double acting hydraulic jack with a load cell
Harping Devices The tendons are frequently bent, except in cases of slabs-on-grade, poles, piles etc.
Anchoring Devices Anchoring devices are often made on the wedge and friction principle. In pre-tensioned members, the tendons are to be held in tension during the casting and hardening of concrete. Here simple and cheap quick-release grips are generally adopted. following figure provides some examples of anchoring devices. The
The tendons are bent (harped) in between the supports with a shallow sag as shown below.
Harping point
Hold up device
a) Before casting of concrete
b) After casting of concrete

Figure 1-3.10 Harping of tendons
The tendons are harped using special hold-down devices as shown in the following figure.
Meanwhile the coarse and fine aggregates are batched, mixed with cement, water and additives in a concrete mixer. The stress bench is moved beneath the concrete mixer. The concrete is poured through a hopper and the moulds are vibrated. After the
finishing of the surface, the stress bench is placed in a steam curing chamber for a few hours till the concrete attains a minimum strength.
The stress bench is taken out from the chamber and the strands are cut. The sleepers are removed from the moulds and stacked for curing in water. After the complete curing, the sleepers are ready for dispatching.
Figure 1-3.11
Hold-down anchor for harping of tendons
(Reference: Nawy, E. G., Prestressed Concrete: A Fundamental Approach)
1.3.6 Manufacturing of Pre-tensioned Railway Sleepers

(a) Travelling pre-tensioning stress bench The following photos show the sequence of manufacturing of pre-tensioned railway sleepers (Courtesy: The Concrete Products and Construction Company, COPCO, Chennai). The steel strands are stretched in a stress bench that can be moved on rollers. The stress bench can hold four moulds in a line. The anchoring device holds the strands at one end of the stress bench. In the other end, two hydraulic jacks push a plate where the strands are anchored. The movement of the rams of the jacks and the oil pressure are monitored by a scale and gauges, respectively. Note that after the extension of the rams, the gap between the end plate and the adjacent mould has increased. This shows the stretching of the strands.
Final gap Threaded rod
Wedge and cylinder assembly at the dead end
Extension of ram
(d) Stretching of strands (b) Anchoring of strands
Initial gap End plate
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Hydraulic jack at stretching end
(c) Stretching of strands (e) Material storage
Automated batching by weight
(h) Concrete after vibration of mould (f) Batching of materials
Hopper below concrete mixer
(i) Steam curing chamber (g) Pouring of concrete
(j) Cutting of strands
(l) Stacking of sleeper
(m) Water curing (k) Demoulding of sleeper
1.4 Post-tensioning Systems and Devices

This section covers the following topics Introduction Stages of Post-tensioning Advantages of Post-tensioning Disadvantages of Post-tensioning Devices Manufacturing of a Post-tensioned Bridge Girder
1.4.1 Introduction
Prestressing systems have developed over the years and various companies have (n) Storage and dispatching of sleepers Figure 1-3.12 Manufacturing of pre-tensioned railway sleepers patented their products. Detailed information of the systems is given in the product catalogues and brochures published by companies. There are general guidelines of prestressing in Section 12 of IS 1343: 1980. The information given in this section is introductory in nature, with emphasis on the basic concepts of the systems.
The prestressing systems and devices are described for the two types of prestressing, pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, separately. This section covers post-tensioning. Section 1.3, Pre-tensioning Systems and Devices, covers pre-tensioning. In posttensioning, the tension is applied to the tendons after hardening of the concrete. The stages of post-tensioning are described next.
1.4.2 Stages of Post-tensioning

In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the reinforcement before the casting of concrete. The tendons are placed in the ducts after the casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact between concrete and the tendons during the tensioning operation.
Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled with the reaction acting against the hardened concrete.
If the ducts are filled with grout, then it is known as bonded post-tensioning. The grout is a neat cement paste or a sand-cement mortar containing suitable admixture. The grouting operation is discussed later in the section. discussed in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part-II). The properties of grout are
In unbonded post-tensioning, as the name suggests, the ducts are never grouted and the tendon is held in tension solely by the end anchorages. The following sketch shows a schematic representation of a grouted post-tensioned member. The profile of the duct depends on the support conditions. For a simply supported member, the duct has a sagging profile between the ends. For a continuous member, the duct sags in the span and hogs over the support. Figure 1-4.3 Post-tensioning of a box girder (Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)
The various stages of the post-tensioning operation are summarised as follows. 1) Casting of concrete. Figure 1-4.1 Post-tensioning (Reference: VSL International Ltd.) 2) Placement of the tendons. 3) Placement of the anchorage block and jack. Among the following figures, the first photograph shows the placement of ducts in a box girder of a simply supported bridge. The second photograph shows the end of the box girder after the post-tensioning of some tendons. 4) Applying tension to the tendons. 5) Seating of the wedges. 6) Cutting of the tendons.
The stages are shown schematically in the following figures. After anchoring a tendon at one end, the tension is applied at the other end by a jack. The tensioning of tendons and pre-compression of concrete occur simultaneously. A system of self-equilibrating forces develops after the stretching of the tendons.
Figure 1-4.2
Post-tensioning ducts in a box girder
Duct
4) Anchoring devices 5) Jacks 6) Couplers (optional)
Casting bed
(a) Casting of concrete
Side view
7) Grouting equipment (optional).
Casting Bed, Mould and Ducts
Jack
(b) Tensioning of tendons
The following figure shows the devices.
Mould Duct
Anchor
Figure 1-4.5
Casting bed
Casting bed, mould and duct
(c) Anchoring the tendon at the stretching end Figure 1-4.4 Stages of post-tensioning (shown in elevation) Anchoring Devices
In post-tensioned members the anchoring devices transfer the prestress to the concrete.
1.4.3 Advantages of Post-tensioning

The relative advantages of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning are as follows. Post-tensioning is suitable for heavy cast-in-place members. The waiting period in the casting bed is less. The transfer of prestress is independent of transmission length.
The devices are based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons. 1) Wedge action 2) Direct bearing 3) Looping the wires
Wedge action The anchoring device based on wedge action consists of an anchorage block and wedges. The strands are held by frictional grip of the wedges in the anchorage block.
1.4.4 Disadvantage of Post-tensioning

The relative disadvantage of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning is the requirement of anchorage device and grouting equipment.
Some examples of systems based on the wedge-action are Freyssinet, Gifford-Udall, Anderson and Magnel-Blaton anchorages. The following figures show some patented anchoring devices.
1.4.5 Devices
The essential devices for post-tensioning are as follows. 1) Casting bed 2) Mould/Shuttering 3) Ducts
Direct bearing The rivet or bolt heads or button heads formed at the end of the wires directly bear against a block. The B.B.R.V post-tensioning system and the Prescon system are
based on this principle. The following figure shows the anchoring by direct bearing.
Figure 1-4.6
Freyssinet T system anchorage cones
(Reference: Lin, T. Y. and Burns, N. H., Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures)
Figure 1-4.9
Anchoring with button heads
(Reference: Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures)
Looping the wires The Baur-Leonhardt system, Leoba system and also the Dwidag single-bar anchorage system, work on this principle where the wires are looped around the concrete. The
wires are looped to make a bulb. The following photo shows the anchorage by looping Figure 1-4.7 Anchoring devices of the wires in a post-tensioned slab.
Figure 1-4.8
Anchoring devices (Reference: VSL International Ltd)
Figure 1-4.10
Anchorage by looping the wires in a slab
(Courtesy : VSL India Pvt. Ltd.)
The anchoring devices are tested to calculate their strength. The following photo shows the testing of an anchorage block.
Figure 1-4.12
Sequence of anchoring
(Reference: VSL International Ltd.) Figure 1-4.11 Testing of an anchorage device
Sequence of Anchoring The following figures show the sequence of stressing and anchoring the strands. The photo of an anchoring device is also provided.
Figure 1-4.13
Final form of an anchoring device
(Reference: VSL International Ltd) Jacks The working of a jack and measuring the load were discussed in Section 1.3, Pretensioning Systems and Devices. The following figure shows an extruded sketch of the anchoring devices.
Figure 1-4.14
Jacking and anchoring with wedges
Couplers The couplers are used to connect strands or bars. They are located at the junction of the members, for example at or near columns in post-tensioned slabs, on piers in posttensioned bridge decks.
The couplers are tested to transmit the full capacity of the strands or bars. A few types of couplers are shown.
Figure 1-4.16
Couplers for strands
(Reference: Dywidag Systems International)
Figure 1-4.15
Coupler for strands
(Reference: VSL International Ltd) Figure 1-4.17 Couplers for strands
(Reference: Dywidag Systems International)
Grouting Grouting can be defined as the filling of duct, with a material that provides an anticorrosive alkaline environment to the prestressing steel and also a strong bond between the tendon and the surrounding grout.
The major part of grout comprises of water and cement, with a water-to-cement ratio of about 0.5, together with some water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolans. The properties of grout are discussed in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part-II). The following figure shows a grouting equipment, where the ingredients are mixed and the grout is pumped. (a) Fabrication of reinforcement
Figure 1-4.18
Grouting equipment (b) Placement of tendons
(Reference: Williams Form Engineering Corp.)
1.4.6 Manufacturing of Post-tensioned Bridge Girders

The following photographs show some steps in the manufacturing of a post-tensioned Igirder for a bridge (Courtesy: Larsen & Toubro). The first photo shows the fabricated steel reinforcement with the ducts for the tendons placed inside. Note the parabolic profiles of the duct for the simply supported girder. After the concrete is cast and cured to gain sufficient strength, the tendons are passed through the ducts, as shown in the second photo. The tendons are anchored at one end and stretched at the other end by a hydraulic jack. This can be observed from the third photo.
(c) Stretching and anchoring of tendons Figure 1-4.19 Manufacturing of a post-tensioned bridge I-girder (b) Formwork for box girder The following photos show the construction of post-tensioned box girders for a bridge (Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust). The first photo shows the fabricated steel reinforcement with the ducts for the tendons placed inside. The top flange will be constructed later. The second photo shows the formwork in the pre-casting yard. The formwork for the inner sides of the webs and the flanges is yet to be placed. In the third photo a girder is being post-tensioned after adequate curing. The next photo shows a crane on a barge that transports a girder to the bridge site. The completed bridge can be seen in the last photo.
(c) Post-tensioning of box girder
(a) Reinforcement cage for box girder
1.5 Concrete (Part I)

This section covers the following topics. Constituents of Concrete Properties of Hardened Concrete (Part I)
1.5.1 Constituents of Concrete

Introduction Concrete is a composite material composed of gravels or crushed stones (coarse aggregate), sand (fine aggregate) and hydrated cement (binder). It is expected that the student of this course is familiar with the basics of concrete technology. Only the information pertinent to prestressed concrete design is presented here. (d) Transporting of box girder The following figure shows a petrographic section of concrete. coarse aggregates and the matrix surrounding them. hydrated cement and tiny voids. Note the scattered The matrix consists of sand,
Figure 1-5.1 (e) Completed bridge Figure 1-4.20 Manufacturing of post-tensioned bridge box girders Aggregate
Petrographic section of hardened concrete
(Reference: Portland Cement Association, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures)
The coarse aggregate are granular materials obtained from rocks and crushed stones. They may be also obtained from synthetic material like slag, shale, fly ash and clay for use in light-weight concrete.
The sand obtained from river beds or quarries is used as fine aggregate. The fine aggregate along with the hydrated cement paste fill the space between the coarse aggregate.
Water The water should satisfy the requirements of Section 5.4 of IS:456 - 2000.
Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, The important properties of aggregate are as follows. 1) Shape and texture 2) Size gradation 3) Moisture content 4) Specific gravity 5) Unit weight 6) Durability and absence of deleterious materials. Admixtures IS:1343 - 1980 allows to use admixtures that conform to IS:9103 - 1999, Concrete Admixtures Specification. The admixtures can be broadly divided into two types: chemical admixtures and mineral admixtures. The common chemical admixtures are as follows. The requirements of aggregate is covered in Section 4.2 of IS:1343 - 1980. 1) Air-entraining admixtures 2) Water reducing admixtures The nominal maximum coarse aggregate size is limited by the lowest of the following quantities. 1) 1/4 times the minimum thickness of the member 2) Spacing between the tendons/strands minus 5 mm 3) 40 mm. The common mineral admixtures are as follows. The deleterious substances that should be limited in aggregate are clay lumps, wood, coal, chert, silt, rock dust (material finer than 75 microns), organic material, unsound and friable particles. 1) Fly ash 2) Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 3) Silica fumes 4) Rice husk ash Cement In present day concrete, cement is a mixture of lime stone and clay heated in a kiln to 1400 - 1600C. The types of cement permitted by IS:1343 - 1980 (Clause 4.1) for prestressed applications are the following. The information is revised as per IS:456 2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice. 1) Ordinary Portland cement confirming to IS:269 - 1989, Ordinary Portland Cement, 33 Grade Specification. 2) Portland slag cement confirming to IS:455 - 1989, Portland Slag Cement Specification, but with not more than 50% slag content. 3) Rapid-hardening Portland cement confirming to IS:8041 - 1990, Rapid Hardening Portland Cement Specification.
acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete and steel.
3) Set retarding admixtures 4) Set accelerating admixtures 5) Water reducing and set retarding admixtures 6) Water reducing and set accelerating admixtures.
5) Metakoline These are cementitious and pozzolanic materials.
1.5.2 Properties of Hardened Concrete (Part I)

The concrete in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes. 1) High strength with low water-to-cement ratio 2) Durability with low permeability, minimum cement content and proper mixing, compaction and curing
3) Minimum shrinkage and creep by limiting the cement content. The following topics are discussed. 1) Strength of concrete 2) Stiffness of concrete 3) Durability of concrete 4) High performance concrete 5) Allowable stresses in concrete. Strength of Concrete The following sections describe the properties with reference to IS:1343 - 1980. The strength of concrete is required to calculate the strength of the members. For
Frequency 1.65
fck fcm 5% area 28 day cube compressive strength

Figure 1-5.2 Idealised normal distribution of concrete strength (Reference: Pillai, S. U., and Menon, D., Reinforced Concrete Design)
prestressed concrete applications, high strength concrete is required for the following reasons. 1) To sustain the high stresses at anchorage regions. 2) To have higher resistance in compression, tension, shear and bond. 3) To have higher stiffness for reduced deflection. 4) To have reduced shrinkage cracks. The minimum grades of concrete for prestressed applications are as follows. Compressive Strength The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested at 28 days (fck). The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. This concept assumes a normal distribution of the strengths of the samples of concrete. The maximum grade of concrete is 60 MPa. 30 MPa for post-tensioned members 40 MPa for pre-tensioned members. The sampling and strength test of concrete are as per Section 15 of IS:1343 - 1980. The grades of concrete are explained in Table 1 of the Code.
Since at the time of publication of IS:1343 in 1980, the properties of higher strength concrete were not adequately documented, a limit was imposed on the maximum strength. It is expected that higher strength concrete may be used after proper testing.
The following sketch shows an idealised distribution of the values of compressive strength for a sizeable number of test cubes. The horizontal axis represents the values of compressive strength. The vertical axis represents the number of test samples for a particular compressive strength. This is also termed as frequency. The average of the values of compressive strength (mean strength) is represented as fcm. The characteristic strength (fck) is the value in the x-axis below which 5% of the total area under the curve falls. The value of fck is lower than fcm by 1.65, where is the standard deviation of the normal distribution.
The increase in strength with age as given in IS:1343 - 1980, is not observed in present day concrete that gains substantial strength in 28 days. Hence, the age factor given in Clause 5.2.1 should not be used. It has been removed from IS:456 - 2000.
Tensile Strength The tensile strength of concrete can be expressed as follows. 1) Flexural tensile strength: It is measured by testing beams under 2 point loading (also called 4 point loading including the reactions). 2) Splitting tensile strength: It is measured by testing cylinders under diametral compression.
3) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular specimens under direct tension.
The above expression is updated as per IS:456 - 2000.
Durability of Concrete In absence of test results, the Code recommends to use an estimate of the flexural tensile strength from the compressive strength by the following equation.
fcr = 0.7 fck
The durability of concrete is of vital importance regarding the life cycle cost of a structure. The life cycle cost includes not only the initial cost of the materials and labour,
(1-5.1)
but also the cost of maintenance and repair.
Here, fcr = flexural tensile strength in N/mm2 fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2. Stiffness of Concrete The stiffness of concrete is required to estimate the deflection of members. The The durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration. problems in concrete are as follows. IS:1343 - 1980 recommends a secant modulus at a stress level of about 0.3fck. The modulus is expressed in terms of the characteristic compressive strength and not the design compressive strength. The following figure shows the secant modulus in the compressive stress-strain curve for concrete. 1) Sulphate and other chemical attacks of concrete. 2) Alkali-aggregate reaction. 3) Freezing and thawing damage in cold regions. 4) Corrosion of steel bars or tendons. The common durability stiffness is given by the modulus of elasticity. For a non-linear stress (fc) versus strain (c) behaviour of concrete the modulus can be initial, tangential or secant modulus. In recent years emphasis has been laid on the durability issues of concrete. This is reflected in the enhanced section on durability (Section 8) in IS:456 - 2000. It is
expected that the revised version of IS:1343 will also have similar importance on durability.
fc
fc fck
The durability of concrete is intrinsically related to its water tightness or permeability. Hence, the concrete should have low permeability and there should be adequate cover to reinforcing bars. The selection of proper materials and good quality control are
Ec
Figure 1-5.3
essential for durability of concrete.
The durability is addressed in IS:1343 - 1980 in Section 7. In Appendix A there are guidelines on durability. Table 9 specifies the maximum water-to-cement (w-c) ratio and the minimum cement content for different exposure conditions. The values for moderate exposure condition are reproduced below.
a) Concrete cube under compression, b) Compressive stress-strain curve for concrete
The modulus of elasticity for short term loading (neglecting the effect of creep) is given by the following equation.
Ec = 5000 fck
Table 1-5.1
Maximum water-to-cement (w-c) ratio and the minimum cement content for moderate exposure conditions (IS:1343 - 1980). : 300 kg per m3 of concrete : 0.50
(1-5.2)
Min. cement content Max w-c ratio*
Here, Ec = short-term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm2 fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2.
(*The value is updated as per Table 5 of IS:456 - 2000.)
Table 10 provides the values for the above quantities for concrete exposed to sulphate attack.
To limit the creep and shrinkage, IS:1343 - 1980 specifies a maximum cement content of 530 kg per m3 of concrete (Clause 8.1.1).
High Performance Concrete With the advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete is getting popular in prestressed applications. The attributes of high performance concrete are as follows. 1) High strength 2) Minimum shrinkage and creep 3) High durability 4) Easy to cast 5) Cost effective. Traditionally high performance concrete implied high strength concrete with higher cement content and low water-to-cement ratio. But higher cement content leads to autogenous and plastic shrinkage cracking and thermal cracking. At present durability is also given importance along with strength. Allowable Compressive Stresses under Flexure The following sketch shows the variation of allowable compressive stresses for different grades of concrete at transfer. The cube strength at transfer is denoted as fci. Some special types of high performance concrete are as follows. 1) High strength concrete 2) High workability concrete 3) Self-compacting concrete 4) Reactive powder concrete 5) High volume fly ash concrete 6) Fibre reinforced concrete Figure 1-5.5 Allowable Stresses in Concrete The allowable stresses are used to analyse and design members under service loads. IS:1343 - 1980 specifies the maximum allowable compressive stresses for different grades of concrete under different loading conditions in Section 22.8. Figure 1-5.4 End-blocks in a bridge deck
0.54fci
0.37fci
0.51fci
0.44fci
M30 Post-tension
M60
M40
M60 Pre-tension
Variation of allowable compressive stresses at transfer
In a post-tensioned member, the concrete next to the anchorage blocks (referred to as end block) is subjected to high stress concentration. The type of concrete at the end blocks may be different from that at the rest of the member. Fibre reinforced concrete is used to check the cracking due to the bursting forces.
The following sketch shows the variation of allowable compressive stresses for different grades of concrete at service loads.
The following photo shows that the end blocks were cast separately with high strength concrete.
0.41fck 0.34fck M 30
Zone I Zone II
1.6 Concrete (Part II)

0.35fck 0.27fck M 60
This section covers the following topics. Properties of Hardened Concrete (Part II) Properties of Grout Codal Provisions of Concrete
Figure 1-5.6
Variation of allowable compressive stresses at service loads
Here, Zone I represents the locations where the compressive stresses are not likely to increase. Zone II represents the locations where the compressive stresses are likely to increase, such as due to transient loads from vehicles in bridge decks.
1.6.1 Properties of Hardened Concrete (Part II)

The properties that are discussed are as follows. 1) Stress-strain curves for concrete 2) Creep of concrete 3) Shrinkage of concrete
Allowable Compressive Stresses under Direct Compression For direct compression, except in the parts immediately behind the anchorage, the maximum stress is equal to 0.8 times the maximum compressive stress under flexure.
Stress-strain Curves for Concrete Allowable Tensile Stresses under Flexure The prestressed members are classified into three different types based on the allowable tensile stresses. The amount of prestressing varies in the three types. The allowable tensile stresses for the three types of members are specified in Section 22.7. The values are reproduced below. Table 1-5.2 Type 1 No tensile stress 3 N/mm2. Type 2 This value can be increased to 4.5 N/mm2 for temporary loads. Allowable tensile stresses (IS:1343 - 1980) IS:1343 - 1980 recommends a parabolic characteristic stress-strain curve, proposed by Hognestad, for concrete under uniaxial compression (Figure 3 in the Code). Curve under uniaxial compression The stress versus strain behaviour of concrete under uniaxial compression is initially linear (stress is proportional to strain) and elastic (strain is recovered at unloading). With the generation of micro-cracks, the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. After the specimen reaches the peak stress, the resisting stress decreases with increase in strain.
Type 3 Table 8 provides hypothetical values of allowable tensile stresses.
fc
fc fck
The purpose of providing hypothetical values is to use the elastic analysis method for Type 3 members even after cracking of concrete.
0
Figure 1-6.1
cu c
a) Concrete cube under compression, b) Design stress-strain curve for concrete under compression due to flexure
The equation for the design curve under compression due to flexure is as follows. For c 0
For high strength concrete (say M100 grade of concrete and above) under uniaxial compression, the ascending and descending branches are steep.
fck = fck 2 c - c 0 0
2
(1-6.1) For c < c cu (1-6.2)
fc fck
fc = fck Here, fc = compressive stress fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes c = compressive strain 0 = strain corresponding to fck = 0.002 cu = ultimate compressive strain = 0.0035
Es
Figure 1-6.3
Eci
0 c
Stress-strain curves for high strength concrete under compression
The equation proposed by Thorenfeldt, Tomaxzewicz and Jensen is appropriate for high For concrete under compression due to axial load, the ultimate strain is restricted to 0.002. From the characteristic curve, the design curve is defined by multiplying the stress with a size factor of 0.67 and dividing the stress by a material safety factor of m = 1.5. The design curve is used in the calculation of ultimate strength. The following sketch shows the two curves. fc = fck strength concrete. n c 0 nk n - 1+ c 0
(1-6.4)
fc fck
0.447 fck Characteristic curve Design curve
The variables in the previous equation are as follows. fc c 0 k n = compressive stress = compressive strain = strain corresponding to fck = 1 for c 0 = 0.67 + (fck / 77.5) for c > 0. The value of k should be greater than 1. = Eci / (Eci Es) Eci = initial modulus Es = secant modulus at fck = fck / 0. (1-6.3) The previous equation is applicable for both the ascending and descending branches of the curve. Also, the parameter k models the slope of the descending branch, which increases with the characteristic strength fck. To be precise, the value of 0 can be considered to vary with the compressive strength of concrete. fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2
0
Figure 1-6.2
cu
Stress-strain curves for concrete under compression due to flexure
In the calculation of deflection at service loads, a linear stress-strain curve is assumed up to the allowable stress. This curve is given by the following equation. fc = Ecc
Note that, the size factor and the material safety factor are not used in the elastic modulus Ec.
Curve under uniaxial tension The stress versus strain behaviour of concrete under uniaxial tension is linear elastic initially. Close to cracking nonlinear behaviour is observed.
fc
Fast loading Slow loading Effect of creep c
fc
fc
Figure 1-6.5
Stress-strain curves for concrete under compression
c
(a) Figure 1-6.4 under tension In calculation of deflections of flexural members at service loads, the nonlinearity is neglected and a linear elastic behaviour fc = Ecc is assumed. In the analysis of ultimate strength, the tensile strength of concrete is usually neglected. (b)
Creep is quantified in terms of the strain that occurs in addition to the elastic strain due to the applied loads. If the applied loads are close to the service loads, the creep strain increases at a decreasing rate with time. The ultimate creep strain is found to be proportional to the elastic strain. The ratio of the ultimate creep strain to the elastic strain is called the creep coefficient . For stress in concrete less than about one-third of the characteristic strength, the ultimate creep strain is given as follows.
a) Concrete panel under tension, b) Stress-strain curve for concrete
cr,ult = el
(1-6.5)
Creep of Concrete Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant load. Due to the creep of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time. Hence, the study of creep is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress. The creep occurs due to two causes. 1. Rearrangement of hydrated cement paste (especially the layered products) 2. Expulsion of water from voids under load
The variation of strain with time, under constant axial compressive stress, is represented in the following figure.
strain
cr, ult = ultimate creep strain el = elastic strain Time (linear scale)
Figure 1-6.6 If a concrete specimen is subjected to slow compressive loading, the stress versus strain curve is elongated along the strain axis as compared to the curve for fast loading. This can be explained in terms of creep. If the load is sustained at a level, the increase in strain due to creep will lead to a shift from the fast loading curve to the slow loading curve (Figure 1-6.5).
Variation of strain with time for concrete under compression
If the load is removed, the elastic strain is immediately recovered. However the recovered elastic strain is less than the initial elastic strain, as the elastic modulus increases with age. There is reduction of strain due to creep recovery which is less than the creep strain. There is some residual strain which cannot be recovered (Figure 1-6.7).
It can be observed that if the structure is loaded at 7 days, the creep coefficient is 2.2.
Elastic recovery Creep recovery Unloading Residual strain
This means that the creep strain is 2.2 times the elastic strain. Thus, the total strain is more than thrice the elastic strain. Hence, it is necessary to study the effect of creep in the loss of prestress and deflection of prestressed flexural members. prestress and higher deflection. Curing the concrete adequately and delaying the application of load provide long term benefits with regards to durability, loss of prestress and deflection. In special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor creep strain with time. Specialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such calculations. Even if the structure is loaded at 28 days, the creep strain is substantial. This implies higher loss of
strain
Time (linear scale)
Figure 1-6.7
Variation of strain with time showing the effect of unloading
The creep strain depends on several factors. It increases with the increase in the following variables. 1) Cement content (cement paste to aggregate ratio) 2) Water-to-cement ratio 3) Air entrainment 4) Ambient temperature. The creep strain decreases with the increase in the following variables. 1) Age of concrete at the time of loading. 2) Relative humidity 3) Volume to surface area ratio. The creep strain also depends on the type of aggregate. IS:1343 - 1980 gives guidelines to estimate the ultimate creep strain in Section 5.2.5. It is a simplified estimate where only one factor has been considered. The factor is age of loading of the prestressed concrete structure. The creep coefficient is provided for three values of age of loading. Table 1-6.1 Creep coefficient for three values of age of loading Age of Loading 7 days 28 days 1 year Creep Coefficient 2.2 1.6 1.1
Shrinkage of Concrete Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. The study of shrinkage is also important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress. The shrinkage occurs due to two causes. 1. Loss of water from voids 2. Reduction of volume during carbonation The following figure shows the variation of shrinkage strain with time. Here, t0 is the time at commencement of drying. The shrinkage strain increases at a decreasing rate with time. The ultimate shrinkage strain (sh) is estimated to calculate the loss in prestress.
Shrinkage strain
sh
t0
Time (linear scale)
Figure 1-6.8
Variation of shrinkage strain with time
Like creep, shrinkage also depends on several factors. The shrinkage strain increases with the increase in the following variables. 1) Ambient temperature 2) Temperature gradient in the members 3) Water-to-cement ratio 4) Cement content.
1.6.2 Properties of Grout

Grout is a mixture of water, cement and optional materials like sand, water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolans. The water-to-cement ratio is around 0.5. Fine sand is used to avoid segregation. The desirable properties of grout are as follows.
The shrinkage strain decreases with the increase in the following variables. 1) Age of concrete at commencement of drying 2) Relative humidity 3) Volume to surface area ratio. The shrinkage strain also depends on the type of aggregate. IS:1343 - 1980 gives guidelines to estimate the shrinkage strain in Section 5.2.4. It is a simplified estimate of the ultimate shrinkage strain (sh). For pre-tension sh = 0.0003 For post-tension
sh = 0.0002 log10 (t + 2 )
1) Fluidity 2) Minimum bleeding and segregation 3) Low shrinkage 4) Adequate strength after hardening 5) No detrimental compounds 6) Durable. IS:1343 - 1980 specifies the properties of grout in Sections 12.3.1 and Section 12.3.2. The following specifications are important. (1-6.6) 1) The sand should pass 150 m Indian Standard sieve. 2) The compressive strength of 100 mm cubes of the grout shall not be less than 17 (1-6.7) N/mm2 at 7 days.
Here, t is the age at transfer in days. Note that for post-tension, t is the age at transfer in days which approximates the curing time. It can be observed that with increasing age at transfer, the shrinkage strain reduces. As mentioned before, curing the concrete adequately and delaying the application of load provide long term benefits with regards to durability and loss of prestress. In special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor shrinkage strain with time. Specialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such calculations.
1.7 Prestressing Steel

1.6.5 Codal Provisions of Concrete
The following topics are covered in IS:1343 - 1980 under the respective sections. These provisions are not duplicated here. Table 1-6.2 Workability of concrete Concrete mix proportioning Production and control of concrete Formwork Transporting, placing, compacting Concrete under special conditions Sampling and strength test of concrete Acceptance criteria Inspection and testing of structures Topics and sections Section 6 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 13 Section 14 Section 15 Section 16 Section 17 The development of prestressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength steel. It is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional materials. The following material describes the types and properties of prestressing steel. This section covers the following topics. Forms of Prestressing Steel Types of Prestressing Steel Properties of Prestressing Steel Codal Provisions of Steel
1.7.1 Forms of Prestressing Steel
In addition to prestressing steel, conventional non-prestressed reinforcement is used for flexural capacity (optional), shear capacity, temperature and shrinkage requirements. The properties of steel for non-prestressed reinforcement are not covered in this section. It is expected that the student of this course is familiar with the conventional reinforcement.
Wires A prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows. 1) Plain wire: No indentations on the surface. 2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.
Strands A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a prestressing strand. The different types of strands are as follows. 1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand. 2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand. 3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central wire is larger than the other wires.
Tendons A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are used in post-tensioned members. The following figure shows the cross section of a typical tendon. The strands are placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed (Figure 1-7.1).
1.7.2 Types of Prestressing Steel

The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the treatment processes.
Grout Duct
Cold working (cold drawing) The cold working is done by rolling the bars through a series of dyes. It re-aligns the crystals and increases the strength.
Stress relieving Figure 1-7.1 Cross-section of a typical tendon The stress relieving is done by heating the strand to about 350 C and cooling slowly. This reduces the plastic deformation of the steel after the onset of yielding. Cables A group of tendons form a prestressing cable. The cables are used in bridges. Strain tempering for low relaxation This process is done by heating the strand to about 350 C while it is under tension. Bars A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm. IS:1343 - 1980 specifies the material properties of steel in Section 4.5. The following The following figure shows the different forms of prestressing steel. types of steel are allowed. 1) Plain cold drawn stress relieved wire conforming to IS:1785, Part 1, Specification for Plain Hard Drawn Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete, Part I Cold Drawn Stress Relieved Wire. 2) Plain as-drawn wire conforming to IS:1785, Part 2, Specification for Plain Hard Drawn Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete, Part II As Drawn Wire. 3) Indented cold drawn wire conforming to IS:6003, Specification for Indented Wire for Prestressed Concrete. 4) High tensile steel bar conforming to IS:2090, Specification for High Tensile Steel Bars used in Prestressed Concrete. 5) Uncoated stress relieved strand conforming to IS:6006. Specification for Uncoated Stress Relieved Strand for Prestressed Concrete. This also improves the stress-strain behaviour of the steel by reducing the plastic deformation after the onset of yielding. In addition, the relaxation is reduced. The relaxation is described later.
Reinforcing bars
Prestressing wires, strands and bars
Figure 1-7.2
Forms of reinforcing and prestressing steel
1.7.3 Properties of Prestressing Steel

The steel in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes. 1) High strength 2) Adequate ductility 3) Bendability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage 4) High bond, required for pre-tensioned members 5) Low relaxation to reduce losses 6) Minimum corrosion. Figure 1-7.3 (b) Failure of a strand Testing of tensile strength of prestressing strand
Strength of Prestressing Steel The tensile strength of prestressing steel is given in terms of the characteristic tensile strength (fpk). The characteristic strength is defined as the ultimate tensile strength of the coupon specimens below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.
The minimum tensile strengths for different types of wires as specified by the codes are reproduced. Table 1-7.1 Cold Drawn Stress-Relieved Wires (IS: 1785 Part 1) 2.50 2010 3.00 1865 4.00 1715 5.00 1570 7.00 1470 8.00 1375
Nominal Diameter (mm) Minimum Tensile Strength fpk (N/mm2)
The ultimate tensile strength of a coupon specimen is determined by a testing machine according to IS:1521 - 1972, Method for Tensile Testing of Steel Wire. The following figure shows a test setup.
Wedge grips
The proof stress (defined later) should not be less than 85% of the specified tensile strength. Table 1-7.2 As-Drawn wire (IS: 1785 Part 2) 3.00 1765 4.00 1715 5.00 1570
The proof stress should not be less than 75% of the specified tensile strength.
Coupon specimen Extensometer
Table 1-7.3
Indented wire (IS: 6003) 3.00 1865 4.00 1715 5.00 1570
The proof stress should not be less than 85% of the specified tensile strength. For high tensile steel bars (IS: 2090), the minimum tensile strength is 980 N/mm2. The proof stress should not be less than 80% of the specified tensile strength.
(a) Test set-up
Stiffness of Prestressing Steel The stiffness of prestressing steel is given by the initial modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity depends on the form of prestressing steel (wires or strands or bars).
Proof stress
fp
IS:1343 - 1980 provides the following guidelines which can be used in absence of test data. Table 1-7.4 Modulus of elasticity (IS: 1343 - 1980) Modulus of elasticity 210 kN/mm2 200 kN/mm2 195 kN/mm2 Figure 1-7.4 Type of steel Cold-drawn wires High tensile steel bars Strands
0.002
Proof stress corresponds to inelastic strain of 0.002
The characteristic stress-strain curves are given in Figure 5 of IS:1343 - 1980. The stress corresponding to a strain can be found out by using these curves as shown next.
fp
0.95fpk 0.9fpk
fp
0.95fpk 0.85fpk
Allowable Stress in Prestressing Steel As per Clause 18.5.1, the maximum tensile stress during prestressing (fpi) shall not exceed 80% of the characteristic strength.
fpi 0.8fpk
(1-7.1)
0.002
0.005
0.002
0.005
There is no upper limit for the stress at transfer (after short term losses) or for the effective prestress (after long term losses).
Stress relieved wires, strands and bars
As-drawn wires
Figure 1-7.5
Characteristic stress-strain curves for prestressing steel (Figure 5, IS:1343 - 1980)
Stress-Strain Curves for Prestressing Steel The stress versus strain behaviour of prestressing steel under uniaxial tension is initially linear (stress is proportional to strain) and elastic (strain is recovered at unloading). The stress-strain curves are influenced by the treatment processes. The following figure shows the variation in the 0.2% proof stress for wires under different treatment processes. Beyond about 70% of the ultimate strength the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. There is no defined yield point.
fp
low relaxation stress relieved as-drawn
The yield point is defined in terms of the proof stress or a specified yield strain. IS:1343 - 1980 recommends the yield point at 0.2% proof stress. This stress corresponds to an inelastic strain of 0.002. This is shown in the following figure. Figure 1-7.6
p
Variation in the 0.2% proof stress for wires under different treatment processes
The design stress-strain curves are calculated by dividing the stress beyond 0.8fpk by a material safety factor m =1.15. The following figure shows the characteristic and design stress-strain curves.
100
fp
fp
Characteristic curve 0.8fpk Design curve
90 80 70 60
fpi
f pi = 0.6 f py 0.7
0.8 0.9
50 10
Figure 1-7.9
100
1000 10,000 100,000 Time (hours)
Variation of stress with time for different levels of prestressing
Figure 1-7.7
Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for prestressing steel
It can be observed that there is significant relaxation loss when the applied stress is more than 70% of the yield stress.
Relaxation of Steel Relaxation of steel is defined as the decrease in stress with time under constant strain. Due to the relaxation of steel, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time. Hence, the study of relaxation is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.
The following photos show the test set-up for relaxation test.
The relaxation depends on the type of steel, initial prestress and the temperature. The following figure shows the effect of relaxation due to different types of loading conditions.
Specimen
fp
Fast loading Effect of relaxation With sustained loading
Load cell
(a) Test of a single wire strand

p
Figure 1-7.8
Effect of relaxation due to different types of loading conditions
The following figure shows the variation of stress with time for different levels of prestressing. Here, the instantaneous stress (fp) is normalised with respect to the initial prestressing (fpi) in the ordinate. The curves are for different values of fpi/fpy, where fpy is the yield stress.
In prestressed applications, the fatigue is negligible in members that do not crack under service loads. If a member cracks, fatigue may be a concern due to high stress in the steel at the location of cracks. Specimens are tested under 2 x 106 cycles of load to observe the fatigue. For steel, fatigue tests are conducted to develop the stress versus number of cycles for failure (SN) diagram. Under a limiting value of stress, the specimen can withstand infinite number of cycles. This limit is known as the endurance limit.
Specimen
The prestressed member is designed such that the stress in the steel due to service loads remains under the endurance limit. fatigue testing of strands. (b) Test of a seven-wire strand Figure 1-7.10 Set-up for relaxation test The following photo shows a set-up for
The upper limits of relaxation loss are specified as follows. Table 1-7.5 Relaxation losses at 1000 hours (IS:1785, IS:6003, IS:6006, IS:2090) 5% of initial prestress 5% of initial prestress 5% of initial prestress 49 N/mm2
Cold drawn stress-relieved wires Indented wires Stress-relieved strand Bars
In absence of test data, IS:1343 - 1980 recommends the following estimates of relaxation losses. Table 1-7.6 Relaxation losses at 1000 hours at 27C Relaxation Loss (N/mm2) 0 35 70 90 For bonded tendons, the alkaline environment of the grout provides adequate protection. Fatigue Under repeated dynamic loads the strength of a member may reduce with the number of cycles of applied load. The reduction in strength is referred to as fatigue. For unbonded tendons, corrosion protection is provided by one or more of the following methods. Durability Prestressing steel is susceptible to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement in aggressive environments. Hence, prestressing steel needs to be adequately protected. Figure 1-7.11 Set-up for fatigue testing of strands
Initial Stress 0.5fpk 0.6fpk 0.7fpk 0.8fpk
1) Epoxy coating 2) Mastic wrap (grease impregnated tape) 3) Galvanized bars 4) Encasing in tubes.
2.1 Losses in Prestress (Part I)

This section covers the following topics.

Introduction Elastic Shortening
The relevant notations are explained first.
1.7.4 Codal Provisions of Steel

Notations The following topics are covered in IS:1343 - 1980 under the respective sections. These provisions are not duplicated here. Table 1-7.7 Topics and sections Section 11 Section 12 Ap A Geometric Properties The commonly used geometric properties of a prestressed member are defined as follows. Ac = Area of concrete section = Net cross-sectional area of concrete excluding the area of prestressing steel. = Area of prestressing steel = Total cross-sectional area of the tendons. = Area of prestressed member = Gross cross-sectional area of prestressed member. = Ac + Ap At = Transformed area of prestressed member = Area of the member when steel is substituted by an equivalent area of concrete. = Ac + mAp = A + (m 1)Ap Here, m = the modular ratio = Ep/Ec Ec = short-term elastic modulus of concrete Ep = elastic modulus of steel. The following figure shows the commonly used areas of the prestressed members.
Assembly of prestressing and reinforcing steel Prestressing
P0
= Prestressing force after immediate losses = The reduced value of prestressing force after elastic shortening, anchorage slip and loss due to friction.
Pe
= Effective prestressing force after time-dependent losses = The final value of prestressing force after the occurrence of creep, shrinkage and relaxation.
A
Figure 2-1.1
Ac
Ap
At
Areas for prestressed members
CGC = Centroid of concrete = Centroid of the gross section. The CGC may lie outside the concrete (Figure 2-1.2). CGS = Centroid of prestressing steel = Centroid of the tendons. The CGS may lie outside the tendons or the concrete (Figure 2-1.2). I It = Moment of inertia of prestressed member = Second moment of area of the gross section about the CGC. = Moment of inertia of transformed section = Second moment of area of the transformed section about the centroid of the transformed section. e = Eccentricity of CGS with respect to CGC = Vertical distance between CGC and CGS. If CGS lies below CGC, e will be considered positive and vice versa (Figure 2-1.2).
2.1.1 Introduction
In prestressed concrete applications, the most important variable is the prestressing force. In the early days, it was observed that the prestressing force does not stay constant, but reduces with time. Even during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member, there is a drop of the prestressing force from the recorded value in the jack gauge. The various reductions of the prestressing force are termed as the losses in prestress. The losses are broadly classified into two groups, immediate and time-dependent. The immediate losses occur during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member. The time-dependent losses occur during the service life of the prestressed member. The losses due to elastic shortening of the member, friction at the tendon-concrete interface and slip of the anchorage are the immediate losses. The losses due to the shrinkage and creep of the concrete and relaxation of the steel are the time-dependent losses. The causes of the various losses in prestress are shown in the following chart.
CGC CGS
Losses
CGC CGS
Immediate
Time dependent
Figure 2-1.2 Load Variables Pi
CGC, CGS and eccentricity of typical prestressed members
Elastic shortening
Friction
Anchorage slip
Creep
Shrinkage
Relaxation
Figure 2-1.3
Causes of the various losses in prestress
= Initial prestressing force = The force which is applied to the tendons by the jack.
2.1.2 Elastic Shortening

Pre-tensioned Members When the tendons are cut and the prestressing force is transferred to the member, the concrete undergoes immediate shortening due to the prestress. shortens by the same amount, which leads to the The tendon also of prestress. loss
Post-tensioned Bending Members
Pre-tensioned Axial Members The following figure shows the changes in length and the prestressing force due to elastic shortening of a pre-tensioned axial member.
Original length of member at transfer of prestress
Post-tensioned Members If there is only one tendon, there is no loss because the applied prestress is recorded after the elastic shortening of the member. For more than one tendon, if the tendons are stretched sequentially, there is loss in a tendon during subsequent stretching of the other tendons. The elastic shortening loss is quantified by the drop in prestress (fp) in a tendon due to the change in strain in the tendon (p). It is assumed that the change in strain in the tendon is equal to the strain in concrete (c) at the level of the tendon due to the prestressing force. This assumption is called strain compatibility between concrete and steel. The strain in concrete at the level of the tendon is calculated from the stress in concrete (fc) at the same level due to the prestressing force. relationship is used to calculate the strain from the stress. The quantification of the losses is explained below. A linear elastic
Pi
Length after elastic shortening
P0
Elastic shortening of a pre-tensioned axial member
Figure 2-1.4
The loss can be calculated as per Eqn. (2-1.1) by expressing the stress in concrete in terms of the prestressing force and area of the section as follows.
fp = mfc P = m 0 Ac P Pi f p = m i m A At
(2-1.2)
fp = Ep p = Epc f = Ep c Ec fp = mfc
Note that the stress in concrete due to the prestressing force after immediate losses (P0/Ac) can be equated to the stress in the transformed section due to the initial prestress (Pi /At). (2-1.1) This is derived below. Further, the transformed area At of the prestressed member can be approximated to the gross area A. The following figure shows that the strain in concrete due to elastic shortening (c) is the difference between the initial strain in steel (pi) and the residual strain in steel (p0).
For simplicity, the loss in all the tendons can be calculated based on the stress in concrete at the level of CGS. This simplification cannot be used when tendons are stretched sequentially in a post-tensioned member. The calculation is illustrated for the following types of members separately. Pre-tensioned Axial Members Pre-tensioned Bending Members Post-tensioned Axial Members
Length of tendon before stretching pi
The following problem illustrates the calculation of loss due to elastic shortening in an idealised pre-tensioned railway sleeper.
Pi
Example 2-1.1
p 0
P0
Strain variables in elastic shortening
A prestressed concrete sleeper produced by pre-tensioning method has a rectangular cross-section of 300mm 250 mm (b h). It is prestressed with 9 numbers of straight 7mm diameter wires at 0.8 times the ultimate strength of 1570 N/mm2.
Figure 2-1.5
Estimate the percentage loss of stress due to elastic shortening of
concrete. Consider m = 6. The following equation relates the strain variables. c = pi - p0 The strains can be expressed in terms of the prestressing forces as follows. (2-1.3)
250 40
c =
pi = p0 =
P0 Ac Ec
Pi Ap E p P0 Ap E p
(2-1.4)
300
40
(2-1.5)
Solution
(2-1.6)
a) Approximate solution considering gross section The sectional properties are calculated as follows. Area of a single wire,
Aw = /4 72
Substituting the expressions of the strains in Eqn. (2-1.3)
P0 P P = i - 0 Ac Ec Ap E p Ap E p or , or, or, 1 Pi 1 P0 + = Ac Ec Ap E p Ap E p m 1 P0 + Ac Ap P0 Pi = Ac mAp + Ac = Pi Ap
= 38.48 mm2 Area of total prestressing steel,

Ap
= 9 38.48 = 346.32 mm2
Area of concrete section,

(2-1.7)
= 300 250 = 75 103 mm2
or
P0 Pi = Ac At
Moment of inertia of section, Thus, the stress in concrete due to the prestressing force after immediate losses (P0/Ac) can be equated to the stress in the transformed section due to the initial prestress (Pi /At).
= 300 2503/12 = 3.91 108 mm4
Distance of centroid of steel area (CGS) from the soffit,
y=
4 38.48 ( 250 - 40 ) + 5 38.48 40 938.48 = 115.5 mm
Stress at level of bottom wires (y = yb = 125 40),

P P .e ( fc )b = - i - i y b =A I 435103 435103 9.5 (125 - 40 ) 75103 3.91108 = -5.8 - 0.9
115.5
= -6.7 N/mm2
Loss of prestress in top wires Prestressing force,

Pi = 0.8 1570 346.32 N
= mfcAp = 6 4.9 (4 38.48) = 4525.25 N
(in terms of force)
= 435 kN Eccentricity of prestressing force,

e
Loss of prestress in bottom wires = 6 6.7 (5 38.48) = (250/2) 115.5 = 9.5 mm Total loss of prestress = 4525 + 7735 = 12259.73 N 12.3 kN
+ =
= 7734.48 N
The stress diagrams due to Pi are shown.
Percentage loss
Pi Pi .e y A I
= (12.3 / 435) 100% = 2.83%
Pi A
Pi .e y I
b) Accurate solution considering transformed section. Transformed area of top steel,

A1 = (6 1) 4 38.48
Since the wires are distributed above and below the CGC, the losses are calculated for the top and bottom wires separately. Stress at level of top wires (y = yt = 125 40)
= 769.6 mm2 Transformed area of bottom steel,

A2 = (6 1) 5 38.48
( fc )t
P P .e = - i + i yt A I 435103 435 103 9.5 =+ (125 - 40 ) 75103 3.91108 = -5.8 + 0.9 = -4.9 N/mm2
= 962.0 mm2 Total area of transformed section,

AT = A + A1 + A2
= 75000.0 + 769.6 + 962.0 = 76731.6 mm2
Centroid of the section (CGC)

y= A 125 + A1 (250 - 40) + A2 40 A
It can be observed that the accurate and approximate solutions are close. Hence, the simpler calculations based on A and I is acceptable.
= 124.8 mm from soffit of beam Moment of inertia of transformed section,

IT = Ig + A(0.2)2 + A1(210 124.8)2 + A2(124.8 40)2
Pre-tensioned Bending Members
The following figure shows the changes in length and the prestressing force due to elastic shortening of a pre-tensioned bending member.
= 4.02 108mm4 Eccentricity of prestressing force,

e = 124.8 115.5
Pi
wsw (self-weight)
= 9.3 mm
Stress at the level of bottom wires,
(fc)b = -
435 103 (435 103 9.3)84.8 76.73 103 4.02108 = -5.67 - 0.85 = -6.52 N/mm2
Figure 2-1.6
Elastic shortening of a pre-tensioned bending member
Due to the effect of self-weight, the stress in concrete varies along length (Figure 2-1.6). The loss can be calculated by Eqn. (2-1.1) with a suitable evaluation of the stress in concrete. To have a conservative estimate of the loss, the maximum stress at the level of CGS at the mid-span is considered.
M e Pi Pe.e - i + sw A I I
Stress at the level of top wires,
435 103 (435 103 9.3)85.2 + (fc)t = 76.73 103 4.02108 = -5.67 + 0.86 = -4.81N/mm2
Loss of prestress in top wires = 6 4.81 (4 38.48) = 4442 N Loss of prestress in bottom wires = 6 6.52 (5 38.48) = 7527 N Total loss = 4442 + 7527 = 11969 N 12 kN Percentage loss = (12 / 435) 100% = 2.75 %
fc = -
(2-1.8)
Here, Msw is the moment at mid-span due to self-weight. Precise result using At and It in place of A and I, respectively, is not computationally warranted. expression, the eccentricity of the CGS (e) was assumed to be constant. For a large member, the calculation of the loss can be refined by evaluating the strain in concrete at the level of the CGS accurately from the definition of strain. This is demonstrated later for post-tensioned bending members. In the above
Post-tensioned Axial Members
For more than one tendon, if the tendons are stretched sequentially, there is loss in a tendon during subsequent stretching of the other tendons. The loss in each tendon can
be calculated in progressive sequence. calculate the losses.
Else, an approximation can be used to
Here, c is the strain at the level of Tendon A. The component of c due to pure compression is represented as c1. The component of c due to bending is represented as c2. The two components are calculated as follows.
The loss in the first tendon is evaluated precisely and half of that value is used as an average loss for all the tendons.
f p = 1 f p 1 2 1 = mfc1 2 1 n P = m i,j 2 j=2 A
c 1 = c 2 = PB AEc
(2-1.9)
L L 1 L P .e (x).eA (x) = B B dx L0 IEc = PB L eB (x).eA (x) dx Ec LI 0
(2-1.12)
Here,
Pi,j = initial prestressing force in tendon j n = number of tendons
Here, A PB Ec
Post-tensioned Bending Members
= cross-sectional area of beam = prestressing force in Tendon B = modulus of concrete = length of beam from left end
The eccentricity of individual tendon is neglected.
The calculation of loss for tendons stretched sequentially, is similar to post-tensioned axial members. For curved profiles, the eccentricity of the CGS and hence, the stress in concrete at the level of CGS vary along the length. An average stress in concrete can be considered. For a parabolic tendon, the average stress (fc,avg) is given by the following equation.
fc,avg = fc1 + Here, fc1 = stress in concrete at the end of the member fc2 = stress in concrete at the mid-span of the member. A more rigorous analysis of the loss can be done by evaluating the strain in concrete at the level of the CGS accurately from the definition of strain. This is demonstrated for a beam with two parabolic tendons post-tensioned sequentially. In Figure 2-1.7, Tendon B is stretched after Tendon A. The loss in Tendon A due to elastic shortening during tensioning of Tendon B is given as follows. 2 ( fc 2 - fc1 ) 3
(2-1.10)
eA(x), eB(x) = eccentricities of Tendons A and B, respectively, at distance x I L = moment of inertia of beam = change in length of beam
The variations of the eccentricities of the tendons can be expressed as follows.

x x eA (x) = eA1 + 4 eA 1 L L x x eB (x) = eB1 + 4 eB 1 L L
(2-1.13)
(2-1.14)
Where , eA = eA 2 eA1 eB = eB 2 eB1
eA1, eA2 = eccentricities of Tendon A at 1 (end) and 2 (centre), respectively. eB1, eB2 = eccentricities of Tendon B at 1 and 2, respectively.
f p = E p c = E p [c 1 + c 2 ]
(2-1.11)
Substituting the expressions of the eccentricities in Eqn. (2-1.12), the second component of the strain is given as follows. PB 1 2 8 = eA1eB1 + ( eA1eB 2 + eA2eB1 ) + eA2eB 2 Ec I 5 15 15
2.2 Losses in Prestress (Part II)

This section covers the following topics
Friction Anchorage Slip Force Variation Diagram
(2-1.15)
2.2.1 Friction
The friction generated at the interface of concrete and steel during the stretching of a curved tendon in a post-tensioned member, leads to a drop in the prestress along the member from the stretching end. The loss due to friction does not occur in pretensioned members because there is no concrete during the stretching of the tendons. The friction is generated due to the curvature of the tendon and the vertical component of the prestressing force. The following figure shows a typical profile (laying pattern) of the tendon in a continuous beam.
Figure 2-2.1
A typical continuous post-tensioned member
(Reference: VSL International Ltd.) In addition to friction, the stretching has to overcome the wobble of the tendon. The wobble refers to the change in position of the tendon along the duct. The losses due to friction and wobble are grouped together under friction. The formulation of the loss due to friction is similar to the problem of belt friction. The sketch below (Figure 2-2.2) shows the forces acting on the tendon of infinitesimal length dx.
The wobble in the tendon is effected by the following variables.
d
R
Rigidity of sheathing Diameter of sheathing Spacing of sheath supports Type of tendon Type of construction
N N P + dP
P d/2 P + dP
P
Figure 2-2.2 In the above sketch,
Force triangle
dx
Force acting in a tendon of infinitesimal length
The friction due to wobble is assumed to be proportional to the following.

Length of the tendon Prestressing force
P = prestressing force at a distance x from the stretching end R = radius of curvature d = subtended angle.
For a tendon of length dx, the friction due to wobble is expressed as kPdx, where k is the wobble coefficient or coefficient for wave effect. Based on the equilibrium of forces in the tendon for the horizontal direction, the
The derivation of the expression of P is based on a circular profile. Although a cable profile is parabolic based on the bending moment diagram, the error induced is insignificant. The friction is proportional to the following variables.

following equation can be written. P = P + dP + (Pd + kPdx) or, dP = (Pd + kPdx)

(2-2.2)
Thus, the total drop in prestress (dP) over length dx is equal to (Pd + kPdx). The above differential equation can be solved to express P in terms of x.
Px P0
Coefficient of friction () between concrete and steel. The resultant of the vertical reaction from the concrete on the tendon (N) generated due to curvature.
x dP = - d + k dx P 0 0 Px
0
From the equilibrium of forces in the force triangle, N is given as follows.

d N = 2Psin 2 d 2P = Pd 2
or, lnP P = - ( + kx ) P or, ln x = - ( + kx ) P0 or,

(2-2.1)
Px = P0e -( +kx )
(2-2.3)
Here, P0 = the prestress at the stretching end after any loss due to elastic shortening. For small values of + kx, the above expression can be simplified by the Taylor series expansion. Px = P0 (1 kx)
The friction over the length dx is equal to N = Pd. Thus the friction (dP) depends on the following variables.

(2-2.4)
Coefficient of friction () Curvature of the tendon (d) The amount of prestressing force (P)
Thus, for a tendon with single curvature, the variation of the prestressing force is linear with the distance from the stretching end. The following figure shows the variation of
prestressing force after stretching. The left side is the stretching end and the right side is the anchored end.
CL 50 50 Cable A Cable B Cable C CGC
P0
Figure 2-2.3
Px
Variation of prestressing force after stretching
Solution
Prestress in each tendon at stretching end = 1200 200 = 240 kN. To know the value of (L), the equation for a parabolic profile is required.
In the absence of test data, IS:1343 - 1980 provides guidelines for the values of and k.
Table 2-2.1
Values of coefficient of friction 0.55. 0.30. 0.25.
Type of interface For steel moving on smooth concrete For steel moving on steel fixed to duct For steel moving on lead
dy 4ym = (L - 2 x ) dx L2
L ym y
Here, ym = displacement of the CGS at the centre of the beam from the ends L = length of the beam = distance from the stretching end = displacement of the CGS at distance x from the ends. x y
The value of k varies from 0.0015 to 0.0050 per meter length of the tendon depending on the type of tendon. The following problem illustrates the calculation of the loss due to friction in a post-tensioned beam.
(L)
Example 2-2.1
A post-tensioned beam 100 mm 300 mm (b h) spanning over 10 m is stressed by successive tensioning and anchoring of 3 cables A, B, and C respectively as shown in figure. Each cable has cross section area of 200 mm2 and has initial stress of 1200 MPa. If the cables are tensioned from one end, estimate the percentage loss in each cable due to friction at the anchored end. Assume = 0.35, k = 0.0015 / m.
An expression of (x) can be derived from the change in slope of the profile. The slope of the profile is given as follows.
dy 4ym = (L - 2 x ) dx L2 At x = 0, the slope dy/dx = 4ym/L. The change in slope (x) is proportional to x. The expression of (x) can be written in terms of x as (x) = .x, where, = 8ym/L2. The variation is shown in the following sketch.
8ym/L 4ym/L 0
Cable A Cable B Cable C
CL CGC
L/2
The total subtended angle over the length L is 8ym/L. The prestressing force Px at a distance x is given by Px = P0e( + kx) = P0ex where, x = + kx The loss due to friction can be considerable for long tendons in continuous beams with For cable A, ym = 0.1 m. For cable B, ym = 0.05 m. For cable C, ym = 0.0 m. For all the cables, L = 10 m. Substituting the values of ym and L
0.0043x for cable A x = 0.0029x for cable B 0.0015x for cable C
240 kN
Variation of prestressing forces
changes in curvature. The drop in the prestress is higher around the intermediate supports where the curvature is high. The remedy to reduce the loss is to apply the stretching force from both ends of the member in stages.
2-2.2 Anchorage Slip

In a post-tensioned member, when the prestress is transferred to the concrete, the wedges slip through a little distance before they get properly seated in the conical space. The anchorage block also moves before it settles on the concrete. There is loss of prestress due to the consequent reduction in the length of the tendon. The total anchorage slip depends on the type of anchorage system. In absence of manufacturers data, the following typical values for some systems can be used.
Table 2-2.2
The maximum loss for all the cables is at x = L = 10, the anchored end.
0.958 for cable A = 0.971 for cable B 0.985 for cable C
L
-L
Typical values of anchorage slip Anchorage Slip (s) 4 mm 6 mm 8 mm 1 mm
Anchorage System Freyssinet system ) 100% 12 - 5mm strands 12 - 8mm strands Magnel system Dywidag system
Percentage loss due to friction = (1 e
4.2% for cable A = 2.9% for cable B 1.5% for cable C
(Reference: Rajagopalan, N., Prestressed Concrete)
Due to the setting of the anchorage block, as the tendon shortens, there is a reverse friction. Hence, the effect of anchorage slip is present up to a certain length (Figure 22.4). Beyond this setting length, the effect is absent. This length is denoted as lset.
Here, for reverse friction is analogous to for friction and wobble. At the end of the setting length (x = lset), Px = Px
Px P0
P
P0 Px
Figure 2-2.4
Px
Px lset
Px after stretching Px after setting Px beyond lset x

Force variation diagram near the stretching end
Figure 2-2.5
Variation of prestressing force after anchorage slip

Substituting the expressions of Px and Px for x = lset
2.2.3 Force Variation Diagram

Since it is difficult to measure separately, is taken equal to . The expression of
The magnitude of the prestressing force varies along the length of a post-tensioned member due to friction losses and setting of the anchorage block. The diagram representing the variation of prestressing force is called the force variation diagram. Considering the effect of friction, the magnitude of the prestressing force at a distance x from the stretching end is given as follows. Px = P0e
-x
P simplifies to the following. P0e -lset = ( P0 - P ) e 'lset P0e - ( + ' )lset = P0 - P P0 1- ( + ' ) l set = P0 - P ' P = P0 ( + ' ) l set = P0 l set 1+ P = 2P0lset The following equation relates lset with the anchorage slip s.
(2-2.7)
(2-2.5)
Here, x = + kx denotes the total effect of friction and wobble. The plot of Px gives the force variation diagram. The initial part of the force variation diagram, up to length lset is influenced by the setting of the anchorage block. Let the drop in the prestressing force at the stretching end be P. The determination of P and lset are necessary to plot the force variation diagram including the effect of the setting of the anchorage block. Considering the drop in the prestressing force and the effect of reverse friction, the magnitude of the prestressing force at a distance x from the stretching end is given as follows.
Transposing the terms,
(2-2.8)
s = s =
1 P lset 2 Ap E p 1 lset ' P0lset 1+ 2 Ap E p

2 Ap E p
(2-2.9)
2 lset = s
Px' = ( P0 - P ) e 'x
(2-2.6)
' P0 1+ s Ap E p = for ' = P0
Therefore,
The force variation diagrams for the various stages are explained.
lset =
s Ap E p P0
a) The initial tension at the right end is high to compensate for the anchorage
(2-2.10)
slip. It corresponds to about 0.8 fpk initial prestress. The force variation diagram (FVD) is linear. b) After the anchorage slip, the FVD drops near the right end till the length lset. c) The initial tension at the left end also corresponds to about 0.8 fpk initial prestress. The FVD is linear up to the centre line of the beam. d) After the anchorage slip, the FVD drops near the left end till the length lset. It is observed that after two stages, the variation of the prestressing force over the length of the beam is less than after the first stage.
The term P0 represents the loss of prestress per unit length due to friction. The force variation diagram is used when stretching is done from both the ends. The tendons are overstressed to counter the drop due to anchorage slip. The stretching from both the ends can be done simultaneously or in stages. The final force variation is more uniform than the first stretching. The following sketch explains the change in the force variation diagram due to stretching from both the ends in stages.
Example 2-2.2
A four span continuous bridge girder is post-tensioned with a tendon consisting of twenty strands with fpk = 1860 MPa. Half of the girder is shown in the figure below. The symmetrical tendon is simultaneously stressed up to 75% fpk from both ends and then anchored. The tendon properties are Ap = 2800 mm2, Ep = 195,000 MPa, = 0.20, K = 0.0020/m. The anchorage slip s = 6 mm. Calculate a) The expected elongation of the tendon after stretching, b) The force variation diagrams along the tendon before and after anchorage.
a) After stretching from right end
b) After anchorage slip at right end
0.76
0.6
0.76
CL 0.6
c) After stretching from left end
13.7
13.7
3.7
15.2
15.2
3.7
All dimensions are in metres Inflection points

d) After anchorage slip at left end
Figure 2-2.6
Force variation diagrams for stretching in stages
Solution
Initial force at stretching end 0.75fpk = 1395 MPa
P0 = 0.75fpk Ap
= 3906 kN The continuous tendon is analysed as segments of parabola. The segments are The
e1
e2
identified between the points of maximum eccentricity and inflection points. segments are as follows: 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-7 and 7-8. CL
3 4 5 6 7 8
L
For the two parabolic segments joined at the inflection point as shown in the sketch above, the slope at the inflection point = 2(e1 + e2)/L. Here,
inflection points are those where the curvature of the tendon reverses. The different
e1, e2 = eccentricities of the CGS at the span and support respectively L = length of the span
L = fractional length between the points of maximum eccentricity

The following properties of parabolas are used. For segment 1-2, the parabola in the sketch below is used. The change in slope between a point of maximum eccentricity and inflection point is also equal to .
The change in slope () for each segment of the tendon is calculated using the above expressions. Next the value of + kx for each segment is calculated using the given values of , k and x, the horizontal length of the segment. Since the loss in prestress accrues with each segment, the force at a certain segment is given as follows.
Px = P0 e -(+kx)
The change in slope from the origin to the end of the parabola is same as the slope at the end of the tendon which is = 2e/L, where The summation is for the segments from the stretching end up to the point in the segment under consideration. denotes the point). For segments 2-3 and 3-4 and subsequent pairs of segments, the following property is used. Hence, the value of ( + kx) at the end of each segment is calculated to evaluate the prestressing force at that point (Px, where x
L = length of the segment e = vertical shift from the origin.
The elongation () at each stretching end is calculated as follows.
Pav L AP EP
0.111
0.163 0.060 0.110
0.163 0.039
0.144 0.036
0.144 0.059 0.244
0.144 0.059 0.303
0.144 0.036 0.339 0.712
+kx 0.050 ( +kx) k ) 0.050 e

-( + kx)
227612103 2800195000 = 0.417 m =

b) The force variation diagrams along the tendon before and after anchorage After anchorage, the effect of anchorage slip is present up to the setting length lset. The value of lset due to an anchorage slip s = 6 mm is calculated as follows.
0.149
0.185
1.000
0.861 0.952 3718 0.896 3363 3500 3246 0.831
0.783 3058
0.738 2883 2781
Px (kN) 3906
lset = =
s AP EP P0
The force variation diagram before anchorage can be plotted with the above values of
6 2800195000 13.7 = 15.46 m

The quantity P0 is calculated from the loss of prestress per unit length in the first segment. P0 = (3906 3718) kN /13.7 m = 13.7 N/mm. The drop in the prestressing force (p) at each stretching end is calculated as follows.
Px.
A linear variation of the force can be assumed for each segment.
Since the
stretching is done at both the ends simultaneously, the diagram is symmetric about the central line. a) The expected elongation of the tendon after stretching First the product of the average force and the length of each segment is summed up to the centre line. PavL = 1 1 [3906 + 3718] 13.7 + [3718 + 3500] 13.7 2 2 1 1 + [3500 + 3363] 3 + [3363 + 3246] 3.7 2 2 1 1 + [3246 + 3058] 15.2 + [3058 + 2883] 15.2 2 2 1 + [ 2883 + 2718] 3.7 2 = 227612.2 kN
p = 2P0 lset = 213.7 15464 = 423.7 kN
Thus the value of the prestressing force at each stretching end after anchorage slip is 3906 424 = 3482 kN. The force variation diagram for lset = 15.46 m is altered to show the drop due to anchorage slip. The force variation diagrams before and after anchorage are shown below. Note that the drop of force per unit length is more over the supports due to change in curvature over a small distance.
2.3 Losses in Prestress (Part III)


Creep of Concrete Shrinkage of Concrete Relaxation of Steel Total Time Dependent Losses
Prestressing force (kN)
4000 3500 3000 2500 0 20 40 60 80
2.3.1 Creep of Concrete

Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant load. Due to the creep of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time. The creep of concrete is explained in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II). information is summarised. Here, the
Distance from end (m) After anchorage Before anchorage
For stress in concrete less than one-third of the
characteristic strength, the ultimate creep strain (cr,ult) is found to be proportional to the elastic strain (el). The ratio of the ultimate creep strain to the elastic strain is defined as the ultimate creep coefficient or simply creep coefficient . The ultimate creep strain is then given as follows.
cr,ult = el
(2-3.1)
IS:1343 - 1980 gives guidelines to estimate the ultimate creep strain in Section 5.2.5. It is a simplified estimate where only one factor has been considered. The factor is age of loading of the prestressed concrete structure. The creep coefficient is provided for three values of age of loading. Curing the concrete adequately and delaying the application of load provide long term benefits time. with regards to durability, loss of prestress and deflection. In special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor creep strain with Specialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such calculations. The loss in prestress (fp ) due to creep is given as follows. fp = Ep cr, ult (2-3.2)
Here, Ep is the modulus of the prestressing steel. The following considerations are applicable for calculating the loss of prestress due to creep. 1) The creep is due to the sustained (permanently applied) loads only. Temporary loads are not considered in the calculation of creep. 2) Since the prestress may vary along the length of the member, an average value of the prestress can be considered. 3) The prestress changes due to creep and the creep is related to the instantaneous prestress. To consider this interaction, the calculation of creep can be iterated over small time steps.
calculate the drop (or loss) in prestress (fp), the recommendations of IS:1343 - 1980 can be followed in absence of test data.
Example 2-3.1
A concrete beam of dimension 100 mm 300 mm is post-tensioned with 5 straight wires of 7mm diameter. The average prestress after short-term losses is 0.7fpk = 1200 N/mm2 and the age of loading is given as 28 days. Given that Ep = 200 103 MPa, Ec = 35000 MPa, find out the losses of prestress due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation. Neglect the weight of the beam in the computation of the stresses.
2.3.2 Shrinkage of Concrete

Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. Due to the shrinkage of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time. The shrinkage of concrete was explained in details in the Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II). IS:1343 - 1980 gives guidelines to estimate the shrinkage strain in Section 5.2.4. It is a simplified estimate of the ultimate shrinkage strain (sh). Curing the concrete adequately and delaying the application of load provide long term benefits with regards to durability and loss of prestress. In special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor shrinkage strain with time. Specialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such calculations. Moment of inertia of beam section The loss in prestress (fp ) due to shrinkage is given as follows. fp = Ep sh Here, Ep is the modulus of the prestressing steel. Area of prestressing wires (2-3.3) Area of concrete
100
300 50 CGS
Solution
A = 100 300 = 30000 mm2
I = 100 3003 / 12 = 225 106 mm4 Ap = 5 (/4) 72 = 192.42 mm2 Prestressing force after short-term losses P0 = Ap.fp0 = 192.4 1200 = 230880 N
2.3.3 Relaxation of Steel

Relaxation of steel is defined as the decrease in stress with time under constant strain. Due to the relaxation of steel, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time. The relaxation depends on the type of steel, initial prestress (fpi) and the temperature. To
From Table 2c-2 (Table 4, IS:1343 - 1980) Modular ratio m = Ep / Ec = 2 105 / 35 103 = 5.71 Loss of prestressing force Stress in concrete at the level of CGS fc = P0 P0e e A I 230880 230880 =502 3104 225106 Therefore, Loss of prestressing force due to creep = 93.64 192.42 = 18018 N Loss of prestressing force due to shrinkage = 27.08 192.42 = 5211 N Loss of prestress due to creep (fp)cr = Ep cr, ult = Ep el = Ep (fc/Ec) = m fc = 5.71 10.25 1.6 = 93.64 N / mm2 Here, = 1.6 for loading at 28 days, from Table 2c-1 (Clause 5.2.5.1, IS:1343 - 1980). Shrinkage strain from Clause 5.2.4.1, IS:1343 - 1980 sh = 0.0002 / log10(t + 2) = 0.0002 / log10 (28 + 2) = 1.354 10-4 Loss of prestress due to shrinkage (fp)sh = Epsh = 2 105 1.354 10-4 = 27.08 N/mm
2
Loss of prestress due to relaxation (fp)rl = 70.0 N/mm2 = fp Ap
= 7.69 2.56 = 10.25 N/mm2
Loss of prestressing force due to relaxation = 70 192.42 = 13469 N Total long-term loss of prestressing force (neglecting the interaction of the losses and prestressing force) = 18018 + 5211 + 13469 = 36698 N Percentage loss of prestress = 36698 / 230880 100% = 15.9 %
2.3.4 Total Time-dependent Loss

The losses of prestress due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of the steel are all time-dependent and inter-related to each other. If the losses are calculated separately and added, the calculated total time-dependent loss is over-estimated. To consider the inter-relationship of the cause and effect, the calculation can be done for discrete time steps. The results at the end of each time step are used for the next time step. This step-by-step procedure was suggested by the Precast / Prestressed
Concrete Institute (PCI) committee and is called the General method (Reference: PCI Committee, Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses, PCI Journal, PCI, Vol. 20, No. 4, July-August 1975, pp. 43-75). In the PCI step-by-step procedure, a minimum of four time steps are considered in the service life of a prestressed member. The following table provides the definitions of the time steps (Table 2-3.3). Table 2-3.3 Step 1 2 Time steps in the step-by-step procedure End Age of prestressing 30 days after prestressing or when subjected to superimposed load 3 4 End of Step 2 End of Step 3 1 year of service End of service life Beginning Pre-tension: Anchorage of steel Post-tension: End of curing End of Step 1
3.1 Analysis of Members under Axial Load


Introduction Analysis at Transfer Analysis at Service Loads Analysis of Ultimate Strength Analysis of Behaviour
Notations Geometric Properties A prestressed axial member may also have non-prestressed reinforcement to carry the axial force. This type of members is called partially prestressed members. The
commonly used geometric properties of a prestressed member with non-prestressed reinforcement are defined as follows. A Ac As Ap At = gross cross-sectional area = area of concrete = area of non-prestressed reinforcement = area of prestressing tendons = transformed area of the section = Ac + (Es/ Ec) As + (Ep/ Ec) Ap
The step-by-step procedure can be implemented by a computer program, where the number of time steps can be increased. There are also approximate methods to calculate lump sum estimates of the total loss. Since these estimates are not given in IS:1343 - 1980, they are not mentioned here.
The following figure shows the commonly used areas of a prestressed member with non-prestressed reinforcement.
Ac
As
Ap
Hangers Piles
Members under axial load
A
Figure 3-1.1
At
Figure 3-1.2
Areas for a prestressed member with non-prestressed reinforcement The analysis of members refers to the evaluation of the following.
3.1.1 Introduction
The study of members under axial load gives an insight of the behaviour of a prestressed member as compared to an equivalent non-prestressed reinforced concrete member. Prestressed members under axial loads only, are uncommon. Members such as hangers and ties are subjected to axial tension. Members such as piles may have bending moment along with axial compression or tension. In this section, no
1) Permissible prestress based on allowable stresses at transfer. 2) Stresses under service loads. These are compared with allowable stresses under service conditions. 3) Ultimate strength. This is compared with the demand under factored loads. 4) The entire axial load versus deformation behaviour. The stages for loading are explained in Section 1.2, Advantages and Types of Prestressing
eccentricity of the CGS with respect to CGC is considered. The definitions of CGS and CGC are provided in Section 2.1, Losses in Prestress (Part I). The following figure shows members under axial loads. The stress in the concrete (fc) in a member without non-prestressed reinforcement can be calculated as follows.
fc = P0 Ac
3.1.2 Analysis at Transfer
(3-1.1)
Here, P0 = prestress at transfer after short-term losses. In presence of non-prestressed reinforcement, the stress in the concrete can be calculated as follows.
fc = -
P0 Ac + (Es /Ec )As
In the previous equations, (3-1.2) fy = characteristic yield stress for non-prestressed reinforcement with mild steel bars = characteristic 0.2% proof stress for non-prestressed reinforcement with high yield strength deformed bars. fpk = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing tendons.
The permissible prestress is determined based on fc to be within the allowable stress at transfer.
3.1.3 Analysis at Service Loads

The ultimate tensile strength should be greater than the demand due to factored loads. The stresses in concrete in a member without non-prestressed reinforcement can be calculated as follows.
fc = Pe P Ac At
The ultimate compressive strength of a section (PuR) can be calculated in presence of (3-1.3) moments by the use of interaction diagrams. For a member under compression with minimum eccentricity, the ultimate strength is given as follows. Here, the contribution of prestressing steel is neglected. PuR = 0.4 fckAc + 0.67 fy As versa.)
Here, P = external axial force (In the equation, + for tensile force and vice Pe = effective prestress. If there is non-prestressed reinforcement, Ac is to be substituted by (Ac + (Es/Ec) As) and At is to be calculated including As. The value of fc should be within the allowable stress under service conditions.
(3-1.5)
3.1.5 Analysis of Behaviour

The analysis of behaviour refers to the determination of the complete axial load versus deformation behaviour. The analyses at transfer, under service loads and for ultimate strength correspond to three instants in the above behaviour. The analysis involves three principles of mechanics (Reference: Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1991).
3.1.4 Analysis of Ultimate Strength

The ultimate tensile strength of a section (PuR) can be calculated as per Clause 22.3, IS:1343 - 1980.
1) Equilibrium of internal forces with the external loads at any point of the load versus deformation behaviour. The internal forces in concrete and steel are evaluated based on the respective strains, cross-sectional areas and the constitutive relationships. 2) Compatibility of the strains in concrete and in steel for bonded tendons. This
In absence of non-prestressed reinforcement,

PuR = 0.87fPk Ap
assumes a perfect bond between the two materials. For unbonded tendons, the (3-1.4a) compatibility is in terms of total deformation. 3) Constitutive relationships relating the stresses and the strains in the materials. The (3-1.4b) relationships are developed based on the material properties.
In presence of non-prestressed reinforcement,

PuR = 0.87fy As + 0.87fPk Ap
Equilibrium Equation At any instant, the equilibrium is given by the following equation. P = Acfc + Asfs + Apfp Here, fc = stress in concrete fs = stress in non-prestressed reinforcement fp = stress in prestressed tendons P = axial force. (3-1.6)
For concrete under compression fc = F1 (c) For prestressing steel fp = F2 (p) For reinforcing steel fs = F3 (s) The stress versus strain curve for concrete is shown below. (3-1.12) The first and third (3-1.11) (3-1.10)
Compatibility Equations For non-prestressed reinforcement s = c For prestressed tendons p = c + p Here, c s p = strain in concrete at the level of the steel = strain in non-prestressed reinforcement = strain in prestressed tendons (3-1.8) (3-1.7)
quadrants represent the behaviour under tension and compression, respectively.
fc
c
Figure 3-1.3
Stress versus strain for concrete
p = strain difference in prestressed tendons with adjacent concrete The stress versus strain curve for prestressing steel is as shown below. The strain difference (p) is the strain in the prestressed tendons when the concrete has zero strain (c = 0). This occurs when the strain due to the external tensile axial load balances the compressive strain due to prestress. At any load stage, p = pe ce Here, pe = strain in tendons due to Pe, the prestress at service ce = strain in concrete due to Pe. The strain difference is further explained in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part III). Figure 3-1.4 (3-1.9)
fp
p
Stress versus strain for prestressing steel
Constitutive Relationships The constitutive relationships can be expressed in the following forms based on the material stress-strain curves shown in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II), and Section 1.7, Prestressing Steel.
The following stress versus strain curve is for reinforcing steel.
fs
3) For a given tensile load, the deformation of the prestressed member is smaller.
Prestressing reduces deformation at service loads.
4) For a given compressive load, the deformation of the prestressed member is
larger.
Prestressing is detrimental for the response under compression.
5) The compressive strength of the prestressed member is lower.

Prestressing is detrimental for the compressive strength.
Figure 3-1.5
Stress versus strain for reinforcing steel
6) For a partially prestressed section with the same ultimate strength, the axial load versus deformation curve will lie in between the curves for prestressed and non-
The equilibrium and compatibility equations and the constitutive relationships can be solved to develop the axial force versus deformation curve. The deformation can be calculated as cL, where L is the length of the member. The following plot shows the axial force versus deformation curves for prestressed and non-prestressed sections. The two sections are equivalent in their ultimate tensile strengths.
Axial force Cracking Tensile strengths
prestressed sections.
The above conclusions are generic for prestressed members.
Deformation
Compressive strengths Prestressed section Non-prestressed section
Figure 3-1.6
Axial force versus deformation curves
From the previous plot, the following can be inferred. 1) Prestressing increases the cracking load. 2) Prestressing shifts the curve from the origin.
For the prestressed member, there is a compressive deformation in absence
of external axial force.

A certain amount of external force is required to decompress the member.
3.2 Analysis of Members under Flexure (Part I)


3) Constitutive relationships relating the stresses and the strains in the materials.
Introduction Analyses at Transfer and at Service
Variation of Internal Forces In reinforced concrete members under flexure, the values of compression in concrete (C) and tension in the steel (T) increase with increasing external load. The change in the lever arm (z) is not large. In prestressed concrete members under flexure, at transfer of prestress C is located close to T. The couple of C and T balance only the self weight. At service loads, C shifts up and the lever arm (z) gets large. The variation of C or T is not appreciable.
3.2.1 Introduction
Similar to members under axial load, the analysis of members under flexure refers to the evaluation of the following. 1) Permissible prestress based on allowable stresses at transfer. 2) Stresses under service loads. These are compared with allowable stresses under service conditions. 3) Ultimate strength. This is compared with the demand under factored loads. 4) The entire load versus deformation behaviour.
The following figure explains this difference schematically for a simply supported beam under uniform load.
w1 z1 C1 T1 w 2 > w1 C2 T2
w1 z1 C1 T1
The analyses at transfer and under service loads are presented in this section. The analysis for the ultimate strength is presented separately in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part III). The evaluation of the load versus deformation behaviour is required in special type of analysis. This analysis will not be covered in this section.
w2 z2
w2 z2
Prestressed concrete C2 C1, z2 > z1
C2 T2
Assumptions The analysis of members under flexure considers the following. 1) Plane sections remain plane till failure (known as Bernoullis hypothesis). 2) Perfect bond between concrete and prestressing steel for bonded tendons.
Reinforced concrete C2 > C1, z2 z1

Figure 3-2.1
Variations of internal forces and lever arms
Principles of Mechanics The analysis involves three principles of mechanics. 1) Equilibrium of internal forces with the external loads. The compression in concrete (C) is equal to the tension in the tendon (T). The couple of C and T are equal to the moment due to external loads. 2) Compatibility of the strains in concrete and in steel for bonded tendons. The formulation also involves the first assumption of plane section remaining plane after bending. For unbonded tendons, the compatibility is in terms of deformation.
In the above figure, C1, T1 = compression and tension at transfer due to self weight C2, T2 = compression and tension under service loads w1 = self weight w2 = service loads z1 = lever arm at transfer z2 = lever arm under service loads.
For the reinforced concrete member C2 is substantially large than C1, but z2 is close to z1. For the prestressed concrete member C2 is close to C1, but z2 is substantially large than z1.
CGC
P
3.2.2 Analyses at Transfer and at Service

The analyses at transfer and under service loads are similar. Hence, they are presented together. A prestressed member usually remains uncracked under service loads. The concrete and steel are treated as elastic materials. The principle of superposition is applied. The increase in stress in the prestressing steel due to bending is neglected.
Internal forces in concrete

Figure 3-2.3
(stress due to P)
P/A
Pey/ I My/ I Resultant stress (stress (stress profile due to P.e) due to M)
Stress profiles at a section due to internal forces
The resultant stress at a distance y from the CGC is given by the principle of superposition as follows.
f =There are three approaches to analyse a prestressed member at transfer and under service loads. These approaches are based on the following concepts. a) Based on stress concept. b) Based on force concept. c) Based on load balancing concept. The following material explains the three concepts. Based on Force Concept
P Pey My A I I
(3-2.1)
For a curved tendon, P can be substituted by its horizontal component. But the effect of the refinement is negligible.
The approach based on force concept is analogous to the study of reinforced concrete. The tension in prestressing steel (T) and the resultant compression in concrete (C) are
Based on Stress Concept In the approach based on stress concept, the stresses at the edges of the section under the internal forces in concrete are calculated. The stress concept is used to compare the calculated stresses with the allowable stresses. The following figure shows a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed load (UDL) and prestressed with constant eccentricity (e) along its length.
considered to balance the external loads.
This approach is used to determine the
dimensions of a section and to check the service load capacity. Of course, the stresses in concrete calculated by this approach are same as those calculated based on stress concept. The stresses at the extreme edges are compared with the allowable stresses.
The following figures show the internal forces in the section.

ec e T C C T z
CGC CGS
Figure 3-2.2
e
A simply supported beam under UDL
The following sketch shows the internal forces in concrete at a section and the corresponding stress profiles. The first stress profile is due to the compression P. The second profile is due to the eccentricity of the compression. The third profile is due to the moment. At transfer, the moment is due to self weight. At service the moment is due to service loads.
Internal forces at prestressing (neglecting self-weight)

Figure 3-2.4
Internal forces after loading
Internal forces at a section
The equilibrium equations are as follows.
C =T
(3-2.2)
(3-2.6) The moment at the centre from the prestressing force is given as M = Pe. The expression of wup is calculated by equating the two expressions of M. The upward deflection () can be calculated from wup based on elastic analysis.
M = C.z M = C(ec + e)
The resultant stress in concrete at distance y from the CGC is given as follows.
f =C Cec y A I
(3-2.3)
(3-2.4)
w up = =
8Pe L2 5wup L4 384EI
(3-2.7)
Substituting C = P and Cec = M Pe, the expression of stress becomes same as that given by the stress concept. b) For Singly Harped Tendon (3-2.5)
P Pey My f =- A I I
Based on Load Balancing Concept
P Wup
Free body diagram of concrete
The approach based on load balancing concept is used for a member with curved or harped tendons and in the analysis of indeterminate continuous beams. The moment, upward thrust and upward deflection (camber) due to the prestress in the tendons are calculated. The upward thrust balances part of the superimposed load. Figure 3-2.6 The expressions for three profiles of tendons in simply supported beams are given. The moment at the centre due to the upward thrust (Wup) is given by the following a) For a Parabolic Tendon equation. It is equated to the moment due to the eccentricity of the tendon. As before, the upward thrust and the deflection can be calculated.
M
Bending moment diagram
Simply supported beam with singly harped tendon
e wup L
M
Figure 3-2.5 Simply supported beam with parabolic tendon
= Pe 4 4Pe Wup = L W L3 = up 48EI
M=
Wup L
(3-2.8)
The moment at the centre due to the uniform upward thrust (wup) is given by the following equation.
M=
wup L2 8
c) For Doubly Harped Tendon
P aL W
up
P Wup
Solution
a) Stress concept A = 500 750 = 375,000 mm2 I = (500 7503) / 12 = 1.758 1010 mm4 Bending moment at mid-span, M = (45 7.32) / 8 = 299.7 kNm
Area of concrete,
M
Figure 3-2.7
Moment of inertia,
Simply supported beam with doubly harped tendon
The moment at the centre due to the upward thrusts (Wup) is given by the following equation. It is equated to the moment due to the eccentricity of the tendon. As before, the upward thrust and the deflection can be calculated.
M = Wup aL = Pe Wup = = Pe aL a ( 3 - 4a 2 ) Wup L3 24EI
Top fibre stress

P Pe M ( fc )t = - + y top - y top A I I 1620 103 1620 103 145 299.7 106 + 375 375 375 103 1.758 1010 1.758 1010 = - 4.32 + 5.01- 6.39 == - 5.7 N/mm2
(3-2.9)
Example 3-2.1
Bottom fibre stress
A concrete beam prestressed with a parabolic tendon is shown in the figure. The prestressing force applied is 1620 kN. The uniformly distributed load includes the self weight. Compute the extreme fibre stress at the mid-span by applying the three concepts. Draw the stress distribution across the section at mid-span.
45 kN/m CGC 145 At end 7.3m 500
P Pe M ( fc )b = - - y bot + y bot =-
A I I 1620103 1620 103 145 299.7106 375 + 375 375103 1.7581010 1.7581010 = -4.32 - 5.01+ 6.39 = -2.9 N/mm2
b) Force concept
At mid-span
750
ec e P
Applied moment M
C P z
C
= 299.7 kN-m
Residual bending stress Lever arm z =M/P = 299.7 103 / 1620 = 185 mm Eccentricity of C ec =ze = 185 145 = 40 mm Top fibre stress
C ( fc )t = - Cec y top A I 1620 103 1620 103 40 375 =375 103 1.758 1010 = -4.32 -1.38 = -5.7 N/mm2
(fc)res (fc)t
= 64.6 10 375 / 1.75810

6
10
= 1.38 N/mm2 Total top fibre stress = P/A (fc)res = 4.32 1.38 = 5.7 N/mm2 (fc)b = P/A + (fc)res = 4.32 + 1.38 = 2.9 N/mm2
Total bottom fibre stress
The resultant stress distribution at mid-span is shown below.

5.7 N/mm2
2.9 N/mm2
Bottom fibre stress

C ( fc )b = - + Cec y bot A I 1620 103 1620 103 40 375 =+ 375 103 1.758 1010 = -4.32 +1.38 = -2.9 N/mm2
c) Load balancing method wup = 8Pe / L2 = 8 1620 103 145 / 73002 = 35.3 kN/m wres
Effective upward load,
Residual load
= 45 35.3 = 9.7 kN/m = 9.7 7.32 / 8 = 64.6 kNm
Residual bending moment Mres
3.3 Analysis of Members under Flexure (Part II)


loading (also called 4 point loading including the reactions or middle third loading). The modulus of rupture (fcr) is expressed in terms of the characteristic compressive strength (fck) of concrete by the following equation (IS:456 - 2000). Here, fcr and fck are in N/mm2.
Cracking Moment Kern Points Pressure Line
fcr = 0.7 fck
(3-3.1)
Introduction The analysis of flexural members under service loads involves the calculation of the following quantities. a) Cracking moment. b) Location of kern points. c) Location of pressure line.
The following sketch shows the internal forces and the resultant stress profile at the instant of cracking.
CGC
Mcr Pe
Resultant stress profile
yb
Internal forces in concrete

Figure 3-3.1
fcr
The following material explains each one of them.
Internal forces and resultant stress profile at cracking
3.2.1 Cracking Moment

The cracking moment (Mcr) is defined as the moment due to external loads at which the first crack occurs in a prestressed flexural member. Considering the variability in stress at the occurrence of the first crack, the evaluated cracking moment is an estimate. Nevertheless, the evaluation of cracking moment is important in the analysis of prestressed members.
The stress at the edge can be calculated based on the stress concept as follows. The cracking moment (Mcr) can be evaluated by transposing the terms.
Pe Pe ey b Mcr y b + = fcr A I I Mcr y b P P ey or, = fcr + e + e b I A I f I PI or, Mcr = cr + e + Pe e y b Ay b
(3-3.2)
Based on the allowable tensile stress the prestress members are classified into three types as per IS:1343 - 1980. The types are explained in Section 1.2, Advantages and Types of Prestressing. For Type 1 (full prestressing) and Type 2 (limited prestressing) members, cracking is not allowed under service loads. Hence, it is imperative to check that the cracking moment is greater than the moment due to service loads. This is satisfied when the stress at the edge due to service loads is less than the modulus of rupture.
The above equation expresses Mcr in terms of the section and material properties and prestressing variables.
3.2.2 Kern Points

When the resultant compression (C) is located within a specific zone of a section of a beam, tensile stresses are not generated. This zone is called the kern zone of a section. For a section symmetric about a vertical axis, the kern zone is within the levels of the
The modulus of rupture is the stress at the bottom edge of a simply supported beam corresponding to the cracking moment (Mcr). The modulus of rupture is a measure of the flexural tensile strength of concrete. It is measured by testing beams under 2 point
upper and lower kern points. When the resultant compression (C) under service loads is located at the upper kern point, the stress at the bottom edge is zero. Similarly, when C at transfer of prestress is located at the bottom kern point, the stress at the upper
edge is zero. The levels of the upper and lower kern points from CGC are denoted as kt and kb, respectively. Based on the stress concept, the stress at the bottom edge corresponding to C at the upper kern point, is equated to zero. The following sketch shows the location of C and the resultant stress profile.
C Ck b y t + =0 A I C Ck y or, - + b 2 t = 0 A Ar r2 or, k b = yt -
(3-3.4)
CGC
yb
Location of resultant compression
Figure 3-3.2
kt
Here, yt is the distance of the top edge from CGC.

Cracking Moment using Kern Points
The kern points can be used to determine the cracking moment (Mcr). The cracking moment is slightly greater than the moment causing zero stress at the bottom. C is located above kt to cause a tensile stress fcr at the bottom. The incremental moment is fcr I/yb. The following sketch shows the shift in C outside the kern to cause cracking and the corresponding stress profiles.
Resultant stress profile when compression is at upper kern point
The value of kt can be calculated by equating the stress at the bottom to zero as follows. C Ckt y b + =0 A I C Ckt y b or, - + =0 A Ar 2 r2 or, kt = yb -
ec CGC e
C
CGS
kt
= fcr fcr
(3-3.3)
The above equation expresses the location of upper kern point in terms of the section properties. Here, r is the radius of gyration and yb is the distance of the bottom edge from CGC. Similar to the calculation of kt, the location of the bottom kern point can be calculated by equating the stress at the top edge to zero. The following sketch shows the location of C and the resultant stress profile.
Figure 3-3.4
Resultant stress profile at cracking of the bottom edge
The cracking moment can be expressed as the product of the compression and the lever arm. The lever arm is the sum of the eccentricity of the CGS (e) and the eccentricity of the compression (ec). The later is the sum of kt and z, the shift of C outside the kern.
Mcr = C ( e + ec ) = C ( e + k t + z )
CGC
yt C kb
or, Mcr = C ( e + kt ) +
fcr I yb
(3-3.5)
Substituting C = Pe, kt = r2/yb and r2 = I/A, the above equation becomes same as the previous expression of Mcr.
Figure 3-3.3
Resultant stress profile when compression is at lower kern point
r 2 fcr I Mcr =P +e+ e yb yb fcr I PI or, Mcr = + e +Pe e yb Ayb
Pressure line CGC CGS

Figure 3-3.4
CL
(3-3.6)
kt kb
Pressure line at transfer
3.2.3 Pressure Line

Pressure Line under Service Loads
The pressure line in a beam is the locus of the resultant compression (C) along the length. It is also called the thrust line or C-line. It is used to check whether C at transfer and under service loads is falling within the kern zone of the section. The eccentricity of the pressure line (ec) from CGC should be less than kb or kt to ensure C in the kern zone. The pressure line can be located from the lever arm (z) and eccentricity of CGS (e) as follows. The lever arm is the distance by which C shifts away from T due to the moment. Subtracting e from z provides the eccentricity of C (ec) with respect to CGC. The variation of ec along length of the beam provides the pressure line.
M C ec = z - e z=
The pressure line is calculated from the moment due to the service loads. The following sketch shows that the pressure line for a simply supported beam gets further shifted from the CGS at the centre of the span with increased moment under service condition.
Pressure line CGC CGS

Figure 3-3.4
CL
kt kb
Pressure line under service loads
Limiting Zone
For fully prestressed members (Type 1), tension is not allowed under service conditions.
(3-3.7)
If tension is also not allowed at transfer, C always lies within the kern zone. The limiting zone is defined as the zone for placing the CGS of the tendons such that C always lies
A positive value of ec implies that C acts above the CGC and vice-versa. If ec is negative and the numerical value is greater than kb (that is |ec| > kb), C lies below the lower kern point and tension is generated at the top of the member.
within the kern zone.
For limited prestressed members (Type 2 and Type 3), tension is allowed at transfer and under service conditions. The limiting zone is defined as the zone for placing the CGS such that the tensile stresses in the extreme edges are within the allowable values.
If ec> kt, then C lies above the upper kern point and tension is generated at the bottom of the member.
Pressure Line at Transfer
The following figure shows the limiting zone (as the shaded region) for a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load.
The pressure line is calculated from the moment due to the self weight. The following sketch shows that the pressure line for a simply supported beam gets shifted from the CGS with increasing moment towards the centre of the span.
C L CGC
Evaluate the following quantities. a) Kern levels b) Cracking moment c) Location of pressure line at mid-span at transfer and at service.
Locus of emin
Locus of emax
Figure 3-3.4
d) The stresses at the top and bottom fibres at transfer and at service.
Limiting zone for a simply supported beam

Compare the stresses with the following allowable stresses at transfer and at
The determination of limiting zone is given in Section 4.4, Design of Sections for Flexure (Part III).
service. For compression, fcc,all = 18.0 N/mm2 For tension, fct,all = 1.5 N/mm2.
Example 3-3.1 Solution

For the post-tensioned beam with a flanged section as shown, the profile of the CGS is parabolic, with no eccentricity at the ends. The live load moment due to service loads at mid-span (MLL) is 648 kNm. The prestress after transfer (P0) is 1600 kN. Assume 15% loss at service. Grade of concrete is M30.
Calculation of geometric properties
The section is divided into three rectangles for the computation of the geometric properties. The centroid of each rectangle is located from the soffit.
CGC
1 + 2 500
y
yt
CGC
18.0m
500 200 150
900
yb
Values in mm.
100
1000 CGS 150
Values in mm.
Area of the section = A1 = 500 200 = 100,000 mm2 = A2 = 600 150 = 90,000 mm2 = A3 = 250 200 = 50,000 mm2
200 250
Area of 1
Cross-section at mid-span
Area of 2
Area of 3
= A1 + A2 + A3 = 240,000 mm2
Moment of inertia of the section

I = I1 + I2 + I3 = (1.036 + 0.336 +1.184)1010 = 2.5521010 mm4
Location of CGC from the soffit

y= A1 900 + A2 500 + A3 100 A
Square of the radius of gyration
= 583.3 mm
r2 =
Therefore,
y b = 583.3 mm y t = 1000.0 - 583.3 = 416.7 mm
I A 2.5521010 = 240,000 = 1.063105 mm2
a) Kern levels of the section
Eccentricity of CGS at mid-span

e = y -150 = 583.3 -150 = 433.3 mm
kt = =
r2 yb
kb = =
r2 yt
1.063105 583.3 = 182.2mm
1.063 105 416.7 = 255.1mm
Moment of inertia of
about axis through CGC
I1 =
1 500 2003 + A1 (900 - 583.3)2 12 = 1.0361010 mm4

CGC
182.2 255.1
+ Kern zone
CGS Values in mm.

Calculation of moment due to self weight (MDL).
1 I2 = 150 6003 + A2 (583.3 - 500)2 12 = 3.32109 mm4
1 I3 = 250 2003 + A3 (583.3 -100)2 12 = 1.1841010 mm4
1 m2 w DL = 24.0 kN/m3 240,000 mm2 3 2 10 mm = 5.76 kN/m

MDL = w DL L2 8 5.76 18.02 = 8 = 233.3 kNm
b) Calculation of cracking moment

fcr = 0.7 fck = 0.7 30 = 3.83kN/mm
2
Modulus of rupture
CGC 287.5 CGS
+ Kern zone
x
Location of pressure line
Mcr = =
fcr I PeI + + Pe e y b Ay b
Value in mm.
3.83 2.5521010 0.851600103 2.5521010 + 583.3 240103 583.3 + 0.81600 103 433.3 Nmm = 167.6 + 247.9 + 554.6 = 970.1 kNm
At service
z= MDL+LL C (233.3 + 648.0)103 = 0.851600 = 648.0 mm
ec = z - e = 648.0 - 433.3 = 214.7mm
Live load moment corresponding to cracking
MLL cr = 970.1- 233.3 = 736.8 kNm

Since the given live load moment (648.0 kNm) is less than the above value, the section is uncracked. The moment of inertia of the gross section can be used for computation of stresses.
Since ec is positive, the pressure line is above CGC. Since the magnitude of ec is greater than kt, there is tension at the bottom.
x
CGC
214.7 +
Location of pressure line Kern zone
CGS
c) Calculation of location of pressure line at mid-span

Value in mm.
At transfer
z=
MDL C 233.3103 = 1600 = 145.8 mm
d) Calculation of stresses The stress is given as follows.
ec = z - e = 145.8 - 433.3 = - 287.5mm

CGC
M
f =-
P Pey My A I I
+ + =
Since ec is negative, the pressure line is below CGC. Since the magnitude of ec is greater than kb, there is tension at the top.
P/A
Pey/ I
My/ I
Calculation of stresses at transfer (P = P0)
P0 1600 103 =240 103 A = -6.67 N/mm2
fc = - 5.67 + 9.62 - 3.81-10.58

t
= -10.44 N/mm2
Stress at the bottom fibre
Pf ey b = - 0.85 15.85 I = - 13.47 N/mm2
MLL y b 648.0106 583.3 = 2.5521010 I = 14.81N/mm2
Stress at the top fibre

P0ey t 1600103 433.3 416.7 = 2.5521010 I = 11.32 N/mm2
MDL y t 233.3106 416.7 =2.5521010 I = -3.81N/mm2
fc = - 6.67 +11.32 - 3.81

t
= 0.84 N/mm2
Stress at the bottom fibre
P0ey b 1600103 433.3 583.3 =2.5521010 I = -15.85 N/mm2
MDL y b 233.3106 583.3 = I 2.5521010 = 5.33 N/mm2
fc = - 5.67 - 13.47 + 5.33 +14.81

b
= 1.0 N/mm2
The stress profiles are shown.

0.84 10.44
Numeric values in N/mm2. 17.19 At transfer 1.0 At service
fc = - 6.67 -15.85 + 5.33

b
= - 17.19 N/mm2
Calculation of stresses at service (P = Pe)
The allowable stresses are as follows. For compression, For tension, fc,comp = 18.0 N/mm2 fc,tens = 1.5 N/mm2.
Pe P = 0.85 0 A A = - 5.67 N/mm2
Thus, the stresses are within the allowable limits.
Stress at the top fibre

Pf ey t = 0.85 11.32 I = 9.62 MLL y t 648.0106 416.7 =2.5521010 I = - 10.58 N/mm2
3.4 Analysis of Members under Flexure (Part III)


Of course, superposition cannot be used to calculate the deflection under combined loads.
Analysis for Ultimate Strength Analysis of a Rectangular Section Variation of Stress in Prestressing Steel In non-prestressed reinforced concrete members, the tension and consequently the stress in steel increase almost proportionately with increasing moment till yielding. The lever arm between the resultant compression and tension remains almost constant. In prestressed concrete members, the tension and consequently the stress in prestressing steel increase slightly with increasing moment till cracking of concrete. The increase in moment changes the lever arm significantly. This is explained in Section 3.2, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part I). increases rapidly with moment. The following sketch explains the variations of the stress in prestressing steel (fp) with increasing load. The variations are shown for bonded and unbonded tendons. After the prestress is transferred while the member is supported at the ends, the stress will tend to increase from the value after losses (fp0) due to the moment under self weight. Subsequently the stress will tend to drop due to the time dependent losses such as from creep, shrinkage and relaxation. The losses of prestress are covered in Section 2.3, Losses in Prestress (Part III). The effective prestress after time dependent losses is denoted as fpe. Due to the moment under service loads, the stress in the prestressing steel will slightly increase from fpe. The increase is more at the section of maximum moment in a bonded tendon as compared to the increase in average stress for an unbonded tendon. The stress in a bonded tendon is not uniform along the length. Usually the increase in stress is neglected in the calculations under service loads. If the loads are further increased, the stress increases slightly till cracking. After cracking, there is a jump of the stress in the prestressing steel. Beyond that, the stress increases rapidly with moment till the ultimate load. At ultimate, the stress is represented as fpu. Similar to the observation for pre-cracking, the average stress in an unbonded tendon is less than the stress at the section of maximum moment for a bonded tendon. After cracking, the stress in prestressing steel
3.4.1 Analysis for Ultimate Strength

Introduction A prestressed member usually remains uncracked under service loads. The analysis under service loads assumes the material to be linear elastic. After cracking, the behaviour of a prestressed member is similar to a non-prestressed reinforced concrete member. With increasing load, the stress versus strain behaviour of concrete becomes non-linear. Close to the yielding of the prestressing steel, the stress versus strain behaviour of steel also becomes non-linear. The analysis of a prestressed member for ultimate strength is similar to that of a reinforced concrete member. The analysis aims to calculate the ultimate moment capacity (ultimate moment of resistance). The capacity is compared with the demand at ultimate loads. There is an inconsistency in the traditional analysis at the ultimate state. The force demand is calculated based on elastic analysis, with superposition for the different load cases using the load factors. But the capacity is calculated based on the non-linear limit state analysis. The inconsistency is justified by the following arguments. 1) The moment versus curvature relationship is almost linear till the yielding of the steel. The moment versus curvature relationship is also referred to as the behaviour and is explained in Section 3.6, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part V). 2) The moment at yield is only slightly lower than the ultimate moment capacity. Hence the behaviour is practically linear for most of the range of the moment. 3) The calculated moment demand for a load case based on elastic analysis is well within the moment at yield. Hence, superposition for the load cases is applied to find out the moment demand under combined loads.
fp fpu
Bonded
cu
cu
cu
fp0 fpe
Losses
Unbonded
p
pu > pu,bal Under-reinforced
p
pu = pu,bal Balanced
p
pu < pu,bal Over-reinforced
Self weight Service load
Cracking load Ultimate load
Load
Figure 3-4.2 In the above sketch, pu
Strain profiles along the depths of three prestressed members
Figure 3-4.1
Variation of stress in prestressing steel
= strain in the prestressing steel at the level of CGS at ultimate condition
The above sketch assumes that the section is failing in flexure. Other types of failure are not considered.
pu,bal = strain in the steel for a balanced section. The strain difference (p) is the strain in the prestressed tendons when the adjacent
Conditions at Ultimate Limit State In the limit states method of analysis, the limit state of collapse (ultimate state) of a member under flexure is defined as the state when the extreme concrete compressive strain reaches a value of 0.0035. At ultimate, let the extreme concrete compressive strain be denoted as cu. Thus, cu = 0.0035. Depending on the amount of prestressing steel, a section can be under-reinforced or over-reinforced. For an under- reinforced section, the amount of prestressing steel is less and the steel yields before the extreme concrete strain reaches 0.0035. For an over-reinforced section, the amount of steel is high and the steel does not yield at ultimate. The transition situation is called a balanced condition. three situations are shown below. The strain profiles across the depths of prestressed flexural members (up to the depth of CGS) for the
concrete has zero strain (c = 0). The strain difference gets locked during the transfer of prestress. The value can be determined as follows. For pre-tensioned members, the strain difference gets locked when the tendons are cut. The strain difference at that instant is given as follows.
p = pi 0
Here, pi = strain in tendons just before transfer c = strain in concrete is zero.
(3-4.1a)
For post-tensioned members, the strain difference gets locked when the tendons are anchored. The strain difference at that instant is given as follows.
p = p0 c0
Here, p0 = strain in tendons due to P0, the prestress after transfer c0 = strain in concrete due to P0. In general at any load stage,
(3-4.1b)
p = pe ce
(3-4.1c)
Here, pe = strain in tendons due to Pe, the prestress at service ce = strain in concrete due to Pe. As mentioned under material properties, the prestressing steel does not have a definite yield point. The 0.2% proof stress is defined when the steel reaches an inelastic strain of 0.2%. Hence, unlike reinforced concrete, the transition from under-reinforced to overreinforced section is gradual and there is no definite balanced condition. IS:1343 - 1980 does not explicitly enforce an under-reinforced section. But the IRS Concrete Bridge Code requires that the strain in the outermost tendon should not be less than the following.
3.4.4 Analysis of a Rectangular Section

The following sketch shows the beam cross section, strain profile, stress diagram and force couple at the ultimate state.
cu=0.0035
0.447fck
d Ap p pu Strain
xu
0.42xu
Cu Tu
Force
fpu
Stress
Cross-section
0.87fpk + 0.005 Ep
The above value can be considered to be the strain in the steel at balanced condition. Figure 3-4.3
Sketches for analysis of a rectangular section
The variables in the above figure are explained. b = breadth of the section = depth of the centroid of prestressing steel (CGS) = area of the prestressing steel = strain difference = depth of the neutral axis at ultimate = strain in prestressing steel at the level of CGS at ultimate = stress in prestressing steel at ultimate d Ap
Assumptions for Analysis The analysis of members under flexure for ultimate strength considers the following. 1) Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of the member remain plane till the ultimate state. 2) Perfect bond is retained between concrete and prestressing steel for bonded tendons. 3) Tension in concrete is neglected. 4) The design stress versus strain curves of concrete and steel are considered. The methods of analysis will be presented for three types of sections. 1) Rectangular section: A rectangular section is easy to cast, but it is not an efficient section. 2) Flanged section: A precast flanged section, with flanges either at top or bottom needs costlier formwork. But the section is efficient in flexure. A flanged section can also be made of precast web and cast-in-place slab. 3) Partially prestressed section: A section in a member containing both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement.
p
xu pu fpu
The stress block in concrete is derived from the constitutive relationship for concrete. The relationship is explained in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II). The compressive force in concrete can be calculated by integrating the stress block along the depth. The stress in the tendon is calculated from the constitutive relationship for prestressing steel. The relationship is explained in Section 1.7, Prestressing Steel. In the force diagram,
Cu = 0.36fck xu b Tu = Ap fpu
(3-4.2) (3-4.3)
The strengths of the materials are denoted by the following symbols. fck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete fpk = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
For analysis of a prestressed section, three principles of mechanics are used. First, the equilibrium relates the external applied forces with the internal forces. Second, the compatibility condition relates the strain in the prestressing steel with the strain in concrete at the level of CGS. This also considers the first two assumptions given in the previous section. materials. The third principle involves the constitutive relationships of the
b) Prestressing steel
fpu = F ( pu )
(3-4.7)
The function F(pu) represents the design stress-strain curve for prestressing steel under tension. The known variables in an analysis are: b, d, Ap, p, fck, fpk.
Based on the above principles of mechanics, the following equations are derived. 1) Equations of equilibrium The first equation states that the resultant axial force is zero. This means that the compression and the tension in the force couple balance each other.
F = 0 Tu = Cu

The unknown quantities are: xu, MuR, pu, fpu. The objective of the analysis is to find out MuR, the ultimate moment capacity. The simultaneous equations 3-4.1 to 3-4.7 can be solved iteratively. This procedure of analysis is called the strain compatibility method. The steps are as follows. 1) Assume xu . 2) Calculate pu by rearranging the terms of Eqn. 3-4.6. (3-4.4) 3) Calculate fpu from Eqn. 3-4.7. 4) Calculate Tu from Eqn. 3-4.3. 5) Calculate Cu from Eqn. 3-4.2. If Eqn. 3-4.4 (Tu = Cu) is not satisfied, change xu. If Tu < Cu decrease xu. If Tu > Cu increase xu. 6) Calculate MuR from Eqn. 3-4.5. (3-4.5) The capacity MuR can be compared with the demand under ultimate loads. In the strain compatibility method, the difficult step is to calculate xu and fpu. IS:1343 1980 allows to calculate these variables approximately from Table 11, Appendix B, based on the amount of prestressing steel. The later is expressed as a prestressed (3-4.6) reinforcement index p.
Ap fpu = 0.36fck xu b
The second equation relates the ultimate moment capacity (MuR) with the internal couple in the force diagram.
MuR = Tu (d - 0.42 xu )
= Ap fpu ( d - 0.42 xu )
2) Equation of compatibility The depth of the neutral axis is related to the depth of CGS by the similarity of the triangles in the strain diagram.
xu 0.0035 = d 0.0035 + pu - p
3) Constitutive relationships a) Concrete The constitutive relationship for concrete is considered in the expression under compression.
p =
Cu =
Ap fpk bdfck
(3-4.8)
Table 11 is reproduced as Table 3-4.1 which is applicable for pre-tensioned and bonded post-tensioned beams. The values of fpu and xu are given as fpu/(0.87fpk) and xu/d, respectively.
0.36fckxub. This is based on the area under the design stress-strain curve for concrete
Table 3-4.1
Values of xu and fpu for pre-tensioned and bonded post-tensioned rectangular beams (Table 11, IS:1343 - 1980)
0.9
fpu/(0.87fpk) p
Pre-tensioned 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 tensioned 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.054 0.109 0.217 0.326 0.435 0.542 0.655 0.783
xu/d
Bonded posttensioned 0.054 0.109 0.217 0.316 0.414 0.488 0.558 0.653
xu / d
0.6
Bonded post- Pre-tensioned
0.3
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
p
Pre-tensioned
Post-tensioned (bonded)
Figure 3-4.5
Variation of xu with respect to p (Table 3-4.1)
Thus given the value of p for a section, the values of fpu and xu can be approximately
The values of fpu/(0.87fpk) and xu/d from Table 3-4.1 are plotted in Figures 3-4.4 and 34.5, respectively. It is observed that with increase in p, fpu reduces (beyond certain values of p) and xu increases. This is expected because with increase in the amount and strength of the steel, the stress in steel drops and the depth of the neutral axis increases to maintain equilibrium.
calculated from the above tables.
Example 3-4.1
A prestressed concrete beam produced by pre-tensioning method has a rectangular cross-section of 100 mm 160 mm (b h). It is prestressed with 10
1.2 1
numbers of straight 2.5 mm diameter wires. Each wire is stressed up to a load of 6.8 kN. The design load versus strain curve for each wire is given in a tabular form. The grade of concrete is M 40. The value of p is 0.0073.
fpu / 0.87 fpk
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.1
Estimate the ultimate flexural strength of the member by the strain compatibility method.
0.2
0.3
0.4
Pre-tensioned
Post-tensioned (bonded)
Figure 3-4.4
Variation of fpu with respect to p (Table 3-4.1)
100
xu
(mm)
xu/d
pup
(3-4.6)
pu
Pu
(kN) (Table)
Tu
(kN)
Cu
(kN) (3-4.2)
Checking (3-4.4)
CGC 40
160
60 65 63.5
0.5 0.54 0.53
0.0035 0.0030 0.0031
0.0108 0.0103 0.0104
9.4 9.1 9.15
94.0 91.0 91.5
86.4 93.6 91.4
Tu > Cu Tu < Cu Tu Cu
The ultimate flexural strength is given as follows.
Values in mm Cross-section of member

Design load (P) versus strain (p) values for the prestressing wire are given for the range under consideration.
MuR = Tu (d - 0.42xu ) = 91.5 (120.0- 0.4263.5) kNmm = 8.5 kNm
p
0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014
P (kN)
5.4 7.6 9.0 10.0 10.7
Solution
Strain difference
= 0.0073
The effective depth of the CGS (d ) is 120 mm. The strain compatibility method is shown in a tabular form. Here,
Pu = load in a single wire obtained from the table Tu = 10 Pu , for the ten wires.
3.5 Analysis of Members under Flexure (Part IV)

T T
T T
T T
Analysis of a Flanged Section
3.5.1 Analysis of a Flanged Section

Introduction A beam can have flanges for flexural efficiency. There can be several types of flanged section. 1) A precast or cast-in-place flanged section, with flanges either at top or bottom or at both top and bottom. 2) A composite flanged section is made of precast web and cast-in-place slab. The following figures show different types of flanged sections.
Box section
Figure 3-5.2
Composite beam-slab
T-section
Examples of composite flanged sections
The analysis of a flanged section for ultimate strength is different from a rectangular section when the flange is in compression. If the depth of the neutral axis from the edge under compression is greater than the depth of the flange, then the section is treated as a flanged section. In the following figure, the first strain profile shows that the depth of the neutral axis (xu) is greater than the depth of the flange (Df). The section is treated as a flanged section. The second strain profile shows that xu is less than Df. In this situation, the section can
T-section
Double T-section
be treated as a rectangular section.
bf Df d
Single box section Double box section
xu
xu
Ap
Cross-section
bw
Strain profile (xu > Df)
Strain profile (xu < Df)
Figure 3-5.3
L-section Inverted T-section I-girder
Two possibilities of strain profile in a flanged section
Figure 3-5.1
Examples of precast flanged sections
The effective width or breadth of the flange (bf) is determined from the span of the beam, breadth of the web (bw) and depth of the flange (Df) as per Clause 23.1.2, IS:456 - 2000. Analysis of a Flanged Section The following sketch shows the beam cross-section, strain profile, stress diagram and force couples at the ultimate state. The following conditions are considered. 1) xu > Df : This requires an analysis for a flanged section.
2) Df (3/7) xu: This ensures that the compressive stress is constant at 0.447fck along the depth of the flange.
stress in the tendon is calculated from the constitutive relationship for prestressing steel. The relationship is explained in Section 1.7, Prestressing Steel.
Df
bf d Ap bw
0.0035
0.447fck
0.5Df 0.42xu
xu f
Cuw + Tuw
Force
Cuf Tuf
The expressions of the forces are as follows.
Cuw = 0.36fck xu bw Cuf = 0.447fck (bf - bw )Df Tuw = Apw fpu Tuf = Apf fpu
(3-5.1) (3-5.2) (3-5.3) (3-5.4)
Cross-section
Figure 3-5.4
pu p pu Strain Stress
Sketches for analysis of a flanged section
The strengths of the materials are denoted by the following symbols. Apf Apw fck fpk = part of Ap that balances compression in the outstanding flanges = part of Ap that balances compression in the web = characteristic compressive strength of concrete = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
The variables in the above figure are explained. bf bw Df d Ap = breadth of the flange = breadth of the web = depth of the flange = depth of the centroid of prestressing steel (CGS) = area of the prestressing steel = strain difference in the prestressing steel when strain in concrete is zero = depth of the neutral axis at ultimate = strain in prestressing steel at the level of CGS at ultimate = stress in prestressing steel at ultimate
Based on the principles of mechanics (as explained under the Analysis of a Rectangular Section in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member Under Flexure (Part III)), the following equations are derived.
p
xu pu fpu
1) Equations of equilibrium The first equation states that the resultant axial force is zero. This means that the compression and the tension in the force couple balance each other.
F = 0 Tu = Cu Tuw +Tuf = Cuw + Cuf
The strain difference (p) is further explained in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part III).
In the sketch, the tensile force is decomposed into two components.
The first
( Apw + Apf ) fpu = 0.36
fck xu bw + 0.447 fck ( bf - bw ) Df
(3-5.5)
component (Tuw) balances the compressive force carried by the web, including the portion of the flange above web (Cuw). Thus Tuw= Cuw. The second component (Tuf) balances the compressive force carried by the outstanding portion of the flange (Cuf). Thus Tuf = Cuf. The stress block in concrete is derived from the constitutive relationship for concrete. The relationship is explained in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II). The compressive force in concrete can be calculated by integrating the stress block along the depth. The
The second equation relates the ultimate moment capacity (MuR) with the internal couple in the force diagram. MuR = Tuw ( d - 0.42 xu ) +Tuf ( d - 0.5Df ) = Apw fpu ( d - 0.42 xu ) + Apf fpu ( d - 0.5Df )
(3-5.6)
From Tuf = Cuf and Eqns. (3-5.2) and (3-5.4), Apf is given as follows. The calculation of Apw from Ap and Apf is also shown.
Apf =
0.447fck ( bf - bw ) Df fpu
(3-5.7)
7) Calculate Cuw, Cuf, Tuw and Tuf from Eqns. (3-5.1) to (3-5.4). If Eqn. (3-5.5) (Tu = Cu) is not satisfied, iterate with a new value of xu, till convergence. 8) Calculate MuR from Eqn. (3-5.6). The capacity MuR can be compared with the demand under ultimate loads. In the strain compatibility method, the difficult step is to calculate xu and fpu. Similar to the rectangular section, an approximate analysis can be done based on Table 11 and
Table 12, Appendix B, IS:1343-1980. The tables are reproduced in Table 3-4.1 and
Apw = Ap - Apf
(3-5.8)
2) Equation of compatibility The depth of the neutral axis is related to the depth of CGS by the similarity of the triangles in the strain diagram.
xu 0.0035 = d 0.0035 + pu - p
3) Constitutive relationships a) Concrete
(3-5.9)
Table 3-4.2, respectively, in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part III). The values of xu and fpu are available in terms of a reinforcement index pw. A f pw = pw pk bw dfck
(3-5.11)
The constitutive relationship for concrete is considered in the expressions of Cuw and Cuf. This is based on the area under the design stress-strain curve for concrete under compression.
Note that the index is calculated based on Apw instead of Ap. The calculation of Apw is from Eqn. (3-5.8). But Apf depends on fpu, which is unknown. Hence, an iterative procedure is required.
(3-5.10) fpu = F ( pu ) The function F(pu) represents the design stress-strain curve for the type of prestressing
The steps are as follows. 1) Assume fpu = 0.87fpk. 2) Calculate Apf and Apw from Eqn. (3-5.7) and Eqn. (3-5.8), respectively. 3) Calculate pw. 4) Calculate fpu from Table 11 or Table 12. Compare the calculated value of fpu with the assumed value. Repeat steps 1 to 4 till convergence. 5) Calculate MuR. If Df > (3/7) xu, the flange depth is larger than the depth of constant compressive stress.
steel used. The known variables in an analysis are: bf, bw, Df, d, Ap, p, fck and fpk. The unknown quantities are: Apf, Apw, MuR, xu, pu and fpu. The objective of the analysis is to find out MuR , the ultimate moment capacity. The simultaneous equations 3-5.1 to 3-5.10 can be solved iteratively.
The steps of the strain compatibility method are as follows. 1) Assume xu = Df. 2) The calculations are similar to a rectangular section, with b = bf. 3) If Tu > Cu, increase xu. Treat the section as a flanged section. 4) Calculate pu from Eqn. (3-5.9). 5) Calculate fpu from Eqn. (3-5.10). 6) Calculate Apf and Apw from Eqn. (3-5.7) and Eqn. (3-5.8), respectively.
An equivalent depth of the flange is defined as follows.
yf = 0.15xu + 0.65Df
The equivalent depth yf is substituted for Df in the expression of MuR.
(3-5.12)
Example 3-5.1
A bonded post-tensioned concrete beam has a flanged cross-section as shown. It is prestressed with tendons of area 1750 mm2 and effective prestress of 1100 N/mm2. The tensile strength of the tendon is 1860 N/mm2. The grade of concrete is M60.
Tu
= Apfpu = 1750 1618 = 2831.5 kN
Cu
= 0.36fckxubf = 0.36 60 175 460 = 1738.8 kN
Estimate the ultimate flexural strength of the member by the approximate method of IS:1343 - 1980.
Tu > Cu. Hence xu > Df
460 175 550 175 460 Values are in mm. Cross-section at mid-span 140
Treat as a flanged section
Assume
fpu = 0.87fpk
= 1618 N/mm2
900
Calculate Apf and Apw
115
Apf = =
0.447fck (bf - bw )Df fpu
0.447 60 (460 -140)175 1618 = 934 mm2

Apw = 1750 - 934
Solution
Effective depth
= 816 mm2
= 900 115 = 785 mm
Reinforcement index
pw = =
Apw fpk bw dfck
Assume xu = Df = 175 mm. Treat as a rectangular section, with b = bf = 460 mm. Reinforcement index From Table 11,
P = = AP fPk bdfck
8161860 140 785 60 = 0.23

fpu = 0.92 0.87fpk fpu = 0.920.87 1860 = 1489 N/mm2
1750 1860 460 785 60 = 0.15

nd
iteration fpu = 1489 N/mm2
Ultimate flexural strength

MuR = Tuw ( d - 0.42 xu ) + Tuf ( d - 0.5Df )
Calculate Apf and Apw

0.447 60 (460 - 140)175 Apf = 1489 = 1015 mm2
Tuw (d - 0.42 xu ) = Apw fpu (d - 0.42 xu ) = 7561521(785 - 0.42337) = 739.9 kNm Tuf (d - 0.5Df ) = Apf fpu (d - 0.5Df ) = 9941521(785 - 0.5175) = 1054.5 kNm
The ultimate flexural strength is given as follows.
Apw = 1750 -1015 = 735 mm2

Reinforcement index
pw = 735 1860 140 785 60 = 0.21
MuR = 1054.5 + 739.9 = 1794.4 kNm
From Table 11,

fpu = 0.94 0.87fpk fpu = 0.94 0.87 1860 = 1521N/mm2
rd
3 iteration fpu Calculate Apf and Apw

Apf = 0.447 60 (460 - 140)175 1521 = 994 mm2
= 1521N/mm2
Apw = 1750 - 994 = 756 mm2
Reinforcement index
pw = 756 1860 140 785 60 = 0.21
The value of wpw is same as after 2nd iteration. Hence, the values of fpu, Apf and Apw have converged.
3.6 Analysis of Members under Flexure (Part V)


b dp As Ap As d d
0.0035 s
0.447fck
Analysis of Partially Prestressed Section Analysis of Unbonded Post-tensioned Beam Analysis of Behaviour
xu fs
fs fpu
0.42xu
Cs Cc Tp Ts
Force
p
pu
3.6.1 Analysis of Partially Prestressed Section

Introduction The analyses that are presented in the earlier sections, are for members which do not have any conventional non-prestressed reinforcement. Usually conventional
Cross-section
Figure 3-6.1
Strain
Stress
Sketches for analysis of a partially prestressed section
The variables in the above figure are explained. b d d dp As As Ap = breadth of the section = depth of the centroid of the reinforcing steel (tension side) = depth of the centroid of the reinforcing steel (compression side) = depth of the centroid of prestressing steel (CGS) = area of the reinforcing steel (tension side) = area of the reinforcing steel (compression side) = area of the prestressing steel = strain difference in the prestressing steel when strain in concrete is zero = depth of the neutral axis at ultimate = strain in reinforcing steel (tension side) at ultimate = strain in reinforcing steel (compression side) at ultimate = strain in prestressing steel at the level of CGS at ultimate = stress in reinforcing steel (tension side) at ultimate = stress in reinforcing steel (compression side) at ultimate = stress in prestressing steel at ultimate.
reinforcement is provided in addition to the prestressing steel. When this reinforcement is considered in the flexural capacity, the section is termed as a partially prestressed section.
The reasons for using a partially prestressed section are as follows. 1) The section is economical. 2) The cambering is less compared to an equivalent section without conventional reinforcement. 3) The ductility is more in a partially prestressed section. 4) Any reversal of moments (for example, due to earthquake) is not detrimental as compared to an equivalent section without conventional reinforcement.
p
xu s s pu fs fs fpu
Analysis A partially prestressed section can be either rectangular or flanged. A section can be doubly reinforced with reinforcement near the compression face.
Here, the equations for a doubly reinforced rectangular section are given. The following sketch shows the beam cross section, strain profile, stress diagram and force couples at the ultimate state.
The strain difference (p) is further explained in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part III).
The stress block in concrete is derived from the constitutive relationship for concrete. The relationship is explained in Section 1.6, Concrete (Part II). The compressive force in concrete can be calculated by integrating the stress block along the depth. The stress in the tendon is calculated from the constitutive relationship for prestressing steel. The relationship is explained in Section 1.7, Prestressing Steel.
The expressions of the forces are as follows. Cs = Asfs Cc = 0.36fckxub Tp = Apfpu Ts = Asfs The strengths of the materials are denoted by the following symbols. fck fpk fy = characteristic compressive strength of concrete = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel = characteristic yield stress of reinforcing steel
(3-6.1) (3-6.2) (3-6.3) (3-6.4)
xu 0.0035 = d p 0.0035 + pu - p d - xu s = xu 0.0035 xu - d' = xu 0.0035 3) Constitutive relationships a) Concrete

' s
(3-6.7)
(3-6.8)
(3-6.9)
The constitutive relationship for concrete is considered in the expressions of Cc. This is based on the area under the design stress-strain curve for concrete under compression.
Based on the principles of mechanics (as explained under the Analysis of a Rectangular Section in Section 3.4, Analysis of Member Under Flexure (Part III)), the following equations are derived.
fpu = F1 ( pu )
c) Reinforcing steel
(3-6.10)
1) Equations of equilibrium The first equation states that the resultant axial force is zero. This means that the compression and the tension in the force couple balance each other.
F = 0 Tu = Cu Tp +Ts = Cc + C' s
' ' Ap fpu + As fs = 0.36fck xu b + As fs
fs = F2 ( s )
' fs' = F3 ( s )
(3-6.11) (3-6.12)
For mild steel

fs' = 0.87fy fs = 0.87fy
(3-6.13) (3-6.14)
(3-6.5)
The known variables in an analysis are: b, d, d, dp, As, As, Ap, p, fck, fy and fpk. The unknown quantities are: MuR, xu, s, s, pu, fs, fs and fpu.
The second equation relates the ultimate moment capacity (MuR) with the internal couple in the force diagram. MuR = Ts ( d - d p ) + Cc ( d p - 0.42 xu ) + C' s ( d p - d' ) = As fs ( d - d p ) + 0.36fck xu b ( d p - 0.42 xu ) + A' s fs' ( d p - d' ) 2) Equations of compatibility For each layer of steel there is a compatibility equation. If there are distributed
(3-6.6)
The objective of the analysis is to find out MuR, the ultimate moment capacity. The previous equations can be solved by the strain compatibility method as discussed for the fully prestressed rectangular section. 1) Assume xu. 2) Calculate pu from Eqn. 3-6.7. 3) Calculate fpu from Eqn. 3-6.10. 4) Calculate Tp from Eqn. 3-6.3. 5) Calculate s from Eqn. 3-6.8. 6) Calculate fs from Eqn. 3-6.11. 7) Calculate Ts from Eqn. 3-6.4. 8) Calculate s from Eqn. 3-6.9.
Ap
reinforcing bars in several layers and the spacing between the layers is large, then the use of compatibility equation for each layer is more accurate than the use of one compatibility equation for the centroid of the layers. The following equations are
developed based on the similarity of the triangles in the strain diagram.

9) Calculate fs from Eqn. 3-6.12. 10) Calculate Cs from Eqn. 3-6.1. 11) Calculate Cc from Eqn. 3-6.2. If Eqn. 3-6.5 (Tu = Cu) is not satisfied, change xu. If Tu < Cu decrease xu. If Tu > Cu increase xu. 12) Calculate MuR from Eqn. 3-6.6. The capacity MuR can be compared with the demand under ultimate loads.
unbonded post-tensioned beams. The values of fpu and xu are given as fpu/fpe and Xu/d, respectively. The effective prestress (after the losses) in a tendon is represented as fpe. Values of xu and fpu for unbonded post-tensioned rectangular beams (Table 12, IS:1343 - 1980) fpu/fpe p 30 For values of L/d 20 1.34 1.32 1.26 1.20 1.16 10 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.36 1.27 30 0.10 0.16 0.30 0.44 0.56 xu/d For values of L/d 20 0.10 0.16 0.32 0.46 0.58 10 0.10 0.18 0.36 0.52 0.64
Table 3-6.1
3.6.2 Analysis of Unbonded Post-tensioned Beam

In an unbonded post-tensioned beam, the ducts are not grouted. Hence, there is no strain compatibility between the steel of the tendons and the concrete at a section. The compatibility is in terms of deformation over the length of the member.
0.025 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
1.23 1.21 1.18 1.14 1.11
A sectional analysis is not possible. The analysis involves integrating the strain in concrete to calculate the deformation p = cp Here, p = deformation of the tendon cp = deformation of the concrete at the level of prestressing steel (CGS). The change in stress in steel (fp) at ultimate is determined from p. The stress in steel at ultimate is given by the sum of the effective prestress (fpe) and fp. fpu = fpe + fp
(3-6.16)
over
the
length
of
the
member.
The values of fpu/fpe and xu/d from Table 3-6.1 are plotted in Figures 3-6.2 and
3-6.3,
The equation of compatibility is given as follows.

(3-6.15)
respectively. It is observed that with increase in p, fpu reduces and xu increases. This is expected because with increase in the amount and strength in the steel, the stress in steel drops and the depth of the neutral axis increases to maintain equilibrium.
1.5
l /d
fpu/fpe
30 1.25 20 10
The value of fpu is less than that for a bonded tendon. The ultimate moment is given by the following equation.
MuR = Ap fpu ( d - 0.42 xu )
1 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
p
(3-6.17) Figure 3-6.2
Variation of fpu with respect to wp (Table 3-6.1)
The rigorous method of evaluating fpu, based on deformation compatibility, is difficult.

IS:1343 - 1980 allows to calculate fpu and xu approximately from Table 12, Appendix B,
based on the amount of prestressing steel. The later is expressed as the reinforcement index p = Apfpk / bdfck. Table 12 is reproduced as Table 3-6.1 which is applicable for
0.6
b
l /d
0.4
30
20
10
d Ap
xu / d
0.2
cp Cross-section Strain profile

Definition of curvature
Figure 3-6.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
p
Figure 3-6.3
The analysis of behaviour involves the following three principles of mechanics. 1) Equilibrium of internal forces with the external loads at any point of the behaviour. There are two equilibrium equations.
Variation of xu/d with respect to wp (Table 3-6.1)
Thus given the value of p for a section, the values of fpu and xu can be approximately calculated from the above tables.
a) Force equilibrium equation b) Moment equilibrium equation. The internal forces in concrete and steel are evaluated based on the respective
3.6.3 Analysis of Behaviour

The analysis of behaviour refers to the determination of the complete moment versus curvature behaviour of the section. The analyses at transfer, under service loads and for ultimate strength correspond to three instants in the above behaviour. The curvature () is defined as the gradient of the strain profile.
strains, cross-sectional areas and the constitutive relationships.
2) Compatibility of the strains in concrete and in steel for bonded tendons. This assumes a perfect bond between the two materials. For unbonded tendons, the compatibility is in terms of deformation.
3) Constitutive relationships relating the stresses and the strains in the materials. The relationships are developed based on the material properties.
(3-6.18)
=
Here,
c + cp d
The equilibrium and compatibility equations and the constitutive relationships can be solved to develop the moment versus curvature curve for a section.
c = extreme concrete compressive strain cp = strain in concrete at the level of prestressing steel (CGS) d = depth of the CGS. The following sketch shows the curvature () in the strain profile.
The following plot shows the curves for a prestressed section and a non-prestressed section. The two sections are equivalent in their ultimate flexural strengths.
Moment Ultimate strength
Ductility
The ductility is a measure of energy absorption. For beams, the curvature ductility () is defined as
Service load level Cracking load levels
=
Here, u = curvature at ultimate y = curvature at yield.
Curvature
u y
(3-6.19)
For prestressed beams, y can be defined corresponding to a plastic strain of 0.002 in the prestressing tendons. It has been observed that the ductility of prestressed beams is less than that in reinforced concrete beams.
Prestressed section
Non-prestressed section
Figure 3-6.5
Moment versus curvature curves
From the previous plot, the following can be inferred. 1) Prestressing increases the cracking load. This leads to the following benefits.
In design of members for seismic forces, ductility is an important requirement. In addition, seismic forces lead to reversal of moments near the supports of beams in a moment resisting frame. Hence, prestressing of beams in a moment resisting frame is not recommended in seismic areas.
Reduction of steel corrosion

Increase in durability.
Full section is utilised

Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness) Less deformations (improved serviceability). Experimental Investigation
The behaviour of a beam and its ultimate strength can be determined by testing prototype specimens. The tests can be conducted under static or dynamic loads. Testing also helps to check the performance of the anchorage units.
Increase in shear capacity.
2) Prestressing shifts the curve from the origin.
For the prestressed member, there is a negative curvature causing camber in absence of external moment.
The following photo shows the set-up for testing a prototype bridge girder.
A certain amount of external moment is required to straighten the member.
3) For a given moment, the curvature of the prestressed member is smaller.
Prestressing reduces curvature at service loads.
4) For a given reverse moment, the curvature of the prestressed member is larger.
Prestressing is detrimental for the response under reverse moment.
5) The ultimate strength of the prestressed member is lower.
Prestressing is detrimental under reverse moment.
6) For a partially prestressed section with the same ultimate strength, the moment versus curvature curve will lie in between the curves for prestressed and non-prestressed sections.
Figure 3-6.6
Set-up for testing a bridge girder
4.1 Design of Members


shaded area above the characteristic value represents 5% probability of exceedance of the load in the design life of the structure.
Calculation of Demand Design of Sections for Axial Tension

Frequency
Introduction The design of prestressed concrete members can be done by the limit states method as given in Section 4 of IS:1343 - 1980. First, the force demand in a member under the design loads is determined from a structural analysis. A preliminary size of the member is assumed for analysis. Next, the member is designed to meet the demand. If necessary, another cycle of analysis and design is performed. The following material explains the calculation of the demand in a member under the design loads. Figure 4-1.1
Mean
5% probability of exceedence Characteristic value
Values of load
Idealised normal distribution for a dead load
For live load, wind load and earthquake load, a characteristic load is defined based on an extreme value distribution. For example, the characteristic wind load is defined as the value which has a 98% probability of not being exceeded during a year.
4.1.1 Calculation of Demand

In the limit states method, the design loads are calculated from the characteristics loads by multiplying them with load factors (f). Several types of loads are considered to act together under the selected load combinations. The load factors are included in the load combinations as weightage factors. The demand in a member for a particular type of load is obtained from the analysis of the structure subjected to the characteristic value of the load. The demands for the several load types are then combined under the load combinations, based on the principle of superposition.
Frequency 2% probability of exceedence Characteristic value Annual maximum mean wind speed
Figure 4-1.2
Extreme value distribution
The characteristics loads can be obtained from IS:875 - 1987 (Code of Practice for Design Loads for Buildings and Structures) and IS:1893 - 2002 (Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures) as follows.
Characteristics Loads For dead loads, a characteristic load is defined as the value which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure. This concept assumes a normal distribution of the values of a particular dead load. In the following figure, the
Table 4-1.1 Type of load Dead load Live (imposed) load Wind load Snow Load Earthquake load
Codes covering information of loads Code (DL) (LL) (WL) (SL) (EL) IS:875 - 1987 Part 1 IS:875 - 1987 Part 2 IS:875 - 1987 Part 3 IS:875 - 1987 Part 4 IS:1893 - 2002 Part 1
1.5 (DL WL) 0.9 DL 1.5 EL The load combinations for service conditions are as follows. DL + LL DL + 0.8 (LL EL) DL EL DL WL
For special loads, there are some guidelines in IS: 875 - 1987, Part 5. In addition, specialised literature may be referred to for these loads. The special loads are listed below. Temperature Hydrostatic Soil pressure Fatigue Accidental load Impact and collision Explosions Fire
Analysis of Structures Regarding analysis of structures, IS:1343 - 1980 recommends the same procedure as stated in IS:456 - 2000. A structure can be analysed by the linear elastic theory to calculate the internal forces in a member subjected to a particular type of load.
Design of Members There can be more than one way to design a member. In design, the number of unknown quantities is larger than the number of available equations. Hence, some quantities need to be assumed at the beginning. These quantities are subsequently checked. The member can be designed either for the service loads or, for the ultimate loads. The
For special situations, the loads are determined from testing of prototype specimens. Dynamic load tests, wind tunnel tests, shake table tests are some types of tests to determine the loads on a structure. Finite element analysis is used to determine the stresses due to concentrated forces and dynamic loads.
procedure given here is one of the possible procedures. The design is based on satisfying the allowable stresses under service loads and at transfer. Initially, a lumpsum estimate of the losses is considered under service loads. After the first round of design, detailed computations are done to check the conditions of allowable stresses. Precise values of the losses are computed at this stage. The section is then analysed for the ultimate capacity. The capacity should be greater than the demand under ultimate loads to satisfy the limit state of collapse.
Load Factors and Load Combinations The load factors and the combinations of the various types of loads are given in Table 5 of IS:1343 - 1980. The following are the combinations for the ultimate condition. 1.5 (DL + LL) 1.2 (DL + LL WL) 1.2 (DL + LL EL) 1.5 (DL EL)
4.1.2 Design of Sections for Axial Tension

Introduction Prestressed members under axial loads only, are uncommon. Members such as hangers and ties are subjected to axial tension. Members such as piles may have bending moment along with axial compression or tension.
Here, At = transformed area of section P = external axial force Pe = effective prestress. The external axial force is considered positive if it is tension and negative if it is compression. In the above expression, non-prestressed reinforcement is not considered. If there is non-prestressed reinforcement, Ac is to be substituted by (Ac +
Design of Prestressing Force First, a preliminary dimension of the member is selected based on the architectural requirement. The prestressing force at transfer (P0) should be such that the compressive stress in concrete is limited to the allowable value. should be within the allowable value. At service, the designed prestressing force (Pe) should be such that the tensile stress in concrete The amount of prestressing steel (Ap) is determined from the designed prestressing force based on the allowable stress in steel.
(Es/Ec) As) and At is to be calculated including As. Analysis of Ultimate Strength The ultimate tensile strength of a section (PuR) is calculated as per Clause 22.3, IS:1343 - 1980. The ultimate strength should be greater than the demand due to factored loads. In absence of non-prestressed reinforcement, the ultimate tensile strength of a section
At transfer, in absence of non-prestressed reinforcement, the stress in concrete (fc) is given as follows.
P fc = - 0 Ac
(PuR) is given as follows.

PuR = 0.87fpk Ap
(4-1.4)
(4-1.1) In presence of non-prestressed reinforcement,

PuR = 0.87fy As + 0.87fpk Ap
Here, Ac = net area of concrete P0 = prestress at transfer after short-term losses.
(4-1.5)
In the previous equations, In presence of non-prestressed reinforcement, the stress in the concrete (fc) can be calculated as follows.
fc = P0 Ac + (Es /Ec )As
fy = characteristic yield stress for non-prestressed reinforcement with mild steel bars = characteristic 0.2% proof stress for non-prestressed reinforcement with high yield strength deformed bars. fpk = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing tendons.
(4-1.2)
Here, As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement Es = modulus of elasticity of steel Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete. At service, the stress in concrete (fc) can be calculated as follows.
fc = Pe P Ac At
The following example shows the design of a post-tensioned hanger for tension.
(4-1.3)
Example 4-1.1
Preliminary calculations at service Design a post-tensioned hanger to carry an axial tension of PDL = 300 kN (dead load including self-weight) and PLL = 130 kN. The dimension of the hanger is 250 250 mm2. Stress in concrete Design the section without considering non-prestressed reinforcement. Tension is not allowed under service loads. Allowable stress at service The grade of concrete is M 35. The age at transfer is 28 days. Assume 15% long term losses in the prestress. Considering 15% loss
fc = Pe P + Ac At
At A
= 250 250 = 62,500 mm2
fct,all = 0 N/mm2
Pe = 0.85P0
The following properties of the prestressing strands are available from tests. Type of prestressing tendon : 7 wire strand Nominal diameter Nominal area Tensile strength fpk Modulus of elasticity = 12.8 mm = 99.3 mm2 = 1860 N/mm2 = 195 kN/mm2. Solving, Solution Preliminary calculations at transfer Ac A = 250 250 = 62,500 mm2 Allowable stress for M35 concrete under direct compression at transfer
fcc,all = 0.8 0.51fci = 0.8 0.5135 = 14.3 N/mm2
Substituting the values

0= 0.85P0 P + A A
Preliminary calculations at service (continued)
0.85P0 = P P0 = 300 +130 0.85 = 506 kN
Allowable prestress in tendon
fp 0 = 0.8fpk = 0.81860 = 1488 N/mm2

Required area of tendon
Ap = 506,000 1488 = 340 mm2
Maximum prestressing force at transfer
Select 4 strands with
Ap = 499.3 = 397.2 mm2
P0 max = fc Ac = 14.3 62,500 = 892,500 N

Prestress at transfer
P0 = 397.21488 N = 591kN
Final calculations at transfer Ac = 62,500 - 397 = 62103 mm2 Stress in concrete fc = =P0 Ac 591,000 62,103 OK
Demand under factored loads
Pu = 1.5(300 +130) = 645.0 kN

PuR Pu Designed cross-section OK
250
= - 9.5 N/mm2
fc < fcc,all
250
(4) 7-wire strands with P0 = 591 kN
Final calculations at service
E p = 195 kN/mm2
Nominal non-prestressed reinforcement is provided for resisting thermal and shrinkage
Ec = 5,000 35 = 29,580 N/mm2
cracks.
At = 62,103 +
195 397.2 29.6 = 64,720 mm2
Stress in concrete
fc = Pe P + Ac At
fc = -
0.85 591,000 (300 +130)103 + 62,103 64,720
= - 1.4 N/mm2
No tensile stress in concrete. OK. Final calculations for ultimate strength
PuR = 0.87fpk Ap = 0.871860 397.2 N = 643.0 kN
4.2 Design of Sections for Flexure


2) Final: The values of e (at the critical section), Pe, Ap and the stresses in concrete at transfer and under service loads are calculated. The stresses are checked with the allowable values. The section is modified if required.
Preliminary Design Final Design for Type 1 Members Special Case
4.2.1 Preliminary Design

The steps of preliminary design are as follows. 1) Select the material properties fck and fpk. 2) Determine the total depth of beam (h). The total depth can be based on architectural requirement or, the following empirical equation can be used. h = 0.03 M to 0.04 M (4-2.1)
Calculation of Moment Demand For simply supported prestressed beams, the maximum moment at the span is given by the beam theory. For continuous prestressed beams, the analysis can be done by moment distribution method. The moment coefficients in Table 12 of IS:456 - 2000 can be used under conditions of uniform cross-section of the beams, uniform loads and similar lengths of span. The design is done for the critical section. For a simply supported beam under uniform loads, the critical section is at the mid span. For a continuous beam, there are critical sections at the supports and at the spans. For design under service loads, the following quantities are known. MDL MLL = moment due to dead load (excluding self-weight) = moment due to live load.
Here, h is in meters and M is in kNm. M is the total moment excluding self-weight. 3) Select the type of section. For a rectangular section, assume the breadth b = h/2. 4) Calculate the self-weight or, estimate the self-weight to be 10% to 20% of the load carried. 5) Calculate the total moment MT including self-weight. The moment due to self-weight is denoted as Msw. 6) Estimate the lever arm (z). z 0.65h, if Msw is large (Msw > 0.3MT). z 0.5h, if Msw is small. 7) Estimate the effective prestress (Pe) Pe = MT / z, if Msw is large. Pe = MI L / z, if Msw is small. If Msw is small, the design is governed by the moment due to imposed load (MI L = MT MSW). 8) Considering fpe = 0.7fpk , calculate area of prestressing steel Ap = Pe / fpe. 9) Check the area of the cross-section (A). The average stress in concrete at service C/A (= Pe /A) should not be too high as compared to 50% of the allowable compressive stress fcc,all . If it is so, increase the area of the section to A = Pe /(0.5fcc,all).
The material properties are selected before the design. The following quantities are unknown. The member cross-section and its geometric properties, MSW Ap Pe e = moment due to self-weight, = amount of prestressing steel, = the effective prestress, = the eccentricity.
There are two stages of design. 1) Preliminary: In this stage the cross-section is defined and Pe and Ap are estimated.
4.2.2 Final Design for Type 1 Members

The code IS:1343 - 1980 defines three types of prestressed members. Type 1: In this type of members, no tensile stress is allowed in concrete at transfer or under service loads. Type 2: In these members, tensile stress is within the cracking stress of concrete. Type 3: Here, the tensile stress is such that the crack width is within the allowable limit. The final design involves the checking of the stresses in concrete at transfer and under service loads with respect to the allowable stresses. Since the allowable stresses depend on the type of member (Type 1, Type 2 or Type 3), the equations vary for the different types. Here, the steps of final design are explained for Type 1 members. The steps for Type 2 members are explained in Section 4.3, Design of Sections for Flexure (Part II). The steps for Type 3 members are similar to Type 2, the only difference being the value of the allowable tensile stress in concrete. For small moment due to self-weight (Msw 0.3MT), the steps are as follows. 1) Calculate eccentricity e to locate the centroid of the prestressing steel (CGS). With increasing load, the compression (C) moves upward from the location of the tension (T) at CGS. At transfer, under the self-weight, C should lie within the kern zone to avoid tensile stress at the top. The kern points and kern zone are explained in Section 3.3, Analysis of Member under Flexure (Part II). The lowest permissible location of C due to self-weight is at the bottom kern point (at a depth kb below CGC) to avoid tensile stress at the top. The design procedure based on the extreme location of C gives an economical section. Figure 4-2.1 In the above sketch, A fb h = gross area of cross section
Msw C T +
CGC CGS
kt kb
ct C e cb fb
C/A = P0/A
Internal force in concrete
Stress in concrete
Stress in concrete due to compression at bottom kern point
= maximum compressive stress in concrete at bottom edge = total height of the section
kt, kb = distances of upper and lower kern points, respectively, from CGC ct, cb = distances of upper and lower edges, respectively, from CGC P0 = prestress at transfer after initial losses.
The shift of C due to self-weight gives an expression of e. e = (Msw / P0) + kb (4-2.2)
Here, the magnitude of C or T is equal to P0. The value of P0 can be estimated as follows. a) 90% of the initial applied prestress (Pi) for pre-tensioned members. b) Equal to Pi for post-tensioned members. The value of Pi can be estimated from the amount of prestressing steel determined in the preliminary design. Pi = Ap(0.8fpk) (4-2.3)
Here, the permissible prestress in the steel is 0.8fpk, where fpk is the characteristic The following sketch explains the lowest permissible location of C due to self-weight moment (Msw) at transfer. 2) Recompute the effective prestress Pe and the area of prestressing steel Ap. With increasing load, C further moves up. Under the service loads, C should lie within the kern zone to avoid tensile stress at the bottom. The highest permissible location of tensile strength.
C due to total load is at the top kern point (at a height kt above CGC) to avoid tensile stress at the bottom. The following sketch explains the highest possible location of C due to the total moment (MT).
- 1980). At service, the stress at the top should be limited to fcc,all , where fcc,all is the allowable compressive stress in concrete under service loads (available from Figure 7 of IS:1343 - 1980). a) At Transfer
ft h C T
+
The stress at the bottom can be calculated from the average stress P0/A.
P0 h A ct
MT
CGC CGS
kt kb
ct e cb C/A = Pe/A
fb = -
(4-2.6)
To satisfy |fb| fcc,all, the area of the section (A) is checked as follows.
A P0h fcc,all ct

Figure 4-2.2 In the above sketch, ft = maximum compressive stress in concrete at top edge. The shift of C due to the total moment gives an expression of Pe. Pe = MT /(e + kt)
0 Stress in concrete
(4-2.7)
Stress in concrete due to compression at top kern point
If A is not adequate then the section has to be redesigned. b) At Service The stress at the top can be calculated from the average stress Pe/A. (4-2.4)
P h f =- e t A cb
(4-2.8)
Considering fpe = 0.7fpk , the area of prestressing steel is recomputed as follows. Ap = Pe / fpe 3) Recompute eccentricity e First the value of P0 is updated. The eccentricity e is recomputed with the updated value of P0. If the variation of e from the previous value is large, another cycle of computation of the prestressing variables can be undertaken. 4) Check the compressive stresses in concrete. The maximum compressive stress in concrete should be limited to the allowable values. At transfer, the stress at the bottom should be limited to fcc,all , where fcc,all is the allowable compressive stress in concrete at transfer (available from Figure 8 of IS:1343 (4-2.5)
To satisfy |ft| fcc,all, the area of the section (A) is checked as follows.
A Pe h fcc,all cb
(4-2.9)
If A is not adequate then the section has to be redesigned.
4.2.3 Special Case

For large moment due to self-weight (Msw > 0.3 MT), the eccentricity e according to e = (Mw / P0) + kb may violate the cover requirements or, may even lie outside the beam. In such cases, locate e as per cover requirements. The location of C at transfer will be within the kern zone without zero stress at the top. The expression of stress at the bottom is different from that given earlier. The other steps are same as before.
At transfer, the stress at the bottom is calculated using the following stress profile.
The properties of the prestressing strands are given below. Type of prestressing tendon : 7-wire strand Nominal diameter Nominal area = 12.8 mm = 99.3 mm2
CGC
e MSW/P0 C fb
C/A =P0/A
Solution
A) Preliminary design The values of h and MSW are given.
(4-2.10)
Figure 4-2.3
Stress in concrete due to compression above bottom kern point
M P0 e - sw cb P0 P fb = - 0 - A I
Substituting I = Ar2 and r2/cb = kt
e - Msw P P0 fb = - 0 1+ A kt
1) Estimate lever arm z.
Msw 55 = MT 435 = 12.5 %
(4-2.11)
Since MSW < 0.3 MT , Use z = 0.5h = 0.5 920 = 460 mm
To satisfy |fb| fcc,all, the area of the section (A) is checked as follows. e - Msw P0 P0 1+ fcc,all kt 2) Estimate the effective prestress.
(4-2.12)
Moment due to imposed loads
MIL = MT - Msw = 435 - 55 = 380 kNm

Effective prestress
The following example shows the design of a Type 1 prestressed member.
Example 4-2.1
Design a simply supported Type 1 prestressed beam with MT = 435 kNm (including an estimated MSW = 55 kNm). The height of the beam is restricted to 920 mm. The prestress at transfer fp0 = 1035 N/mm2 and the prestress at service fpe = 860 N/mm2. Based on the grade of concrete, the allowable compressive stresses are 12.5 N/mm2 at transfer and 11.0 N/mm2 at service.
Pe =
380 103 460 = 826 kN
3) Estimate the area of the prestressing steel.

Ap = = Pe fpe
826103 860 = 960 mm2
4) Estimate the area of the section to have average stress in concrete equal to 0.5 fcc,all .
Moment of inertia of the section about axis through CGC
A=
Pe 0.5fcc,all
I = 2I1 + I2 1 1 3 2 3 = 2 12 390 100 + (390 100) 410 + 12 100 720 = 1.6287 1010 mm4
r2 = I A 1.6287 1010 = 150,000 = 108,580 mm2
826 103 = 0.511.0 = 150 103 mm2

The following trial section has the required depth and area. Trial cross-section
390 100 100
920
Kern levels of the section
100 Values in mm.

B) Calculation of geometric properties The section is symmetric about the horizontal axis. Hence, the CGC lies at mid depth. The section is divided into three rectangles for the computation of the geometric properties.
kt = k b = =
r2 ct
108,580 460 = 236 mm

Summary after preliminary design Properties of section A = 150,000 mm2 = 1.62871010 mm4
1 410 CGC 2
ct = 460
ct = cb = 460 mm kt = kb = 236 mm Properties of prestressing steel
3 Values in mm.
Check area of the section
Ap = 960 mm2 Pe = 826 kN
A = 2 A1 + A2 = 2(390100) + (720100) = 150,000 mm2
2
C) Final design 1) Calculate eccentricity e

P0 = Ap fp 0 = 9601035 = 993.6 kN
The governing value of A is 158,976 mm . The section needs to be revised. The width of the flange is increased to 435 mm. The area of the revised section is 159,000 mm2.
e= = Msw + kb P0
Another set of calculations can be done to calculate the geometric properties precisely. Designed cross-section at mid-span
435
55.0 103 + 236 993.6 290 mm
2) Recompute the effective prestress and associated variables.

Pe = = MT e+ kt
100 100 CGC CGS 100 290 920 (10) 7-wire strands with P0 = 994 kN
435 103 (290 + 236) = 827 kN
Since Pe is very close to the previous estimate of 826 kN, Ap, P0 and e remain same. The tendons are placed in two ducts. The outer diameter of each duct is 54 mm. Select (10) 7-wire strands with
Ap = 10 99.3 = 993.0 mm2
3) Check the compressive stresses in concrete. a) At transfer

A = P0h fcc,all ct
993.6 920 12.5 460 = 158,976 mm2
b) At service
A = Pe h fcc,all cb
827 920 11.0 460 = 150,364 mm2
4.3 Design of Sections for Flexure (Part II)

In the above sketch,
fb fct,all h
= maximum compressive stress in concrete at bottom edge = allowable tensile stress in concrete at top edge = total height of the section
Final Design for Type 2 Members
The steps for Type 1 members are explained in Section 4.2, Design of Sections for Flexure (Part I).
kt, kb = distances of upper and lower kern points, respectively, from CGC ct, cb = distances of upper and lower edges, respectively, from CGC e1
= distance between the bottom kern point and the location of compression
4.3.1 Final Design for Type 2 Members

e2
For Type 2 members, the tensile stress under service loads is within the cracking stress of concrete. The allowable tensile stress in concrete (fct,all) as per IS:1343 - 1980 is same for transfer and service load conditions. The value is 3.0 N/mm2, which can be increased to 4.5 N/mm2 for temporary loads.
= distance by which the compression travels from CGS due to self weight
P0
= prestress at transfer after initial losses.
From the previous figure, the shift of C due to self-weight gives an expression of e2. It is evident that if C is further shifted upwards by a distance e1 to the bottom kern point, there will be no tensile stress at the top. e2 = Msw P0
The following material provides the steps for sections with small self-weight moment. For sections with large self- weight moment, the eccentricity e may need to be determined based on the cover requirements.
(4-3.1)
1) Calculate eccentricity e to locate the centroid of the prestressing steel (CGS). Under the self-weight, C may lie outside the kern region. The lowest possible location of C due to self-weight is determined by the allowable tensile stress at the top.
The value of e1 is calculated from the expression of stress corresponding to the moment due to the shift in C by e1.
The following sketch explains the extreme location of C due to self-weight moment (Msw) at transfer.
P0e1ct = fct,all I f I e1 = ct,all P0ct e1 =

Substituting I = Ar2 and r2/ct = kb The distance of the CGS below the bottom kern point is given as follows.
(4-3.2)
fct,all h C T
+
fct,all Ak b P0
MSW
CGC CGS
kt kb e1 e 2
ct C cb fb

Figure 4-3.1
Stress in concrete
e1 + e2 =
Msw + fct,all Ak b P0
(4-3.3)
Stress in concrete due to compression outside bottom kern point
The eccentricity e is calculated from the following equation. e = e1 + e2 + k b
The shift of C due to the total moment gives an expression of Pe.
e=
Msw + fct,all Ak b + kb P0
MT = Pe ( e+kt +e3 )
(4-3.4)
= Pe ( e+kt ) +fct,all Akt Pe = MT - fct,all Akt e+kt

(4-3.6)
The above expression can be compared with the expression of Type 1 member e = (Msw / P0) + kb. Note that the eccentricity has increased for a Type 2 member due to the allowable tensile stress fct,all. 2) Recompute the effective prestress Pe and the area of prestressing steel Ap. Under the total load, C may lie outside the kern region. The highest permissible location of C due to total load is determined by the allowable tensile stress at the bottom.
The above expression can be compared with the expression of Type 1 member Pe = MT /(e + kt). Note that the prestressing force has decreased for a Type 2 member due to the allowable tensile stress fct,all. This will lead to a decrease in the area of prestressing steel (Ap). Considering fpe = 0.7fpk, Ap is recomputed as follows.
Ap = Pe/ fpe
3) Recompute eccentricity e
(4-3.7)
The following sketch explains the highest possible location of C due to the total moment (MT).
First the value of P0 is updated. The eccentricity e is recomputed with the updated value
ft MT h C T
+
CGC CGS
of P0. If the variation of e from the previous value is large, another cycle of computation of the prestressing variables can be undertaken.
e3 kt kb
ct cb fct,all
Stress in concrete
4) Check the compressive stresses in concrete The maximum compressive stress in concrete should be limited to the allowable values.
Figure 4-3.2
Stress in concrete due to compression outside top kern point
At transfer, the stress at the bottom should be limited to fcc,all , where fcc,all is the
From the previous figure, the expression of e3 is obtained by the tensile stress generated due to the shift of C beyond the upper kern point.
Pe e3cb = fct,all I f I e3 = ct,all Pe cb f Ak e3 = ct,all t Pe
allowable compressive stress in concrete at transfer (available from Figure 8 of IS:1343 - 1980). At service, the stress at the top should be limited to fcc,all , where fcc,all is the allowable compressive stress in concrete under service loads (available from Figure 7 of IS:1343 - 1980).
a) At Transfer
(4-3.5)
The stress at the bottom can be calculated from the stress diagram.
Substituting I = Ar2 and r2/cb = kt
C C ( kb + e1 ) cb fb = - A I kbcb Ce1cb C fb = - 1+ A r2 I
(4-3.8)
From fct,all = Ce1ct / I, substituting Ce1 / I = fct,all /ct

fb = C cb fct,all 1+ cb A ct ct
If A is not adequate then the section has to be redesigned.
The following table shows a comparison of equations for Type 1 and Type 2 members.
Table 4-3.1 (4-3.9)
C h fct,all fb = cb A ct ct
Comparison of equations for Type 1 and Type 2 members Type 1 Type 2
Eccentricity To satisfy |fb| fcc,all, the area of the section (A) is checked as follows.
C h fct,all + cb fcc,all A ct ct P0 h fcc,all ct - fct,all cb A P0 h A fcc,all ct - fct,all cb
M e = sw + k b P0 Pe = MT e + kt
M + f Ak e = sw ct,all b + k b P0 Pe = A A MT - fct,all Akt e + kt
Effective prestress
Minimum area based on stress at bottom at transfer

(4-3.10)
A A
P0 h fcc,all ct
P0 h fcc,all ct - fct,all cb Pe h fcc,all cb - fct,all ct
Minimum area based on stress at top at service
Pe h fcc,all cb
If A is not adequate then the section has to be redesigned. The following example shows the design of a Type 2 prestressed member. The same b) At Service The stress at the top can be calculated from the stress diagram. C C ( kt + e3 ) ct A I C kt ct Ce3ct ft = - 1+ 2 A r I ft = From fct,all = Ce3cb / I, substituting Ce3 / I = fct,all /cb
ft = ft = C ct fct,all ct 1+ A cb cb C h fct,all ct A cb cb
section was designed as a Type 1 member in Section 4.2, Design of Sections for Flexure (Part I). The solutions of the two examples are compared at the end.
Example 4-3.1
(4-3.11) Design a simply supported Type 2 prestressed beam with MT = 435 kNm (including an estimated MSW = 55 kNm). The height of the beam is restricted to 920 mm. The prestress at transfer fp0 = 1035 N/mm2 and the prestress at service fpe = 860 N/mm2. (4-3.12) Based on the grade of concrete, the allowable compressive stresses are 12.5 N/mm2 at transfer and 11.0 N/mm2 at service. 2.1 N/mm2 at transfer and 1.6 N/mm2 at service. The allowable tensile stresses are
To satisfy |ft| fcc,all, the area of the section (A) is checked as follows.
C h fct,all ct fcc,all + A cb cb Pe h fcc,all cb - fct,all ct A Pe h A fcc,all cb - fct,all ct
The properties of the prestressing strands are given below.
Type of prestressing tendon : 7-wire strand (4-3.13) Nominal diameter Nominal area = 12.8 mm = 99.3 mm2
Solution
A) Preliminary design
The following trial section has the required depth and area.
Trial cross-section
390
The values of h and MSW are given. 1) Estimate lever arm z.
100 100
Msw 55 = MT 435 = 12.5 %
920
100 Values in mm.

B) Calculation of geometric properties
Since MSW < 0.3 MT , use z = 0.5h = 0.5 920 = 460 mm

The section is symmetric about the horizontal axis. Hence, the CGC lies at mid depth.
2) Estimate the effective prestress. Moment due to imposed loads
The section is divided into three rectangles for the computation of the geometric properties.
MIL = MT - Msw = 435 - 55 = 380 kNm

Effective prestress Pe = 380 103 460 = 826 kN
Check area of the section
1 410 CGC 2
ct = 460
3 Values in mm.
3) Estimate the area of the prestressing steel.

P Ap = e fpe 826103 = 860 = 960 mm2
A = 2(390 100) + (720 100) = 150,000 mm2

Moment of inertia of the section about axis through CGC I = 2I1 + I2
4) Estimate the area of the section to have average stress in concrete equal to 0.5 fcc,all . A= = Pe 0.5fcc,all
1 1 = 2 390 1003 + (390 100) 4102 + 100 7203 12 12 10 4 = 1.6287 10 mm
826 103 0.511.0 = 150 103 mm2


r2 = I A 1.62871010 = 150,000 = 108,580 mm2
e = e1 + e 2 + k b = 130 + 236 = 366 m m

2) Recompute the effective prestress and the area of prestressing steel Ap.
Pe = MT - fct,all Akt e+ kt 435103 = = 625.6 kN 1.65 150,000 236 103 336 + 236
Kern levels of the section kt = k b = r ct

2
108,580 = 460 = 236 mm Summary after preliminary design

to be recalculated.
Since Pe is substantially lower than the previous estimate of 826 kN, Ap, P0 and e need
Pe fpe
Ap =
Properties of section A I = 150,000 mm2 = 1.62871010 mm4

3) Recompute eccentricity e
625.6103 860 = 727 mm2 =
ct = cb = 460 mm kt = kb = 236 mm Values of prestressing variables Ap Pe = 960 mm2 = 826 kN

e= Msw + fct,all Akb + kb P0 55 103 + 2.1 150,000 236 103 + 236 752.4
P0 = Ap fp 0 = 7271035 = 752.4kN
C) Final design
=
1) Calculate eccentricity e
P0 = Ap fp 0 = 960 1035 = 993.6 kN
= 172 + 236 = 408 400 mm
Check the cover requirement

e1 + e2 = Msw + fct,all Ak b P0 55 103 + = = 130mm
2.1 150,000 236 103 993.6
Assuming the outer diameter of duct equal to 54 mm 1 Clear cover for the duct = 460 - 400 - 54 2 = 33 mm
The clear cover at the bottom is greater than 30 mm (Clause 11.1.6.2, IS: 1343 - 1980), which is satisfactory. The side cover in the web is slightly less than 30 mm. The thickness of the web can be increased to satisfy the requirement. At service
A =
Pe h fcc,all cb - fct,all ct
Since the value of e has changed from 366 mm to 400 mm, prestressing variables are recomputed.
Pe = MT - fct,all Akt e + kt
592103 920 11 460 -1.65 460 = 126,631 mm2

The governing value of A is 138,352 mm2. The section can be revised. The width of the flange is reduced to 335 mm. The area of the revised section is 139,000 mm2. Another set of calculations can be done to calculate the geometric properties precisely.
1.65 435 103 - 3 150,000 236 10 = 400 + 236 = 592.0 kN
Design cross-section at mid-span Pe has further reduced from 625.6 kN. Ap and P0 are recalculated.
335 100 100 CGC 400 CGS 100 (7) 7-wire strands with P0 = 719 kN 920
592103 Ap = 860 = 688.5 mm2

Select (7) 7-wire strands with
Ap = 799.3 = 695.1mm2
The tendons can be placed in one duct. The outer diameter of the duct is 54 mm.
P0 = 695.11035 = 719.4kN
Comparison of Type 1 and Type 2 sections
The solutions from the examples of Type 1 and Type 2 members are placed together in the next figure for comparison.
435 100 100 CGC CGS 100 290 920 CGC 400 CGS 100 (7) 7-wire strands with P0 = 719 kN Type 2 100 100 920 335
Since the maximum possible eccentricity is based on cover requirement, the value of e is not updated.
4) Check the compressive stresses in concrete. At transfer
A =
P0h fcc,all ct - fct,all cb

3
719.410 920 12.5 460 - 2.1 460 = 138,352 mm2
(10) 7-wire strands with P0 = 994 kN Type 1
Figure 4-3.3
Sections designed as Type 1 and Type 2 members
4.4 Design of Sections for Flexure (Part III)

The following observations can be made. 1) In Type 2 section, the amount of prestressing steel and the prestressing force are less than those in a Type 1 section. The area of cross-section is less for Type 2 section. Type 2 section is relatively economical.

Choice of Sections Determination of Limiting Zone Post-tensioning in Stages
4.4.1 Choice of Sections

2) The eccentricity in Type 2 section is larger than in Type 1 section. For unit prestressing force, the prestressing is more effective in Type 2 section.
The type of section is selected based on the use of the structure, architectural requirements, casting and fabrication options, available technology and skilled work force. Here, a few comments are given for the available types of sections. 1) The section should have large depth below the CGC, so as to have the provision of large eccentricity. The prestressing force can then be reduced. 2) There should be adequate concrete at the top and bottom to satisfy the allowable stresses. 3) The end section is usually solid to increase the shear capacity and prevent anchorage zone failure. Here, the sections are broadly grouped under rectangular section, T-section, I-section and inverted T-section. Some variations of each type are shown under the corresponding broad groups. The sections in each group have similar analysis procedure. The sections shown are not exclusive.
Table 4-4.1 Rectangular Broad groups of sections
Types of sections T-section I-section Inverted Tsection Application of composite sections Good for building construction
1) Topping serves to tie all sections together. 2) No form required for composite pour. Long span buildings and bridges. Bridges
Variations (a) (b)
The different types of sections can be compared by a measure of flexural efficiency . The flexural efficiency is defined in terms of the radius of gyration r as follows. (a) More room for
Remarks on the sections
tendons in lower flange. (b) Better stability during erection.
=
Torsionally stiff and strong.
r2 ct cb r 2 ct + cb ct cb h
Fabrication Space for reinforcement
Easy
Easy Less than adequate
Expensive form work Good
Difficult
r2 r2 + c b ct = h k + kb (4-4.1) = t h Thus for a given value of the depth h, if the

kern zone (kt+kb) is large then the section is efficient. For a rectangular section, = 0.33. For an I-section,
Adequate
Good 1) Very
Effeciency for non-composite sections Poor, z 0.4h Good, z 0.5h
inefficient. Very good, z 0.7h 2) Small ultimate moment capacity 1) Especially 1) Good for long span and Msw/MT large 2) Msw/MT
> 0.33.
4.4.2 Determination of Limiting Zone

For full prestressed members (Type 1), tension is not allowed under service conditions. If tension is also not allowed at transfer, C always lies within the kern zone. The limiting zone is defined as the zone for placing the CGS of the tendons such that C always lies within the kern zone. Also, the maximum compressive stresses at transfer and service should be within the allowable values. For limited prestressed members (Type 2 and Type 3), tension is allowed at transfer and under service conditions. The limiting zone is defined as the zone for placing the CGS such that the tensile stresses in the extreme edges are within the allowable values. Also, the maximum compressive stresses at transfer and service should be within the
Application of non-composite sections
1) Light load and good for long short span. 2) Msw/MT large. LL DL.
span roofs, when heavy loads. 2) Msw/MT large. small.
Effeciency for composite sections
Very good
Increases load Very good
Very good with cast-inplace flange.
particularly when capacity only section is shored. slightly.
allowable values. Note that the limiting zone is a restriction for the CGS. The individual tendons may lie outside the limiting zone. The following figure shows the limiting zone (as the shaded region) for a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load.
C L CGC
The following sketch shows the stress profile in concrete when C is at the lowest permissible location due to self-weight moment (Msw) at transfer.
0
CGC CGS
kt kb
ct C T emax c b
Stress in concrete
Locus of emin
Internal forces
fb
Locus of emax
Figure 4-4.1 Limiting zone for a simply supported beam
Figure 4-4.2
Stress in concrete due to compression at bottom kern point
From the shift of C due to self-weight, the following expression can be derived.
emax - k b = or, emax = Msw P0 Msw + kb P0
The limiting zone is determined from the maximum or minimum eccentricities of the CGS along the beam corresponding to the extreme positions of
C.
The maximum eccentricity (emax) at any section corresponds to the lowest possible location of C at transfer, that generates allowable tensile stress at the top of the section. Also, the maximum compressive stress at the bottom should be within the allowable value. The minimum eccentricity (emin) at any section corresponds to the highest possible location of C at service, that generates allowable tensile stress at the bottom of the section. Also, the maximum compressive stress at the top should be within the allowable value. The following material gives the expressions of emax and emin for Type 1 and Type 2 sections. The zone between the loci of emax and emin is the limiting zone of the section for placing the CGS. The values of emax and emin can be determined by equating the stresses at the edges of concrete with the allowable values. Else, explicit expressions of
(4-4.2)
Note that since MSW varies, emax varies along the length of the beam. Also, the stress at the bottom needs to be checked to satisfy the condition |fb| fcc,all. At Service The following sketch shows the stress profile in concrete when C is at the highest possible location due to the total moment (MT).
ft kt kb C emin T ct cb
0 Stress in concrete
CGC CGS
emax and emin can be used. Here, the expressions of emax and emin based on allowable
tensile stress are given. Figure 4-4.3
Internal forces
Stress in concrete due to compression at top kern point
Type 1 Section At Transfer
From the shift of C due to total moment, the following expression can be derived.
emin + kt = or, emin = MT Pe MT - kt Pe
(4-4.3) Note that since MT varies, emin varies along the length of the beam. Also, the stress at the top needs to be checked to satisfy the condition |ft| fcc,all. If for a particular section emin is negative, it implies that the CGS can be placed above CGC. This happens near the supports. Figure 4-4.5 Type 2 Section At Transfer The following sketch shows the stress profile in concrete when C is at the lowest permissible location due to self-weight moment (Msw) at transfer.
ft e3 kt kb C ct emin c b fct,all
Stress in concrete
CGC CGS
Internal forces
Stress in concrete due to compression outside top kern point
emin + kt =
or,
MT - fct,all Akt Pe MT - fct,all Akt - kt Pe

(4-4.5)
fct,all kt k e1 b e2 CGS ct C emax cb T
emin =
Note that emin for a Type 2 section is smaller than that for a Type 1 section due to the term fct,all Akt in the numerator. The stress at the bottom needs be checked to satisfy the condition |ft| fcc,all.
CGC
Internal forces
Stress in concrete
fb
The zone between emax and emin is the limiting zone of the section for placing the CGS for a given loading condition. The values of emax and emin for several sections can be determined at regular intervals along the length of the beam to get their loci. Note that the limiting zone for a Type 2 member is larger than the limiting zone for a Type 1 member. The following table shows a comparison of equations for Type 1 and Type 2 members. (4-4.4) Table 4-4.2 Comparison of equations for Type 1 and Type 2 members Type 1 Maximum eccentricity
e= Msw + kb P0
Figure 4-4.4
Stress in concrete due to compression outside bottom kern point

M + f Ak emax - k b = sw ct,all b P0 or, emax = Msw + fct,all Ak b + kb P0
Type 2
Note that emax for a Type 2 section is larger than that for a Type 1 section due to the term fct,all Akb in the numerator. The stress at the bottom needs to be checked to satisfy the condition |fb| fcc,all. At Service The following sketch shows the stress profile in concrete when C is at the highest possible location due to the total moment (MT).
e=
M sw + fct,all Ak b + kb P0
Minimum eccentricity
e=
MT - kt Pe
e=
MT - fct,all Akt - kt Pe
The following example shows the calculation of limiting zone based on equating the stresses at the edges of concrete with the allowable values.
Example 4-4.1
For the Type 2 post-tensioned beam with a flanged section as shown, the span is 18 m. For uniform loads, the profile of the CGS is parabolic. The live load
900 500 100
1 + 2
y
ct
CGC
moment at mid-span (MLL) is 648 kNm. The prestress after transfer (P0) is 1600 kN. Assume 15% loss at service.
cb
Evaluate the limiting zone of CGS, if the allowable stresses at transfer and at service are as follows. For compression, fcc,all = 18.0 N/mm2 For tension, fct,all = 1.5 N/mm .
500 200 150
2
Values in mm.
Area of the section Area of 1 Area of 2 Area of 3 A = A1 = 500 200 = 100,000 mm2 = A2 = 600 150 = 90,000 mm2 = A3 = 250 200 = 50,000 mm2 = A1 + A2 + A3 = 240,000 mm2 Distance of CGC from the soffit
CGS 150 250 Values in mm. 200
1000
y=
A1 900 + A2 500 + A3 100 A = 583.3 mm
Therefore,
cb = 583.3 mm ct = 1000.0 - 583.3 = 416.7 mm
Solution
A) Calculation of geometric properties The section is divided into three rectangles for the computation of the geometric properties. The centroid of each rectangle is located from the soffit.
Moment of inertia of 1 about axis through CGC
I1 =
1 500 2003 + A1 (900 - 583.3)2 12 = 1.036 1010 mm4
Moment of inertia of 2
I2 =
1 150 6003 + A 2 (583.3 - 500)2 12 = 3.32109 mm4
Moment of inertia of 3
I3 =
1 250 2003 + A3 (583.3 -100)2 12 = 1.184 1010 mm4
P0 1600103 =240103 A = -6.67 N/mm2
Moment of inertia of the section I = I1 + I2 + I3 = (1.036 + 0.336 +1.184)1010 = 2.5521010 mm4 Calculation of moment due to self weight.
P0ecb 1600 103 e 583.3 =I 2.5521010 = - 0.0366e

MSW cb 233.3106 583.3 = 2.5521010 I = 5.33 N/mm2
2
1 m2 wSW = 24 kN/m3 240,000 mm2 3 2 10 mm = 5.76 kN/m

wSW L2 8 5.76182 = 8 = 233.3 kNm
fb = - 6.67 - 0.0366e + 5.33 = - 18.0 N/mm2
MSW =
Solving, e =
18.0 - 6.67 + 5.33 0.0366 = 455.2 mm
ii) Calculate e based on ft = 1.5 N/mm2.
B) Determination of limiting zone The values of emax and emin are determined by equating the stresses at the edges of concrete with the allowable values. The expression of stress is given below.
f =M
P0ect 1600 103 e 416.7 = I 2.5521010 = 0.0261 e

MSW ct 233.3106 416.7 =2.5521010 I = -3.81N/mm2
P Pey My A I I
+ + =
CGC
P
ft = - 6.67 + 0.0261e - 3.81 = 1.5 N/mm2
P/A
Pey/ I
My/ I
Solving, e =
Limiting position at mid-span For emax, consider the load stage at transfer. i) Calculate e based on fb = 18.0 N/mm2.
1.5 + 6.67 + 3.81 0.0261 = 460.8 mm
Out of the two values of e, the lower value 455.2 mm governs.
emax = 455.2 mm
For emin, consider the load stage at service. i) Calculate e based on ft = 18.0 N/mm2.
Limiting position at end
MSW = MLL = 0.0

At transfer For fb = 18.0 N/mm2
fb = - 6.67 - 0.0366e = - 18.0 N/mm2
Pe P = 0.85 0 A A = - 5.67 N/mm2

Pe ect 0.85 1600103 e 416.7 = 2.5521010 I = 0.022 e
MLLct 648.0106 416.7 =2.5521010 I = - 10.58 N/mm2
ft = - 5.67 + 0.022e - 3.81- 10.58 = -18.0 N/mm2
Solving, e =
18.0 - 6.67 0.0366 = 309.6 mm
For ft = 1.5 N/mm2

ft = - 6.67 + 0.026e
Solving, e =
= 1.5 N/mm2 1.5 + 6.67 0.026 = 314.2 mm
Selecting the lower value
Solving, e =
-18.0 + 5.67 + 3.81+10.58 0.022 = 93.6 mm
emax = 309.6 mm
At service For fb = 1.5 N/mm2
fb = - 6.67 - 0.0366e = 1.5 N/mm2 Solving e = - 223.0 mm
ii) Calculate e based on fb = 1.5 N/mm2.
Pe ecb 0.85 1600 103 e 583.3 =2.5521010 I = - 0.031e

MLL cb 648.0106 583.3 = 2.5521010 I = 14.81N/mm2
fb = - 5.67 - 0.031e + 5.33 +14.81 = 1.5 N/mm2
For ft = 18.0 N/mm2

ft = - 6.67 + 0.0261e = - 18.0 N/mm2 Solving e = - 436.0 mm
Solving, e =
-1.5 - 5.67 + 5.33 +14.81 0.031 = 418.4 mm
Since the values of e are negative the CGS lies above CGC. The position of CGS closer to the CGC is selected.
emin = - 223.0 mm
Out of the two values of e, the higher value 418.4 mm governs. Similarly, the values of emax and emin can be determined at regular intervals along the span. The limiting zone is available by joining the points by straight lines.
emin = 418.4 mm
In the following sketch the limiting zone is shown shaded.
4.5 Design of Sections for Flexure (Part IV)

CL
This section covers the following topic.
Magnels Graphical Method
223.0 309.6
CGC 418.4 455.2 Values in mm.

Notations The variables used in this section are as follows. A ct cb e ft fb = area of cross section of member = distance of the top of the section from CGC = distance of the bottom of the section from CGC = eccentricity of CGS with respect to CGC = stress at the top of the section = stress at the bottom of the section.
From the sketch of the limiting zone, it is evident that the tendons can be spread out at the ends. This is necessary to anchor the tendons and reduce the stress concentration at the ends.
4.4.3 Post-tensioning in Stages

In the previous expressions of emax and emin, the values of P0 and Pe can be for different levels of prestressing for post-tensioned members. At transfer the member can be partially prestressed in the casting yard, from which P0 is calculated. After the member is placed in its permanent location, it can be further prestressed before it is put into service. The application of prestress in different stages is termed as post-tensioning in
stages. The value of Pe is calculated from the revised prestressing force.
fcc,all = allowable compressive stress in concrete fct,all = allowable tensile stress in concrete I kt kb MT P0 Pe r Zt Zb = moment of inertia of cross section of member = distance of top kern point from CGC = distance of bottom kern point from CGC
MSW = moment due too self weight = total moment = prestress at transfer after immediate losses = prestress at service after long term losses = radius of gyration, r2 = I/A = section modulus corresponding to top of the section = I/ct = section modulus corresponding to bottom of the section = I/cb = ratio of prestressing forces = Pe /P0
With reduced P0 at transfer, emax is increased. Thus, the limiting zone for placing the CGS and the available zone for the shift in C under service loads are also increased.
4.5.1 Magnels Graphical Method

The determination of maximum and minimum eccentricities at the critical section helps in placing the CGS. But with different types of possible sections, the computations increase. The graphical method proposed by G. Magnel gives a visual interpretation of the equations involved.
There are essentially four stress conditions to be checked. These conditions are as follows.

At Transfer
The following sketch shows the variation of stress in concrete after the transfer of prestress and due to the self weight.
At transfer: ft fct,all and fb fcc,all At service: ft fcc,all and fb fct,all
ft MSW e P0 fb
Figure 4-5.1
The above expressions are algebraic inequalities where the stresses ft and fb are positive if tensile and negative if compressive. The allowable tensile stress fct,all is assigned a positive value and the allowable compressive stress fcc,all is assigned a negative value. The allowable stresses are explained in the Section 1.5, Concrete (Part I). It is to be noted that the values of fcc,all at transfer and at service are different. They are calculated based on the strength of concrete at transfer and at service, respectively. Similarly, the values of fct,all at transfer and at service can be different. As per IS:1343 1980, the values of fct,all at transfer and service are of course same. The stresses ft and fb in the four inequalities are expressed in terms of the initial prestressing force P0, the eccentricity e at the critical section of the member, the section properties A, Zt, Zb, kt, kb and the load variables Msw and MT. After transposition, 1/P0 is expressed in terms of e by linear inequality relationships. For a selected section, these relationships are plotted in the 1/P0 versus e plane. The acceptable zone shows the possible combinations of 1/P0 and e that satisfy all the four inequality relationships. A combination of P0 and e can be readily calculated from the acceptable zone.
ct cb
Stress profile in concrete at transfer
The stress at the top is calculated from P0, e, Msw as follows. P0 P0ect Msw ct + A I I P0 ect Msw = -1+ 2 A r Zt = P0 e M -1+ - sw A k b Zt
(4-5.1)
ft = -
The inequality relationship satisfying the stress at the top is expressed in terms of 1/P0 and e as follows.
ft fct,all P0 e M -1+ - sw fct,all A k b Zt or, (-1+ e/k b ) 1 P0 Msw fct,all + Z A t
(4-5.2)
The method is explained in a general form. For Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 members, the value of allowable tensile stress (fct,all) is properly substituted. For Type 1 members, fct,all = 0 N/mm .
2
The following sketch shows the plot of inequality relationship. The straight line given by the above inequality is plotted in the 1/P0 versus e plane and the acceptable zone is shaded.
1 P0
Acceptable
At Service
The following sketch shows the variation of stress in concrete at service and due to the total moment.
ft
kb
e
e
MT P 0 fb
Figure 4-5.4
ct cb
Figure 4-5.2
Plot based on stress at the top at transfer
The following expression relates the stress at the bottom with the load and section variables. fb = P0 P0ecb Msw cb + A I I P0 ecb Msw = - 1+ 2 + A r Zb =P0 e Msw 1+ + A k t Zb
(4-5.3)
Stress profile in concrete at service
Here, Pe is expressed as P0, where is the ratio of effective prestress (Pe) and prestress at transfer (P0). The expression of the stress at the top is given below.
ft = P0 P0ect MT ct + A I I P0 ect MT = -1+ 2 A r Zt =
(4-5.4)
The inequality relationship satisfying the stress at the bottom is expressed as follows.
fb fcc,all P e M - 0 1+ + sw fcc,all A k t Zb ( 1+ e/kt ) 1 or, P0 M -f + sw A cc,all Zb
P0 e M -1+ - T A k b Zt
(4-5.5)
The inequality relationship satisfying the stress at the top is expressed as follows. ft fcc,all P0 e M -1+ - T fcc,all A k b Zt e -1+ k 1 b P0 MT fcc,all + Z A t
(4-5.6)
The following sketch shows the plot of the inequality relationship.

1 P0
Acceptable
or,
- kt
The following sketch shows the plot of inequality relationship. The straight line given by the above inequality is again plotted in the 1/P0 versus e plane and the acceptable zone is shaded.
Figure 4-5.3
Plot based on stress at the bottom at transfer
1 P0
(4-5.6)
1 P0
Acceptable zone
(4-5.2) (4-5.8) (4-5.4)
Acceptable
kb
Figure 4-5.5
Plot based on stress at the top at service

- kt
kb
e
Acceptable zone
The following expression relates the stress at the bottom with the load and section variables.
fb = P0 P0ecb MT cb + I I A P0 ecb MT = 1+ 2 + A r Zb P e = - 0 1+ A kt MT + Z b
(4-5.7)
Figure 4-5.7
A combination of a trial section, prestressing force (P0) and eccentricity (e) at the critical section, can be plotted in the form of the above graph. If the point lies within the acceptable zone, then the combination is valid.
The following problem illustrates the use of Magnels graphical method.
The inequality relationship is expressed as follows.

fb fct,all P0 e MT 1+ + fct,all A k t Zb e 1+ k 1 t or, P0 MT -fct,all + Z A b The following sketch shows the plot of the inequality relationship.
1 P0
Example 4-5.1
The section shown is designed as a Type 1 member with MT = 435 kNm (including an estimated MSW = 55 kNm). The height of the beam is restricted to 920 mm. The prestress at transfer fp0 = 1035 N/mm2 and the prestress at service fpe = 860 N/mm2. Based on the grade of concrete, the allowable compressive stresses are 12.5 N/mm2 at transfer and 11.0 N/mm2 at service.
(4-5.8)
The properties of the prestressing strands are given below.
Type of prestressing tendon : 7-wire strand
Acceptable
- kt
Nominal diameter Nominal area
= 12.8 mm = 99.3 mm2
Figure 4-5.6
Plot based on stress at the bottom at service
For the section, find the acceptable zone by Magnels graphical method. Compare the designed values of eccentricity (e) and the inverse of prestressing force at transfer (1/P0) with the acceptable zone.
Next, the four lines are plotted simultaneously. The common region is the acceptable zone.
435 100 100 CGC CGS

r2 = I A 1.78081010 = 159,000 = 112,000 mm2
e = 290
100
920 (10) 7-wire strands with P0 = 994 kN

Section moduli
Zb = Zt =
I = 38,712,174 mm3 ct
Solution
A) Calculation of geometric properties
Kern levels
k b = kt =
r2 = 243.5 mm ct
B) Calculation of the inequality relationships of Magnels graphical method The section is symmetric about the horizontal axis. Hence, the CGC lies at mid depth. The section is divided into three rectangles for the computation of the geometric properties. = Ratio of effective prestress and prestress at transfer Pe P0 fpe fp 0 = 860 1035
1 410 CGC 2
ct = 460
At Transfer
= 0.83
3 Values in mm.
Area of the section
ft fct,all
(-1+e/kb ) 1 P0 Msw fct,all + Z A t
A = 2 A1 + A2 = 2(435100) + (720100) = 159,000 mm2

Moment of inertia of the section about axis through CGC I = 2I1 + I2 1 1 = 2 435 1003 + (435 100) 4102 + 100 7203 12 12 10 4 = 1.78 10 mm
1 -1+ e 243.5 P0 55106 0 + 38,712,174 159,000 1 e -1+ 225,897.9 243.5
The relationship is plotted in the following graph.
0.0015
0.0015
1/P 0 (1/kN)
1/P 0 (1/kN)
0.001 0.0005 0 -300 -200 -100 0 e (mm) 100 200 300
0.001 0.0005 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 e (mm)
At Transfer fb fcc,all
( 1+ e/kt ) 1 P0 Msw -f cc,all + Z A b
At Service
fb fct,all
e 1+ k 1 t P0 MT -f + A ct,all Zb
1 1+ e 243.5 P0 55106 12.5 + 38,712,174 159,000 1 1+ e 2,213,397.9 243.5 The relationship is plotted in the following graph.
1 (1+ e 243.5)0.83 P0 435 106 0.0 + 38,712,174 159,000 1 1+ e 2,152,587.1 243.5
1/P 0 (1/kN)
0.0015 0.001 0.0005 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 e (mm)
1/P 0 (1/kN)
0.0015 0.001 0.0005

0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 e (mm)
At Service
ft fcc,all
e -1+ k 1 b P0 MT fcc,all + Z A t
1 (-1+ e 243.5)0.83 P0 435106 -11.0 + 38,712,174 159,000 1 -1+ e 45,358.0 243.5
The four relationships are plotted in the following graph. The acceptable zone is shown. The zone is zoomed in the next graph.
0.0015
1/P 0 (1/kN)
4.6 Detailing Requirements for Flexure

This section covers the following topic.
200 300
0.001 0.0005 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 e (mm)
Tendon Profile Minimum Amount of Reinforcement Miscellaneous Requirements
Introduction
0.0012
The detailing of the prestressing tendons and the reinforcing bars is important to satisfy the assumptions in the analysis, proper placement of concrete and durability. After the design calculations, drawings are prepared for construction. These drawings are
1/P 0 (1/kN)
0.001
referred to as the design drawings which become a part of the construction documents. The steel fabricator may prepare another set of drawings which are called shop
0.0008 225 250 275 300 e (mm) 325
drawings. These drawings are similar to the design drawings but they contain additional information such as the bar designations and bar bending schedule. It is essential to show the detailing in the design drawings so that there is no ambiguity during construction. It is also necessary to check the details in the shop drawings. IS:1343 - 1980 specifies some minimum requirements. Here, these requirements are
The calculated values of e and 1/P0 for the Type 1 section are as follows. e = 290 mm 1/P0 = 1/(994 kN) = 0.001kN1. The solution of the design is shown in the graphs. It lies in the acceptable zone.
briefly mentioned. There are requirements for the non-prestressed reinforcement as per IS:456 - 2000 which are not covered here. The detailing requirements for shear and torsion are covered in Section 5.3, Design for Shear (Part II) and Section 5.6, Design for Torsion (Part II), respectively. Of course the detailing is best learned by preparing drawings for construction projects.
4.6.1 Tendon Profile

For a simply supported post-tensioned beam with high uniformly distributed load, a parabolic profile is selected. The equation of the profile is given as follows.
y = (
Here, L = span of the beam x = distance from one end
4ym ) (L - x ) L2
(4-6.1)
Y = vertical displacement of the tendon (from the level at the ends) at distance x
Ym = vertical displacement of the tendon (from the level at the ends) at the middle of the beam The following sketch shows the plot of the equation.
Points of contraflexure (inflection points) CGC
e1
e2
e3
L ym y
Figure 4-6.1 Profile of a parabolic tendon
Points of maximum eccentricity
x
CGC Parabola 4
Note that an individual tendon may be displaced from the CGS. Hence, the tendon need not pass through the CGC at the ends. The figure below shows the parabolic profiles of the ducts for placing tendon in a simply supported bridge girder.
Figure 4-6.3
Profile of CGS in a continuous beam
A parabolic segment connects a point of maximum eccentricity with a point of contraflexure. A point of contraflexure is the location where the curvature of the profile reverses. It is also known as the inflection point. For varying spans and loading, the segments on two sides of a point of maximum eccentricity, may not be symmetric. In the second sketch of the above figure, the different parabolas between the points of maximum eccentricity and the points of contraflexure are numbered. The convex segment over a support is required to avoid a kink in the tendon. The length of a convex segment is determined based on the minimum radius of curvature for the type of tendon.
Figure 4-6.2
Tendon profiles in a simply supported bridge girder (Courtesy: Larsen & Toubro Rambll) A parabolic segment satisfies two conditions. 1) It has zero slope at the point of maximum eccentricity. 2) At a point of contraflexure, the slopes of the parabolic segments on both sides should match. The equation of a parabolic segment is given below.
For continuous beams or slabs, parabolic profiles at the spans and at the supports are connected to get the continuous profile of a tendon. The following sketch shows the profile of the CGS in a continuous beam. The eccentricities of the CGS at the end span, first interior support and first interior span are represented as e1, e2 and e3 respectively.
x y = ym l
(4-6.2)
y l
Figure 4-6.4 In the previous equation, l = length of the parabolic segment = vertical displacement of the profile at distance x eccentricity. x = distance from the point of maximum eccentricity y
location can be calculated from the equation of the profile.
In slabs, the duct is
ym x
supported on chairs resting on the form work. The CGS of the tendon shifts from the centre line of the duct after stretching. The following sketches show the shifts at the low and high points of the tendon. The shift in the CGS is available from the type of tendon used and can be accounted for in precise calculations.
Plot of a parabolic segment
CGS
ym = displacement of the point of contraflexure from the point of maximum
Centre line of duct Shift At low point At high point
CGS
The origin is selected at the point of maximum eccentricity at a critical section. The equation satisfies the first boundary condition of zero slope at the point of maximum eccentricity. The length (l) is determined from the requirement of minimum radius of curvature at the support. should match. The following photo shows the profiles of the tendons in a continuous bridge girder. The displacement ym is determined from the boundary condition that at the point of contraflexure, the slopes of the segments on both sides
Figure 4-6.6
Shift in the CGS of a tendon from the centreline of duct
4.6.2 Minimum Amounts of Reinforcement

Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement A minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement should be provided to have sufficient strength after the cracking of concrete. According to Section 18.6.3.3-a, the minimum amount is as follows. Minimum (As+ AP) = 0.2% A Here,
(4-6.3)
Figure 4-6.5
Tendon profiles in a continuous bridge girder (Courtesy: VSL International Ltd.)
As = area of steel without prestressing, Ap = area of prestressing steel, A = total area of cross-section.
The profile is implemented by the use of hangers or cross bars or chairs of varying depth at regular intervals. In beams, the duct is supported by hangers from the top bars or by cross bars attached to the stirrups. The depth of the hanger or cross bar at a
centroid of the section (CGC) and the tension edge. The above reinforcement is not intended to provide flexural strength.
As
Ap
CGC
Figure 4-6.7
Cross-section of a beam showing longitudinal reinforcement Figure 4-6.9
At
Unbonded tendon
As
The minimum reinforcement can be reduced to 0.15% A, if high yield strength deformed bars are used. Cross-section of a beam showing longitudinal reinforcement and area under tension
Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement with Unbonded Tendon In a post-tensioned member when the ducts are not grouted, beyond the cracking load, the number of cracks is small and the crack width is large. To reduce the crack width, a minimum amount of non-prestressed reinforcement should be provided. Since the non-prestressed reinforcement is bonded to the concrete, there are several cracks with small crack width.
Minimum Side Face Reinforcement When the depth of the web exceeds 500 mm, a minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement should be placed at each face (side face) of the web to check thermal and shrinkage cracks. According to Section 18.6.3.3-b, the minimum amount of side face reinforcement (As,sf ) is given as follows. Minimum As,sf = 0.05% Aw Here, Aw = vertical area of the web. (4-6.4)
Unbonded tendon
The maximum spacing of the bars is 200 mm.
Non-prestressed reinforcement
Figure 4-6.8 with unbonded tendon
Unbonded tendon
As,sf
As,sf
Crack pattern with and without non-prestressed reinforcement for beams Figure 4-6.10 Cross-section of a beam showing side face reinforcement
As per the code of the American Concrete Institute (ACI 318), the minimum amount of such reinforcement (As) is 0.4% At , where At is the area under tension between the
4.6.3 Miscellaneous Requirements

Minimum Cover Requirements A minimum clear cover of concrete is necessary to protect the steel against corrosion and to develop adequate bond between concrete and steel. The cover is implemented by chairs or blocks.
For large bars or tendons, Clear spacing 40 mm maximum size of tendon / bar maximum aggregate size + 5 mm. For grouped tendons (maximum four tendons per group), the requirement is for the spacing between the groups of tendons.
Clear cover
Figure 4-6.11 Cross-section of a beam showing cover
Vertical spacing
Horizontal spacing
According to Section 11.1.6, the minimum cover requirements are as follows. For pre-tensioned members, minimum cover for tendons is 20 mm. For post-tensioned members, minimum cover for sheathing (duct) is 30 mm or size of the tendon. The minimum cover should be increased by 10 mm in aggressive environment.
Figure 4-6.13
Cross-section of a beam showing spacing between groups of tendons
According to Section 11.1.8, for grouped tendons the spacing requirements are as follows. Horizontal spacing 40 mm maximum aggregate size + 5 mm Vertical spacing 50 mm.
Minimum Spacing Requirements A minimum clear spacing of the tendons or reinforcing bars is necessary for the flow of concrete during casting and for the bond between concrete and steel. Anchorage of Reinforcement In a partially prestressed section, where the non-prestressed reinforcement contributes to flexural strength, the development length of the bars needs to be checked at the critical section. The bars should be anchored at the supports by hooks to avoid
Clear spacing
anchorage failure. The following photo shows the fabrication of the reinforcement for a post-tensioned boxgirder of a bridge.
Figure 4-6.12
Cross-section of a beam showing spacing between tendons
According to Section 11.1.7, the minimum spacing requirements are as follows. For single wires in a pre-tensioned member, Clear spacing 3 wire diameter 1 maximum aggregate size.
Figure 4-6.14
Fabrication of reinforcement

1.2 Advantages Types of Prestressing Section4.6 2IN1

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1.2 Advantages Types of Prestressing Section4.6 2IN1

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Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

1.2 Advantages and Types of Prestressing

1.2.2 Advantages of Prestressing

1) Section remains uncracked under service loads Reduction of steel corrosion

Full section is utilised

Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness) Less deformations (improved serviceability).

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.

Typical precast members

1.2.3 Limitations of Prestressing

Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete.

Availability of standard shapes.

1.2.4 Types of Prestressing

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

The individual types of prestressing are explained next.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

Internal prestressing of a box girder

(Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

Circularly prestressed containment structure, Kaiga Atomic Power Station, Karnataka

Non-prestressed reinforcement Duct for prestressing tendon

(Reference: Larsen & Toubro Ltd, ECC Division, 60 Landmark Years)

(Courtesy: VSL India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai)

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

1.3 Pre-tensioning Systems and Devices

1.3.2 Stages of Pre-tensioning

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

In pre-tensioning large anchorage device is not present.

1.3.4 Disadvantages of Pre-tensioning

The stages are shown schematically in the following figures.

(a) Applying tension to tendons

Prestressing Bed, End Abutments and Mould (b) Casting of concrete

The following figure shows the devices.

(c) Transferring of prestress Figure1-3.1 Stages of pre-tensioning

Prestressing bed, end abutment and mould

1.3.3 Advantages of Pre-tensioning

Pre-tensioning is suitable for precast members produced in bulk.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

Free body diagram of stress bench

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prestressed Concrete Structures

Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

Chuck assembly for anchoring tendons