L.

D COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BRANCH: ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION SEMESTER: 5th ENROLLMENT NO. : SUB: APPLIED ELECTRONICS SUB CODE:

INDEX
Sr. No. 1 Date Name To study the characteristics of SCR and plot its VI characteristics. To study about TRIAC and plot its V-I characteristics. To study UJT as a relaxation oscillator To study about the Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS). To study of Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS). Pg. No. Sign

2 3 4

6 7

8 9 10

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EXPERIMENT NO 01
Date: Aim:- V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR.
Objectives:Observe and plot the v-I characteristics of scr.

Apparatus:1) Experimental training kits 2) CRO, dual channel 3) Connecting wires 4) Decade resistance box

Theory:
SCR is UNI directional power semiconductor switching device. Its silicon controlled rectifier. As the SCR can conduct in only in the one direction, mainly it is used in controlled DC voltage application. I.e. phase controlled rectifiers. Its having three terminals, designated as main terminals anode (A), cathode (k), and gate (G). SCR is used in various types of controlled circuits. When anode terminal is positive compare to cathode terminal then similar to diode, SCR is in forward bias condition and when anode is negative compare to cathode then SCR is in reverse bias condition. In forward bias SCR can conduct when sufficient gate current is applied to it.

Procedure:
1) Operate the dual channel CRO in XY mode. 2) On X-axis, it is voltage across SCR VSCR and on Y-axis; it is current flowing through the SCR ISCR. 3) Now set multiplier of the X & Y channels approximately so that we will be able observe the V-I characteristics on the screen of CRO. 4) Here, for sensing the current ISCR signal, very low value resistor 10 is used.

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5) Switch on the trainer. 6) The V-I characteristics of SCR will be observed on the screen of CRO and it is shown in fig2. 7) Measure the break over voltage for in 1st quadrant of the characteristics. 8) In 3rd quadrant SCR never turns ON, hence horizontal line will be observed on the screen. 9) Change the value of decades resistance box, i.e. Resistance , thus the flow of gate current and observe the variation in break over voltage. 10) Higher the value of Resistance, lower the gate current hence higher the break over voltage. Observation Table: Sr. No. 1 Resistance1= 1st quadrant VBO Resistance2= 1st quadrant VBO Resistance3= 1st quadrant VBO

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EXPERIMENT NO 02
Date: Aim:- V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIACS.
OBJECTIVE :1) Observe and plot the V-I characteristics triac

APPARATUS :1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Experimental training kits DC voltmeter(0-50vdc) DC milli-Ammeter(0-100mAdc) Connecting wires DC milli-Ammeter(0-200mAdc)

THEORY :Triac is bi-directional power semiconductor switching device. It is equivalent to two thyristors are connected in anti- parallel. As the triac can conduct in both directions its three terminal are generally designated as main terminals MT1,MT2 and gate G. Triac is used in various types of controls circits i.e.AC power cotrols circuits.the triac is having identical V-I characteristics in frist and thired quadrant. But in 3rd quadrant compare to 1st quadrant i.e higher gate current is requried to trigger the triac in 3rd quadrant compare to 1st quadrant triggering of triac. OR if same gate current is applied than the triggering angle is higher in 3rd quadrant(negative half cycle of input AC voltage).

PROCEDURE:1) Triac is having four mode of operation as follows a. V-I characteristics in 1st quadrant with +ve gate current fig.1A. b. V-I characteristics in 1st quadrant with -ve gate current fig.1B. c. V-I characteristics in 3rd quadrant with +ve gate current fig.1C. d. V-I characteristics in 3rd quadrant with -ve gate current fig.1D. Ig, i.e.I+, Ig, i.e.I-, Ig, i.e.III-, Ig, i.e.III-,

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2) for all above four mode of operation of triac , make the connection as shown in FIGURE 1A , 1B, 1C Or 1D. 3) keep both variable DC power supply 0 to 50v & 0 to12v knob VTT and VGG to its minimum position. 4) switch on the kit. 5) Keep gate current Ig to zero and vary the voltage VA from zero to maximum value in steps . Note readings of VT &IT. The triac remains on OFF state i.e.IT remains almost zero. 6) Now set VT to 10vdc. Now apply VGGand slowly vary the gate current Ig. Note Ig value, at which triac turns on. As soon ac triac turns ON,voltage across triac VT falls to a very low value i.e. approximately 1v. Now increase VTTin steps and take the readings of VT& IT. 7) Once triac is in on state , it remains in ON state oly. For turning it OFF, switch off the kit OR reduce the supply VTT to zero. 8) Repeat the step 6&7 for different values of VT=25v/50vdc 9) Switch off the kit. 10) Draw the graph of voltage across triac VT v/s current flowing through triac IT.

OBSERVATION TABLE : FOR I+/I-/III+/IIISr No. Ig=0 Voltage VT Ig=o Current IT Ig= Voltage VT Ig= Current IT Ig= Voltage VT Ig= Current IT

1 2 3 4 5

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EXPERIMENT NO 03
Date: Aim:- 1) To plot saw-tooth voltage waveform across the capacitor using UJT (Uni Junction Transitor) and the pulses across the resistor. 2) To calculate the intrinsic stand off ratio of the UJT.
Apparatus:
1) Experiment training kit 2) Connecting wires 3) Dual Trace CRO 4) Decade resistance box

Procedure:
1) Connect the Variable resistor R either by internal potentiometer or by external decade resistor box. 2) Connect the one channel of CRO across the capacitor C and second channel of CRO across the resistor R1. 3) Switch the kit. 4) Adjust the time multiplier selector switch & voltage multiplier selector switch appropriately so that the waveforms can be observed on the screen of CRO. Refer Figure 1 for UJT oscillator diagram and Figure 2 for the waveform across capacitor C and resistor R1. 5) Now vary the resistor R and observe the waveforms. 6) Measure the peak point voltage, valley point voltage from the capacitor voltage Vc. Calculate = (Vp-Vd)/VBB. Take Vd=0.7V and VBB=12V and Vp is to be measured from the Vc.

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7) Measure the time period of the waveform and compare it with the theoretical value of time period T = RC ln{1/(1-)}. 8) Take few readings for the different values of resistor R.

Observation table:Peak point voltage Vp = Valley point voltage Vv= Intrinsic Stand off ratio =

Calculated Time Period T Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Resistor R Measured Time Period T = RC ln{1/(1-)}

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EXPERIMENT NO 04
Date: AIM: To study about SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)
Theory:
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator in order to be highly efficient in the conversion of electrical power. Like other types of power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (e.g., a personal computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode supply switches very quickly (typically between 50 kHz and 1 MHz) between full-on and full-off states, which minimizes wasted energy. Voltage regulation is provided by varying the ratio of on to off time. In contrast, a linear power supply must dissipate the excess voltage to regulate the output. This higher efficiency is the chief advantage of a switched-mode power supply.

Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weights are required. They are, however, more complicated, their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.

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The block diagram of SMPS is given below:

Input rectifier stage:

If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is called rectification. The rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This is a feature of larger supplies to permit operation from nominally 120 V or 240 V supplies. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. Special control techniques can be employed by the following SMPS to force the average input current to follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage thus the designer should try correcting the power factor. An SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage.

Inverter stage
This section refers to the block marked chopper in the block diagram. The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz (kHz). The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The output voltage is optically coupled to the input and thus very tightly controlled. The switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high current-handling capacity.

Voltage converter and output rectifier

If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose. If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary

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silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops. The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed. Simpler, nonisolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer. This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the buck-boost converters. These belong to the simplest class of single input, single output converters which use one inductor and one active switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to the ratio of conductive time to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For example an ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. A feedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the duty cycle to compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boost converter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck-boost output voltage is inverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage.

Regulation
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference voltage, which shown in the block diagram serves this purpose. Depending on design/safety requirements, the controller may contain an isolation mechanism (such as opto-couplers) to isolate it from the DC output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers to tightly control the output voltage. Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on feeding a constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume that the output will be correct. Regulated designs compensate for the impedance of the transformer or coil. Monopolar designs also compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core. The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-switching powersupply for stand-by is added.

Transformer design
SMPS transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and space savings) in offline power supplies come from the fact that a high frequency transformer is much smaller than the 50/60 Hz transformers formerly used. There are additional design tradeoffs. The higher the switching frequency, the lower the amount of energy that needs to be stored intermediately during the time of a single switching cycle. Because this energy is stored in form of magnetic energy in the transformer core material (like ferrite), less of such material is needed. However, higher frequency also means more energy lost during transitions of the switching semiconductor. Furthermore, much more attention to the physical layout of the circuit board is required, and the amount of electromagnetic interference will be more pronounced.

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Core losses increase at higher frequencies. Cores use ferrite material which has a low loss at the high frequencies and high flux densities used. The laminated iron cores of power-frequency transformers would be unacceptably lossy at switching frequencies of a few kilohertz.

Copper loss
At low frequencies (such as the line frequency of 50 or 60 Hz), designers can usually ignore the skin effect. At line frequencies, the skin effect is only significant when the conductors have a diameter larger than about 0.3 inches (7.6 mm). Switching power supplies must pay more attention to the skin effect because it is a source of power loss. At 500 kHz, the skin depth in copper is about 0.003 inches (0.076 mm) a dimension smaller than the typical wires used in a power supply. The effective resistance of conductors increases, because current concentrates near the surface of the conductor and the inner portion carries less current than at low frequencies. The skin effect is exacerbated by the harmonics present in the high speed PWM switching waveforms. The appropriate skin depth is not just the depth at the fundamental, but also the skin depths at the harmonics.[4] In addition to the skin effect, there is also a proximity effect, which is another source of power los

Types
1.) Isolated topologies. All isolated topologies include a transformer, and thus can produce an output of higher or lower voltage than the input by adjusting the turns ratio.[6][7] For some topologies, multiple windings can be placed on the transformer to produce multiple output voltages.[8] Some converters use the transformer for energy storage, while others use a separate inductor. Flyback converter logarithmic control loop behavior might be harder to control than other types. The forward converter has several variants, varying in how the transformer is "reset" to zero magnetic flux every cycle. 2.) Non-isolated topologies. Non-isolated converters are simplest, with the three basic types using a single inductor for energy storage. In the voltage relation column, D is the duty cycle of the converter, and can vary from 0 to 1. Vin is assumed to be greater than zero; if it is negative, negate Vout to match. When equipment is human-accessible, voltage and power limits of <=42.4 V peak/60 V dc and 250 VA apply for Safety Certification (UL, CSA, VDE approval).
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The buck, boost, and buck-boost topologies are all strongly related. Input, output and ground come together at one point. One of the three passes through an inductor on the way, while the other two pass through switches. One of the two switches must be active (e.g., a transistor), while the other can be a diode. Sometimes, the topology can be changed simply by re-labeling the connections. A 12 V input, 5 V output buck converter can be converted to a 7 V input, 5 V output buck-boost by grounding the output and taking the output from the ground pin.

Quasi-resonant zero-current/zero-voltage switch

A quasi-resonant zero-current/zero-voltage switch (ZCS/ZVS) where "each switch cycle delivers a quantized 'packet' of energy to the converter output, and switch turn-on and turn-off occurs at zero current and voltage, resulting in an essentially lossless switch."[12] Quasi-resonant switching, also known as valley switching, reduces EMI in the power supply by two methods: 1. By switching the bipolar switch when the voltage is at a minimum (in the valley) to minimize the hard switching effect that causes EMI. 2. By switching when a valley is detected, rather than at a fixed frequency, introduces a natural frequency jitter that spreads the RF emissions spectrum and reduces overall EMI.

Precautions
The main filter capacitor will often store up to 325 V long after the power cord has been removed from the wall. Not all power supplies contain a small "bleeder" resistor to slowly discharge this capacitor. Any contact with this capacitor may result in a severe electrical shock. The primary and secondary side may be connected with a capacitor to reduce EMI and compensate for various capacitive couplings in the converter ciruit, where the transformer is one. This may result in electric shock in some cases. The current flowing from line or neutral through a 2000 resistor to any accessible part must according to IEC 60950 be less than 250 A for IT equipment.

Applications
Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch-mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies. In 2006, at an Intel Developers Forum, Google engineers proposed the use of a single 12 V supply inside PCs, due to the high efficiency of switch mode supplies directly on the PCB. Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies but they quickly moved to the cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were required. Recently the demand for even lower no load power requirements in the application has meant
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that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary-side sensing components such as optocouplers. Where integration of capacitors for stabilization and batteries as a energy storage or hum and interference needs to be avoided in the power distribution, SMPS may be essential for efficient conversion of electric DC energy. For AC applications where frequency and voltage can't be produced by the primary source an SMPS may be essential as well.

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EXPERIMENT NO 05
Date: AIM: To study about the UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply)
Theory:
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or nearinstantaneous protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short 515 minutes being typical for smaller unitsbut sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment. While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data centers, buildings, or even cities.

Common power problems:

The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the input power source fails. However, most UPS units are also capable in varying degrees of correcting common utility power problems: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Power failure: defined as a total loss of input voltage. Surge: defined as a momentary or sustained increase in the main voltage. Sag: defined as a momentary or sustained reduction in input voltage. Spikes, defined as a brief high voltage excursion. Noise, defined as a high frequency transient or oscillation, usually injected into the line by nearby equipment. 6. Frequency instability: defined as temporary changes in the mains frequency. 7. Harmonic distortion: defined as a departure from the ideal sinusoidal waveform expected on the line.

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UPS units are divided into categories based on which of the above problems they address, and some manufacturers categorize their products in accordance with the number of power-related problems they address.

Technologies:
The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive or standby. An online UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC for passing through the rechargeable battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to 120 V/230 V AC for powering the protected equipment. A line-interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current path from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is lost. In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the line-interactive or standby varieties which are usually less expensive. For large power units, dynamic uninterruptible power supplies are sometimes used. A synchronous motor/alternator is connected on the mains via a choke. Energy is stored in a flywheel. When the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation maintains the power on the load. DUPS are sometimes combined or integrated with a diesel generator, forming a diesel rotary uninterruptible power supply (DRUPS). A fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a fuel cell as a power source, potentially providing long run times in a small space.

Offline / standby:
The offline / standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be designed to power certain equipment, such as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device.

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Line-interactive:
The line-interactive UPS is similar in operation to a standby UPS, but with the addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of transformer that can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output voltage of the transformer. This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage brownouts and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead compensates by automatically selecting different power taps on the autotransformer. Depending on the design, changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power disruption, which may cause UPSs equipped with a power-loss alarm to "chirp" for a moment. To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two separate switches so that the AC input can be connected to one of the two primary taps, while the load is connected to the other, thus using the main transformer's primary windings as an autotransformer. The battery can still be charged while "bucking" an overvoltage, but while "boosting" an under voltage, the transformer output is too low to charge the batteries. Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages, but this requires more taps and increases complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is common for the autotransformer to cover a range only from about 90 V to 140 V for 120 V power, and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or lower than that range. In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so it may need a higher current circuit than a normal device. For example to power a 1000-watt device at 120 volts, the UPS will draw 8.32 amperes. If a brownout occurs and the voltage drops to 100 volts, the UPS will draw 10 amperes to compensate. This also works in reverse, so that in an overvoltage condition, the UPS will need less current

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Applications:
N+1 In large business environments where reliability is of great importance, a single huge UPS can also be a single point of failure that can disrupt many other systems. To provide greater reliability, multiple smaller UPS modules and batteries can be integrated together to provide redundant power protection equivalent to one very large UPS. "N+1" means that if the load can be supplied by N modules, the installation will contain N+ 1 module. In this way, failure of one module will not impact system operation.

Multiple redundancy
Many computer servers offer the option of redundant power supplies, so that in the event of one power supply failing, one or more other power supplies are able to power the load. This is a critical point each power supply must be able to power the entire server by itself. Redundancy is further enhanced by plugging each power supply into a different circuit (i.e. to a different circuit breaker). Redundant protection can be extended further yet by connecting each power supply to its own UPS. This provides double protection from both a power supply failure and a UPS failure, so that continued operation is assured. This configuration is also referred to as 1+1 or 2N redundancy. If the budget does not allow for two identical UPS units then it is common practice to plug one power supply into mains power and the other into the UPS.

Outdoor use
When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have some specific features that guarantee that it can tolerate weather with a 'minimal to none' effect on performance. Factors such as temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should be considered by the manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around 40 C to +55 C. Outdoor UPS systems can be pole, ground (pedestal), or host mounted. Outdoor environment could mean extreme cold, in which case the outdoor UPS system should include a battery heater mat, or extreme heat, in which case the outdoor UPS system should include a fan system or an air conditioning system.

Internal systems
UPS systems can be designed to be placed inside a computer chassis. There are two types of internal UPS. The first type is a miniaturized regular UPS that is made small enough to fit into a 5.25-inch CD-ROM slot bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type are re-engineered

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switching power supplies that utilize dual power sources of AC and/or DC as power inputs and have an AC/DC built-in switching management control units.

Frequency variations
The voltage and frequency of the power produced by a generator depends on the engine speed. The speed is controlled by a system called a governor. Some governors are mechanical, and some are electronic. The job of the governor is to keep the voltage and frequency constant, while the load on the generator changes. This may pose a problem where, for example, the startup surge of an elevator can cause short "blips" in the frequency of the generator or the output voltage, thus affecting all other devices powered by the generator. Many radio transmission sites will have backup diesel generators in the case of amplitude modulation (AM) radio transmitters, the load presented by the transmitters changes in line with the signal level. This leads to the scenario where the generator is constantly trying to correct the output voltage and frequency as the load changes. It is possible for a UPS unit to be incompatible with a generator or a poor mains supply; in the event that its designers had written the microprocessor code to require exactly a 50.0 Hz (or 60.0 Hz) supply frequency in order to operate; with this condition not met the UPS could remain on battery power, being unable to reconnect the unsuitable supply voltage. This problem of input frequency requirements should not be an issue through the use of a Double Conversion / online UPS. A UPS of this topology should be able to adapt to any input frequency, using its own internal clock source to generate the required 50 or 60 Hz supply frequency.

Power factor
A problem in the combination of a "double conversion" UPS and a generator is the voltage distortion created by the UPS. The input of a double conversion UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the UPS is non-sinusoidal. This causes the voltage from the generator also to become non-sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can cause problems in all electrical equipment connected to the generator, including the UPS itself. This level of "noise" is measured as a percentage of "Total Harmonic Distortion of the current" (THD(i)). Classic UPS rectifiers have a THD (i) level of around 2530%. To prevent voltage distortion, this requires generators more than twice as big as the UPS.

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