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John 1.

Volakis
Rad. Lab., EECS Dept. University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122 (3 13) 647-1 797 (3 13) 647-2106 (Fax) volakis@umich.edu (email)

Forward by JLV The article in this issue of the EM programmers notebook presents the theoretical basis of the software SABOR introduced in the last issue of the Magazine. SABOR simulateddesigns homs and reflector antenna systems, and was initially developed by Campo, del Ray, Basada, and de Haro as a teaching tool. Its graphical inter-

face makes it easy to use on Windows OS platforms, and the program is available from the authors by making a donation of $25. Dr. Leandro De Haro (E-mail: leandro@gr.ssr.upm.es) should be contacted directly. Please refer to the pervious issue of the AP-S Magazine for more information on the graphical-interface environment of SABOR.

SABOR: Description of the Methods Applied for a Fast Analysis of Horn and Reflector Antennas
Miguel A. Campo, Francisco J. del Rey, Jose. L. Besada and Leandro de Haro
Grupo de Radiation Dpto. Sefiales Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones ETSI de Telecomunicacion Universidad Polittcnica de Madrid E-mail: leandro@gr.ssr.upm.es

1. Abstract

2. Introduction
functional description of the program SABOR (Software de AAnalisis de BOcinas y Reflectores) was presented in the previous issue of the EM Programmers Notebook. This paper presents the theory and mathematical methods used to calculate hom and reflector antenna performance with SABOR. Although the software was initially developed as an educational tool to reinforce students knowledge about homs and reflectors, SABOR is also usehl for antenna engineers, who will probably also find of interest the various options and analysis possibilities offered by the program. SABOR can analyze almost any typical horn (E and H pyramidal homs, circular homs, corrugated homs), and commonly deployed reflector configurations. Among these are simple (centered and offset) parabolic reflectors, dualoffset Cassegrain and Gregorian reflectors, and centered Cassegrain systems. As reflector feeds, the program allows any

The program presented in this paper is intended to provide a valuable aid for teaching antennas to electrical engineers, and to provide fast and accurate pre-designs for professionals. This paper covers the theory and numerical techniques used in SABOR, which was introduced in the previous issue of the EM Programmers Notebook in the June, 1998, issue of the Magazine. In summary, this program computes the radiated field of an aperture antenna (hom or reflector), using a common engine based on the GaussLegendre quadrature method for evaluating the radiation integrals. For homs, the aperture fields are the usual dominant modes of the feed waveguide, with a quadratic phase correction. For reflectors, the aperture fields are computed using Geometrical Optics ray tracing from the reed Ilorn. Also, equivalent-reflector concepts me applied for dual-reflector antennas. The paper includes some examples to demonstrate the most important features of the program.

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choice among the homs mentioned above, and the classical cosq pattern. Use of real homs improves the accuracy of computed efficiencies and the simulation of the cross-polar radiation. Moreover, the feeds may be re-positioned laterally or axially, to study alignment errors or to examine the reflectors scanning features. Among the information that can be displayed by the program is the aperture-field distribution (amplitude and phase), blockage effects, squint related to circular polarization on offset reflectors, etc. It is noted that SABOR does cover topics that have been already implemented in other educational software packages, such as those by Sletten [l] or the RASCAL package [2]. However, SABOR includes new features, and an ease-to-use graphical user interface that works on the widely used Vindows platforms. This interface is very ease to use for inputting, outputting, and displaying the geometry, pattems, and performance results. SABOR does not cover all topics found in professional reflector-analysis programs, such as GRASP8 [3], NEC-Reflectors, etc. (since it cannot analyze arbitrary geometries); neither does it include far-zone radiation contributed by edge diffraction. It is, however, a fast and high-level accurate analysis tool for realizing pre-designs of homs and reflectors, coupled with an easy to use interface. In the following sections, we summarize the theory employed in SABOR, and the numerical methods used to compute the radiation pattems and related output parameters. Some examples selected to display some of SABORs capabilities are also included for homs and reflectors.
3. General formulation

First Principle (electric and magnetic currents are used) Chus Model:

Second Principle (only magnetic currents are used) E-Field Model:

E,

e- JPr = jp-(P,
2m

cos 4 + Py sin 4),

where

This section highlights the procedures employed within SABOR to analyze hom and reflector antenna radiation. Both antennas are considered apertures, and therefore the radiated field is obtained using the Equivalence Principle, Le., by integrating the equivalent currents over their apertures. The integration is implemented by means of a Gauss-Legendre quadrature, on a grid selected to maintain the symmetry of the results for circular apertures. To avoid ambiguity when interpreting the co-polar and cross-polar pattems, the apertures are always placed on the xy plane, with the field polarized along they axis. 3.1 Equivalence principle The analysis of the hom and reflector antennas starts with the knowledge of the E and H fields across the aperture. For homs, this is obtained from the modes inside the waveguide feed, and for reflectors, Geometrical Optics is applied to trace the fields from the feed to the aperture. The radiated fields are based on the Equivalence Principle, which states that equivalent electric and magnetic currents can be employed on an enclosed surface to generated the same E and H fields on the aperture, and exterior to it (Le., the fields radiated). SABOR allows the user to compute the far fields using either the first or second Equivalence Principle (usually reported in the literature as Chus model and the E-field model, respectively). For large apertures, both principles produce similar results, but for small hom apertures, the E-field model (magnetic equivalent currents) produces results closer to measurements [4, p. 3911.
As both principles can be found in several antenna books, only final formulas for planar apertures are given here, as obtained directly from [ 5 , pp. 381-3831:

p is the wavenumber, and Y is the far-zone distance. As usual, the angle 0 is measured from the z axis (which is normal to the aperture), and q5 is measured from the x axis in the xy plane (the aperture). Since the aperture field is mainly polarized along the y axis, the co-polar and cross-polar radiated fields, as defined in accordance with the third Ludwig definition [6], are
E, E,
= E,

sin 4 -t E4cos 4

(4)
= Eecos#-E+sinq5

Using these relations, the fields given above in Equations (1) and (2) can be rewritten as First Principle: E , = Eo

7 Py,
(5)

i+cose

l+cost) E, =E oT P ; Second Principle:

E,

=~ ~ [ ~ , c o s 4 s i n 4 ( 1 - c o s ~ j + ~ ~ ( s i n ~ 4 + c o s ~ c o s ~ ~ ) ] ,
(6)

=~

~[~(cos4+cos~sin ~~s 4i ) n+ 4cos4(1-cos~)].

3.2 Integration method To evaluate the fields radiated by an aperture, it is necessary to evaluate the radiation integrals, Equation (3). Since this software was primarily conceived as an educational tool, it is important to employ a fast and accurate evaluation. The Gauss-Legendre quadrature procedure is one such method. In the case of pyramidal homs, with rectangular apertures, the application of this procedure is readily done over the n and y variables. However, for circular

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apertures, cylindrical coordinates must be used, and the integral limits are then 0 I p I a , 0 Id < 2n, with the cylindrical radial distance being p = However, using these variables in the quadrature evaluation of the radiation pattern leads to asymmetries, especially for the cross-polar components. The asymmetries are because Gauss' method concentrates the integration points close to the integral limits, resulting in more sample points closer to the (4=0 region than to the # = n region. In SABOR, this problem was overcome by integrating the circular aperture in Cartesian co-ordinates, and selecting the quadrature points as illustrated in Figure 1. Those points are distributed in accordance to the zeroes of the Legendre function on the x variable. For each x point, a strip along the y axis, bounded by the circular-aperture dimension, is integrated. The number of points per linear dimension was set to N = 13 as a compromise among speed, accuracy, and angular margin. For homs with apertures of several R (maximum dimension less than 4 1 ), the valid margins are -90'1 6 S 90" . However, in the case of reflectors with large aperture diameters, aliasing may appear for large 6 angles if few integration points are used. In this case, the valid margin is estimated by assuming uniform aperture sampling, with a mean distance between integration points of D I N , giving

Jm.

W =15 R1 = 2 5 Rh = 21.2 t = 0.375


f = 10

H =12 R2 = 23.2 Re = 21.2 s = 0.259


GHz

As each lobe covers approximately 1 / D , this sampling choice

allows computation of five secondary lobes at both sides of the main lobe. The validity of the results within +$, was verified by comparing SABOR's output with results obtained from the software GRASP8 [3].
4. Horns
As noted above, E-plane and H-plane sectoral homs, as well as pyramidal (normal, smooth-wall, or corrugated horns) and coni-

Figure 2. The parameters that define a realizable smooth-wall pyramidal horn.

cal (smooth-wall or corrugated) homs can be analyzed by SABOR. Below, we summarize the formulas used in SABOR for these horn antennas (see Figure 2 for the geometry and related parameters).

4.1 Smooth-wall pyramidal horns When a pyramidal horn is selected, the waveguide is expected to carry a TE,, mode, implying a constant-amplitude distribution in the E plane, and a cosine distribution in the H plane. At the aperture of the horn, the amplitude distribution will be approximately the same, except for a phase difference due to the hom flare angles (see, for example, [7, pp. 181-1901). Thus, the aperture fields are given by

I Y

Figure 1. The double Gauss-quadrature grid used for numerical integration.

where t and s are the maximum phase errors in the magnetic and electric planes, respectively. The input parameters are the aperture dimensions (Wx H), the waveguide dimensions (a x b), and the phase error, t , or the height, Rl , between the vertex in the H plane and the aperture. It should be noted that SABOR adjusts the horn

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dimensions to achieve a physically feasible hom, so that the values of R, and s are calculated to satisfy Rh = Re, as illustrated in Figure 2. Also, if the specifieaentered frequency value or the guide dimensions imply that the TE,, mode is below cutoff, an error message is displayed, and no further calculations are allowed. Aperture fields for the E-plane and H-plane sectoral homs are particular cases of the expressions in Equation (8), Le., by setting t = 0 or s = 0 , respectively. However, SABOR provides the user with explicit choices/options, so that the student can use SABOR without knowledge of the entire subject of horns.

(13) where a and s have already been described in Equation (11).


4.4 Directivity, spillover efficiency, phase center

The horns directivity is directly computed from [7, pp. 1341351:

4.2 Smooth-walled circular horns


The TE, mode is the only mode that should be supported by the circular-waveguide feed. Thus, in the case of low flare angles, the aperture-field distribution is the TE, mode, as corrected with a quadratic phase difference between the waveguide feed and the aperture plane. In [S, pp. 3371, the expressions for a TE,, mode are polarized along the y axis, and upon adding the phase error, the resultant expressions for the circular-horn aperture fields are

Although this expression, which computes the power from the aperture fields, is accurate when the apertures are large in terms of wavelength, some difficulties are encountered for low-directivity homs. Two solutions were proposed by Jull [lo]. The first involved the replacement of the free-space impedance with the modal impedance, when relating electric and magnetic fields on the aperture. However, only a few tenths of a dB is recovered from this change. The second solution involved the addition of diffraction contributions from the horn edges. This paper proposes a different strategy for small homs. Instead, the pattern is integrated directly, using the classic directivity definition. However, the integration is performed using only a few 4 pattem cuts, to improve computational efficiency. Although the directivity is still not completely correct, the impact of directivity errors on spillover calculations is minimal. For large-directivity apertures, the power can be simply computed using either pattern integration or the classical Kirchhoff s theory. Table 1 gives a comparison of directivities for pyramidal homs, as computed from SABOR and measurements. A clear improvement over the first strategy is seen. Evaluation of the directivity for large homs was tested using Slaytons model [11], applied to a standard-gain hom made by NARDA (Model 640). Table 2 gives a comparison between the calibrated gain horn and the computed data, based on direct pattern integration or Kirchhoff s theory. The observed errors are 0.3 dBi and 0.43 dBi for the pattem-integration method and Kirchhoff theory, respectively. SABOR intends to integrate the analysis of horns and reflectors as a whole system. This is the reason that in the evaluation of the hom performance, we also estimate the spillover efficiency and phase center, which are essential for reflector-antenna analysis. Table 1. Directivity comparison for low-directivity pyramidal horns.

S=-.

a2

222

Here a is the radius of the hom at the aperture, R is the height of the cones, J,(x) denotes the nth-order Bessel function, and

x i l = 1.841 refers to the first zero of

.Ti(.).

4.3 Corrugated horns

When designing corrugated rectangular homs with slot depths between /2/4 and 3/2/4, the analysis can be carried out by considering a cosine distribution in both planes across the aperture [9, pp. 580-5831. Thus, the aperture-field expression takes the form

where W, H, s, and t are as those in Equation (9). As is well known, for a corrugated conical horn (with the corrugations normal to the direction of propagation), both TE, and the TM, modes are excited. Their combination forms the hybrid mode HE,,, which is associated with vanishing fields on the inner surface of the hom, for corrugation depths of 114. This is the key aspect of corrugated homs, and results in reduced diffraction from the hom aperture edges, since the fields around the edges are eliminated by the corrugations. It is important to also note that the horn dimensions vary slowly as the corrugation depth changes between /2/4 and 3Af4. As a result, the hom performance remains quite good over a wide range of frequencies. The aperture field is [7, pp. 2021

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Table 2. Directivity comparison for large-aperture horns.

From Equation (1 6), we then deduce that 10GHz 2.45~ x i.sa 11 GHz 2.72 1 . 9 8 ~ 12 GHz 2.942 x 2 . 1 6 ~

I I I

16.30dBi 17.05 dBi 17.75 dBi

I I

16.02dBi 16.74dBi 17.38 dBi

15.92dBi 16.74dBi 17.38 dBi which is a very simple expression for Lph. However, because it adjusts the phase center only by equalizing the phase at the axis and the limit value ( Bxdb), it produces good results in comparison to much more complex procedures, such as the one proposed by Rusch and Potter [12]. This latter procedure minimizes the rootmean-square error over the full angular range, weighting the error with the amplitude pattem. The phase center may be calculated more accurately by averaging the results from the expression in Equation (17) for the pattern cuts in the 4 = 0" , 45", and 90" planes. When using this center as the focus of a reflector, the residual phase error in the reflector aperture is usually less than 10".

Phase

4.5 Horn simulation examples

Sphere

Figure 3. The definition of the geometry for computation of the phase center. SABOR makes an estimation of the spillover losses for the selected beamwidth, and this permits comparisons of horns as reflector feeds. For hom analyses only, the losses are computed using an average of the spillover efficiency from four different 4 planes (00, 90", and the diagonal planes), and thus the calculations are carried out very quickly. For reflector-antenna designs, the program must employ an accurate value for spillover efficiency. The phase center is the point from which the antenna appears to radiate spherical waves, but its location is not unique, since it depends on the pattern-cutiplane used for its prediction. Therefore, SABOR makes an approximation of the phase center, based on the plane where the user is working. This phase difference, used for the calculation of the phase center, is that which refers to the angle Bxdb, calculated as the half-beamwidth at x dB down from broadside, as selected by the user. When the hom has a phase error in its aperture, the far-field phase for each angle B satisfies the relation

SABOR allows the user to easily examine several aspects that typically characterize hom antennas. The "compave" option of the program can be quite useful for observing the differences in directivity, beamwidth, cross-polar radiation, etc., when different homs are used. It can also be used when any other aspect of the design is changed, Le., frequency, hom dimensions, or the method of aperture integration. For instance, SABOR enables the user to see the differences in the cross-polar radiation pattem if the second Equivalence Principle is used instead of the first. The former will give cross-polar radiation in the diagonal ( 4 = 45" ) plane, even through the selected hom has a linear field distribution over the apenure. This is quite important for small homs. Also, if an open circular TE,, waveguide is used, SABOR can check that a minimum exists in the cross-polar radiation when the diameter (4 of the waveguide satisfies the relation A/d = 0.9 [4, p. 3911.

To facilitate an understanding of the data (all data are given in cm), the following examples are considered, with all evaluations done at 10 GHz ( 2 = 3 cm). Figures 4 and 5 show the pattems calculated using the E-field model and measurements, for a ( A x A ) pyramidal horn with an infinitesimally thin wall. When Chu's model is employed, the cross-polar component is not predicted accurately. As noted above, for large apertures, the E-field and Chu's methods both generate the same results. Note that SABOR displays (see Figure 4) the position of the phase center as part of the output parameters, since this information is useful if the hom is used as a reflector feed. For reflector-system analysis, SABOR automatically places the hom's phase center at the focus of the reflector.
The spillover losses, displayed in the results window, allow comparison of performances among homs as reflector feeders. A comparison between a smooth pyramidal hom and a corrugated conical hom, designed to feed the edge of a subreflector of a Cassegrain system at 20" with -10 dB, can be seen in Figure 6. The pyramidal horn has dimensions of 9 cm x 6.7 cm, to obtain the same -10dB beamwidth at both main planes. The corrugated hom has been selected with a similar length, forcing a diameter of 5.7 cm, and only the E-plane cut is plotted in Figure 6, due to the

where C is a constant, and A y o ( B ) is the phase difference from B = 0 , i.e. from broadside radiation. As can be seen from Figure 3, the distance L,, , which determines the phase center, satisfies the relations

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pattems symmetry. The spillover values are -1.01 and -0.91 dB, showing the improved performance of the corrugated hom. Since SABOR offers many possibilities while balancing a friendly user interface and rigorous computation, many other examples can be considered for gaining an understanding of the hom-antennas performance.

the feed of the equivalent system, which is the same as the feed of the original system, and illuminates the equivalent-reflector edge with the same angle as that of the actual feed illuminating the subreflector edge. It is important to note that only the position occupied by the feed (the first system focus), and not the direction it points to, affects the geometry of the obtained equivalent paraboloidal reflector. This permits analysis of feed misalignments by just introducing similar misalignments in the equivalent system. SABOR basically reduces the various canonical cases to an equivalent radiation problem, involving a single offset-paraboloidal system. So, fields at the aperture are easily derived from the fields radiated by the feed on the basis of Snells law. As is well known, in case of a centered Cassegrain system, the equivalent parabola has an equivalent focal distance of

5. Reflectors

SABOR allows a complete treatment of canonical reflectorantenna systems. The program can be employed to analyze reflector systems fed by a typical cos4 illumination. This feed pattem allows for a study of the reflector performance tradeoffs typically of interest to electrical engineers. However, as noted above, SABOR also has the potential to integrate reflectors and horn feeds for a completely realistic system analysis. In the following, we briefly describe the concept of an equivalent parabola. This unifies the various system analyses, including aperture-field evaluation by ray tracing, blockage modeling, feed displacement, and misalignment. Formulas used to compute gain and efficiencies are also given.

where F is the focal distance of the original paraboloid, and M is the magnification factor, given by

e=
5.1 Geometrical optics and the equivalent parabola

Geometrical optics is employed in SABOR to model reflectorantenna systems. Although this treatment does not include diffraction contributions, caused either by the subreflector rim or the reflector edges, the results obtained are comparable in accuracy to those obtained on the basis of Physical Optics and/or GTD-based software (GRASP8). Specifically, excellent agreement is found for the main lobe and first sidelobe, for reflector diameters larger than i5a. SABOR reduces the different reflector cases to a single offset reflector. This is done by virtue of the equivalent-parabola theory. The latter is based on finding an equivalent paraboloidal system that has the same radiation pattem (on the basis of geometrical optics) as the original system. Basically, a reflecting ellipsoidal, hyperboloidal, or paraboloidal surface can be characterized by a matrix transformation, which relates an incident ray on the surface (traced from one of the foci) to a corresponding surface-reflected ray, propagating along the direction that joins the reflection point with the other focus. For the paraboloidal reflector, the second focus is located at infinity. When a general dual-reflector system is considered (for example, one including an ellipsoidal or hyperboloidal subreflector, and a paraboloidal main reflector, co-focal with the subreflector), the matrix transformations can be extended to include an additional transformation that relates the incident rays on the subreflector to those that are reflected by the paraboloid and are then collimated, creating a plane phase front. From the point of view of Geometrical Optics analysis, these systems are completely equivalent to a single offset-paraboloidal antenna, as is described in detail in [13]. The equivalent offset paraboloid is defined using the following parameters/components: the equivalent reflector diameter, coinciding with the aperture diameter of the actual paraboloidal reflector;
*

M = -e , +l e-1

where Bo and Ys are the half angles subtended by the main reflector and the subreflector, respectively. Figure 7 shows the geometries of both dual-offset systems. The parameters entered by the user are the aperture diameter, D ; the clearance, d, , between the lower reflector and the upper subreflector edges; the subreflector vertical height, V, ; the antenna length, L (the distance between the far reflector and the subreflector edges); and the subreflector subtended half angle, 8,. SABOR uses these parameters, along with the Mizugutchis and Ruschs conditions, to compute the full geometric parameters in Figure 6: the angle a , between the feed axis and the subreflector axis; the angle ,L?, between the revolution axis of the reflector and the subreflector; and the subreflector eccentricity, e, according to [14]. The first focal loci ( y o f , z o f ) can be found in the program by selecting the option Geometry when a sketch of the reflector system is displayed. The inter-focal distance, 2c, is, in fact,

and Mizugutchs condition [151

a e+l tan-=-tan2 e-1

p
2

the equivalent focal distance; the offset angle, equivalent reflector offset angle;

relates the values of a , p , and e. This eliminates (from a Geometrical Optics point of view) the inherent offset cross-polarized radiation. Although this condition aligns the direction of the feed axis with the equivalent-parabola revolution axis (the null inherent cross-polar radiation condition), it can also produce an equivalent paraboloid with a small offset height. Ruschs condition [16]

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cu
L, 0

6
9
It

s !

10

PI

r
W
v)

f s 2 2

m -

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x, +yo* = 4 F ( F + z , ) ,

ho=C+D/2.
F is, in general, the focal distance of the equivalent system paraboloid; C is the clearance and D is the aperture diameter. This point can be also expressed in the spherical-feed coordinate system by ( pf ,BI ,4f ), where pf satisfies

+--7---l

.,

and ( B f , q5f ) are related to the reflection point in the feeds Carte-

f), by means of the transformation sian coordinates ( x f , yf ,z

Figure 7a. The dual offset Cassegrain reflector geometry.

Once the spherical feed coordinates of the incident ray are known, incident fields on the reflector surface are calculated, and expressed in co-polar and cross-polar feed-coordmate-systemcomponents as dictated by Equations (5) or (6). SABOR automatically places the hom at the phase center of the system focus, so that E,, and Exp in Equation (26) already contain the phase-correction

e<l

term exp(-jcoLPh c o s e f ) , viz.:

Figure 7b. The dual offset Gregorian reflector geometry. where, for a feed linearly polarized along yf ,

tan-= P 2

[::;$
~

tan- P-e, 2

defines the value of e in terms of 8, and /3, and is necessary to transform the equivalent offset reflector to a centered system ( dueq = 0 for the equivalent reflector), as can be seen from Figure 8. Under both conditions, the feed axis matches the axis of the illumination cones on the subreflector rim, also improving the spillover efficiency.

6 ,

= cos

bfBf - sin 4fq5f,

and if circular polarization is considered,

5.2 Aperture fields traced from the feed

A p e v e Plane

00 I

The fields at the aperture of a paraboloidal single-offset reflector can be easily obtained from those radiated by the feed. The single centered reflector, and the equivalent case for dual reflectors, are particular cases of an offset reflector with Yo= 0 . In coordinate system (the system in Figure 9, the antenna output 0 which the radiation pattern is calculated) and the feed ffcoordinate system (the system in which the feed fields are specified) are displayed. Let us consider a location of the Gauss quadrature in the aperture of the antenna (x, ,y , ), where the field will be calculated. The output antenna coordinates of this point are ( x, = x, ,yo = h, + ya , 0), whereas the corresponding point at the reflecting paraboloidal surface has coordinates ( xo ,y o ,z , ), where
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Figure 9. The antenna output-coordinate and feed-coordinate systems.

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v1 I

a
c

a2

a a, 5
.I

n m

fi

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Equations (30) and (32), it is easy to show that, in terms of the feed fields.

To obtain the reflected fields, the incident fields at the reflecting surface must be expressed in terms of the components defined in the output-antenna coordinate system. This can be achieved by just applying two coordinate-system transformations. One will express the incident fields in Cartesian feed-coordinate-system components, and the other will transform these to the desired outputantenna coordinate system. Thus, El,, is obtained as

the aperture fields can be expressed as

[i;]=[;

w o & ; 0

s ; ; ; j *

It is then easy to see that for a feed without cross-polar radiation cos 8 cos 4 cosBf s m d f -sin

sin 8 cos q5f sinBfsindf cos

(for example, an ideal cos4 y-polarized pattem),

cosdf

ef

-sinef

The reflected fields are then obtained by applying Snells reflection law, giving

The fields at the aperture follow by including the phase-delay factor, viz.,

will produce no cross-polar (x-component) field at the aperture of the centered system. However, when the feed suffers a misalignment and/or displacement, or in the case of a single offset reflector, cross-polar field appears at the aperture, and consequently in the pattern far field. This occurs even if the feed does not produce cross-polar radiation. Figure 10 shows an example of the radiation pattern of a single offset reflector at the asymmetry plane, for F / D = 1 and F / D = 0.5. Note that the peak cross-polar levels agree with those shown in [4, p. 2051.

In Equation (30), the vector, V i , normal to the paraboloidal surface, expressed in spherical antenna-output coordinate-system components, is

5.3 Blockage modeling

so that its Cartesian components are

[SI=[
where

, sin 8, cos 4
, sin 8, sin 4

cos 8, cos 4 , cos 8, sin 4 , -sin 8,

-sin

4 ,

case,

cos@, 0

][

cos 8,/2 sin:.i;), (33)

When centered reflectors are studied, blockage of the subreflector or the feed is simulated based on complete shadowing. This is equivalent to subtracting those fields produced by the blocked area from the far field corresponding to the non-blocked aperture. At first, one may proceed to do this by eliminating the contribution of the Gauss integration points occurring within the blocked area. However, this is a mistake, because these points are irregularly placed. In SABOR, the blockage is modeled analytically using the following steps: When the blocked area has a circular shape (Cassegrain blockage or feed circular blockage), a parabolic reflector on a pedestal-field distribution (see Figure 11) is considered, to analytically evaluate the radiation pattem [ 5 ] , which is then subtracted from that calculated by Gauss quadrature over the whole aperture.

(34) In the case of pyramidal feeds (rectangular blocking areas), the blockage is modeled by a double-Sinc radiation pattern, produced by a uniform field distributed over the rectangular area. Although approximate, this is accurate enough, because the field can be considered to be uniform, since the hom is small compared to the reflector. Blockage dimensions are computed automatically by the program, using the feed or subreflector dimensions. However, SABOR permits a choice of computation with and without blockage, to give the user a measure of the degradation in gain and sidelobe levels.

From Equations (30), (31), and (32), it is possible to calculate the E, and E y components of the aperture field of the equivalent paraboloidal reflector, so that the radiation integral of Equation (3), and therefore the antenna performance, can be evaluated.
In case of centered systems, simpler equations may be derived to relate the E, and Ey field components at the aperture to the spherical components of the feed-radiated field. Using 104

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I Copolar unblocked aperture field

Spillover efficiency measures the ratio of the power incident

on the equivalent reflector to that radiated by the feed. It is


expressed as
r
1

model
-~E ; + ,
=

-ky
=

(a) +(E, (0) -E (a ) ( l - C S ) ]

E,(a,O') E,(a)

+ E,(a,90") + E,(a,18Oo) + E,(a,270")


4

Finally, blockage efficiency is calculated as the ratio of the power radiated by the blocked aperture to that generated by the unblocked, viz.
I

Figure 11. Blocking area modeling using the total shade hypothesis.

&blockage =

l jj -

1 2

Ecp,aperture blocked

ejk?& -7
12
'

ejkF;,ax-?

unblocked

When the cosq feed is selected, an equivalent conical corrugated horn (s = 0.4), producing the same illumination taper as the qth power cosine illumination, is used to define the blockage area. This equivalent horn is displayed by SABOR, along with the corresponding design parameters and the phase center on the primary focus of the system.

Spillover efficiency can be computed from the other efficiencies using spillover
=
&antenna EupertureEblockage

(43)

5.4 Gain and efficiencies

This also accounts for polarization efficiency, and is the expression used in SABOR. Figure 12 is an example of how blockage and other efficiencies can be studied. This figure shows the radiation pattem of a Cassegrain antenna, with and without blockage. Losses of -0.212 have been computed for a blockage of 12%. These patterns have been calculated for a cosq feed. However, the program is able to consider the effects of a real horn feed, as well. Using a smoothwalled conical horn, the spillover losses (including cross-polar efficiency) have increased from -0.45 dB, using the non-crosspolar cosq feed, to -1.03 dB with the conical hom. The aperture efficiency has also been reduced by 0.15 dB,due to the imperfect symmetry of the horn pattem.

Besides antenna gain, SABOR obtains the classical efficiency parameters associated with reflector antennas: aperture efficiency, spillover efficiency, and blockage efficiency. The definitions of these efficiencies are given below. First, the antenna gain is computed from the power radiated by the feed ) and the maximum co-polar field (E,,,) at a distance r, including blockage:

(cad

4m2 Therefore, it is a straightforward matter to compute the antenna efficiency as


5.5 Circular polarization and beam squint

(39)
where D is the diameter of the reflector aperture. Aperture efficiency accounts for non-uniform illumination (amplitude and phase) that exists over the antenna aperture. It is calculated from

Single offset reflectors produce depolarization effects in the form of cross-polar fields (in the asymmetric reflector plane) for a purely linear feed, and a beam squint (in the same plane) for a purely circular source [4, p. 2061. To analyze the squint effects, the program includes a feed with circular polarization (available only as a cosq feed). The squint effect is important in the case of electrically small single offset reflectors, when fed with a dual circular source, as is the case with Earth stations that make use of RHC and LHC for transmission and reception, respectively. In this case, both transmission and reception beams are squinted in opposite directions over the anti-symmetric plane.

5.6 Feed displacements and feed miss-pointing


The phase center of the feed can be moved away from the primary focus of the reflector system. This capability allows the study of positioning errors and analysis of scanning losses for multi-fed reflectors. Axial displacement (translation of the feed

where the integration is extended on the whole aperture, including the blocked region.

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be applied without large errors to any single offset system, producing a good initial point for the maximum search. SABOR also permits the analysis of effects due to feedalignment errors, Le., an angular misalignment between the feed axis and that of the cone that illuminates the rim of the reflector or sub-reflector. The program only considers a misalignment in the symmetry plane (vertical plane) as produced by a rotation movement around the phase center of the feed employed. This capability allows not only the analysis of misalignment errors, but also improvements to the aperture efficiency for single offset reflectors. These improvements, which are only important for low F / D ratios, are a result of the field equalization that can be obtained on the upper and lower aperture edge. Figure 13. The geometry used to define a general movement of the feed around the focus loci. Figure 14 depicts the radiation pattern of a parabolic reflector, with and without feed displacement (axial and lateral). The directivity without any displacement is 39.51 a i , and it goes down to 38.42 dBi for an axial displacement of 0.51. On the other hand, for a lateral displacement of 1,the directivity is 39.26 dEk Here, the coma lobe is the most remarkable effect. Moreover, Figure 15 presents the aperture field for a lateral feed displacement. A linear component and a third-order component (responsible for the coma lobe) of the aperture phase can be easily noticed.

along the feed axis, zf) produces a quadratic phase error in the aperture fields, which translates into a loss of antenna efficiency due to higher sidelobes and a broader main lobe. Transverse displacements (translation of the feed in a plane perpendicular to z ) produces linear and third-order phase errors in the aperture fields. Thus, the main lobe of the pattern is shifted, and similar effects appear in the sidelobes. Figure 13 shows a general movement of the feed along axial and transverse displacements ( A z , A, , respectively). The effects of these displacements are simulated following the method described in [4, pp. 195-197.1.If the displacement is small when compared to the focal length of the equivalent reflector, the only noticeable effect is the existence of a phase error related to the displacement. Thus, the incident field on the equivalent reflector is obtained by multiplying Equation (26) by the phase factor given by exp{ j M , sin B cos($ - $ d )

5.7 Horn reflection coefficient


The energy blocked by the subreflector (or by the horn in a single system) of centered reflector systems is re-sent to the feed, raising its mismatch and modifying its reflection coefficient. Considering a single system with a feed perfectly matched to free space, the reflection coefficient can be computed from the incident field in the reflector vertex. Consider

+ Az cos Q} .
as the field initially produced by the feed, where Pf is the power radiated (forward wave) by the horn. The backward-reflected wave to the feed is that received by the effective area of the feed, Le.,

SABOR computes the direction of the main-lobe maximum through a search around an initial direction. The latter is estimated by considering a shift of the transverse feed displacement, based on: the change in the opposite plane in comparison to the one defined by the focus and the feed phase center. For the ,,, $ cut,
~

,,, $

= a tan-AY - $d Ax

+ z.

(44)

Therefore, the reflection coefficient can be estimated as

-the beam deviation factor (BDF), adjusted from [7, p. 2301 to obtain the B , value:

Irl=

lGfeed (e = O" 4nF

Although these formulas are valid for the centered case, they can
106

This expression can be generalized to double centered reflectors, using the concept of an equivalent reflector, Le., by replacing the focal length, F, by the equivalent focal length, f,.It could be conjectured that a decrease in mismatch may occur with this change, but the opposite happens, because the feed used in double systems has a much higher gain.

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Propagation Magazine, Vol. 40,No. 4, August

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6. Conclusions

The program presented here is a very simple tool, but powerful enough for not only teaching aperture antennas, but also for fast, professional pre-designs of hom and reflector systems. Using analytical expressions and ray tracing for predicting the aperture fields, simple numerical techniques, such as GaussLegendre quadrature, are applied to calculate the radiation integrals. Radiation pattems are displayed in a user-friendly environment, using co-polar and cross-polar components. The geometry and related performance parameters are also displayed as part of the graphical user interface.

15. Y. Mizugutch, M. Akagawa, and H. Yokoi, Offset Dual Reflector Antennas, IEEE Intemational Symposium on Antennas and Propagation Digest, Amherst, Massachusetts, October 1976, pp. 2-5. 16. W. V. T. Rusch, A. Prata, Y. Rahmat-Samii, R. A. Shore, Derivation and Application of the Equivalent Paraboloid for Classical Offset Cassegrain and Gregorian Antennas, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, AP-38, August 1990, pp. 1141-1149.

Introducing Feature Article Authors


7. References 1. C. J. Sletten (ed.), Reflector and Lens Antennas: Analysis and Design Using Personal Computers, Norwood, Artech House, 1988. 2. Y. Lee, K. W. Brown. A. Prata, Jr., RASCAL Version 2.1: Interactive Reflector Antenna Synthesis & Analysis Sofbvare, Users Manual, University of Califomia, Los Angeles, 1995. 3. Manual for GRASPS Package, TICRA Engineering Consultants, 1997. 4. A. W. Rudge, K. Milne, A. D. Olver, P. Knight, The Handbook of Antenna Design, London, Peter Peregrinus, 1982. 5. W. L. Stutzman, G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1981. 6. A. C. Ludwig, The Definition of Cross Polarization, IEEE Tramactions on Antennas and Propagation, AP-21, January 1973, pp. 116-119. 7. T. Milligan, Modern Antenna Design, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1985. Miguel Angel Campo was born in Madrid, Spain, in 1974. He received the MS degree in electrical engineering in 1998 from the Universidad Polittcnica de Madrid. He was in the Electromagnetism Department from 19961997, studying finite elements, and in the Department of Sefiales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones in 1997-1998, doing his masters thesis related to the Cassegrain radio telescopes of the Yebes Astronomy Centre. He has also worked in Telefhica R&D, working on urban-environment propagation-analysis tools. His research interests include shaped-reflector theory and design, theoretical electromagnetism, and frequency methods.

8. S. Silver (ed.) The Microwave Antenna: Theory and Design, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1949.
9. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, New York, Harper & Row, 1982. 10. E.V. Jull and L. E. Allan, Gain of an E-plane Sectoral HomA Failure of the Kirchoff Theory and a New Proposal, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, AP-22, 2, March 1974, pp. 221-226.
11. W. T. Slayton., Design and Calibration of Microwave Antenna Gain Standards, US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, Report 4433, November 1954.

12. W. V. Rusch and P. D. Potter, Analysis of Reflector Antennas, New York, Academic Press, 1970. 13. T. Kitsuregawa, Advanced Technology in Satellite Commimication Antemas, Electrical & Mechanical Design. Norwood, Artech House. 14. K. W. Brown, A. Prata, A Design Procedure for Classical Offset Dual Reflector Antennas with Circular Apertures, ZEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, AP-42, August 1994, pp. 1145-1153. Francisco Javier del Rey was bom in Madrid, Spain, in 1974. He received the MS degree in electrical engineering in 1998
from the Universidad Pol;t&cnicade Madrid,

He worked in the Department of Sefiales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones in 1997-98, designing software tools for antenna analysis. He also worked on his masters thesis, studying propagation phenomena in the SO GHz band, in co-operation with the Yebes Astronomy Centre.

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I
The XXVIth General Assembly of URSI (the International Union of Radio Science) will be held in Toronto, Canada, August 13-21, 1999. As part of the General Assembly, the National Research Council of Canada and other Canadian sponsors are holding a student competition. Undergraduate students from Canadian Universities (Le., persons enrolled in undergraduate programs during the 1998-99 academic year) are eligible for participation in the competition. Students can participate in the competition either as an individual, or in a group not exceeding four members. The competition consists of proposing, implementing, and setting up a live demonstration for a project concerning either of two topics. The first topic is the design and development of hardware or software related to the transmission, reception, or processing of radio waves. The second topic covers observations, processing, and interpretation of radio-wave data related to the subjects covered by URSI. The URSI subject areas are correspond to the subject areas of the 10 URSI Commissions: Electromagnetic Metrology, Fields and Waves, Signals and Systems, Electronics and Photonics, Electromagnetic Noise and Interference, Wave Propagation and Remote Sensing, Ionospheric Radio Propagation, Waves in Plasmas, Radio Astronomy, and Electromagnetics in Biology and Medicine. The preliminary schedule for the competition is as follows. The official announcement of the competition will be made in early fall, 1998. Written project proposals will be due January 15, 1999. Judges will select the accepted projects and notify the applicants by February 15, 1999. The completed projects are to be submitted on a 15-minute video tape, which must be received before April 30, 1999. The judges will then select the best projects as finalists, and notify the contestants by June 15, 1999. The finalists will be given financial assistance to travel to Toronto, and present their projects live before a panel of judges during the URSI General Assembly, in August, 1999. Prizes will be awarded to the three best projects. Additional information can be found as it becomes available on the Web page at the following URL:

Jose Luis Besada was bom in Pontevedra, Spain, in 1947. He received the MS degree in 1971, and the PhD degree in 1979, both in electrical engineering, from the Universidad Polittcnica de Madrid.

He has been a Professor since 1987 in the Department of Sefiales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones, there. His research interests include the general areas of radio astronomy, microwaves, and antennas. In particular, he is investigating antenna measurement techniques, and the design of feeds and reflector antennas for satellite communications.

Leandro de Haro was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1962. He received the MS degree in electrical engineering 1986, and the PhD degree, also in electrical engineering, in 1990, from the Universidad Polittcnica de Madrid.

He joined the Department of Seiiales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones, where he has been an Assistant Professor since 1990. His research areas are focussed on antennas, microwaves, and communication systems. His current research concerns the design of optimized antennas onboard satellites, and the development of mobile channel models. '$

http:llwww.nrc.cafconfservlursi99/stud~e.html.
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IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 40,No. 4, August 1998

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