Globalization

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Globalization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Globalization (or globalisationsee spelling differences) is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.[2][3] Put in simple terms, globalization refers to processes that promote world-wide exchanges of national and cultural resources. Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the Internet, are major factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities.[4] Though several scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history long before the European age of discovery and voyages to the New World. Some even trace the origins to the third millennium BCE.[5][6] Since the beginning of the 20th century, the pace of globalization has intensified at a rapid rate and especially during the Post Cold War era.[7]
The term globalization has been in increasing use since the mid-1980s and especially since the mid-1990s.[8] In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people and the dissemination of knowledge.[9] Further, environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with globalization.[10] Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environment.
Gross domestic product in 2011 US dollars per capita, adjusted for inflation and purchasing power parity (log scale) from 1860 to 2011, with population (disk area) for the US (yellow), UK (orange), Japan (red), China (red), and India (blue). [1]
Contents
1 Overview 1.1 Etymology and usage 1.2 Dimensions 2 History 2.1 Archaic 2.2 Proto-globalization 2.3 Modern 3 Aspects 3.1 Global business organization 3.1.1 International trade
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3.1.2 Tax havens 3.1.3 International tourism 3.2 Economic globalization 3.2.1 Capital flight 3.2.2 Austerity 3.2.3 Measurement 3.3 Sociocultural globalization 3.3.1 Culture 3.3.2 Politics 3.3.3 Internet 3.3.4 Population growth 3.3.5 Health 3.3.6 Sports 3.4 Global natural environment 3.5 Global workforce 3.5.1 International migration 4 Support and criticism 4.1 Proponents 4.1.1 Economic liberalism and free trade 4.1.2 Global democracy 4.1.3 Global civics 4.2 Critiques 4.2.1 Anti-globalization movement 4.2.2 Opposition to capital market integration 4.2.3 Global justice and inequality 4.2.4 Anti-consumerism 4.2.5 Anti-global governance 4.2.6 Environmentalist opposition 4.2.7 Movement tactics 5 Key journals 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links
Overview
Humans have interacted over long distances for thousands of years. The overland Silk Road that connected Asia, Africa and Europe is a good example of the transformative power of translocal exchange that existed in the "Old World". Philosophy, religion, language, the arts, and other aspects of culture spread and mixed as nations exchanged products and ideas. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans made important discoveries in their exploration of the oceans, including the start of transatlantic travel to the "New World" of the Americas. Global movement of people, goods, and ideas expanded significantly in the following centuries. Early in the 19th century, the development of new forms of transportation (such as the steamship and railroads) and telecommunications that
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"compressed" time and space allowed for increasingly rapid rates of global interchange.[11] In the 20th century, road vehicles and airlines made transportation even faster, and the advent of electronic communications, most notably mobile phones and the Internet, connected billions of people in new ways leading into the 21st century.
Etymology and usage

The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the emergence of an international network of social and economic systems.[12] One of the earliest known usages of the term as the noun was in 1930 in a publication entitled Towards New Education where it denoted a holistic view of human experience in education.[13] A related term, corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in 1897[14] to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both terms began to be used as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. It then reached the mainstream press in the later half of the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations, with antecedents dating back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onwards.[15] Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, articles, and discussions often remain focused on a single aspect of globalization.[2]
Eastern Telegraph Company 1901 chart of undersea telegraph cabling. An example of modern globalizing technology in the beginning of the 20th century.
Roland Robertson, professor of sociology at University of Aberdeen, an early writer in the field, defined globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole."[16] Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as: ...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society.[3] In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony Giddens uses the following definition: Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.[17] In Global Transformations David Held, et al., study the definition of globalization: Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global
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interactions. Globalization can be taken to refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.[18] Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization, states that globalization: is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.[19] The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term "flat world", arguing that globalized trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow.[20] Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and labor markets that led toward present neoliberal globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state. "Cultural globalization", he used to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "ideological globalization", "technological globalization" and "social globalization".[21] In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people and the dissemination of knowledge.[9] With regards to trade and transactions, developing countries increased their share of world trade, from 19 percent in 1971 to 29 percent in 1999. However, there is great variation among the major regions. For instance, the newly industrialized economies (NIEs) of Asia prospered, while African countries as a whole performed poorly. The makeup of a country's exports is an important indicator for success. Manufactured goods exports soared, dominated by developed countries and NIEs. Commodity exports, such as food and raw materials were often produced by developing countries: commodities' share of total exports declined over the period. Following from this, capital and investment movements can be highlighted as another basic aspect of globalization. Private capital flows to developing countries soared during the 1990s, replacing "aid" or development assistance which fell significantly after the early 1980s. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) became the most important category. Both portfolio investment and bank credit rose but they have been more volatile, falling sharply in the wake of the financial crisis of the late 1990s. The migration and movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization process. In the period between 196590, the proportion of the labor forces migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between developing countries and Least Developed Countries (LDCs). [22]
Dimensions
Manfred Steger, professor of Global Studies and research leader in the Global Cities Institute at RMIT University, compares the current study of globalization to the ancient Buddhist parable of blind scholars and their first encounter with an elephant.
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"Since the blind scholars did not know what the elephant looked like, they resolved to obtain a mental picture, and thus the knowledge they desired, by touching the animal. Feeling its trunk, one blind man argued that the elephant was like a lively snake. Another man, rubbing along its enormous leg, likened the animal to a rough column of massive proportions. The third person took hold of its tail and insisted that the elephant resembled a large, flexible brush. The fourth man felt its sharp tusks and declared it to be like a great spear. Each of the blind scholars held firmly to his own idea of what constituted an elephant. Since their scholarly reputation was riding on the veracity of their respective findings, the blind men eventually ended up arguing over the nature of the elephant."[23] Similar to the blind scholars, some globalization scholars are too focused on compacting globalization into a singular process and clashes over which aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain prevail. In his book, Globalization: A Very Short Introduction, Steger argues that in order to fully understand and grasp the concept and process of globalization, scholars of globalization need to take a multidimensional approach. Globalization is composed of five dimensions: economic, political, cultural, ecological, and ideological. Economic globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of economic interrelations around the globe.[24] It encompasses such things as the emergence of a new global economic order, the internationalization of trade and finance, the changing power of transnational corporations, and the enhanced role of international economic institutions. Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations around the globe.[25] Aspects of political globalization include the modern-nation state system and its changing place in todays world, the role of global governance, and the direction of our global political systems. Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe.[26] Culture is a very broad concept and has many facets, but in the discussion on globalization, Steger means it to refer to the symbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning. Topics under this heading include discussion about the development of a global culture, or lack thereof, the role of the media in shaping our identities and desires, and the globalization of languages. Ecological globalization refers to the global environmental issues. Topics of ecological globalization include population growth, access to food, worldwide reduction in biodiversity, the gap between rich and poor as well as between the global North and global South, human-induced climate change, and global environmental degradation. Globalization operates on an ideological dimension filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself. [27] According to Steger, there are three main types of globalisms (ideologies that endow the concept of globalization with particular values and meanings): market globalism, justice globalism, and jihadist globalism. Steger defines them as follows:[28] Market globalism seeks to endow globalization with free-market norms and neoliberal meanings. Justice globalism constructs an alternative vision of globalization based on egalitarian ideals of global solidarity and distributive justice. Jihadist globalism struggles against market- and justice globalism as it seeks to mobilize the global Muslim community of believers (umma) in defense of Islamic values and beliefs that are thought to be under severe attack by the forces of secularism and consumerism.
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History
Main article: History of globalization See also: Timeline of international trade There are both distal and proximate causes that can be traced in the historical factors affecting globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th century.[11]
Archaic
Main article: Archaic globalization
Extent of the Silk Road and Spice trade routes owned by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 spurring exploration
The German historical economist and sociologist Andre Gunder Frank argues that a form of globalization began with the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus Valley Civilization in the third millennium B.C.E.[5] This archaic globalization existed during the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain, including Alexandria and the other Alexandrine cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece and the necessity of importing wheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain. There were trade links between the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire, and the Han Dynasty. The increasing commercial links between these powers took form in the Silk Road, which began in western China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued to Rome.[29] As many as three hundred Greek ships sailed each year between the Greco-Roman world and India. Annual trade volume may have reached 300,000 tons.[30] By traveling past the Tarim Basin region, the Chinese of the Han Dynasty learned of powerful kingdoms in Central Asia, Persia, India, and the Middle East with the travels of the Han Dynasty envoy Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. From 104 BC to 102 BC Emperor Wu of Han waged war against the Yuezhi who controlled Dayuan, a Hellenized kingdom of Fergana established by Alexander the Great in 329 BC. Gan Ying, the emissary of General Ban Chao, perhaps traveled as far as Roman-era Syria in the late 1st century AD. After these initial discoveries the focus of Chinese exploration shifted to the maritime sphere, although the Silk Road leading all the way to Europe continued to be China's most lucrative source of trade. From about the 1st century, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there. The Islamic Golden Age added another stage of globalization, when Radhanite (Jewish) and Muslim traders and explorers established trade routes, resulting in a globalization of agriculture, trade, knowledge and technology. Crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while widespread knowledge of Arabic and the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.[31] The advent of the Mongol Empire, though destabilizing to the commercial centers of the Middle East and China, greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Road. The Pax Mongolica of the thirteenth century included the first international postal service, as well as the rapid transmission of epidemic diseases such as bubonic plague across
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Central Asia.[32] Up to the sixteenth century, however, the largest systems of international exchange were limited to southern Eurasia (an area where the Balkans and Greece interact with Turkey, Egypt, the Levant, Persia and the Arabian Peninsula, continuing over the Arabian Sea to India). Many Chinese merchants chose to settle down in the Southeast Asian ports such as Champa, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, and married the native women. Their children carried on trade.[33][34] Italian city states embraced free trade and merchants established trade links with faraway places, giving birth to the Renaissance. Marco Polo was a merchant traveler[35] from the Venetian Republic in modern-day Italy whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book that played a significant role in introducing Europeans to Central Asia and China. The pioneering journey of Marco Polo inspired Christopher Columbus[36] and other European explorers of the following centuries.
Proto-globalization
Main article: Proto-globalization
Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th century Japanese Nanban art
The next phase, known as proto-globalization, was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16th and 17th centuries, first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, and later the Dutch and British Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when chartered companies like the British East India Company (founded in 1600) and the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602, often described as the first multinational corporation in which stock was offered) were established.[37] The Age of Discovery added the New World to the equation,[38] beginning in the late 15th century. Portugal and Castile sent the first exploratory voyages[39] around the Horn of Africa and to the Americas, reached in 1492 by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus. Global trade growth continued with the European colonization of the Americas initiating the Columbian Exchange,[40] the exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. New crops that had come from the Americas via the European seafarers in the 16th century significantly contributed to world population growth.[41] The Puritans migration to New England, starting in 1630 under John Winthrop with the professed mission of converting both the natives of North America to Puritan Christianity and raising up a "City Upon a Hill" that would influence the Western European world, is used as an example of globalization.[42]
Animated map showing the development of colonial empires from 1492 to present
Modern
In the 19th century, steamships reduced the cost of international transport significantly and railroads made inland transport cheaper. The transport revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.[11] More nations embraced international trade.[11]
Native New World crops exchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubber, cacao, tobacco
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Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism such as in Africa and Asia. The invention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce.[43][44] Globalization took a big step backwards during the First World War, the Great Depression, and the Second World War. Integration of rich countries didn't recover to previous levels before the 1980s.[citation needed ] After the Second World War, work by politicians led to the Bretton Woods conference, an agreement by major governments to lay down the framework for international monetary policy, commerce and finance, and 19th century Great Britain become the the founding of several international institutions intended to facilitate first global economic superpower, economic growth multiple rounds of trade opening simplified and lowered because of superior manufacturing trade barriers. Initially, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade technology and improved global (GATT), led to a series of agreements to remove trade restrictions. communications such as steamships GATT's successor was the World Trade Organization (WTO), which and railroads. created an institution to manage the trading system. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.[45] The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the Doha round of trade-negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011 South KoreaUnited States Free Trade Agreement. Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries. Open skies policies and low-cost carriers have helped to bring competition to the market. In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between different countries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design. In late 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into the Great Recession,[46] which may have slowed the process, at least temporarily.[47][48][49]
Aspects
Global business organization
Main article: International business With improvements in transportation and communication, international business grew rapidly after the beginning of the 20th century. International business includes all commercial transactions (private sales, investments, logistics,and transportation) that take place between two or more regions, countries and nations beyond their political boundary. Usually, private companies undertake such transactions for profit.[50] Such business transactions involve economic resources such as capital, natural and human resources used for international production of physical goods and services such as finance, banking, insurance, construction and other productive activities.[51]
Global Competitiveness Index (20082009): competitiveness is an important determinant for the wellbeing of nation-states in an international environment
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International business arrangements have led to the formation of multinational enterprises (MNE), companies that have a worldwide approach to markets and production or one with operations in more than one country. An MNE is often called multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational company (TNC). Well known MNCs include fast food companies such as McDonald's and Yum Brands, vehicle manufacturers such as General Motors, Ford Motor Company and Toyota, consumer electronics companies like Samsung, LG and Sony, and energy companies such as ExxonMobil, Shell and BP. Most of the largest corporations operate in multiple national markets. Businesses argue that survival in the new global marketplace requires companies to source goods, services, labor and materials overseas to continuously upgrade their products and technology in order to survive increased competition. International trade Main article: International trade An absolute trade advantage exists when countries can produce a commodity with less costs per unit produced than could its trading partner. By the same reasoning, it should import commodities in which it has an absolute disadvantage.[52] While there are possible gains from trade with absolute advantage, comparative advantagethat is, the ability to offer goods and services at a lower marginal and opportunity costextends the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges. In a globalized business environment, companies argue that the comparative advantages offered by international trade have become essential to remaining competitive.
Trade agreements, economic blocks and special trade zones
Singapore, the top country in the Enabling Trade Index, embraced globalization and became a highly developed country
A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic and other laws that are more freemarket-oriented than a country's typical or national laws. "Nationwide" laws may be suspended inside these special zones. The category 'SEZ' covers many areas, including Free Trade Zones (FTZ), Export Processing Zones (EPZ), Free Zones (FZ), Industrial parks or Industrial Estates (IE), Free Ports, Urban Enterprise Zones and others. Usually the goal of a structure is to increase foreign direct investment by foreign investors, typically an international business or a multinational corporation (MNC). These are designated areas in which companies are taxed very lightly or not at all in order to encourage economic activity. Free ports have historically been endowed with favorable customs regulations, e.g., the free port of Trieste. Very often free ports constitute a part of free economic zones. A FTZ is an area within which goods may be landed, handled, manufactured or reconfigured, and reexported without the intervention of the customs authorities. Only when the goods are moved to consumers within the country in which the zone is located do they become subject to the prevailing customs duties. Free trade zones are organized around major seaports, international airports, and national frontiersareas with many geographic advantages for trade.[53] It is a region where a group of countries has agreed to reduce or eliminate trade barriers.[54] A free trade area is a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free-trade agreement, which eliminates tariffs, import quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded between them. If people are also free to move between the countries, in addition to free-trade area, it would also be considered an open border.
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The European Union, for example, a confederation of 27 member states, provides both a free trade area and an open border. Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) are industrial parks that house manufacturing operations in Jordan and Egypt. They are a special free trade zones established in collaboration with neighboring Israel to take advantage of the free trade agreements between the United States and Israel. Under the trade agreements with Jordan as laid down by the United States, goods produced in QIZ-notified areas can directly access US markets without tariff or quota restrictions, subject to certain conditions. To qualify, goods produced in these zones must contain a small portion of Israeli input. In addition, a minimum 35% value to the goods must be added to the finished product. The brainchild of Jordanian businessman Omar Salah, the first QIZ was authorized by the United States Congress in 1997. The Asia-Pacific has been described as "the most integrated trading region on the planet" because its intra-regional trade accounts probably for as much as 50-60% of the region's total imports and exports.[55] It has also extra-regional trade: consumer goods exports such as televisions, radios, bicycles, and textiles into the United States, Europe, and Japan fueled the economic expansion.[56]
A Billboard in Jakarta welcoming ASEAN Summit 2011 delegates.
The ASEAN Free Trade Area[57] is a trade bloc agreement by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations supporting local manufacturing in all ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore. When the AFTA agreement was originally signed, ASEAN had six members, namely, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Vietnam joined in 1995, Laos and Myanmar in 1997 and Cambodia in 1999.
Drug trade
In 2010 the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that the global drug trade generated more than $320 billion a year in revenues.[58] Worldwide, the UN estimates there are more than 50 million regular users of heroin, cocaine and synthetic drugs.[59] The international trade of endangered species was second only to drug trafficking among smuggling "industries".[60] Traditional Chinese medicine often incorporates ingredients from all parts of plants, the leaf, stem, flower, root, and also ingredients from animals and minerals. The use of parts of endangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros horns, saiga antelope horns, and tiger bones and claws) resulted in a black market of poachers who hunt restricted animals.[61][62] Tax havens Main article: Tax haven A tax haven is a state, country or territory where certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses for tax avoidance and tax evasion.[65] Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive to establish shell subsidiaries or move themselves to areas with reduced or nil taxation levels. This creates a situation of tax competition among governments. Different jurisdictions tend to be havens for different types of taxes, and for different categories of people and/or companies.[66] States that are sovereign or self-governing under international law have theoretically unlimited powers to enact tax laws affecting their territories, unless limited by previous international treaties. The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or
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avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions.[67] In its December 2008 report on the use of tax havens by American corporations,[68] the U.S. Government Accountability Office was unable to find a satisfactory definition of a tax haven but regarded the following characteristics as indicative of it: nil or nominal taxes; lack of effective exchange of tax information with foreign tax authorities; lack of transparency in the operation of legislative, legal or administrative provisions; no requirement for a substantive local presence; and selfpromotion as an offshore financial center. A 2012 report from the Tax Justice Network estimated that between USD $21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in unreported tax havens worldwide. If such wealth earns 3% annually and such capital gains were taxed at 30%, it would generate between $190 billion and $280 billion in tax revenues, more than any other tax shelters.[69] If such hidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments nominally in debt are shown to be net creditor nations.[70] However, the tax policy director of the Chartered Institute of Taxation expressed skepticism over the accuracy of the figures.[71] Daniel J. Mitchell of the US-based Cato Institute says that the report also assumes, when considering notional lost tax revenue, that 100% money deposited offshore is evading payment of tax.[72]
The black market in rhinoceros horn reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years. [63]
Tax havens have been criticized because they often result in the accumulation of idle cash[73] which is expensive and inefficient for companies to repatriate.[74] The tax shelter benefits result in a tax incidence disadvantaging the poor.[75] Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism."[76] While investigations of illegal tax haven abuse have been ongoing, there have been few convictions.[77][78] Lobbying pertaining to tax havens and associated transfer pricing has also been criticized.[79] Accountants' opinions on the propriety of tax havens have been evolving,[80] as have the opinions of their corporate users,[81] governments,[82][83] and politicians,[84][85] although their use by Fortune 500 companies[86] and others remains widespread.[87] Reform proposals centering on the Big Four accountancy firms have been advanced.[88] Some governments appear to be using computer spyware to scrutinize some corporations' finances.[89] International tourism Main article: Tourism Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".[90] There are many forms of tourism such as agritourism, birth tourism, culinary tourism, cultural tourism, eco-tourism,extreme tourism, geotourism, heritage tourism, LGBT tourism, medical tourism, nautical tourism, pop-culture tourism, religious tourism, slum tourism, war tourism, and wildlife tourism
The ratio of German assets in tax havens in relation to the total German GDP. [64] The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and Switzerland.
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Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.[91] In 2010, international tourism reached $919B, growing 6.5% over 2009.[92] In 2010, there were over 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide, representing a growth of 6.6% when compared to 2009.[93] International tourism receipts grew to US$919 billion (693 billion) in 2010, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%.[93] As a result of the late-2000s recession, international travel demand Modern aviation has made it possible suffered a strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through the to travel long distances quickly. end of 2009. After a 5% increase in the first half of 2008, growth in international tourist arrivals moved into negative territory in the second half of 2008, and ended up only 2% for the year, compared to a 7% increase in 2007.[94] This negative trend intensified during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million international tourists arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in international tourism receipts.[95]
Economic globalization
Main article: Economic globalization Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in crossborder movement of goods, service, technology and capital.[97] Whereas the globalization of business is centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as tariffs, taxes, and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is the process of increasing economic integration between countries, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.[98] Depending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed as either a positive or a negative phenomenon. Economic globalization comprises the globalization of production, markets, competition, technology, and corporations and industries.[97] Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed economies integrating with less developed economies, by means of foreign direct investment, the reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms and, in many cases, immigration.
Imported crude oil as a percent of U.S. consumption. In 2011, the United States imported $332 billion worth of crude oil, up 32% from 2010. [96]
In 1944, 44 nations attended the Bretton Woods Conference with a purpose of stabilizing world currencies and establishing credit for international trade in the post World War II era. While the international economic order envisioned by the conference gave way to the neo-liberal economic order prevalent today, the conference established many of the organizations essential to the advancement towards a close knit global economy, such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Trade Organization.
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As an example, Chinese economic reform began to open China to the globalization in the 1980s. Scholars find that China has attained a degree of openness that is unprecedented among large and populous nations", with competition from foreign goods in almost every sector of the economy. Foreign investment helped to greatly increase quality, knowledge and standards, especially in heavy industry. China's experience supports the assertion that globalization greatly increases wealth for poor countries.[100] As of 20052007, the Port of Shanghai holds the title as the World's busiest port.[101][102][103][104]
Shanghai becomes a symbol of the recent economic boom of China. In 2011, China had 960,000 millionaires. [99]
poverty alleviation".[106][107] Capital flight
Economic liberalization in India is the ongoing economic reforms in India that started in 1991. As of 2009, about 300 million peopleequivalent to the entire population of the United Stateshave escaped extreme poverty.[105] In India, business process outsourcing has been described as the "primary engine of the country's development over the next few decades, contributing broadly to GDP growth, employment growth, and
Main articles: Capital flight and Liquidity crisis See also: Sudden stop (economics), Tax exporting, Capital strike, and Illicit financial flows Capital flight occurs when assets or money rapidly flow out of a country because of that country's recent increase in taxes, tariffs, labor costs, or other unfavorable financial conditions such as government debt defaulting, which disturb investors. This leads to a sometimes very rapid disappearance of wealth, and is usually accompanied by a sharp drop in The Argentine economic crisis of the exchange rate of the affected country, leading in turn to depreciation 2001 caused in a currency in a variable currency exchange rate regime, or a forced devaluation devaluation and capital flight which under fixed exchange rates. This can be particularly damaging when the resulted in a sharp drop in imports. capital belongs to the people of the affected country, because not only are the citizens now burdened by the loss of faith in the economy and devaluation of their currency, but probably also their assets have lost much of their nominal value. This leads to dramatic decreases in the purchasing power of the country's assets and makes it increasingly expensive to import goods. A 2008 paper published by Global Financial Integrity estimated capital flight, also called illicit financial flows to be "out of developing countries are some $850 billion to $1 trillion a year."[108] But capital flight affects developing countries, too. A 2009 article in The Times reported that hundreds of wealthy financiers and entrepreneurs had recently fled the United Kingdom in response to recent tax increases, and had relocated in low tax destinations such as Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, and the British Virgin Islands.[109] In May 2012 the scale of Greek capital flight in the wake of the first "undecided" legislative election was estimated at 4 billion a week[110] and later that month the Spanish Central Bank revealed 97 billion in capital flight from the Spanish economy for the first quarter of 2012.[111]
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Capital flight can cause liquidity crises in the affected countries from which capital is flowing, the countries in which investors are trying to liquidate their assets, and other countries involved in international commerce such as shipping and finance. Market participants in need of cash find it hard to locate potential trading partners to sell their assets. This may result either due to limited market participation or because of a decrease in cash held by financial market participants. Thus asset holders may be forced to sell their assets at a price below the long term fundamental price. Borrowers typically face higher loan costs and collateral requirements, compared to periods of ample liquidity, and unsecured debt is nearly impossible to obtain. Typically, during a liquidity crisis, the interbank lending market does not function smoothly either. Austerity Main article: Austerity Governments sometimes impose austerity policies to reduce budget deficits during adverse economic conditions. These can include spending cuts, tax increases, or a mixture of the two.[113][114][115] Austerity policies demonstrate governments' liquidity to their creditors and credit rating agencies by bringing fiscal income closer to expenditure. The economic effects of austerity are unclear, due to its wide and nonRed: U.S. corporate profits after tax. specific definition, the limited historic sample of natural experiments and Blue: U.S. nonresidential business the potential conflation with the effects of other events which tend to investment, both as fractions of GDP, precede austerity, such as recessions and financial crises. In 1989-2012. Wealth concentration of macroeconomics, reducing government spending generally increases corporate profits in global tax havens unemployment. This increases safety net spending and reduces tax due to tax avoidance spurred by revenues, to some extent. Government spending contributes to gross imposition of austerity measures can domestic product (GDP), so the debt-to-GDP ratio which signifies stall investment, inhibiting further liquidity may not immediately improve. Short-term deficit spending growth. [112] particularly contributes to GDP growth when consumers and businesses are unwilling or unable to spend.[116] Under the theory of expansionary fiscal contraction (EFC), a major reduction in government spending can change future expectations about taxes and government spending, encouraging private consumption and resulting in overall economic expansion.[117] Since 2011, the International Monetary Fund has issued cautionary guidance against austerity measures imposed without regard to underlying economic fundamentals[118][119][120] and many commentators have suggested that austerity measures have indeed been misguided and harmful to the economies where they have been imposed.[121][122][123] Measurement
Indices
Main article: Globalization Index Measurement of economic globalization focuses on variables such as trade, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), portfolio investment, and income. However, newer indices attempt to measure globalization in more general terms, including variables related to political, social, cultural, and even environmental aspects of globalization.[124]
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One index of globalization is the KOF Index, which measures the three main dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political.[125] 2012 List by the KOF Index of Globalization 2006 List by the A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Country Belgium Ireland Netherlands Austria Singapore Sweden Denmark Hungary Portugal Switzerland Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Country Singapore Switzerland United States Ireland Denmark Canada Netherlands Australia Austria Sweden
Free trade policies
Main article: Global Enabling Trade Report The Enabling Trade Index measures the factors, policies and services that facilitate the trade in goods across borders and to destination. It is made up of four sub-indexes: market access; border administration; transport and communications infrastructure; and business environment. The top 20 countries are:[126] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Singapore 6.06 Hong Kong 5.70 Denmark 5.41 Sweden 5.41 Switzerland 5.37 New Zealand 5.33 Norway 5.32 Canada 5.29 Luxembourg 5.28 Netherlands 5.26 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Iceland 5.26 Finland 5.25 Germany 5.20 Austria 5.17 Australia 5.13 United Arab Emirates 5.12 United Kingdom 5.06 Chile 5.06 United States 5.03 France 5.02
Sociocultural globalization
Culture
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Main article: Cultural globalization Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities: sushi is available in Germany as well as Japan, but Euro-Disney outdraws the city of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.[127][128][129] Globalisation's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged by existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the Internet and satellite television. Religious movements were among the earliest cultural forces to globalize, spread by force, migration, evangelists, imperialists and traders. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and more recently sects such as Mormonism have taken root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[130]
Conversi claimed in 2010 that globalization was predominantly driven by the outward flow of culture and economic activity from the United States and was better understood as Americanization,[131][132] or Westernization. For example, the two most successful global food/beverage outlets are American companies, McDonald's and Starbucks, are often cited as examples of globalization, with over 32,000[133] and 18,000 locations operating worldwide, respectively as of 2008.[134] The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices including traditional music can be lost and/or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists must attempt to collect, record or transcribe repertoire before melodies are assimilated or modified. Local musicians struggle for authenticity and to preserve local musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.[135] Globalization gave support to the World Music phenomenon by allowing locally-recorded to reach western audiences searching for new ideas and sounds. For example, Western musicians have adopted many innovations that originated in other cultures.[136] The term was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, though globalization is expanding its scope; it now often includes hybrid sub-genres such as World fusion, Global fusion, Ethnic fusion[137] and Worldbeat[138][139] Music flowed outward from the west as well. Anglo-American pop music spread across the world through MTV. Dependency Theory explained that the world was an integrated, international system. Musically, this translated into the loss of local musical identity.[140]
A McDonald's in Osaka, Japan illustrates the McDonaldization of global society
Shakira, a Colombian multilingual singersongwriter, playing outside her home country.
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Bourdieu claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identification and the formation of identity. Musically, this translates into each being having his own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes and tastes are greatly influenced by culture as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and behavior. The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of change due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the interdependency of political, personal, cultural and economic factors.[141] A 2005 UNESCO report[142] showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia but Western countries are still the main exporters of cultural goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of cultural exports declined, while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America. Americanization related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and object being brought into other countries. So A Coca-Cola stall outside the Grand globalization, a much more diversified phenomenon, relates to a Gateway 66 shopping mall in multilateral political world and to the increase of objects, markets and so Xujiahui, Shanghai on into each other's countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural globalization (Biswajit Ghosh 2011 'Cultural Changes in the Era of Globalisation', Journal of Developing Societies, 27 (2): 153-175).
Multilingualism and the emergence of lingua francas
Main articles: Multilingualism, Lingua franca, and List of lingua francas Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population.[143] Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization and cultural openness.[144] Thanks to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is getting more and more frequent, and triggering therefore the need to acquire more and more languages. A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.[145] Today, the most popular second language is English. Some 3.5 billion people have some acquaintance of the language.[146] English is the dominant language on the Internet.[147] About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English. Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.[citation needed ] Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact. Multilingualism has likely been common throughout much of human history, and today most people in the world are multilingual.[148] Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification. The most common products are pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed languages. Politics Main article: Global politics
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In general, globalization may ultimately reduce the importance of nation states. Sub-state and supra-state institutions such as the European Union, the WTO, the G8 or the International Criminal Court, replace national functions with international agreement.[149] Some observers attribute the relative decline in US power to globalization, particularly due to the country's high trade deficit. This led to a global power shift towards Asian states, particularly China, which unleashed market forces and achieved tremendous growth rates. As of 2011, China was on track to overtake the United States by 2025.[150] Increasingly, non-governmental organizations influence public policy across national boundaries, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[151] As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced isolationist policies. For example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.[152][153]
Media and public opinion
The United Nations Headquarters in New York City.
Main articles: Media (communication) and Public opinion A 2005 study by Peer Fiss and Paul Hirsch found large increase in articles negative towards globalization in the years prior. By 1998, negative articles outpaced positive articles by two to one.[154] In 2008 Greg Ip claimed this rise in opposition to globalization can be explained, at least in part, by economic self-interest.[155] The number of newspaper articles showing negative framing rose from about 10% of the total in 1991 to 55% of the total in 1999. This increase occurred during a period when the total number of articles concerning globalization nearly doubled.[154] A number of international polls have shown that residents of developing countries tend to view globalization more favorably.[156] The BBC found a growing feeling in developing countries that globalization was proceeding too rapidly. Only a few countries, including Mexico, the countries of Central America, Indonesia, Brazil and Kenya, where a majority felt that globalization is growing too slowly.[157] Philip Gordon stated that "(as of 2004) a clear majority of Europeans believe that globalization can enrich their lives, while believing the European Union can help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while shielding them from its negative effects."[158] The main opposition consisted of socialists, environmental groups, and nationalists. Residents of the EU did not appear to feel threatened by globalization in 2004. The EU job market was more stable and workers were less likely to accept wage/benefit cuts. Social spending was much higher than in the US.[159] In a Danish poll in 2007, 76% responded that globalisation is a good thing.[160]
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Fiss, et al., surveyed U.S. opinion in 1993. Their survey showed that in 1993 more than 40% of respondents were unfamiliar with the concept of globalization. When the survey was repeated in 1998, 89% of the respondents had a polarized view of globalization as being either good or bad. At the same time, discourse on globalization, which began in the financial community before shifting to a heated debate between proponents and disenchanted students and workers. Polarization increased dramatically after the establishment of the WTO in 1995; this event and subsequent protests led to a large-scale anti-globalization movement.[154] Initially, college educated workers were likely to support globalization. Less educated workers, who were more likely to compete with immigrants and workers in developing countries, tended to be opponents. The situation changed after the financial crisis of 2007. According to a 1997 poll 58% of college graduates said globalization had been good for the U.S. By 2008 only 33% thought it was good. Respondents with high school education also became more opposed.[155] According to Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi, as of 1998 there was a perception in Japan that the economy was "Small and Frail". However Japan was resource poor and used exports to pay for its raw materials. Anxiety over their position caused terms such as internationalization and globalization to enter everyday language. However, Japanese tradition was to be as self-sufficient as possible, particularly in agriculture.[161] The situation may have changed after the 2007 financial crisis. A 2008 BBC World Public Poll as the crisis began suggested that opposition to globalization in developed countries was increasing. The BBC poll asked whether globalization was growing too rapidly. Agreement was strongest in France, Spain, Japan, South Korea, and Germany. The trend in these countries appears to be stronger than in the United States. The poll also correlated the tendency to view globalization as proceeding too rapidly with a perception of growing economic insecurity and social inequality.[157] Many in the Third World see globalization as a positive force that lifts countries out of poverty.[162] The opposition typically combined environmental concerns with nationalism. Opponents consider governments as agents of neocolonialism that are subservient to multinational corporations.[163] Much of this criticism comes from the middle class; the Brookings Institute suggested this was because the middle class perceived upwardly mobile low-income groups to threaten their economic security.[164] Although many critics blame globalization for a decline of the middle class in industrialized countries, the middle class is growing rapidly in the Third World.[165] Coupled with growing urbanization, this led to increasing disparities in wealth between urban and rural areas.[166] In 2002, in India 70% of the population lived in rural areas and depended directly on natural resources for their livelihood.[163] As a result, mass movements in the countryside at times objected to the process.[167] Internet Main articles: World Wide Web and Internet See also: List of countries by number of Internet users Both a product of globalization as well as a catalyst, the Internet connects computer users around the world. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[168] By 2010, 22 percent of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube.[169] According to
Global Internet usage: Percent connected
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research firm IDC, the size of total worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are added together, will equate to $16 trillion in 2013. IDate, another research firm, estimates the global market for digital products and services at $4.4 trillion in 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those two together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales.[170] While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide.[171] Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-andpop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[172][173][174] An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual. Significant socio-technical change may have resulted from the proliferation of such Internet-based social networks.[175] Population growth Main articles: World population and Overpopulation The world population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine and the Black Death in 1350, when it stood at around 370 million.[176] The highest rates of growth global population increases above 1.8% per year were seen briefly during the 1950s, and for a longer period during the 1960s and 1970s. The growth rate peaked at 2.2% in 1963, and had declined to 1.1% by 2011. Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 138 million,[177] and are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of 134 million, while deaths number 56 million per year, and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040.[178] Current projections show a continued increase in population (but a steady decline in the population growth rate), with the global population expected to reach between 7.5 and 10.5 billion by 2050.[179][180] With human consumption of seafood having doubled in the last 30 years, seriously depleting multiple seafood fisheries and destroying the marine ecosystem as a result, awareness is prompting steps to be taken to create a more sustainable seafood supply.[181] The head of the International Food Policy Research Institute, stated in 2008 that the gradual change in diet among newly prosperous populations is the most important factor underpinning the rise in global food prices.[182] From 1950 to 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250%.[183] World population has grown by about 4 billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and without it, there would be greater famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents (approximately 850 million people suffering from chronic malnutrition in 2005).[184][185]
World energy consumption & predictions, 1970-2025. Source: International Energy Outlook 2004.
It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain food security in a world beset by a confluence of "peak" phenomena, namely peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain and peak fish. Growing populations, falling energy sources and food shortages will create the "perfect storm" by 2030, according to UK chief government scientist John Beddington. He noted that food reserves were at a 50-year low and the world would require 50% more
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energy, food and water by 2030.[186][187] The world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people and as incomes rise according to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).[188] Social scientists have warned of the possibility that global civilization is due for a period of contraction and economic re-localization, due to the decline in fossil fuels and resulting crisis in transportation and food production.[189][190][191] Helga Vierich predicted that a restoration of sustainable local economic activities based on hunting and gathering, shifting horticulture, and pastoralism.[192] Health Main articles: Global health and Globalization and disease Global health is the health of populations in a global context and transcends the perspectives and concerns of individual nations.[193] Health problems that transcend national borders or have a global political and economic impact, are often emphasized.[194] It has been defined as 'the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide'.[195] Thus, global health is about worldwide improvement of health, reduction of disparities, and protection against global threats that disregard national borders.[196] The application of these principles to the domain of mental health is called Global Mental Health.[197] The major international agency for health is the World Health Organization (WHO). Other important agencies with impact on global health activities include UNICEF, World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations University International Institute for Global Health and the World Bank. A major initiative for improved global health is the United Nations Millennium Declaration and the globally endorsed Millennium Development Goals.[198] International travel has helped to spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases.[199] Modern modes of transportation allow more people and SARS checkpoint at Taiwan Taoyuan products to travel around the world at a faster pace, but they also open International Airport's International the airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious disease Arrivals in Terminal 1 vectors.[200] One example of this occurring is AIDS/HIV.[201] Due to immigration, approximately 500,000 people in the United States are believed to be infected with Chagas disease.[202] In 2006, the tuberculosis (TB) rate among foreign-born persons in the United States was 9.5 times that of U.S.-born persons.[203] Starting in Asia, the Black Death killed at least onethird of Europe's population in the 14th century.[204] Even worse devastation was inflicted on the American supercontinent by European arrivals. 90% of the populations of the civilizations of the "New World" such as the Aztec, Maya, and Inca were killed by small pox brought by European colonization.
Sports Main articles: Olympic Games and List of world championships
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The Ancient Olympic Games were a series of competitions held between representatives of several city-states and kingdoms from Ancient Greece, which featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic games all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished.[205] The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend.[206] During the 19th century Olympic Games became a popular event. Globalization has continually increased international competition in sports. The FIFA World Cup is the world's most widely viewed sporting event; an estimated 715.1 million people watched the final match of the 2006 FIFA World Cup held in Germany.[207] International sports do influence globalization as well as the political, economical, and other cultural aspects of the countries around the world. Especially with Politics and sports, we can see how sports can affect countries, their identities, and in consequence, the world through globalization. Looking at football, its status as the most popular global sport was not inevitable, consequential of both historical forces and the intrinsic qualities that appeal to both players and watchers of the game.[208] Football or any other kind of sport, therefore, has seeped deeper than we think into our lives, sometimes even bringing out of us the nationalistic character, and/or the good sportsmanship. Both help finding the identities of countries.
1996 Summer Paralympics
Global natural environment

Main articles: Global warming, Climate change, and Deforestation Environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution and over-fishing of the ocean, require trans-national/global solutions. Since factories in developing countries increased global output and experienced less environmental regulation, globalism substantially increased pollution and impact on water resources.[209] State of the World 2006 report said India and China's high economic growth was not sustainable. The report stated, The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way[210] In a 2006 news story, BBC reported, "...if China and India were to consume as much resources per capita as United States or Japan in 2030 together they would require a full planet Earth to meet their needs.[210] In the longterm these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources[211] and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe.
The advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with international cooperation include climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may increase pollution and impact on precious fresh water resources.[209][212]
Plot based on the NASA GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (GISTEMP) data set.
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International foreign investment in developing countries could lead to a "race to the bottom" as countries lower their environmental and resource protection laws to attract foreign capital.[10][213] The reverse of this theory is true, however, when developed countries maintain positive environmental practices, imparting them to countries they are investing in and creating a "race to the top" phenomenon.[10] The distances are shrinking between continents and countries due to globalization, causing developing and developed countries to find ways to solve problems on a global rather than regional scale. Agencies like the United Nations now must be the global regulators of pollution, whereas before, regional governance was enough.[215] Action has been taken by the United Nations to monitor and reduce atmospheric pollutants through the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Air Initiative, and studies of air pollution and public policy.[216] Global traffic, production, and consumption are causing increased global levels of air pollutants. The northern hemisphere is the leading producer of carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides.[217] Changes in natural capital are beginning to erode the economic logic of one major aspect of economic globalization: an international division of labor and production based on global supply chains.[218] Over time, peak oil and climate change will result in "peak globalization," measured in terms of decreasing ton-miles of freight transported, particularly across oceans and continents. The economic logic of the comparative advantage of global supply chains will be overcome by both increasing transportation costs and interruptions and delays in the transit of freight.[218]
Burning forest in Brazil. The removal of forest to make way for cattle ranching was the leading cause of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the mid-1960s. Soybeans have become one of the most important contributors to deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. [214]
China and India substantially increased their fossil fuel consumption as their economies switched from subsistence farming to industry and urbanization.[219][220] Chinese oil consumption grew by 8% yearly between 2002 and 2006, doubling from 19962006.[221] In 2007, China surpassed the United States as the top emitter of CO2.[222] Only 1 percent of the country's 560 million city inhabitants (2007) breathe air deemed safe by the European Union. In effect, this means that developed countries may "outsource" some of the pollution associated with consumption in countries where pollution-intensive industries have been moved. Societies utilize forest resources in order to reach a sustainable level of economic development. Historically, forests in earlier developing nations experience "forest transitions", a period of deforestation and reforestation as a surrounding society becomes more developed, industrialized and shift their primary resource extraction to other nations via imports. For nations at the periphery of the globalized system however, there are no others to shift their extraction onto, and forest degradation continues unabated. Forest transitions can have an effect on the hydrology, climate change, and biodiversity of an area by impacting water quality and the accumulation of greenhouse gases through the re-growth of new forest into second and third growth forests.[223][224] A major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven by China and Japan.[225] Without more recycling, zinc could be used up by 2037, both indium and hafnium could run out by 2017, and terbium could be gone before 2012.[226]
23/51 In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[227] The journal Science published a four-year study
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In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[227] The journal Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048.[228] Conversely, globalisation created a global market for farm-raised fish and seafood, which as of 2009 was providing 38% of global output, potentially reducing fishing pressure.[229] The global trade in goods depends upon reliable, inexpensive transportation of freight along complex and longdistance supply chains.[218] Global warming and peak oil undermine globalization by their effects on both transportation costs and the reliable movement of freight. Countering the current geographic pattern of comparative advantage with higher transportation costs, climate change and peak oil will thus result in peak globalization, after which the volume of exports will decline as measured by ton-miles of freight.[230]
Global workforce
Main article: Global workforce The global workforce is the international labor pool of immigrant workers or those employed by multinational companies and connected through a global system of networking and production. As of 2005, the global labor pool of those employed by multinational companies consisted of almost 3 billion workers.[231] The current global workforce is competitive as ever. Some go as far as to describe it as "A war for talent."[232] This competitiveness is due to specialized jobs becoming available world wide due to communications technology. As workers get more adept at using technology to communicate, they give themselves the options to be employed in an office half way around the world. These newer technologies not only benefit the workers, but companies may now find highly specialized workers that are very skilled with greater ease, as opposed to limiting their search locally. However, production workers and service workers have been unable to compete directly with much lower-cost workers in developing countries.[233] Low-wage countries gained the low-value-added element of work formerly done in rich countries, while higher-value work remained; for instance, the total number of people employed in manufacturing in the US declined, but value added per worker increased.[234] Chinese success cost jobs in developing countries as well as in the West.[235] From 2000 to 2007, the U.S. lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.[236] As of 26 April 2005 "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".[237] International migration Main articles: Immigration, Emigration, Foreign worker, and List of countries by net migration rate Many countries have some form of guest worker program with policies similar to those found in the U.S. that permit U.S. employers to sponsor non-U.S. citizens as laborers for approximately three years, to be deported afterwards if they have not yet obtained a green card. As of 2009, over 1,000,000 guest workers reside in the U.S.; the largest program, the H-1B visa, has 650,000 workers in the U.S.[238] and the second-largest, the L-1 visa, has 350,000.[239] Many other United States visas exist for guest workers as well, including the H-2A visa, which allows farmers to bring in an unlimited number of agricultural guest workers. The United States ran a Mexican guest-worker program in the period 19421964, known as the Bracero Program.
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An article in The New Republic criticized a guest worker program by equating the visiting workers to second-class citizens, who would never be able to gain citizenship and would have less residential rights than Americans.[241] Migration of educated and skilled workers is called brain drain. For example, the U.S.welcomes many nurses to come work in the country.[242] The brain drain from Europe to the United States means that some 400,000 European science and technology graduates now live in the U.S. and most have no intention to return to Europe.[243] Nearly 14 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2010.[244] Immigrants to the United States and their children founded more than 40 percent of the 2010 Fortune 500 companies. They founded seven of the ten most valuable brands in the world.[245][246]
About 85% of Dubai's population consists of migrant workers, a majority of whom are from India. [240]
Reverse brain drain is the movement of human capital from a more developed country to a less developed country. It is considered a logical outcome of a calculated strategy where migrants accumulate savings, also known as remittances, and develop skills overseas that can be used in their home country.[247] Reverse brain drain can occur when scientists, engineers, or other intellectual elites migrate to a less developed country to learn in its universities, perform research, or gain working experience in areas where education and employment opportunities are limited in their home country. These professionals then return to their home country after several years of experience to start a related business, teach in a university, or work for a multi-national in their home country.[248] A remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home country. Remittances are playing an increasingly large role in the economies of many countries, contributing to economic growth and to the livelihoods of less prosperous people (though generally not the poorest of the poor). According to World Bank estimates, remittances totaled US$414 billion in 2009, of which US$316 billion went to developing countries that involved 192 million migrant workers.[249] For some individual recipient countries, remittances can be as high as a third of their GDP.[249] As remittance receivers often have a higher propensity to own a bank account, remittances promote access to financial services for the sender and recipient, an essential aspect of leveraging remittances to promote economic development. The top recipients in terms of the share of remittances in GDP included many smaller economies such as Tajikistan (45%), Moldova (38%), and Honduras (25%).[250] The IOM found more than 200 million migrants around the world in 2008,[251] including illegal immigration.[252][253] Remittance flows to developing countries reached $328 billion in 2008.[254] A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different countries, including those related to citizenship and culture, which add complexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing globalization, where a growing number of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather than to a current geographic location, people are increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of people.
Support and criticism

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Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied widely with a history as long as extraterritorial contact and trade. Philosophical differences regarding the costs and benefits of such processes give rise to a broadrange of ideologies and social movements. Proponents of economic growth, expansion and development, in general, view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to the well-being of human society[255] Antagonists view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well-being on a global or local scale;[255] this includes those who question either the social or natural sustainability of long-term and continuous economic expansion, the social structural inequality caused by these processes, and the colonial, Imperialistic, or hegemonic ethnocentrism, cultural assimilation and cultural appropriation that underlie such processes. As summarized by Noam Chomsky: The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-globalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the World Social Forum (WSF), called "antiglobalization" in the propaganda system which happens to include the media, the educated classes, etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "pro-globalization" by the propaganda system.[256]
Proponents
In general, corporate businesses, particularly in the area of finance, see globalization as a positive force in the world. Many economists cite statistics that seem to support such positive impact. For example, per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth seems even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries seem to fare worse than the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial.[257] Economic liberalism and free trade Main article: Economic liberalism Economic liberals generally argue that higher degrees of political and economic freedom in the form of free trade in the developed world are ends in themselves, producing higher levels of overall material wealth. Globalization is seen as the beneficial spread of liberty and capitalism.[258] Jagdish Bhagwati, a former adviser to the U.N. on globalization, holds that, although there are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a very positive force that lifts countries out of poverty by causing a virtuous economic cycle associated with faster economic growth.[162] Economist Paul Krugman is another staunch supporter of globalization and free trade with a record of disagreeing with many critics of globalization. He argues that many of them lack a basic understanding of
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comparative advantage and its importance in today's world.[259] The flow of migrants to advanced economic countries has been claimed to provide a means through which global wages converge. The IMF study noted a potential for skills to be transferred back to developing countries as wages in those a countries rise. Lastly, the dissemination of knowledge has been an integral aspect of globalization. Technological innovations (or technological transfer) is conjectured to benefit most the developing and least developing countries (LDCs), as for example in the adoption of mobile phones.[22] There has been a rapid economic growth in Asia after embracing market orientation based economic policies that encourages private property rights, free enterprise and competition. In particular, in East Asian developing countries, GDP per head rose at 5.9% a year from 1975 to 2001 (according to 2003 Human Development Report[260] of UNDP). Like this, the British economic journalist Martin Wolf says that incomes of poor developing countries, with more than half the worlds population, grew substantially faster than those of the worlds richest countries that remained relatively stable in its growth, leading to reduced international inequality and the incidence of poverty.
George W. Bush and Hu Jintao of China meet while attending an APEC summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004
Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active economic liberalization and international integration resulted in rising welfare and hence, reduced inequality. According to Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in standards of living and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermore, the reduction in fertility rate in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and investment.[261] Consequentially, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of child labor. Thus, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole. Global democracy Main article: Democratic globalization Democratic globalization is a movement towards an institutional system of global democracy that would give world citizens a say in political organizations. This would, in their view, bypass nation-states, corporate oligopolies, ideological Non-governmental organizations (NGO), political cults and mafias. One of its most prolific proponents is the British political thinker David Held. Advocates of democratic globalization argue that economic expansion and development should be the first phase of democratic globalization, which is to be followed by a phase of building global political institutions. Dr. Francesco Stipo, Director of the United States Association of the Club of Rome, advocates unifying nations under a world government, suggesting that it "should reflect the political and economic balances of world nations. A world confederation would not supersede the authority of the State governments but rather complement it, as both the States and the world authority would have power within their sphere of competence".[263] Former Canadian Senator Douglas Roche, O.C., viewed globalization as inevitable
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and advocated creating institutions such as a directly elected United Nations Parliamentary Assembly to exercise oversight over unelected international bodies.[264] Global civics Main articles: Global civics and Multiculturalism
Global civics suggests that civics can be understood, in a global sense, as a social contract between world citizens in the age of interdependence and interaction. The disseminators Monument to Multiculturalism by of the concept define it as the notion that we have certain rights and Francesco Perilli in Toronto, Canada. responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being human on Four identical sculptures are located Earth.[265] World citizen has a variety of similar meanings, often referring in Buffalo City, South Africa; to a person who disapproves of traditional geopolitical divisions derived Changchun, China; Sarajevo, Bosnia from national citizenship. An early incarnation of this sentiment can be and Sydney, Australia found in Socrates, who Plutarch quoted as saying: "I am not an Athenian, or a Greek, but a citizen of the world."[266] In an increasingly interdependent world, world citizens need a compass to frame their mindsets and create a shared consciousness and sense of global responsibility in world issues such as environmental problems and nuclear proliferation.[267] Cosmopolitanism is the notion that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a share morality. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite.[268] A cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. The cosmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places (e.g. nation-states) form relationships based on mutual respect. For instance, Kwame Anthony Appiah suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.).[269] Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan popularized the term Global Village beginning in 1962.[270] His view suggested that globalization would lead to a world where people from all countries will become more integrated and aware of common interests and shared humanity.[271]
Of the factors influencing the duration of economic growth in both developed and developing countries, income equality has a more beneficial impact than trade openness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment. [262]
Critiques
Main article: Criticisms of globalization Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet as well as the human costs. They challenge directly traditional metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the Gini coefficient or the Happy Planet Index,[272][273] and point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal
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consequencessocial disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"[274] which they claim are the unintended consequences of globalization. Criticisms have arisen from church groups, national liberation factions, peasant unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, anarchists, those in support of relocalization (e.g., consumption of nearby production) and others. Some have been reformist in nature, (arguing for a more moderate form of capitalism) while others are more revolutionary (power shift from private to public control) or reactionary (public to private). cultures. As a dominating countrys culture is introduced into a receiving country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to westernization or Americanization of culture, where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm on local cultures. Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as the promotion of corporatist interests.[276] They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.[277][278] They advocate global institutions and policies that they believe better address the moral claims of poor and working classes as well as environmental concerns.[279] Economic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.[280] Critics argue that globalization results in: Poorer countries suffering disadvantages : While it is true that free trade encourages globalization among countries, some countries try to protect their domestic suppliers. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural productions. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (e.g., the EU's Common Agricultural Policy), which lowers the market price for foreign crops.[281] Joseph Stiglitz argues that countries that have managed globalization on their own have succeeded in reaping benefits from globalization, while countries that were economically managed by international institutions such as the IMF have not gained as much from globalization.[282] The shift to outsourcing: Globalization allowed corporations to move manufacturing and service jobs from high cost locations, creating economic opportunities with the most competitive wages and worker benefits.[106] Weak labor unions : The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in transition weakened labor unions in high-cost areas. Unions lose their effectiveness and workers their enthusiasm for unions when membership begins to decline.[281] An increase in exploitation of child labour: Countries with weak protections for children are vulnerable to infestation by rogue companies and criminal gangs who exploit them. Examples include quarrying, salvage, and farm work as well as trafficking, bondage, forced labor, prostitution and pornography.[283]
Differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the national Gini coefficient, 2009
[275] Some critics of globalization argue that it can harm the diversity of
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Helena Norberg-Hodge, the director and founder of ISEC, criticizes globalization in many ways. In her book Ancient Futures, Norberg-Hodge claims that "centuries of ecological balance and social harmony are under threat from the pressures of development and globalization." She also criticizes the standardization and rationalization of globalization, as it does not always yield the expected growth outcomes. Although globalization takes similar steps in most countries, scholars such as Hodge claim that it might not be effective to certain countries, for globalization has actually moved some countries backward instead of developing them.[284] Anti-globalization movement Main article: Anti-globalization movement Anti-globalization, or counter-globalisation,[285] consists of a number of criticisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the globalization of corporate capitalism.[286] The movement is also commonly referred to as the alterglobalization movement, anti-globalist movement, anti-corporate globalization movement,[287] or movement against neoliberal globalization. It can be explained as encompassing the ideologies present in the following other movements, which will be discussed below: opposition to capital market integration, social justice and inequality, anti-consumerism, anti-global governance and environmentalist opposition. Each of these ideologies can be framed around a Immigrant rights march for specific strand of the anti-globalization movement, but in general the movement amnesty, Los Angeles, on gears their efforts towards all of these primary principles. It is considered a rather May Day, 2006 new and modern day social movement, as the issues it is fighting against are relevant in todays time. However, the events that occurred which fuels the movement can be traced back through the lineage of the movement of a 500-year old history of resistance against European colonialism and U.S. imperialism.[288] This refers to the continent of Africa being colonized and stripped of their resources by the Europeans in the 19th century. It is also related closely with the anti-Vietnam war mobilizations between 1960 and1970, with worldwide protests against the adjustment of structure in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Although British sociologist Paul Q. Hirst and political economist Grahame F. Thompson note the term is vague;[289] "anti-globalization movement" activities may include attempts to demonstrate sovereignty, practice local democratic decision-making, or restrict the international transfer of people, goods and capitalist ideologies, particularly free market deregulation. Canadian author and social activist Naomi Klein argues that the term could denote either a single social movement or encompass multiple social movements such as nationalism and socialism.[290] Bruce Podobnik, a sociologist at Lewis and Clark College, states that "the vast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and they generally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and egalitarianism."[291] Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write: The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.[292] In general, opponents of globalization in developed countries are disproportionately middle-class and collegeeducated. This contrasts sharply with the situation in developing countries, where the anti-globalization movement has been more successful in enlisting a broader group, including millions of workers and farmers.[293]
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These supporters of the movement are aware of the unequal power and respect in terms of international trade between the developed and underdeveloped countries of the world.[294] The activists that support the AGM, as mentioned previously before, can range in terms of the specific issue(s) that they oppose. Again, there are a few different dimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural, ecological and ideological. The diverse subgroups that make up this movement include some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, land rights and indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights and sustainable development, opponents of privatization, and anti-sweatshop campaigners.[288] Opposition to capital market integration Main article: Anti-capitalist movements Capital markets have to do with raising and investing moneys in various human enterprises. Increasing integration of these financial markets between countries leads to the emergence of a global capital marketplace or a single world market. In the long run, increased movement of capital between countries tends to favor owners of capital more than any other group; in the short run, owners and workers in specific sectors in capitalexporting countries bear much of the burden of adjusting to increased movement of capital.[295] It is not surprising that these conditions lead to political divisions about whether or not to encourage or increase international capital market integration.
Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of human rights issues are especially disturbed by the various abuses which they think are perpetuated by global and international institutions that, they say, promote neoliberalism without regard to ethical standards. This can also be referred to as corporate capitalism, as previous mentioned, which are money driven organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, along with many of the popular and competitive multinational corporations, like Nike and other institutions. Common targets include the World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade treaties like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). In light of the economic gap between rich and poor countries, movement adherents claim "free trade" without measures in place to protect the under-capitalized will contribute only to the strengthening the power of industrialized nations (often termed the "North" in opposition to the developing world's "South"). Some of the powerful Northern corporations have implemented policies like privatizing public industry and reducing tariffs. By doing this it has created a growth in sweatshops in the developing world, where wages are minimal and unfair, and conditions are unsafe to the workers health and psychological state. The global North can benefit from this by getting goods for a cheaper monetary amount. However, this is at the expense of these impoverished people and the community or country as a whole. Now, fair trade has been introduced in order to attempt to rebuild the economies of third world countries by paying employees, who work to produce goods to be exported, a fair price for their efforts.[296] Global justice and inequality Main article: Global justice movement
World Bank Protester, Jakarta, Indonesia.
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The global justice movement is the loose collection of individuals and groupsoften referred to as a "movement of movements"who advocate fair trade rules and perceive current institutions of global economic integration as problems.[297] The movement is often labeled an anti-globalization movement by the mainstream media. Those involved, however, frequently deny that they are anti-globalization, insisting that they support the globalization of communication and people and oppose only the global expansion of corporate power.[298] The movement is based in the idea of social justice, desiring the creation of a society or institution based on the principles of equality and solidarity, the values of The global digital divide: Computers human rights, and the dignity of every human being.[299][300][301] Social per 100 people. inequality within and between nations, including a growing global digital divide, is a focal point of the movement. Many nongovernmental organizations have now arisen to fight these inequalities that many in Latin America, Africa and Asia face. A few very popular and well known NGOs include: War Child, Red Cross, Free The Children and CARE International. They often create partnerships where they work towards improving the lives of those who live in third world countries by building schools, fixing infrastructure, cleaning water supplies, purchasing equipment and supplies for hospitals, etcetera.
Inequality
Main articles: Economic inequality and International inequality Increasing international commerce with high barriers to entry, corporate consolidation, tax havens and other methods of tax avoidance, and political corruption have all caused increases in income inequality and wealth concentration: the increasingly unequal distribution of economic assets (wealth) and income within or between global populations, countries, and individuals. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures or systems (for example, capitalism or socialism), ongoing or past wars, between genders, and between differences in individuals' abilities to create wealth.[302] There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality. A prominent one is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods.
General Assembly meeting of the Occupy movement in Washington Square Park, New York City, USA, on 8 October 2011
Economic inequality affects equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity. Although earlier thought considered economic inequality as necessary and beneficial,[303] it has more recently come to be seen as a growing social problem.[304] Early studies suggesting that greater equality inhibits economic growth have been shown to be flawed because they did not account for the many years it can take inequality changes to manifest in growth changes.[305] In fact, one of the most robust and important determinants of sustained economic growth is the level of income inequality.[262] International inequality is inequality between countries. Economic differences between rich and poor countries are very large. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 2004, the GDP per capita in countries with high, medium and low human development (a classification based on the UN Human Development Index) was 24,806, 4,269 and 1,184 PPP$, respectively (PPP$ = purchasing power parity measured in United States dollars).[306]
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Gender inequality in the global workforce
Main article: Gender inequality Women often participate in the workforce as casual labor. Evidence suggests that while globalization has expanded womens access to employment, the long-term goal of transforming gender inequalities remains unmet and appears unattainable without regulation of capital and a reorientation and expansion of the states role in funding public goods and providing a social safety net.[307] Anti-consumerism Main article: Anti-consumerism Anti-consumerism is the socio-political movement against the equating of personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions. The term "consumerism" was first used in 1915 to refer to "advocacy of the rights and interests of consumers" (Oxford English Dictionary), but here the term "consumerism" refers to the sense first used in 1960, "emphasis on or preoccupation with the acquisition of consumer goods" (Oxford English Dictionary). Concern over the treatment of consumers has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation of consumer education into school curricula. Anti-consumerist activism draws parallels with environmental activism, anti-globalization, and animal-rights activism in its condemnation of modern corporations, or organizations that pursue a solely economic interest. One variation on this topic is activism by postconsumers, with the strategic emphasis on moving beyond addictive consumerism.[9] (http://www.postconsumers.com) In recent years, there have been an increasing number of books (Naomi Klein's 2000 No Logo for example) and films (e.g. The Corporation & Surplus), popularizing an anti-corporate ideology to the public. Opposition to economic materialism comes primarily from two sources: religion and social activism. Some religions assert materialism interferes with connection between the individual and the divine, or that it is inherently an immoral lifestyle. Social activists believe materialism is connected to global retail merchandizing and supplier convergence, war, greed, anomie, crime, environmental degradation, and general social malaise and discontent. Anti-global governance Main article: Global governance Since the two world wars, there has been solid opposition to the idea of a world government, as advocated by organizations such as the World Federalist Movement (WFM). Those who oppose global governance do so on objections that the idea is infeasible, inevitably oppressive, or simply unnecessary.[308] In general, these opponents are wary of the concentration of power or wealth that such governance might represent. Religious reasons are also cited, in which global governance is seen as the Biblical Antichrist or a representation thereof (see New World Order (conspiracy theory)). Such reasoning dates back to the founding of the League of Nations and the United Nations. Environmentalist opposition
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Main article: Environmentalism Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology[309][310][311] and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements. Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural environment in an attempt to balance relations between humanity and their broader natural environment. The exact nature of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Deforestation of the Madagascar Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by Highland Plateau has led to extensive [312] siltation and unstable flows of the color green, but this association has been appropriated by the western rivers. marketing industries and is a key tactic in the art of Greenwashing. Environmentalist concerns with globalization include issues such as global warming, climate change, global water supply and water crises, inequity in energy consumption and energy conservation, transnational air pollution and pollution of the world ocean, overpopulation, world habitat sustainability, deforestation, biodiversity and species extinction. Also, another concern about globalization is an environmental apartheid. Excluding majority, resources and wealth of society is appropriated by a small minority group of privileged race or class, which are so much under protection. Then, excluded majority never gets chance to access to resources necessary for well-being and survival. Globalization has in a deep sense been a globalization of apartheid. Globalization is restructuring the control over resources in such a way that the natural resources of the poor are systematically taken over by the rich and the pollution of the rich is systematically dumped on the poor. In the pre-Rio period, it was the North that contributed most to the destruction of the environment. For example, 90 percent of historic carbon dioxide emissions have been by the industrialized countries. The developed countries produce 90 percent of the hazardous wastes produced around the world every year. Global free trade has globalized this environmental destruction in an asymmetric pattern. While the economy is controlled by Northern corporations, they are increasingly exploiting Third World resources for their global activities. It is the South that is disproportionately bearing the environmental burden of the globalized economy. Globalization is thus leading to an environmental apartheid.[313] Movement tactics The anti-globalization movement is an example of a new social movement, which uses tactics that are unique and use different resources than previously used before in other social movements.[314] Actors of the movement participate in things such as disruptive tactics. These include flash mobs for example, which work extremely well in catching the attention of others and spreading awareness about the issue of globalization. There is also the spreading of information about the social movement through social media and word of mouth about NGOs, organizations and movement groups working to help alleviate the effects of globalization. Websites such as Twitter and Facebook have become a useful outlet for people to become aware of what is going on around the globe, any protests or tactics taking place and the progress of non-governmental organizations aiding in these impoverished countries. One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the Battle of Seattle in 1999, where there were protests against the World Trade Organization's Third Ministerial Meeting.[288] It can be described as being a massive group of passionate, grass roots people within the anti-globalization movement protesting against the WTOs corporate rule. All over the world, the movement has held protests outside meetings of institutions such as the
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WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of Eight (G8).[288] Within the Seattle demonstrations the protesters that participated used both creative and violent tactics to gain the attention towards the issue of globalization. It is still one of the most significant and memorable social movement protests in the past 20 years.
Key journals
Main article: List of globalization-related journals Key academic journals examining globalization include: Antipode Development and Change Economic Geography Globalization and Health Journal of World-Systems Research World Development
See also
Civilizing mission Columbian Exchange Deglobalization Development criticism Global civics Globality Great Transition Interdependence Jet Age Lisbon Strategy Middle East and globalization Mundialization Technocapitalism Transnational cinema Transnational citizenship Triadization Vermeer's Hat United Nations Millennium Declaration Washington Consensus World Englishes
References
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257. ^ Dollar, David, Kraay, Aart. "Trade, Growth, and Poverty" (http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/09/dollar.htm). Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 6 June 2011. 258. ^ Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). The End of Poverty. New York, New York: The Penguin Press. ISBN 1-59420-045-9. 259. ^ Conversi, Daniele (2009) 'Globalization, ethnic conflict and nationalism (http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/Globalization.pdf)', in B. Turner (ed.) Handbook of Globalization Studies. London: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis; Barkawi, Tarak (2005) Globalization and War. Rowman & Littlefield; Smith, Dennis (2006) Gobalization: The Hidden Agenda. Cambridge: Polity Press. See also Barber, Benjamin R., Jihad vs. McWorld. Ballantine Books, 1996 260. ^ "Human Development Report 2003" (http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr03_complete.pdf). UNDP. 2003. Retrieved 2013-04-06. 261. ^ Martin Wolf (2004). "Why Globalization Works" (http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp? isbn=9780300107777). Yale University Press. Retrieved 2013-04-06. 262. ^ a b Berg, Andrew G.; Ostry, Jonathan D. (2011). "Equality and Efficiency" (http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/berg.htm). Finance and Development (International Monetary Fund) 48 (3). Retrieved September 10, 2012. 263. ^ "USACOR.org" (http://www.usacor.org/archive/index.html). USACOR.org. 28 July 2009. Retrieved 31 July 2010. 264. ^ Roche, Douglas. "The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly" (http://www.wfmigp.org/site/files/Roche_UN_Parliamentary_Assembly_2002.pdf). The World Federalist MovementInstitute for Global Policy. Retrieved 28 May 2012. 265. ^ Altinay, Hakan (2010). "The Case for Global Civics" (http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2010/03_global_civics_altinay.aspx). Global Economy and Development at Brookings. 266. ^ WORLD CITIZENS AUSTRALIA (http://www.worldcitizens.org.au) 267. ^ Altinay, Hakan (June 2010). "A Global Civics: Necessary? Feasible?" (http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/international-law-and-human-rights/global-civics-necessary-feasible). Global Policy. 268. ^ "Cosmopolitan" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cosmopolitan?s=t). Dictionary.com. Retrieved 7 April 2012. 269. ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, "Cosmopolitan Patriots," Critical Inquiry 23, no. 3 (Spring, 1997): 617-639. 270. ^ Marshall McLuhan and Bruce R. Powers (17 September 1992) The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st century . Oxford University Press: 17 September 1992 271. ^ Chapman, Roger. Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices, Volume 1. 2009: M.E.Sharp 272. ^ "The Happy Planet Index" (http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/uploads/dl44k145g5scuy453044gqbu11072006194758.pdf). Neweconomics.org. Retrieved 31 July 2010. 273. ^ The New Economics Foundation (http://www.neweconomics.org/gen) 274. ^ Capra, Fritjof (2002). The Hidden Connections. New York, New York: Random House. ISBN 0-385-49471-8. 275. ^ Cultural Imperialism 276. ^ Lee, Laurence (17 May 2007). "WTO blamed for India grain suicides" (http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2ED53A8B-1058-49CF-B9FF-3D96639456D1.htm). Al Jazeera. Retrieved 17 May 2007. 277. ^ Bakan, Joel (2004). The Corporation. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-4744-2. 278. ^ Perkins, John (2004). Confessions of an Economic Hit Man. San Francisco, California: Berrett-Koehler. ISBN 157675-301-8. 279. ^ "Frum Social Mundial" (http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/index.php?cd_language=2&id_menu=). Forumsocialmundial.org.br. Retrieved 31 July 2010. 280. ^ NAFTA at 10, Jeff Faux, Economic Policy Institute, D.C. (http://www.epi.org/publication/webfeatures_viewpoints_nafta_legacy_at10/) 281. ^ a b Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. P.41 282. ^ Lechner, Frank (2011). The Globalization Reader. Wiley-Blackwell; 4th ed. ISBN 978-0470655634. 283. ^ Pavcnik, Nina; Pavcnik, Nina (September 2005). "Child Labor in the Global Economy". Journal of Economic
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Perspectives 19 (1): 199220. doi:10.1257/0895330053147895 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1257%2F0895330053147895). 284. ^ Norberg-Hodge, Helena (1992). Ancient futures : learning from Ladakh (Sierra Club Books pbk. ed.). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. ISBN 0871566435. 285. ^ Jacques Derrida (May 2004) Enlightenment past and to come (http://mondediplo.com/2004/11/06derrida), speech at the party for 50 years of Le Monde diplomatique 286. ^ Morris, Douglas "Globalization and Media Democracy: The Case of Indymedia", Shaping the Network Society, MIT Press 2003. Courtesy link to (pre-publication version) FIS.utoronto.ca (http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm) 287. ^ Juris, Jeffrey S. (2008). Networking Futures: The Movements against Corporate Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8223-4269-4. 288. ^ a b c d Engler, M. (2007, May 30). The Anti-Globalization Movement Defined - STWR Share The World's Resources. Share The Worlds Resources - STWR. Retrieved March 14, 2013, from http://www.stwr.org/theun-people-politics/the-anti-globalization-movement-defined.html 289. ^ Thompson, Grahame F. and Paul Q. Hirst. (2002). The Future of Globalisation." In Cooperation and Conflict, 37(3): 247265. doi:10.1177/0010836702037003671 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0010836702037003671) CAC.sagepub.com (http://cac.sagepub.com/cgi/content/short/37/3/247) 290. ^ Klein, Naomi (6 April 2002). No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs. Picador. ISBN 0-312-42143-5. 291. ^ Podobnik, Bruce, Resistance to Globalization: Cycles and Evolutions in the Globalization Protest Movement, p. 2. 292. ^ Stiglitz, Joseph & Charlton Fair Trade for All: How Trade Can Promote Development. 2005 p. 54 n. 23 293. ^ Marable, Manning. (2006.) "Globalization and Racialization." Synthesis/Regeneration, 39 (Winter). (http://www.greens.org/s-r/39/39-06.html) 294. ^ Staggenborg, S. (2011). Social movements (Rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 295. ^ Frieden, Jeffry A. (1991). "Invested Interests: The Politics of National Economic Policies in a World of Global Finance." International Organization, 45(4): 425-451. Published by: The MIT Press. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2706944) 296. ^ Lemay, J. (2005). Anti-globalization movements and the collective identity of organizations: The tribulations of a fair trade association. Anthropologie Et Societes, 29(3), 39-58. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/60041247?accountid=14701 297. ^ Tom Mertes, "A Movement of Movements", New York: Verso, 2004 298. ^ della Porta, D. 2005. "The Social Bases of the Global Justice Movement: Some Theoretical Reflections and Empirical Evidence from the First European Social Forum." Civil Society and Social Movements Programme Paper No. 21.Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development). 299. ^ Education and Social Justice By J. Zajda, S. Majhanovich, V. Rust, 2006, ISBN 1-4020-4721-5 300. ^ Nursing ethics: across the curriculum and into practice By Janie B. Butts, Karen Rich, Jones and Bartlett Publishers 2005, ISBN 978-0-7637-4735-0 301. ^ http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/mcl/pdf/mcl-act-135-of-2004.pdf 302. ^ Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings. Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937, Quarterly Journal of Economics 125, no. 1 (2010): 91 128. 303. ^ U.S. Income Inequality: Its Not So Bad (http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/itv/articles/?id=1920) By Thomas A. Garrett| Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis| Spring 2010 304. ^ Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6. 305. ^ Banerjee, Abhijit V.; Duflo, Esther (2003). "Inequality And Growth: What Can The Data Say?" (http://economics.mit.edu/files/753). Journal of Economic Growth 8 (3): 26799. doi:10.1023/A:1026205114860 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026205114860). Retrieved September 25, 2012. 306. ^ [8] (http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/indic/indic_4_1_1.html) 307. ^ Seguino, Stephanie and Caren Gron (2006). Gender equality and globalization: Macroeconomic policy for developing countries. Journal of International Development (18): 10811104. DOI: 10.1002/jid.1295
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developing countries. Journal of International Development (18): 10811104. DOI: 10.1002/jid.1295 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/Seguino_GrownGenderEquityandGlobalizationJID.pdf ^ Kennedy, Paul. (2006.) The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0375501654 ^ "Ideology and Sustainability" (http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/ideology.html). Formal.stanford.edu. Retrieved 13 June 2012. ^ Ronald Bailey from the February 2002 issue. "Debunking Green Myths" (http://reason.com/archives/2002/02/01/debunking-green-myths). Reason.com. Retrieved 13 June 2012. ^ Donald Gibson. Environmentalism: Ideology and Power. Nova Science Pub Inc. 2003 ^ Cat Lincoln (Spring 2009). "Light, Dark and Bright Green Environmentalism" (http://www.greendaily.com/2009/04/23/light-dark-and-bright-green-environmentalism/). Green Daily. Retrieved 2 November 2009. ^ Lechner, Frank J., and John Boli. 2012. The Globalization Reader, 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780470655634 ^ Snow, D. A., Soule, S. A., & Kriesi, H. (2004). The Blackwell companion to social movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub..
Further reading
Barbara, Christopher (2008). International legal personality: Panacea or pandemonium? Theorizing about the individual and the state in the era of globalization (http://www.amazon.com/International-legal-personalitypandemonium-globalization/dp/3639115147/). Saarbrcken: Verlag Dr. Mller. ISBN 3-639-11514-7. von Braun, Joachim; Eugenio Diaz-Bonilla (2007). Globalization of Food and Agriculture and the Poor (http://www.ifpri.org/PUBS/otherpubs/globalpoor.asp). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-5695281. Carpenter, John. "Puritan Missions as Globalization," Fides et Historia. 31:2, 1999 pp. 103123. Chanda, Nayan (2007). Bound Together: How Traders, Preachers, Warriors and Adventurers Shaped Globalization. Yale University Press, New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-11201-6. Fernando, Salvetti (ed.) (2010). "Glocal" Working. Living and Working across the World with Cultural Intelligence (http://www.cultural-intelligence.info). Milan: Franco Angeli. ISBN 978-88-568-2733-0. Glyn, Andrew (2006). Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization, and Welfare (http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Economics/International/?view=usa&ci=9780199226795). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-922679-2. Kitching, Gavin (2001). Seeking Social Justice through Globalization. Escaping a Nationalist Perspective (http://www.gavinkitching.com/africa_3.htm). Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-02162-4. Kohler, Gernot; Emilio Jos Chaves (eds.) (2003). Globalization: Critical Perspectives (http://www.novapublishers.com/). Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 1-59033-346-2. With contributions by Samir Amin, Christopher Chase-Dunn, Andre Gunder Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein Mander, Jerry; Edward Goldsmith (1996). The case against the global economy: and for a turn toward the local. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. ISBN 0-87156-865-9. Moore, Karl; David Charles Lewis (2009). Origins of Globalization (http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415805988/). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-80598-8. Murray, Warwick E. (2006). Geographies of Globalization. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31799-1. Neumann, Iver B.; Ole Jacob Sending (2010). Governing the Global Polity: Practice, Mentality, Rationality (http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=371804). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780-472-07093-0. Osterhammel, Jrgen; Niels P. Petersson (2005). Globalization: A Short History (http://www.amazon.com/Globalization-Short-History-Jurgen-Osterhammel/dp/0691121656/). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12165-6. Pfister, Ulrich (2012). Globalization (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060507). Mainz: Institute of European History,.
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Reinsdorf, Marshall and Matthew J. Slaughter (2009). International Trade in Services and Intangibles in the Era of Globalization. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70959-8. Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0375406190. Sirkin, Harold L; James W. Hemerling and Arindam K. Bhattacharya (2008). Globality: Competing with Everyone from Everywhere for Everything (http://www.bcg.com/globality). New York: Business Plus. p. 292. ISBN 0-44617829-2. Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade and Globalisation, 3rd edition. Stocksfield: Anforme. ISBN 1-90550410-1. Steger, Manfred (2002). Globalism: the new market ideology. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-0072-1. Steger, Manfred (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280359-X. Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-32439-7. Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2006). Making Globalization Work . New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06122-1. Tausch, Arno (2008). Multicultural Europe: Effects of the Global Lisbon Process. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60456-806-6. Osle, Rafael Domingo (2010). The New Global Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521193870. Wolf, Martin (2004). Why Globalization Works. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10252-9.
External links
Comprehensive discussion of the term at the Site Global Transformations (http://www.polity.co.uk/global/whatisglobalization.asp) Globalization Website (Emory University) Links, Debates, Glossary etc. (http://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/) BBC News Special Report "Globalisation" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2007/globalisation/default.stm) Globalization (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/globalisation) collected news and commentary at The Guardian "Resilience, Panarchy, and World-Systems Analysis" (http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art24/main.html), from the Ecology and Society Journal "Globalization" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/globalization/) Analysis of the idea and its history. OECD Globalization statistics (http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AFA_CALC_IN3) "Globalization" (http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm? PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0010595), from The Canadian Encyclopedia YaleGlobal Online (http://yaleglobal.yale.edu) Global 3000 (http://www.dw.de/program/global-3000/s-11487-9798/) Globalization Program by Deutsche Welle-TV Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Globalization&oldid=552638971" Categories: Globalization Theories of history Sociocultural evolution Economic geography Cultural geography International trade This page was last modified on 28 April 2013 at 23:23.
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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Etymology and usage

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th century Japanese Nanban art

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A Billboard in Jakarta welcoming ASEAN Summit 2011 delegates.

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

poverty alleviation".[106][107] Capital flight

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Free trade policies

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Shakira, a Colombian multilingual singersongwriter, playing outside her home country.

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The United Nations Headquarters in New York City.

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Global Internet usage: Percent connected

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sports Main articles: Olympic Games and List of world championships

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Global natural environment

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Support and criticism

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World Bank Protester, Jakarta, Indonesia.

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Gender inequality in the global workforce

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Globalization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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