NOTES FOR A COURSE ON ELECTRICAL POWER by Ahmed M.

Bakir Misurata University

Faculty of Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering Spring 2013

CONTENTS Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 1. Magnetic Circuits and Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 1.1.1 Introduction to magnetic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assignment#1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 5 5 7 10 10 12 13 13 13 13 15 16 16 3

2. Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.3 2.3.1 2.4 2.4.1 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.6 The Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Losses and Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assignment#2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PerUnit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transformer Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ShortCircuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OpenCircuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ThreePhase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FIGURES Figure 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Simple magnetic circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic circuit with air gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic circuit of an ideal transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbol for an ideal transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transferring an impedance from one side to the other of an ideal transformer. . First step to include magnetizing current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ideal transformer plus magnetizing branch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit of a transformer plus magnetizing and leakage inductances. . Equivalent circuit for a real transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplied equivalent circuits of a transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transformer equivalent circuits for Example 2.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 4 5 6 6 8 9 10 10 11 14 15

2.10 Transformer tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 Common threephase transformer connections; the transformer windings are indicated by the heavy lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 YY and Y Connections of threephase Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 Y and Connections of threephase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 17 17

1. Magnetic Circuits and Magnetic Materials Practically all transformers and electric machinery use ferromagnetic material for shaping and directing the magnetic elds which act as the medium for transferring and converting energy. Magnetic materials play a large role in determining the properties of a piece of electromagnetic equipment and aect its size and eciency. 1.1 Introduction to magnetic circuits A simple example of a magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1. The core is assumed to be composed of magnetic material whose permeability is much greater than that of the surrounding air ( o ). The core is of uniform cross section and is excited by a winding of N turns carrying a current of i amperes (A). This winding produces a magnetic eld in the core which is the ampereturn product N i. In magnetic circuit terminology N i is the magnetomotive force (mmf).
Mean core length lc

i
+

Magnetic ux lines

Cross sectional area Ac

Winding N turns

Magnetic core permeability

Figure 1.1: Simple magnetic circuit.

We begin with the assumption that the magnetic ux crossing a surface S is the surface integral of the normal component of magnetic ux density B; thus =
S

B.da

(1.1)

For any closed loop the Eq. 1.1 can be reduced to a simple equation as follows: 1

c = Bc Ac where, c Bc Ac = the ux in the core = the ux density in the core = the crosssectional area of the core

(1.2)

The second assumption is that the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic eld intensity H around a closed contour C is equal to the total current passing through any surface S linking that contour.

Ni =

H.dl

(1.3)

Therefore, the relationship between the magnetomotive force (mmf) and the magnetic led intensity H is:

F = Ni =

H.dl

(1.4)

The path length of any ux line is close to the mean core length lc that shown in Fig. 1.1. Consequently, the line integral of Eq. 1.4 becomes the scalar product (Hc lc ) of the magnitude of H and the mean ux path length lc . Thus, the relationship between the mmf and the magnetic eld intensity can be written in magnetic circuit terminology as:

F = N i = Hc l c

(1.5)

where Hc is the average magnitude of H in the core and the magnetic ux density B depends on the permeability of the core as follows:

B = H, where,

= r o

(1.6)

2000 r 80000,

0 = 4 107

Transformers are designed on closed cores like that of Fig. 1.1. However, energy conversion devices which incorporate a moving element must have air gaps in their magnetic circuits. A magnetic circuit with an air gap is shown in Fig. 1.2
Mean core length lc

i
+

Magnetic ux lines

Air gap length g

Air gap, permeability, o Area Ag Magnetic core permeability Area Ac

Winding N turns

Figure 1.2: Magnetic circuit with air gap.

Therefore, the design in Fig. 1.2 can be analyzed as a magnetic circuit with two series components: 1. Magnetic core of permeability , crosssectional area Ac and mean length lc . 2. Air gap of permeability o , crosssectional area Ag and length g.

1.1.1 Assignment#1 1. A magnetic circuit with a single air gap is shown in Fig. 1.3(a). The core dimensions are:
Crosssectional area Ac = 1.8103 m2 , Gap length g = 2.3103 m, mean core length lc = 0.6 m N = 83 turns

Assume that the core is of innite permeability ( ) and neglect the eects of fringing elds at the air gap and leakage ux. (a) Calculate the reluctance of the core Rc and that of the gap Rg . For a current of i = 1.5 A, calculate (b) the total ux , (c) the ux linkages of the coil, and (d) the coil inductance L.

g2

Mean core length lc

Core, i1

Area A2

N turns

N1 turns Area A1 N2 turns

g1

Permeability Area Ac

i2

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.3: Magnetic circuits

2. The magnetic circuit of Problem 1 has a nonlinear core material whose permeability as a function ) ( 3499 of Bm is given by: = o 1 + 1 + 0.047(Bm )7.8 where Bm is the material ux density. a) Using MATLAB, plot a dc magnetization curve for this material (Bm vs. Hm ) over the range 0 Bm 2.2 T. b) Find the current required to achieve a ux density of 2.2 T in the core. c) Again, using MATLAB, plot the coil ux linkages as a function of coil current as the current is varied from 0 to the value found in part (b). 3. The magnetic circuit of Fig. 1.3(b) has two windings and two air gaps. The core can be assumed to be of innite permeability. The core dimensions are indicated in the gure. a) Assuming coil 1 to be carrying a current Il and the current in coil 2 to be zero, calculate (i) the magnetic ux density in each of the air gaps, (ii) the ux linkage of winding l, and (iii) the ux linkage of winding 2. b) Repeat part (a), assuming zero current in winding 1 and a current I2 in winding 2. c) Repeat part (a), assuming the current Il in winding 1 and the current I2 in winding 2. d) Find the selfinductances of windings 1 & 2 and the mutual inductance between the windings.

2. Transformers 2.1 The Ideal Transformer Let us take an iron core with innite permeability and two coils wound around it (with zero resistance), one with N1 and the other with N2 turns, as shown in Fig. 2.1. All the magnetizing ux is to remain in the iron. We assign dots at one terminal of each coil in the following fashion. The current into dotted terminals produces ux in the same direction.

i1
+

i2
+

e1

N1

N2

e2

Figure 2.1: Magnetic circuit of an ideal transformer.

Assuming that somehow a time varying ux, (t), is established in the iron. Then the ux linkages in each coil will be 1 = N1 (t) and 2 = N2 (t). Voltages will be induced in these two coils as follows:

e1 ( t) =

d1 d = N1 dt dt d2 d = N2 dt dt

(2.1)

e2 ( t) = Therefore,

(2.2)

N1 e1 (t) = e2 (t) N2

(2.3)

On the other hand, currents owing in the coils are related to the eld intensity H . If currents owing in the direction shown in Fig. 2.1, i1 into the dotted terminal of coil 1, and i2 out of the dotted terminal of coil 2, then:

N1 i1 (t) N2 i2 (t) = Hl

(2.4)

but B = iron H , and since B is limited and iron is innite, then (H = 0). We recognize that this is practically impossible, however this is an ideal transformer. Finally:

N1 i1 (t) N2 i2 (t) = 0

(2.5)

i1 (t) N2 = i2 (t) N1

(2.6)

Eq. 2.3 and Eq. 2.6 describe this ideal transformer. The symbol of a network that is dened by these two equations is shown in Fig. 2.2

N1

N2

Figure 2.2: Symbol for an ideal transformer.

A twoport network that contains it and impedances can be replaced by an other equivalent circuit, as discussed below:
I1
+

Z
+ +

I2
+

I1
+ + +

` Z

I2
+

V1

E1

E2

V2

V1

E1

E2

V2

N1
(a)

N2

N1
(b)

N2

Figure 2.3: Transferring an impedance from one side to the other of an ideal transformer.
Considering the circuit in Fig. 2.3(a) we can write:

e1 = v1 i1 Z

(2.7)

e2 =

N2 N2 N2 e1 = v1 i1 Z N1 N1 N1 N2 N2 e1 = v 1 i2 N1 N1 ( N2 N1 )2 Z

(2.8)

v2 = e2 =

(2.9)

Which could describe the circuit in Fig. 2.3(b). Generally, a circuit on side 1 can be transferred ( )2 ( ) N2 2 to side 2 by multiplying its component impedances by N , the voltage sources by N1 N1 and the ( ) N1 current sources by N , while keeping the same topology. 2

Considering the circuit in Fig. 2.3(b) we can write:

` v2 = e2 i2 Z

(2.10)

e2 =

N2 N2 e1 = v1 N1 N1 N2 ` v 1 i2 Z N1

(2.11)

v2 =

(2.12)

Comparing the Eq. 2.9 with the Eq. 2.12 we get: ( `= Z )2 Z (2.13)

N2 N1

2.2 Equivalent Circuit To develop the equivalent circuit for a transformer well gradually relax the assumptions that we had above. First well relax the assumption that the permeability of the iron is innite. Therefore, the Eq. 2.4 does not go to the Eq. 2.5, however it becomes:

N1 i1 (t) N2 i2 (t) = Rm

(2.14)

where R is the reluctance of the path around the core of the transformer and m is the ux on this path. To keep the ideal transformer equations as a part of our new transformer, we can split

I1
+

`1 I I1,ex ?
+ +

I2
+

V1

E1

E2

V2

N1

N2

Ideal Transformer

Figure 2.4: First step to include magnetizing current.

the current i1 into two components: one is ` i1 , will satisfy the ideal transformer equation, and the other current is i1,ex (magnetizing current) as shown in Fig. 2.4.

i1 = ` i1 + i1,ex

(2.15)

N1 i1,ex = Rm

(2.16)

N1 i1 (t) N2 i2 (t) = Hl

(2.17)

We can replace the current i1,ex with something simpler by going back to the Eq. 2.1 as follows: dm dt

e1 = N1

(2.18)

e1 = N1

d(N1 i1,ex /R) dt

2 N1 R

(2.19)

( e1 =

di1,ex dt

(2.20)

We can consider that the current i1,ex ows through inductance because the voltage in Eq. 2.20 is proportional to the derivative of the current i1,ex . Consequently, the circuit in Fig. 2.4 will be as ( 2) N1 . Let us now relax the assumption that all the ux m has to shown in Fig. 2.5, where Lm = R remain in the iron. In other words, the ux that leaks out of the core and links only coil 1 is l1

(leakage ux 1), and for coil 2 is l2 (leakage ux 2). Since l1 links only coil 1, then it should be related only to the current there, and the same should be true for the second leakage ux l2 .

I1
+

`1 I I1,ex Lm
+ +

I2
+

V1

E1

E2

V2

N1

N2

Ideal Transformer

Figure 2.5: Ideal transformer plus magnetizing branch.

As mentioned above we can write:

l 1 =

N1 i1 Rl1 N2 i2 Rl2

(2.21)

l 2 =

(2.22)

where Rl1 and Rl1 are related to the paths that are in the iron and in the air. Therefore, the voltage that appears in each coil is: ( ) + N1 ) + N2 ) we can arrive to the equivalent circuit as shown in ( ( ) = e1 + ) = e2 + ( (
2 N1 Rl1

d1 v1 = = N1 dt d2 v2 = = N2 dt ( Finally, if we dene Ll1 = )

dm dt dm dt (

dl 1 dt dl 2 dt

di1 dt di2 dt

(2.23)

2 N2 Rl2

(2.24)

2 N1 Rl1

, Ll2 =

2 N2 Rl2

Fig. 2.6. However, for more accuracy we have to take into account the following components: 1. The winding resistance in each coil, R1,wdg , R2,wdg , with losses P1,wdg = i2 1 R1,wdg , P2,wdg = i2 2 R2,wdg and 2. Resistance to represent the iron losses.

I1
+

`1 I Ll 1 =
2 N1 Rl 1

I2
+ +

I1,ex Lm

Ll 2 =
E1 E2

2 N2 Rl 2

V1

V2

N1

N2

Ideal Transformer

Figure 2.6: Equivalent circuit of a transformer plus magnetizing and leakage inductances.
I1
+

`1 I
2 N1 Rl 1

I2
+ +

R1,wdg

Ll 1 =

I1,ex Lm

Ll 2 =

2 N2 Rl 2

R2,wdg

V1

Rc

E1

E2

V2

N1

N2

Ideal Transformer

Figure 2.7: Equivalent circuit for a real transformer.

Therefore, we can develop the equivalent circuit to another circuit as shown in Fig. 2.7. 2.2.1 Example Let us now use this equivalent circuit to solve a problem. Assume that the transformer has a turns ratio of (4000/120), with R1,wdg = 1.6, R2,wdg = 1.44m, Ll1 = 21mH , Ll2 = 19H , Rc = 160k , Lm = 450H . Assume that the voltage at the low voltage side is V2 = 120V , 60Hz and the power there is P2 = 20kW , at pf = 0.85 lagging. Calculate the voltage at the high voltage side and the eciency of the transformer. [V1 = 40660.9 V ], [ = 98.95%].
o

2.3 Losses and Ratings The transformer is described by its rated voltages, E1 and E2 , that give both the limits and turns ratio. The ratio of the rated currents, I1 /I2 , is the inverse of the ratio of the voltages if we neglect the magnetizing current. Instead of the transformer rated currents, a transformer is described by its rated apparent power:

S = E1 I1 = E2 I2

(2.25)

10

Under rated conditions, i.e. maximum current and voltage, in typical transformers the magnetizing current I1,ex , does not exceed 1% of the current in the transformer. Its eect therefore on the voltage drop on the leakage inductance and winding resistance is negligible. Under maximum (rated) current, total voltage drops on the winding resistances and leakage inductances do not exceed in typical transformers 6% of the rated voltage. The eect therefore of the winding current on the voltages E1 and E2 is small, and their eect on the magnetizing current can be neglected. These considerations allow us to modify the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.7, to obtain the slightly inaccurate but much more useful equivalent circuits in Fig. 2.8
I1 + Lm Rc Ll 1 R1,wdg + E1 + E2 Ll 2 R2,wdg I2 +

V1

V2

N1

N2

(a)
I1 + Lm Rc `1 I Ll 1 R1,wdg ` l2 L ` 2,wdg R + E1 + E2 I2 +

V1

V2

N1

N2

(b)
I1 + + E1 + E2 `c R `m L ` 1,wdg R ` l1 L R2,wdg Ll 2 I2 +

V1

V2

N1

N2

(c)

Figure 2.8: Simplied equivalent circuits of a transformer.

11

2.3.1 Assignment#2 1. Use the new equivalent circuits in Fig. 2.8 to solve the previous example 2.2.1. [Hint: use the circuit in Fig. 2.8(b)]. 2. The secondary winding of a transformer has a terminal voltage of vs (t) = 282.8 sin(377t) V . The turns ratio of the transformer is (100 : 200). If the secondary current of the transformer is is (t) = 7.07 sin(377t 36.87o ) A, calculate: (a) The primary current of the transformer. (b) The eciency of the transformer. The impedances of this transformer referred to the primary side are: Req = 0.20, 0.75, Xm = 80, Rc = 300
Xeq Req

Xeq =

Rc

Xm

3. The resistances and leakage reactance of a 30kVA, 60Hz, (2400:240)V distribution transformer are: R1 = 0.68, R2 = 0.0068, Xl1 = 7.8, Xl2 = 0.0780. Each quantity is referred to its own side of the transformer. (a) Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the highvoltage and (ii) the lowvoltage sides. Label the impedances numerically on each circuit. (b) Consider the transformer to deliver its rated kVA to a load on the lowvoltage side with 230V across the load. (i) Find the highside terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 power factor lagging. (ii) Find the highside terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 power factor leading. (c) Consider a rated kVA load connected at the lowvoltage terminals operating at 240V. Use MATLAB to plot the highside terminal voltage as a function of the powerfactor angle as the load power factor varies from 0.6 leading through unity power factor to 0.6 lagging.

12

2.4 PerUnit System The idea behind the per unit system is quite simple. Computations relating to machines, transformers, and systems of machines are often carried out in perunit form. Then all the usual computations are carried out in these per unit values instead of the familiar volts, amperes, ohms, and so on. First, dene a base system of quantities and express everything as a percentage (actually per unit) of these quantities. There are a number of advantages to the system. One is that the parameter values of machines and transformers typically fall in a reasonably narrow numerical range when expressed in a perunit system based upon their rating. A second advantage is that when transformer equivalent circuit parameters are converted to their perunit values, the ideal transformer turns ratio becomes 1:1 and the ideal transformer in Fig. 2.8 disappears. Although the perunit system adds steps to the solution process, it simplies the solution more than it complicates it. Quanties such as voltage V, current I, power P, reactive power Q, voltamperes VA, resistance R, reactance X, impedance Z, conductance G, susceptance B, and admittance Y can be translated to and from perunit form as follows:

Quantity in per unit = 2.4.1 Example

Actual quantity Base value of quantity

The equivalent circuit for a 100MVA, 7.97kV, 79.7kV transformer is shown in Fig. 2.9. The equivalentcircuit parameters are: XL = 0.040 XH = 3.75 Xm = 114 RL = 0.76m RH = 0.085 Note that the magnetizing inductance has been referred to the lowvoltage side of the equivalent circuit. Convert the equivalent circuit parameters to per unit using the transformer rating as base. 2.5 Transformer Tests Two very simple tests serve to determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the transformer Fig. 2.8. 2.5.1 ShortCircuit Test The shortcircuit test can be used to nd the equivalent series impedance of Rwdg and Xl Fig. 2.10(a). In this test, one side of the transformer will be shortcircuited and the other side will carry a rated current as follows:

13

7.97kV : 79.7kV RL (0.76m) XL (0.040) Xm (114) XH (3.75) RH (0.085)

(a) Equivalent circuit in actual units.

1 : 1 RL (0.0012pu) XL (0.0630pu) Xm (180pu) XH (0.0591pu) RH (0.0013pu)

(b) Perunit equivalent circuit with 1:1 ideal transformer.

RL (0.0012pu)

XL (0.0630pu) Xm (180pu)

XH (0.0591pu)

RH (0.0013pu)

(c) Perunit equivalent circuit after eliminating the ideal transformer.

Figure 2.9: Transformer equivalent circuits for Example 2.4.1

14

2 Psc = Isc Rwdg

(2.26) (2.27) (2.28)

Vsc = Isc (Rwdg + jXl ) 2 Vsc = 1 (Rwdg + Xl2 ) 2.5.2 OpenCircuit Test

In this test, one side of the transformer will be opencircuited while the other side apply a rated voltage. The current that ows is primarily determined by the impedances Xm and Rc . It is reasonable to apply this voltage to the low voltage side.
2 Voc 1 = Rc Rc

Poc = Ioc = Ioc

(2.29) (2.30)

Voc Voc + Rc jXm 1 1 =1 + 2 2 Rc Xm

` 2,wdg R ` l2 L

(2.31)

Isc +

R1,wdg

Ll 1

Vsc

Rc

Lm

(a) Equivalent circuit with shortcircuited secondary.

Ioc + Voc Rc Lm ` 1,wdg R ` l1 L R2,wdg Ll 2 I2 +

V2

(b) Equivalent circuit with opencircuited secondary.

Figure 2.10: Transformer tests

15

2.5.3 Example A 60Hz transformer is rated 30kVA, (4000/120)V . The opencircuit test, performed with the high voltage side open, gives Poc = 100W, Ioc = 1.1455A. The shortcircuit test, performed with the low voltage side shorted, gives Psc = 180W, Vsc = 129.79V . Calculate the equivalent circuit of the transformer in per unit. 2.6 ThreePhase Transformers Three singlephase transformers can be connected to form a threephase transformer bank in any of the four ways shown in Fig. 2.11 In all four parts of this gure, the windings at the left are the primaries, those at the right are the secondaries, and any primary winding in one transformer corresponds to the secondary winding drawn parallel to it. The Y connection is commonly used in stepping down from a high voltage to a medium or low voltage. One reason is that a neutral is thereby provided for grounding on the highvoltage side, a procedure which can be shown to be desirable in many cases. Conversely, the Y connection is commonly used for stepping up to a high voltage. The connection has the advantage that one transformer can be removed for repair or maintenance while the remaining two continue to function as a threephase bank with the rating reduced to 58 percent of that of the original bank; this is known as the opendelta, or V, connection. The YY connection is seldom used because of diculties with excitingcurrent phenomena.

Figure 2.11: Common threephase transformer connections; the transformer windings are indicated by the heavy lines.

16

Figure 2.12: YY and Y Connections of threephase Transformers.

Figure 2.13: Y and Connections of threephase Transformers

17