APP Booklet of Cement Technology

Energy Efficiency and Resource Saving Technologies in Cement Industry
ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP ON CLEAN DEVELOPMENT & CLIMATE
CEMENT TASK FORCE
Introduction This Cement technologies booklet was compiled by the APP Cement Task Force (CTF) through one of its activities to help member countries share information on all available energy efficient technologies generally used in the worlds cement industry.
As, in developing this booklet, it was found that similar documents have already been developed and existed in several member countries, the CTF has worked on collecting such documents and a broader realm of additional information in the area of energy-saving technologies. Furthermore, recognizing the importance of sharing and disseminating as
much information as possible and difficulties of integrating all of it, this booklet was made on a countrywise information basis.
The cost estimation and energy-saving effects of each cement technology provided in this booklet may differ due to differences in raw materials, social and economic situations of a given cement enterprise or country. It is hoped that this booklet could be a useful handbook for commercially-available energy efficient technologies used in the cement industry.
Contents
1. Peoples Republic of China 1
Optimized quarry operation 2 New high efficiency dryer 2 New vertical roller mill system 2 Roller press with close circuit system 2 High efficiency calciner & preheater system 2 High-efficiency combustor 3 Generation IV high efficiency grate cooler 3 New dual pressure or flash pure low heat power co-generation 3 High efficiency low resistance dust collector 3 Frequency conversion speed-control motor used for high temperature fan of kiln end 3 New steel wire belt hoister of kiln end 3
2.
Republic of India 4
Optimize operation of cement mills 7 Lower Dispersion box in raiser ducts of pre-heater cyclones and increase heat transfer 12 Optimize blending system to minimize thermal energy consumption 16 Utilization of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for energy efficiency retrofits in cement industry 22 Install variable frequency drive (VFD) for reverse air (RA) fan and optimize power consumption of bag house fan 27 Optimizing air flow through vertical roller mill (VRM) 32 Interlock apron conveyor to crusher motor to ensure maximum loading of crusher 35 Minimize suction side pressure drop in identified cooler fans 37 Installation of correct size of higher operating efficiencies 41 Waste heat recovery for cogeneration from preheater exit and cooler vent 45
Energy conservation aspects in air compressors & compressed air systems 49 Install new correct size cooler vent fan 54 Optimize the operation of bag filters 57 Installation of variable voltage controller for belt conveyors and bucket elevators 61 Optimize the overall operating frequency 63
3.
Japan 66
[Raw material process] Vertical roller mill for raw materials 67 External circulating system to vertical roller mill 68 Direct dust collection system to vertical mill grinding process 69 Pre-grinding equipment for raw material grinding process 70 Classification of powder returned from raw material separator 71 Automation of raw material mixing control 72 Optimization of raw material fineness 73 Intermittent charging of electric dust collector 74 Transportation of raw materials for input into kiln 75 [Burning process] The new suspension preheaters burning system 76 Fluidized bed cement kiln system 77 5-stage system of suspension preheater 78 Improvement of the calciner 79 Improvement of burning in calciner 80 Automatic control of bottom cyclone outlet temperature 81 Chlorine bypass system 82 Cyclone descaler 83 Combustion management 84 Stabilization of coating in kiln 85 Strengthened air sealing at kiln outlet 86 Strengthened air sealing at kiln inlet 87 Vertical coal mill 88 Pulverized coal constant feeder 89
Adoption of lifter brick 90 Heat insulation of refractories 91 Cooler width control 92 Automatic control of AQC grating speed 93 Installation of partition plates 94 Air beam type clinker cooler 95 Automatic measuring device for free lime in clinker 96 Automatic measuring device for clinker bulk density (liter-weight) 97 [Finishing process] Closed-circuit grinding system 98 Use of grinding aid 99 Classification liner for the second chamber of tube mill 100 Clinker flow rate regulator for tube mill 101 Optimization of grinding media 102 Improvement of separator 103 Pre-grinding of roll press system 105 Pre-grinding of roller mill system 106 Automatic run control of tube mill 107 Vertical roller mill for cement grinding 108 External materials circulating system to cement grinding vertical mill 109 Automatic control of cement grain size 110 High efficiency grinding of blast furnace slag 111 [Use of Alternative Fuels and Raw materials <AFR> ] Automatic input facilities for waste tires 112 Waste tire gasification facilities 113 Waste oil and oil sludge input facilities 114 Waste plastic processing facilities 115 RDF processing facilities 116 Recycling of pachinko machine 117 Substitute raw material processing technology (Coal ashes) 118 Substitute raw material processing technology (Slag) 119 Substitute raw material processing technology (Sludge) 120 Substitute raw material processing technology (Sewage sludge) 121
Waste acid and alkali processing facilities 122 [Waste heat recovery] Power generation utilizing waste heat 123 Recirculation of exhaust air from cooler 124 [Common] Reduction of cyclone pressure loss 125 Reduction of bag filter pressure loss 126 Fan rotation control 127 Fan impeller cutting 128 Material sealing 129
4. Republic of Korea 130

Introduction of a turbo blower for pneumatic conveyance process 131 Introduction of cleanSYS 132
5.
United States of America 148

Energy efficiency technologies and measures for the U.S. cement industry 170 Energy management systems and programs 172 Raw materials preparation 175 Fuel preparation 177 Clinker production all kilns 178 Clinker production wet process kilns 183 Clinker production dry process preheater kilns 184 Finish grinding 186 Plant Wide measures 188 Lighting 194 Product & feedstock changes 195 Advanced technologies 197
1. Peoples Republic of China
Energy Efficiency and Emission Reduction Technology in China

1. New Material Development and Application
No. New material Features Belite rich clinker composition design Minerals: C3S 20-30%, C2S 45-60%, C3A 3-7%, C4AF 10-15% Low clinkering temperature1350 Low hydration heat, high later age strength and excellent durability Energy saving and emission reduction
High Belite Cement
Energy-saving: up to 20% Reduction in CO2 emission: about 10%
2. Alternative Fuel and Raw Materials (AFR) Technology

Energy saving and emission reduction 50% AFR replacement in cement kiln
No.
New technology
Effect Sludge from waste treatment, hazardous waste, municipal waste and industrial waste used as AFR in cement kiln
Waste co-processing
3. Integrated Equipment and Technology

No. New process and equipment Optimized quarry operation Effect Tailings emission Before used: 5% ~10%; After used: 0 Increase output by 100% Condition: 20% of moisture before dried, 1% of moisture after dried, dried quantity is 100,000 t/y(dry basis) Power saving of dry basis: 4 kWh/t Compared with tube mill, It saved power: about 4 kWh/t-raw meal Compared with close circuit system of tube mill, it saved power of 10 kWh/t-ce. Outlet temperature reduced from 360 to 300, Air volume: 247,000 Nm3/h Standard coal saving : 786.5 kg/h
2
Annual Energy saving and emission reduction Tailings reduction: 80,000~100,000t/y
New high efficiency dryer
Power saving: 400,000 kWh/y
New vertical roller mill system Roller press with close circuit system High efficiency calciner & preheater system
Power saving: 1.61064=6.4106 kWh/y Power saving: 110610=1107 kWh/y Coal saving: 786.524300 =5662800kg =5662.8t/y
High- efficiency combustor
NOx emission reduced by 40%, from 2.4 kg/t-cl to 1.44 kg/t-cl. NOx emission reduction is 0.96 kg/t-cl. Air volume from 2.4 Nm3/kg-cl to 2.0 Nm3/kg-cl. Air volume reduction is 0.4Nm3/kg-cl. Clinker temperature decreased from 360 to 30 , and air volume reduction is 400 Nm3, sensible heat equivalent to about 4.9 kg standard coal.
NOx emission reduction: 0.961106=9.6105kg/y =960t/y
Generation IV high efficiency grate cooler
Coal saving: 4.9106 =4.9106 kg/y =4900 t/y
New dual pressure or flash pure low heat power co-generation
Waste heat utilization power generation: 37 kWh/tcl
Power generation: 37106=3.7106 kWh/y =37,000,000 kWh/y =12,210 t/y CO2 emission reduction: 40,000t/y Dust emission reduction: 3,500t/y Power saving: 1,540,000 kWh/y Power saving: 44124300 =3,175,200 kWh/y =3,175,200 kWh/y Annual power saving: 1,600,000 t1.1/y =1,760,000 kWh/y
High efficiency low resistance dust collector Frequency conversion speed-control motor used for high temperature fan of kiln end New steel wire belt hoister of kiln end
Emission concentration reduced from 4.5 kg/t-cl to 1.0kg/t-cl, resistance decreased from 1500Pa to 1000 Pa. Power saving:3%. For high temperature fan with annual output of 1 million t clinker, the power is 2100kW, practical power is 1,470 kW. Power saving: 1,4700.3=441 kWh/h. Power consumption reduced from 1.4 kWh/t, to 0.30 kWh/t. Power saving: 1.1 kWh/t-raw meal.
10
11
Note: z Baseline: Annual clinker output of 1million tons. z Comparison of production lines between 2008 and 2002. z Baseline: 1 kWh power generated from 330g standard coal In conclusion, if technologies in above Table 3 are used to renovate the old cement plants, a production line with annual capacity of 1 million tons clinker will save a large amount of coal and remarkably reduce the emission. z Coal saving: 1132+2112+3300+5663+960+4900+12210+510+1048+533=32368 tce z CO2 reduction: about 40,000 t/y z NOX reduction: about 960 t/y z Dust reduction: 3500 t/y
2. Republic of India
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3. Japan
66
Item Background
Vertical roller mill for raw materials
Application process Raw material process
Descriptions
Grinding raw materials needs lots of energy. Tube mills had been used for grinding, but the energy efficiency level was lower. Therefore, the introduction of highly efficient grinding equipment was anticipated. The vertical roller mill has high energy efficiency and the installation space is smaller compared with tube mills. These days, the vertical roller mills have been widely adopted. A Structure (1) The rollers are hydraulically pressed against a disc table and the feed is ground between the rollers and the disc table. (2) The classifier is housed above the rollers. B Feature (1) The power consumption level for grinding is lower than that of tube (ball) mill. (2) The remaining time of raw materials in this type of mill is much shorter than that in tube (ball) mill; therefore, the crushing process and mixing process became more harmonized and this contributes to quality control. (3) The installation space is smaller and this leads to lower noise level. (4) This type of mill can crush materials which Fig.1 Vertical roller mill are too large to be fed into the tube (ball) mill. (5) Ground materials are dried by the flue gas from the kiln.
Fig.2 Schematic process flow of vertical roller mill for grinding of raw materials Vertical roller mills are adopted in 20 cement plants (44 mills) in Japan. Table Energy saving effect of the vertical roller mill
Ball mill Vertical roller mill 160 180 Effect(%) 60 80(increase)
Results
Production Specific power consumption The reduction of power consumption(*)
kWh/t-RM kWh/y
20 26
14 18
About 30
(Reduction)
2,240,000
Cost estimation Related matters References
About 14million US$ [Newly-built] and about 230 million US$ [retrofitted], including the cost of supplemental facilities [200t-RM/h] [1US$=110]
-167
Item
External circulating system to vertical roller mill
Background
In the vertical roller mill which is widely used in the raw material grinding process, raw materials input grinding table are crushed and pulverized on it and transported to separator by kiln exit gas introduced into the mill as drying, transporting and separating purpose. In case that the proposed external circulating system is not installed, which is called conventional system, uncrushed and/or half crushed large size materials undergone rotating and grinding works on the table and jump out from it have to be kept above the table or transported to separator by the gas blown around the table to hold them in the mill inside until desired particle size by clinkering process is gotten. This internal material holding and separating works by the gas requires huge energy. It amounts about 60% of this raw material grinding process. Around 1980, it is proposed the external material circulating system that uncrushed large size raw materials jumped out from the table is re-transported by mechanical system in order to reduce gas blow and transportation energy. In case that the proposed external circulating system is provided to the vertical mill, the uncrushed materials jumped out from the table fall through gas inlet box to and collected by the mechanical transportation equipment installed below the mill such as chain conveyor and bucket elevator etc. And then they are re-transported to fresh material feed equipment to re-send the mill. Since the uncrushed raw materials are not blown-up by the gas, transportation energy of the gas, which is generated by mill fan, extremely decreases.
Raw matarials
Descriptions
Mill fan External circulating system
Kiln IDF (Kiln gas exhaust fan)
Fig. Flow chart of roller mill adopting the external circulating system. As compared with conventional internal circulating system, power consumed for fan is reduced until half and its possible to reduce power of grinding system by about 30% Table The comparison of external circulating system
t/h mmAq m3/min Conventional system 490 1,110 15,400 19.4 8.9 10.5 External circulating system 496 770 12,000 13.5 7.7 5.7 50% (Reduction) Effect 30% (Reduction) 22% (Reduction) 30% (Reduction)
Results
Capacity Gas pressure loss (draft) Gas flow rate
Total electrical kWh/t power consumption Mill and Separator Mill Fan
Cost estimation Related matters Reference
It depends on scale of facilities. For example, about 820,000 US$ per unit.
[1US$=110]
-268
Item
Direct dust collection system to vertical mill grinding process
Background
At the beginning stage when vertical roller mill was adopted to cement manufacturing, mill gas circulation fan and dust collection fan are required and their power consumption was larger. The conventional process gas flow of the mill grinding system generally consists of vertical roller mill with separator, cyclone, mill circulation fan, and electrostatic precipitator (EP) and EP fan as shown in Fig.1. Pulverized final products, which is called kiln feed raw meal, are collected at the cyclone and EP. Because of large pressure loss at the cyclone and in order to control mill gas flow, mill circulation fan and EP fan are provided after the cyclone and EP respectively. Power consumption of these two fans reaches about 10kwh/t-raw-material. In the direct dust collection system shown in Fig.2, process flow is simple. The raw materials are dried and ground by the mill simultaneously in one-pass kiln exit gas and then fine product after separation is sent to EP directly. Since the cyclone is not installed, system pressure loss reduces. And as the mill fan treats de-dusted gas only, its power consumption largely decreases. As of 2002, this system is used at four plants in Japan.
Raw materials
Vertical Mill
Descriptions
Fine product
Raw Mill EP
Mill circulation fan
Raw Mill EP fan
Chimney
Fig.1 Flow of Conventional Vertical Mill Grinding System
Raw materials Raw Mill EP

Vertical Mill
Raw Mill EP fan
Chimney
Fine product
Fig.2 Flow of direct dust collection system
Results Cost estimation Related matters Reference
Power consumption of fan(s) reduces about 3 to4 kWh/t. When a mill with a production capacity of 420 t/h was newly constructed, the total cost was about 25 million US$. [1US$=110]
-369
Item
Pre-grinding equipment for raw material grinding process
Background
Recently, the vertical roller mill having great grinding performance is widely applied to the raw material grinding process. However, tube mill, which has about 30% poor grinding performance as power consumption, has been still used many existing cement plant. The improvement of this tube mill grinding system is highly expected. The tube mill comminutes raw materials by impact and friction between grinding balls, which hit raw materials as well as between grinding ball and mill lining. Many of this type mills have two grinding chambers for coarse and fine grinding. Grinding ball size and their distribution are designed and adjusted considering raw material conditions and mill dimensions etc. However, the energy efficiency in the coarse grinding chamber is extremely poor and there is limitation to improve both performances for coarse and fine grinding on the same mill by ball size selection etc. Therefore, a new system was proposed and developed by installing a pre-grinder, which is roller mill or roller press, as coarse grinding before the existing tube mill, which is exclusively used for fine grinding. This system greatly reduced the specific power consumption and improved the production capacity. This system is now installed at three plants in Japan and improvement of production of 50 to 100% has been achieved when roll mill type pre-grinder is used. As the pre-grinder, vertical roller mill is often used considering its great grinding efficiency.
Descriptions
Mixed raw materials Pre-grinder
Separ ator
Coarse powder Raw material tube mill
Product
Coarse powder
Fig. Raw material grinding system Table Effect of implementing raw material pre-grinder
Before implementation Production Rate Fineness: 88m (residue) (Tube mill power) t-RM/h % kW kW kW kWh/t-RM kWh/t-RM 180 17 2550 2550 14.2 34.3 After implementation 354 22 2650 1120 3770 10.6 26.6 25% down 22% down Effect 97% up
Results
(Pre-grinder power) Total power consumption Specific power consumption of tube mill only Departmental power consumption rate
By this production increasing, it is expected that operation in the daytime can be shortened and then power cost can be reduced.
About 7.3 million US$ (depending on the scale) [1US$=110]
-470
Item
Classification of powder returned from raw material separator
Background
When raw materials are ground in a closed circuit by a double-rotator mill, grids remain underground in the second chamber for fine grinding, lowering the grinding efficiency. The cause of this phenomenon is that grids contained in the separator returned power directly enters the second chamber. To separate grids from the returned powder and return them to the first chamber for coarse grinding, a simple grid screen (classifier) was installed at the return chute of the separator. The grids and coarse powder were ground with large balls. The ball diameter of the second chamber can be made small because only fine powder is returned to the room.
Grid screen To EP Coarse powder Fine powder
Descriptions
Refined powder Raw materials
First chamber
Second chamber
Double-rotator mill
Fig. Classification of returned powder by double-rotator mill
The work for removing grids from the second chamber can be mitigated. The decrease of power consumption rate is not remarkable but below 1 kWh per ton of raw materials. 18,000 to 36,000 US$ per system [1US$=110]
-571
Item
Automation of raw material mixing control
Background
To keep the components of continuously produced raw materials at the targets is the most basic requirement for stable operation (energy conservation) and maintaining quality of production out of the burning process. Since the raw material mixing ratio must always be adjusted to keep the components of raw materials at the targets, an automatic control system was developed and implemented. The basic management of the components of cement raw materials is to set the mixing ratio target based on the chemical composition of various raw materials and feed back the results of analyzing the components of raw materials and adjust precisely the mixing ratio. Therefore, an online automatic control system was developed and implemented by combining such systems as continuous measuring equipment, an automatic sampler, an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer of the glass bead method, and a computer program for mixing control.
EP dust Limestone CFW
Mixingtank
Descriptions
Clay
CFW
Reservoir Raw material mill
Silica Iron raw material

Industrialwaste, etc.
CFW
CFW
Auto sampler
CFW
CFW
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
CPU
To kiln
Results
1) The hydraulic modulus and other coefficients for component management become stable and the heat consumption rate creases according to the degree of improvement. 2) The clinker quality becomes stable. X-ray fluorescence spectrometer of the glass bead method: 0.9 to 1.8 million US$ [1US$=110]
-672
Item
Optimization of raw material fineness
Background
Raw materials used to be ground to a rather finer level because the fineness of them affects the clinker burning efficiency. Since the power consumption rate is high for the fine grinding of raw materials, great efforts were made to save energy by making raw materials coarse. The fineness of raw materials used to be controlled at the level of several percents of 90 micron residue in the old wet process or others. As the burning method changed to SP and NSP, efforts were made to reduce the power consumption rate at the raw material process by increasing coarseness. These efforts resulted in great achievements. Since the fineness of raw materials affects the formation of hydraulic minerals at burning, increasing coarseness is naturally limited. If raw materials are made too coarse, however, free limes are likely to increase in clinkers and more heat is required to maintain the conventional level. To optimize the fineness of raw materials, therefore, it is important to find out the limit of making raw materials coarse under specific conditions. Means of making raw materials coarse 1) Adjusting the separator 2) Converting multiple separators into single one 3) Reducing the ball filling factor of tube mill
Descriptions
Achievement and estimated effect: The table below gives the results of calculation by Bond's formula with the new feed size fixed.
Year of Survey 90-micron Residue(%) Estimated Power Saving Effect(%)
Results
1975 1981 1987 1996
8.0 11.7 15.4 21.2
Base 11 17 22
Basically, the above adjustment only
-773
Item
Intermittent charging of electric dust collector
Background
The conventional electric dust collectors use the continuous charging method. However, the intermittent charging method was developed to save energy and is now being implemented. To meet the following demand for more efficient electric dust collectors, the pulse charging method was developed and is now being implemented. The intermittent charging method uses a waveform (semi-pulses) thinned out from the output of the continuous charging method periodically. Thinning out the output saves power. In addition, the dust collection efficiency is said to be a bit superior to that of the continuous charging method and the alteration cost is not high because only the control device of the continuous charging method should be altered. The reduction of dust collection efficiency of electric dust collector became unsatisfying as coal ashes and other wastes having great electric resistance and fine particles of submicron-level diameters were used in greater amount. Under these circumstances, the pulse charging method was implemented to save power and improve the dust collection efficiency. The pulse charging method uses a voltage waveform where pulses are superposed on a DC voltage. The DC voltage, pulse voltage, and period are controlled. This method costs higher than the others.
Descriptions
As of 1996, 120 systems use continuous charging, 21 systems use intermittent charging, and 16 systems use pulse charging in Japan. Intermittent charging
Voltage Voltage
Pulse charging
Time Current Current
Time
Time
Time
Continuous Charging
Results
Intermittent Charging 65 110
Pulse Charging 45 150
Power Saving Effect Dust Collection Capacity
Ratio by Power Consumption(%) Ratio by Dust Collection Efficiency(%)
100 100
1) Conversion to the intermittent charging method: 0.8 to 1.6 million US$ (electrical equipment only) [1US$=110] 2) Conversion to the pulse charging method: 2.3 to 4.5 million US$ [1US$=110]
-874
Item
Transportation of raw materials for input into kiln
Background
For a kiln with preheater, such as SP or NSP, mixed raw materials are transported to the top of the preheater and then fed into the system. When the SP kiln was developed, air compression transpotation by a Quinion pump was initially adopted. Because of great pressure loss, high power consumption rate, and frequent compressor faults, however, a more reliable and efficient method was expected. Compressed air transportation was replaced with mechanical transportation such as a combination of bucket elevator (BE) and air slider (AS). Two or three Bes are installed up to the top of the preheater. Raw materials are lifted to the top by changing the Bes and fed into the preheater through the AS. BE has small no-load power because of its structure and AS is a means of transportation using the self weight of powder. Therefore, this method can reduce power consumption greatly compared with air compression delivery. Air compression transportation used to cause great fan power loss because of large volume of compressed air flowing into the system with raw materials. Mechanical transportation can minimize the air inflow. The initial BE used a short-link chain that caused many problems of abrasion or elongation. A plate-type chain reduced these problems greatly and achieved the current high reliability. As of 1996, 72 systems use mechanical transportation and two systems use air compression transportation in Japan.
Descriptions
Combination of BE and AS
Guided-discharge bucket elevator
Preheater
Dust collector
Air slider Blower Powder
To kiln
Mechanical transportation reduced power consumption by even 80%, although depending on the distance of transportation. Bucket elevator (2 units): About 1.4 million US$ (For a kiln having a capacity of 3000 t/d)
[1US$=110]
-975
Item
The new suspension preheaters burning system
Application Burning process
Background
Clinker burning system for has switched from wet-process kilns to more efficient suspension pre-heater (SP) type since 1965. But in an SP burning furnace, all materials were fully combusted at once and this gave damage to the refractory inside. Besides with the increasing cost for maintenance, adhesion troubles in the pre-heater arouse, and it hindered from long time operation or capacity expansion. To solve those problems, a separate pre-calciner was installed within suspension preheater, which enabled reduction of specific energy consumption per unit clinker by 5060%. This technology was developed and applied in Japan. With SP type burning furnace, the raw materials were only 20-30% calcined at the kiln gate. While with the NSP type, it reaches over 90%. This reduces heat energy consumption in the rotary kiln for clinker production to approximately 40-50%, enhance production level, and mitigate damage to the refractory materials in the kiln. NOx emission levels are also reduced. These days, up to 320 days operation a year became possible thanks to this technology. Exhaust gas Raw meal Raw meal
Descriptions
Suspension preheater
Precalciner
Coal
Coal Rotary kiln

Clinker
Rotary kiln Fig.2 New Suspension Preheater
Fig.1 Suspension Preheater
Results
1. Max. output increment SP type burning furnace 4,000t/d; NSP type 10,000t/d 2. Reduction in average unit consumption of energy (in calorific value) SP type burning furnace 3,470~3,600kJ/kg; NSP type 2,930 3,350kJ/kg 3. Reduction in NOx emissions compared with SP type burning furnace, due to lower combustion temperature and two-staged combustions prevailing in a precalciner 4. Reduction of specific consumption of refractory SP type burning furnace 800 900g/t-cl; NSP type 500 600g/t-cl About 273 million US$ for new facility from Raw material process to Burning process [4000t-clinker/d] [1US$=110]
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Item
Background
Application Burning process In cement manufacturing, global environmental preservation such as the reduction of greenhouse effect gas (CO2) emission is required in addition to the reduction of NOx and SOx emission these days. Furthermore, the cement market needs to produce special cements such as high compressive strength cement and early hardening cement. In response to these needs, the fluidized bed cement kiln system has been researched and developed to comply with the global environment preservation since 1989. The fluidized bed cement kiln system consists of the following equipment: 1) Suspension Preheater (SP) with Calciner (SC): consisting of 4-stage cyclones for preheating and calcining raw materials, which applies the conventional technology. 2) Granulating kiln (SBK): for granulating raw materials into granules of 1 to 2mm average diameter without feeding seed-core clinkers at high temperature (1300C) level. This is the key technology of the system.
Fluidized bed cement kiln system
S P
3) Sintering Kiln (FBK): for efficiently completing the sintering of the granules produced in SBK at high temperature (1400C) level. Descriptions 4) Fluidized Bed Quenching cooler (FBQ): for quickly cooling down the burnt clinker from 1400C level to 1000C in order to get good quality.
SB Fuel

Blow

5) Packed Bed Cooler (PBC): for efficiently recovering the sensible heat of clinker and cooling down the clinker to the specified temperature.
Blow
Stoc
1)Economic advantages (1) Due to improvement of the burning and heat transfer characteristics, it is able to use low grade coal such as low volatile coal and low calorific coal. (2) The heat recovery efficiency of the system can be improved by 20 % as compared with the conventional cooler due to increase of waste heat recovery. (3) Both of construction and maintenance costs can be decreased because there are no movable apparatuses.
Results
2) Lower environmental pollution (1) The emission of thermal NOx emission can be greatly decreased because combustion takes place in the fluidized bed without generating flame. (2) The emission of CO2 can be decreased by approximately 10% due to reduction of fuel consumption and so on. (3) The system is able to control temperature more tightly and keep a longer reaction time, and it enables the quality improvement and the production of special cement with higher grade.
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Item
5-stage system of suspension preheater
Background
The suspension pre-heater is multistage heating system, using exhaust gas. In case of 4-stage, the temperature of gas at the outlet of the pre-heater is around 400 This exhaust gas is used for drying raw materials. The unexploited heat is let out after himidiffication. For achieving energy saving, remodeling of pre-heater from 4stage to 5-stage is carried out. There are two cases for 5-stage preheater. One is remodeling and the other is the adoption of 5-stage preheater in the case of new construction of kiln. By addition of one cyclone, the temperature of gas at the outlet of the preheater is decreased about 30 50 By adopting the 5-stage system, heat exchanging ability increases and the heat efficiency of the total system increases. As results, the specific heat consumption decreases. This technology usually applies to small capacity kilns that power station by the waste heat is not economically applicable. The example of remodeling raw meal raw meal 4th stage cyclone
5th stage cyclone (Newly installed)
Descriptions
3rd stage cyclone 2nd stage cyclone 1st stage cyclone kiln
4th stage cyclone 3rd stage cyclone 2nd stage cyclone 1st stage cyclone
Compared with 4-stage preheater, the specific thermal energy consumption decreases about 125 170kJ/kg-clinker (plant average) in case of 5-stage preheater. Ratio of 5-stage preheater is 23 percentage in 1996 [Japan].
Results
The specific heat consumption compared with 4-stage system 5-stage system NSP type 96 SP type 95 1.4 ~2.7 million US$ for additional 1-stage cyclone [2500t-clinker/d] Low-pressure-loss-cyclone [1US$=110]
- 12 78
Item
Improvement of the calciner
Background
A calciner installed at a suspension preheater consumes about 50 to 60% of necessary heat to promote the thermal decomposition of limestone in raw materials. When NSP was popular, the main fuel was heavy oil and the calciner was also designed according to the combustion characteristics of heavy oil but has been optimized according to the change of fossil fuel after the Oil Shock in 1970s. 1) The initial calciner that used to burn heavy oil of good combustibility did not have an enough volume to complete the combusion of pulverized coal slow to burn. (A) 2) To make pulverized coal stay long, the volume of the calciner was increased. In addition, positions of burners and a way of connecting tertiary air duct from the cooler were improved. (B) 3) Since highly volatile coal of comparatively good combustibility was mainly used in the burning, the volume of the calciner was increased only a little by making its ceiling higher. To burn less volatile coal, however, the duct was extended from the calciner to the bottom cyclone for securing enough pulverized coal combustion time. (C) For cost reduction, the use of oil coak and other fuels of low combustibility are increasing these days. To improve their combustibility, high temperature to some extent is necessary. To improve temperature distribution in the calciner, some measures are taken: 1Making the tertiary air from the cooler hot (raising the cooler efficiency), 2Reducing the grain size of pulverized coal, and 2Raising the burner efficiency and optimizing the setting position.
(A) Raw meal (B) (C)
Descriptions
Bottom cyclone
Calciner
Bottom cyclone
Burner
Calciner Raw meal
Bottom cyclone
Calciner
Raw meal
Burner Mixture of tertiary air from cooler and kiln exhaust gas
Tertiary air from cooler
Burner
Tertiary air from cooler
Raw meal
Raw meal
Effective volume of the calciner V = 169 m3
V = 230 m3 Example of improvement
V = 460 m3
(1) Solid fuels of the average volatile matter content from 15 to 20% can be used. (2) The heat consumption goes down to 80 to 125 kJ/kg (20 to 30 kcal/kg) from the system of (B). 3 to 4 million US$ (Burning capacity: 3,000 t/d) [1US$=110] Improvement of burning in calciner
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Item
Improvement of burning in calciner
Background
For a calciner, coal of comparatively high volatility used to be used. To meet the demand for less expensive fuels, the combustion technology has been improved to use coal of low volatility. When a fuel of low volatility is used under the conditions for a fuel of high volatility, the burning temperature of the calciner falls and the outlet gas temperature of the bottom cyclone rises as the burning time becomes long. Since the production output and the heat consumption rate deteriorate, technological development was promoted to utilize a fuel of low volatility. To improve burning in a calciner, the following technologies are adopted: 1) Reducing the air ratio (solid-gas ratio) for transporting pulverized coal (Reducing the cold air blow-in rate) 2) Rising temperature of tertiary air for calciner (1) Insulation lining of the tertiary air duct for calciner (2) Improving the heat recovery efficiency of the cooler 3) Increasing the fuel fineness (1) Improving the fuel grinding mill and separator (improving the fine grinding performance and classification efficiency) 4) Changing the burner set position (for quick contact and mixing with the tertiary air) 5) Adopting a swirl vane structure for the burner (promoting fuel dispersion and ignition) 6) Securing a high-temperature combustion area in the calciner (adjusting the timing of contact with raw meal)
Descriptions
Diverting Damper
Mixing Chamber Burner Combustion Chamber Tertiary Air Rotary Kiln
Example of split raw meal feeding
1) 2) 1)
A fuel of low combustibility does not deteriorate the heat consumption. Pulverized coal of the average volatile matter content from 15 to 20% can be used. (The fuel cost goes down.) Burner alteration: 10 to 50 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
Improvement of the calciner
- 14 80
Item
Automatic control of bottom cyclone outlet temperature
Background
For a stable kiln operation, it is necessary to keep almost constant the decomposition (decarbonization) rate of raw materials input into the kiln. The outlet temperature of the bottom cyclone is used as an operation index on behalf of the decomposition rate and the kiln is operated to keep its transition stable. Since the outlet temperature varies with various factors, such as the fluctuation of heat value of the fuel, it is difficult to deal with all fluctuations manually. This is why technology such a automatic control was put to practical use. 1) In general, the outlet temperature of the bottom cyclone is detected and the fuel supply to the calciner is automatically controlled to make the outlet temperature match the setting. 2) The outlet gas temperature of the cyclone or the outlet temperature of raw meal is used as the outlet temperature detection end. 3) The temperature is also adjusted by controlling the supply of raw materials or both the supplies of fuel and raw meal.
Raw meal
Descriptions
Automatic controller Coal 3 Pulverized coal weigher Fixed-rate coal supplier
Coal 1
Coal 2
Coal dryer
Coal Coal mill
Outlet gas temperature control flow of bottom cyclone
The heat consumption for burning clinkers goes down by 0.8%.
- 15 81
Item
Background
Application Burning process Chlorine contained in cement raw materials is evaporated by a high-temperature section in the kiln and condensed at the lower part of the preheater where the temperature is comparatively low. This is repeated for condensation up to about 200 times. By reaction with raw materials, chlorine or sulfur generates various compounds of low melting points and forms scales (coating) on the internal wall of the preheater, causing such process problems as an increase of ventilation resistance and clogging in the cyclone. Drastic measures were necessary to prevent these problems from causing great energy losses. The cause of scales deposited in the preheater corresponds to the melting point of compound and the temperature distribution of the preheater. Scales in the rising duct is mainly attributed to sulfide and those in the cyclone to chloride. Their excessive resistance causes a serious problem synergetically. Chlorine bypass is a technology to efficiently recover chlorine from the lower part of the preheater where chlorine is condensed most. Raw materials are partially extracted or gas is extracted to recover fine dust. Chlorine recovery reduces the chlorine condensation in raw materials and solves or mitigates the formation of scales attributable to chlorine condensation. As of 2000, the implementation rate was 54% and the gas bypass method accounted for 80% of them. The bypass rate was 1 to 3% for 74% of the gas bypass systems and 1% or less for all of the raw material bypass systems.
Chlorine bypass system
Descriptions
Kiln exhaust gas Fan
Bag filter
C2 C1
Dust tank Feeder Blower cyclone AQC Kiln SP feed raw material Gas Cooling fan Probe
Gas bypass system
Results
1) Scales causing great chlorine condensation can be reduced greatly to prevent an energy or production loss. (The bottom cyclone clogging ratio is down 60% or more in most of the installed kilns.) 2) Wastes of great chlorine contents can be used more efficiently. Chlorine bypass system for a daily output of 5,000 tons (clinker basis): About 3.2 to 4.5 million US$ [1US$=110] Cyclone descaler
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Item
Cyclone descaler
Background
Chlorine, alkali, or sulfur contained in cement raw materials and fuels evaporates in a high-temperature section of the kiln and condenses at the lower part of the preheater. This phenomenon is repeated such elements and gradually concentrate. Reaction of these with raw meal generates various compounds of low melting points and forms scales (coating) on the internal wall of the preheater, causing such process problems as an increase of ventilation resistance and clogging in the cyclone. Various measures were taken to prevent these problems from causing great energy losses. A descaler was adopted to prevent the growth of scales deposited on the internal wall of the preheater. 1) Blowing compressed air periodically against the internal wall of the preheater (Air blaster) 2) Blowing high-pressure water or steam periodically against the internal wall of the preheater (Soot blower) The descalers are installed at many locations where manual cleaning is difficult or the scale is deposited severely and activated periodically to prevent the growth of scale.
Steam out
Descriptions
Refractories
Soot blower
Steam in
In this example, the internal cylinder thrusts and withdraws. After thrusting, the cylinder tip rotates and blows steam out.
1) This is effective for preventing the growth of scale, but the effect differs individually. 2) The work load of preheater cleaning can be reduced. 1) Soot blower (set): About 50 thousand US$ [1US$=110] 2) Air blaster (set): About 8 thousand US$ [1US$=110] Chlorine bypass system
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Item
Combustion management
Background
The clinker burning process consumes great thermal energy to make clinker. Fuels combustion management is the most fundamental energy-saving activity to be conducted everyday at cement plants. Combustion management approaches are made from various aspects relating to combustion. 1) Fuel management The main fuel used in Japan is coal and its supply sources are selected, taken into consideration the price, fuel ratio (fixed carbon to volatile matter), and Hard Grobe Index (HGI). Technically speaking, the capacities of grinding mills, performance of burners, burner performance, volume of calciner, and other items relating to fuel combustion should be considered enough at the time of selection. 2) Fuel grinding management According to the combustion characteristics of fuels, fuel grinding should be managed to achieve fineness appropriately set. In particular, the separator should have high classification performance because the mixing of coarse particles increases noncombusted part of coal. 3) Air ratio management For complete fuel combustion, air beyond the theoretical volume is required when actual operation is made. If too much air is supplied, however, thermal energy necessary for its heating becomes a loss. To maintain an appropriate air ratio, the oxygen concentration in the combustion exhaust gas requires strict management. Oxygen densitometers are installed at the kiln inlet, exhaust gas outlet of the preheater, etc. For gaining values, they should be checked periodically and maintained properly. 4) Exhaust gas management In addition to the above oxygen management, CO and NOx are measured and their measurement data are used for combustion management. NOx is generally said to reflect the temperature of a burner flame but requires appropriate management because its emission concentration is regulated. 5) Kiln burner management According to the combustion characteristics of fuels, the basic designs such as the fuel discharge angle of the burner, the primary air ratio, etc., should be reviewed to maintain the optimum combustion conditions. Even during operation, it is necessary to optimize the frame shape by changing the burner set position, adjusting the primary air ratio, etc. according to a fuel change. 6) Cooler operation management Heat recovery at the cooler greatly affects the combustion management of the kiln burner. Therefore, scheduled maintenance and adjustment and management in everyday operation are important.
Descriptions
The thermal energy utilization efficiency is improved. (The heat consumption goes down.)
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Item
Stabilization of coating in kiln
Background
Coating formed on the brick working surface in the kiln burning zone lowers the shell temperature to reduce radiant heat and protects the brick. Unstable coating easily leads to a brick problem and generates an energy loss by disturbing stable run.
Various measures are taken to form and maintain stable coating in the kiln burning zone. 1) Preventing fluctuation of components in raw meal One of the causes of unstable coating is the fluctuation of components in supplied raw meal. For a kiln of unstable coating in the burning zone, the fluctuation of components in raw meal should be checked and corrective measures should be taken if the fluctuation is great. 2) Preventing the fluctuation of fuel combustion status If the fuel is changed unreadily to a brand of greatly different combustion characteristics, the frame pattern will change greatly and the coating may break. It is also important to prevent the blow-in rate from fluctuating. 3) Preventing kiln hunching Where the burning conditions change periodically, breakage of coating easily occurs. Since hunching is often attributable to the fluctuation of the clinker cooler, it is necessary to stabilize the cooler operationj 4) Improving the kiln burner If the combustion performance of the kiln burner is low, coating generally does not adhere and easily breaks from a slight heat shock. If coating comes off frequently, the burner performance should also be noted. 5) Selecting quality of bricks The deposition of coating also differs depending on the brick quality. The lining position should be determined by considering that spinel bricks are less adhesive than magnesia-chrome bricks. 6) Cooling the kiln shell Coating is considered to form when liquid-phase mineral of high temperature contacts with and cooled by the brick working surface and becomes solid. It is thought that coating deposition can be strengthened by cooling the shell temperature forcibly to reduce the temperature of the brick working surface. Both air cooling and water cooling are in practical use.
Descriptions
1) Radiation heat is reduced. 2) Brick abrasion is mitigated (to prevent brick problems). Kiln shell air-cooling equipment: about 91 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
- 19 85
Item
Strengthened air sealing at kiln outlet
Background
The kiln outlet shell is structurally a free end under very severe thermal conditions, being exposed to high-temperature clinker and radiant heat from the refractories in the cooler hood. If the outlet shell has cracks, opens a bell shape and causes a great losses like a kiln stoppage by bricks drop. To protect the kiln outlet shell, the lining refractory of appropriate quality, fixing tip casting, and forced air cooling is adopted in general. If air sealing at the outlet is not adequate, cool air leaks into the cooler, lowers the secondary air temperature, and deteriorates the heat consumption. The kiln outlet has a dual-shell structure where forced cooling is made by air from an exclusive fan or branched fan from a cooling fan of the clinker cooler. To prevent part of the air after heat exchange from leaking into the cooler and lowering the secondary air temperature, a spring-type seal or brush type air seal is adopted. Air leakage at the kiln outlet produces a much greater influence than that at any other section because it not only lowers the combustion efficiency of the burner but also increases the fuel consumption to heat the leaked air. Air leakage at the outlet must be minimized.
Exhaust air from cooler To coal dryer Tertiary air for calciner Clinker Kiln
Descriptions
Fig.1 Schematic of the kiln mouth
Tip casting
Cooling fan of each chamber
Outlet refractory Kiln shell Cooling air Air sealing
Fig.2 Air seal at the kiln outlet (Brush type air seal) As kiln outlet refractories, refractory castables and fired spinel bricks are popular. SCH13 occupies the greatest percentage used for the tip casting.
Results Cost estimations Related matters Reference
As the leaked air was reduced by 160Nm3/min, the heat consumption became about 42 kJ/kg-cl (10 kcal/kg-cl ) less. 50 thousand US$ (5,000t/d) [1US$=110]
- 20 86
Item
Strengthened air sealing at kiln inlet
Background
Air leakage into the cement manufacturing process deteriorates the heat and power consumption. Since the air leakage at the inlet of the kiln cools high-temperature combustion exhaust gas and lowers the heat value greatly, it is important to prevent air from leaking in. Air sealing at the inlet of the kiln has a structure to mechanically prevent kiln shell rotation and thermal expansion from causing a gap. The figure shows an example of air sealing structure. 1) Air is sealed by the slide plates installed on the preheater side and the kiln side. 2) The slide plates are always pressed against each other by the air pressure of the air cylinder. 3) The slide plates have greasing holes to strengthen the airtightness and prevent their abrasion. 4) The slide plates on the kiln side have raw meal lifting device (boxes or plates) to prevent the leakage of raw meal.
Raw meal guide plates Brick retainer
Descriptions
Preheater
Brick
Raw meal lifter
Brick retainer Packing Slide plates
Kiln shell Air cylinder
Structure of air sealing at the kiln bottom
Results Cost estimations Related matters Reference
The deterioration of heat and power consumption is prevented. 0.2 million US$ (kiln diameter: 6 m) [1US$=110]
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Item
Vertical coal mill
Background
Tube mill had been used for coal grinding. Steel balls were used as the grinding media, and tube mill should have enough room to allow attrition between the balls and coal. This result in higher initial costs, higher electricity consumptions and limits the downsizing of the tube mill. In a vertical coal mill, drying, grinding, and separating/classifying of coal can be done simultaneously. Hence, production and energy efficiency is higher. This technology became popular after oil shock time, when the fuel switched from oil to coil. 1. Wet coal is feed from the upper part or side of the mill onto the rotating table. 2. It was then crushed and ground by the pressing of the steel roller. 3. Fine coal particles are dried and swept away into the separator by a high velocity of hot air flow from the bottom of the mill. 4. Separated fine coal particles are captured by a bag filter and used as fuel. Pulverized coal exit [air sliders] Coal
Classifier
Descriptions
Roller Air entrance for dryness Table
Motor reducer
Capable of reducing electricity consumptions for coal grinding by 20-25%. About 9 million US$ including cost of supplemental facilities [20t-coal/h] [1US$=110]
- 22 88
Item
Pulverized coal constant feeder
Background
The accuracy of constantly feeding pulverized coal to a cement rotary kiln affects the stability of the burning process and the cement quality. The selection and daily maintenance of feeding and measuring devices are extremely important. The constant feeders for pulverized coal now used in Japan can be classified into the following types. Both types feature high feeding accuracy within 1% and high momentary accuracy as well. 1) Table type This is a combination of a volumetric table feeder and a weighing hopper that calculates the table feeder discharged amount from the weight reduction speed of the table feeder for constant feed. There is a horizontal rotation table under the hopper. Pulverized coal on the table is scraped off by the scraper board while being rotated with the table. The feed amount is adjusted by the press-in depth of the scraper board. 2) Screw + impact line type The impact flowmeter is based on the principle that the horizontal component with impaction force of naturally falling pulverized coal on the detection plate is proportional to the momentary weight flow rate. An impact flowmeter is combined with a Hopper screw feeder which enables constant feeding by controlling the screw feeder rotation speed. 3) Table + impact line type Feeder An impact flowmeter is combined with a Impact line table feeder which enables constant feeding by controlling the table feeder rotation speed. 4) Loop conveyor scale type A loop-shaped conveyor itself has a Microcomputer balance structure. This conveyor has a line powder inlet on one side and a powder outlet on the other side with both ends of the centerline as fulcrums. Since the mechanical structure of either sides of the fulcrum is uniform, the tare is canceled. Figure: Constant feeder (impact flowmeter)
Descriptions
Stable constant feed free of flushing or pulsation is realized.
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Item
Adoption of lifter brick
Background
To improve thermal efficiency in the calcinating zone of a kiln and to prevent the deposition of coating to the preheater by a temperature decrease of the kiln bottom gas, four or more bricks are projected per circle to stir raw materials. Four or more lifter bricks per circle are projecting 100 to 200 mm out of the base bricks in the calcinating zone to stir raw materials and promote their heat exchange. In addition, the full conduction of thermal energy to raw materials is expected to lower the kiln bottom temperature and reduce coating deposition to the preheater. As shown in Fig.1, the lifter brick have an arc shape when the base bricks have an arc shape or a sector shape when the base bricks have a sector shape. Since the lifter bricks are projecting out of the base bricks, their projections easily crack or spall due to abrasion, thermal stress, or mechanical stress. Therefore, the service lives of lifter bricks have been extended by improving the material. Regarding the number of lifter bricks per circle, there must always be lifter bricks in the raw material beds as shown in Fig.2 because they must stir raw materials without letting them slip on the bricks in the kiln. If the filling factor of raw materials in the kiln is assumed to be 10%, the central angle of the raw materials is about 90. Then at least four or more lifter bricks are necessary per circle. (As the kiln diameter is greater, more lifter bricks are necessary.) The lifter brick installation is mainly 2 to 10 m. The locations are not fixed but usually almost from 0.1 to 0.4 if the kiln bottom is 0 and the kiln mouth is 1.
Descriptions
Arch type Fig.1 Lifter brick shapes Sector
Lifter brick Base brick
Raw materials
Fig.2 General view of lifter brick and the number of bricks installed
Deposition to the preheater decreased because the kiln end temperature was lowered 50 to 100C. Usually high-alumina brick = 640 to 820 US$ [1US$=110] Lifter brick = 1,800 to 2,700 US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Heat insulation of refractories
Background
For high-temperature burning in the burning process, reftractories are used for the internal walls of various facilities. Various heat insulation measures are taken to prevent heat radiation losses from walls.
The heat dissipation loss at the burning process corresponds to about 4% to 6% of the thermal energy. To reduce this loss, heat insulation measures are taken according to each section. 1) Kiln burning zone In this zone, burnt products are the hottest and coating is deposited on the surfaces of refractories (bricks) to protect the bricks and insulate heat. Therefore, the heat insulation measures in this zone is to form and maintain stable coating. 2) Kiln deposit/defoliation zone In this zone where coating is frequently deposited and defoliated, spinel bricks of great thermal conductivity advantageous for long-life bricks are often used and the shell temperature is high. Therefore, the following measures were aggressively attempted to insulate spinel bricks thermally. 1. High porosity: Raising the brick porosity to lower the thermal conductivity 2. Double-layer structure: Double-layer brick made of different materials on the high and low temperature sides 3. Attachment: Attaching a heat insulator partially to the back of the low temperature side All of the above measures, however, have a problem in life and almost none of them is now in use. 3) Kiln calcining zone For the calcinating zone of comparatively low temperature, refractory heatinsulating bricks of low thermal conductivity are used, as well as the conventional refractory bricks made of high alumina or clay. The refractory heat-insulating bricks are also burnt or not burnt according to the purpose of use. 4) Preheater Excluding the lower part of the preheater where the temperature is comparatively high, the two-layer structure is used with heat-insulating castables on the back. A wet spraying process for castables was recently developed and the construction efficiency is being improved. 5) Cooler and extraction air duct Two-layer heat insulation is applied with a heat insulator of calcium silicate on the back.
Descriptions
Heat dissipation decreased with a decrease of the kiln surface temperature.
Stabilization of coating in kiln
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Item
Cooler width control
Background
With a production capacity increase by the implementation of the SP and NSP methods, the grate-type clinker cooler also became large. Since the effective width of the cooler was too large for the clinker drop width, the problems of cooling air blowing through and heat spot occurred simultaneously. The blow-through problem lowers the secondary air temperature and the heat spot damages the grates. To prevent these problems from disabling stable run, the cooler was altered. As a solution to these problems, width control was attempted to adjust the substantially effective width of the cooler appropriately. Through a lot of experiences, individual companies have established their unique technologies. 1) The effective width of the cooler should be set appropriately by comprehensively considering the clinker load, the cooler length, the cooling blow rate in each air room, and the ability of each cooling fan. Experience in actual operation is also an important factor for this judgment. 2) General width control is for the clinker layer thickness of 500 to 800 mm at a grate driving speed not mechanically difficult. 3) It is also necessary to determine a width control position. By considering the unevenness of grain size caused by a drop from the kiln, width control on the fine stream side should be stronger. Width control is a basic technology to optimize a grate cooler of the air chamber type. However, the same concept applies to the air-beam cooler recently becoming prevalent.
Descriptions
Rotary kiln
Fixed (no-hole) grate installation position
Holed grate Figure: Width control (arrangement of holed grates and fixed grates with no holes)
1) Heat recovery efficiency was improved by preventing the blow-through of cooling air (heat consumption rate down). 2) Grate burn is prevented. 64,000 US$ [1US$=110] Automatic AQC speed control Air-beam cooler
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Item
Automatic control of AQC grating speed
Background
Recovering the hot secondary air and transporting clinkers are the two important functions of a clinker cooler. For the balanced execution of these two functions, it is necessary to always maintain the clinker layer of appropriate thickness on grates.
1) With the wind pressure in Chamber 1 of the cooler as a substitute characteristic for the clinker layer thickness on grates, the driving speed of Level 1 grates is automatically controlled to keep the wind pressure always at the setting. 2) Under this control, if the clinker properties change, the response may become sensitive. Therefore, step control with insensitive zones may be combined and the control method may be switched according to the cooler status. 3) The volume of clinker transportation changes with the driving speed of Level 1 grates. To keep the clinker layer thickness constant, the proportional control of grate driving speed with a time delay in mind is applied to the grates of Levels 2 and 3.
Coal mill cooler exhaust fan
Calciner secondary air Rotary kiln
Descriptions
Secondary air for burning
UP
Level 1 grates Level 2 grates Level 3 grates
Chamber 1 Chamber 2 Chamber 3 Chamber 4 Chamber 5 Chamber 6
Chamber 7
Figure: Outline of automatic AQC speed control
The thermal recovery efficiency was improved by maintaining appropriate layer thickness (heat consumption rate down).
Cooler width control
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Item
Installation of partition plates
Background
A clinker cooler is divided into an area where cooling air equivalent of the necessary air volume is blown in (hereinafter, the secondary air recovery zone) and the succeeding area (hereinafter, the exhaust heat recovery zone). To recover the secondary air of high temperature in the clinker cooler, the efficiency of heat recovery from the former area should be maximized. Since the hot clinkers on grates are cooled from the lower layer, the top of the clinker layer remains hot in the secondary air recovery zone and dissipates heat much by radiation. 1) To gather this radiant heat in the secondary air recovery zone and use it for heating the secondary air, a partition plate is installed at the border between the secondary air recovery zone and the exhaust heat recovery zone. 2) A partition plate is installed each behind the air extraction port for calciner and above the rear end of Level 1 grates. Partition plates are generally fixed but may also be movable or hanged.
Secondary air recovery zone

Calciner secondary air
Exhaust heat recovery zone
Coal mill cooler exhaust fan
Rotary kiln
Secondary air for burning
Partition plate
Descriptions
Level 1 grates Level 2 grates Level 3 grates
UP
Chamber 1 Chamber 2 Chamber 3 Chamber 4 Chamber 5
Chamber 6
Chamber 7
Figure: Installation of AQC partition plates
The thermal recovery efficiency was improved by maintaining appropriate layer thickness (heat consumption rate down). 45,000 US$ [1US$=110] Cooler width control
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Item
Air beam type clinker cooler
Background
Improvement of heat recovery rate for secondary or tertiary air from the heat in clinker is one of the most important technologies in the burning process. As heat recovery rate in conventional grate coolers are approximately 50 to 60 %, more improvement has been desired. When high temperature clinker is dropped on the grate of cooler from the outlet of kiln, it is not in flat or balanced. With the conventional cooler, cooling air is supplied to each air chambers, therefore, improvement of heat recovery rate is limited by imbalance of cooling air. This problem is solved by installing air beam type cooler which has unique point as follows; 1) Cooling air is supplied directly to each block that is constructed by 4 to 8 pieces of grate plate. 2) The grate plate is structured, as more air tight and fined clinker is not able to spill down through grate. 3) This type of grate can be installed to the part of kiln outlet or main heat recovery area. As cooling air is controlled for each block, air distribution can be optimized. Therefore, heat recovery rate is improved and the life of grate plate is extended. By 2000, these types of coolers have been installed into approx. 30% of Japanese cement plants. Most of them (71%) have been installed at kiln outlet part of existing cooler. For 57% of these cases, improved heat recovery rate is not more than 5 %. In case only installed at kiln outlet part, improvement rate cannot be adequate.
Fixed Movable Fixed Movable
Descriptions
Clinker layer
Clinker layer For Movable beam Fixed beam Air chamber
Air chamber type
Air beam type

Comparison of cooling air supply
1) Heat consumption: Approx. 42 167 kJ/kg decrease 2) Power consumption: Approx. 0.5 1.5 kWh/t decrease 3) Maintenance cost of grate plate: decrease (Extension of life) About 2.7 ~4.5 million US$ for 1-stage cooler retrofitting [1US$=110]
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Item
Automatic measuring device for free lime in clinker
Background
As well as the bulk density (liter-weight) of clinker, free lime (herein after, f-CaO) content in clinkers is an important factor to know clinker quality and clinkering conditions. f-CaO measurement used to be performed a few times a day by chemical analysis method. However, implementing an automatic measuring device remarkably increases the measuring frequency to 24 times a day or more. The volume of information about the clinker quality and clinker condition increases. By reflecting this information, stabilization of clinker quality can be gotten and then heat consumption of the kiln process can be reduced. For the automatic online measurement of f-CaO in clinkers, the following two methods are known: 1) X-ray diffraction method This method is based on a technology developed in Japan. Prepared representative clinker sample are ground into fine particles and molded by press. Then the diffraction strength of CaO is measured by using an X-ray diffraction device to determine the f-CaO concentration (content). In this method, clinker chemical components can be analyzed from same molded sample on X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Unlike the chemical analysis method or electrical conductivity method, no chemical agents (solvents) are necessary for treatment.
Descriptions
2) Electrical conductivity method (1) Principle of measurement f-CaO in clinkers is dissolved into the ethylene glycol solvent by the following reaction: CaO + (CH2OH)2 Ca2+ + (CH2O)22- + H2O 2+ Ca and (CH2O)22- give conductivity to the solution. Since these ions indicate conductivity proportional to the concentration, the amount of f-CaO in clinkers can be estimated by measuring the conductivity. (2) Outline of system Prepared representative clinker sample is transported to a f-CaO measuring device and ground by a disk mill. Fixed amounts of the clinker powder and the ethylene glycol solvent are put into beaker and the electrical conductivity is measured.
Results
By reflecting the tendency of f-CaO data transition in running operation, the clinker quality can be stabilized and the kiln heat consumption rate can be reduced. As of Year 2000, the implementation rate is 35% (electrical conductivity method: 57%, X-ray diffraction method: 43%). (1) X-ray diffraction method: About 460 thousand US$ (Kiln capacity: 5,000 t/d) [1US$=110] (2) Electrical conductivity method: About 410 thousand US$ (Kiln capacity: 5,000 t/d) [1US$=110] Automatic measurement of clinker bulk density (liter-weight)
- 30 96
Item
Automatic measuring device for clinker bulk density (liter-weight)
Background
Keeping the clinker quality constant is important factor for getting better and stable cement product. Because the value of clinker bulk density (liter-weight) shows or reflects kiln burning conditions and clinkering conditions of materials, it is widely used as an important indicating factor for kiln operation. However, there are problems such as accuracy of measured value and/or longer sampling interval since the works were done manually. Automatic sampling system and measurement are expected. A sampler is installed at the appropriate point of clinker transportation line. The clinker of 5 to 10mm diameter is selectively sampled with it and then pre-decided quantity of sampled clinker is automatically send to weighing vessel in order to measure the clinker bulk density. Using this measured value, kiln operator adjusts kiln operating conditions, if necessary, to keep optimum conditions. This device is usually installed and used with automatic f-CaO measurement devices and automatic clinker chemical component measurement devices. As of 2000, implementation rate is about 20% and most of the above devices are used on the on-line system.
Sampling damper Sieving
Bucket elevator
Descriptions
Over 40 mm
Sieving
Less than 5 mm
Over Feeder Screen
Clinker Over 10mm and less than 5mm
(5 to 10mm) Measurement of clinker bulk density
(Return line) To f-CaO measuring devices
Automatic measuring system for volume weight The reliability and continuity, which is gotten by shortened sample interval, of the data of clinker bulk density are improved. And more appropriate kiln operating conditions can be gotten. Main unit only: About 91 thousand US$ (excluding the sampler and sample transportation system) [1US$=110] Automatic measuring device for free lime
- 31 97
Item
Closed-circuit grinding system
Application Finishing process
Background
In the initial grinding system using a tube mill, ground materials are fed into and ground in the mill and all the output from the mill is used for products. This open-circuit grinding system required improvement both in quality and operating efficiency to solve the problem of wide grain size distribution caused by inadequate grinding and excessive grinding. The closed-circuit grinding system is the open-circuit system with a large classifier. All ground materials are led into a separator and classified into refined powder (products) and coarse powder (return powder). The coarse powder is returned to the mill and ground again with newly-fed raw materials. One of the important indexes to indicate the run status of the closed-circuit grinding system is the circulation ratio that is the ratio of the amount of powder returned from the separator and the newly-fed amount. The optimum value depends on the mill conditions (ball size, liner shape, and slit size), the separators classification performance, and the raw material characteristics (clinker grain size and crushability). Therefore, it is important to check the optimum value for each mill.
Ground materials
Tube mill
Refined powder (Product)
Fig.1 Open-circuit grinding system
Descriptions
Classifier
Coarse powder (Returned powder) Refined powder (Product)
Ground materials
Tube mill
Power consumption rate of ground materials (kWh/t)
Specific surface area of cement (cm 2 /g)
Fig.2 Closed-circuit grinding system
Fig.3 Power consumption rates for open-circuit and close-circuit grinding (cement grinding)
Results
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
The grinding capacity increases. The grain size distribution of refined powder becomes sharp. The refined powder temperature becomes low. The power consumption rate decreases. The abrasion of liners and balls is suppressed. The grain size distribution of products can be adjusted by changing the circulation ratio and the classifiers run status.
455 million US$ (3000 kW mill) [1US$=110]
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Item
Use of grinding aid
Background
In general, the grinding energy efficiency of a grinder is very low. To raise the grinding efficiency, therefore, a small amount of third substance other than the grinding media and ground materials is added as a grinding aid. 1) A grinding aid works as follows: A tube mill generally loses its grinding efficiency remarkably at fine grinding. This is because fine particles from ground materials agglomerate and adhere to the mill liners or grinding media as coating, reducing the impulsive force of the mill. In addition, the agglomerated particles are mixed into the coarse powder in the separator and recirculated throughout the mill. There are various theories about the cause of agglomeration. The most convincing theory is that destruction in a crystal grain by alite biases the polarity of the fractured surface. A grinding aid prevents this agglomeration to improve the grinding efficiency. 2) There are many substances that improve the grinding efficiency. For actual use, however, the following conditions must be satisfied: (1) The price is reasonable for the grinding costs. (2) The substance is not detrimental to the product quality but improves it instead. (3) Diethylene glycol is used most widely as a grinding aid satisfying the above conditions. (4) A grinding aid is generally added to the clinkers at a fixed rate from 0.01 to 0.03% before supply to a finishing mill.
Descriptions
Results
1) The grinding amount is up 4% to 6% per addition of 0.01%. 2) The aid also improved the dispersibility and fluidability of cement (powder) and delayed weathering. Diethylene glycol: 1,360 to 1,820 US$/kl [1US$=110]
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Item
Classification liner for the second chamber of tube mill
Background
The second chamber of a finishing mill is mainly for fine grinding. Therefore, using small balls was known to be more efficient because its increases the surface area of media and strengthen the grinding effect. For the conventional mill using a liner with lifter, however, it was difficult to reduce the ball diameter drastically because the grinding efficiency is extremely lowered by reverse classification where small balls gather at the inlet of the second chamber and mediumsized balls gather at the outlet. To solve this reverse classification status, a classification liner was developed. The classification liner is inclined toward the inlet of the mill to make scraped balls roll in the direction. Under the influence of the rotational force (centrifugal force) of the mill, larger balls roll toward the inlet of the mill more easily (larger balls gather at the inlet of the second chamber). The development of this classification liner allowed small balls from 20 to 17 mm in diameter to be used for the second chamber and enabled efficient grinding without excessive grinding. Since this liner also improved the coarse grinding capacity at the inlet of the second chamber, the grinding performance of the entire mill may improve of the first chamber is made short and the second chamber long.
Classification liner (example)
Liner with lifter (example)
Descriptions
Liner with lifter
Rotating direction
Inlet
First chamber
Classification liner
Second chamber
A-A view
Fig.1 Classification liner and liner with lifter

Example 1 Example 4
Example 2 Scraping classification liner Example 3
Fig.2 Types of classification liner 1) The power consumption rate is down 1 to 2 kWh/t. 2) The optimum circulation ratio becomes smaller than ever and reduces load on the separator and conveyor. 682,000 US$ (3000 kW mill) [1US$=110] Introduction of pre-grinder
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Item
Clinker flow rate regulator for tube mill
Background
For efficient grinding by a tube mill, it is important to secure an appropriate amount of ground materials for the balls, or to maintain the powder level. The powder level of clinkers ground coarsely in the first chamber is affected by the aperture rate of the partition butt strap at the outlet and the slit size. In general, however, the powder level is set higher than the optimum value to prevent clogging in the mill. Under these conditions, large balls idle and waste energy because the powder level in the first chamber is low. Since clinkers move to the second chamber before full grinding, the fine grinding efficiency in the second chamber becomes low. The powder level can be kept optimum in the first chamber by adjusting the slit size and quantity of the partition. Since fine adjustment (clinker size) is not possible because welding takes time and the crushability (coarse grinding) changes with the conditions, a clinker flow rate regulator was implemented or developed for adjustment according to the conditions. For clinker flow rate adjustment, the angle of scooping ground materials that flowed into the partition is adjusted or an on-off valve attached to the ground material discharge port is operated from outside the mill. The sound pressure level in the first chamber is the substitute characteristic for the powder level. A loss of crushing energy can be prevented by judging the sound pressure level and adjusting the flow rate regulator for full coarse grinding in the first chamber.
Scoop
Descriptions
Fig.1 Clinker flow rate regulator (example)
Fig.2 Clinker flow rate regulator (example)
1) The power consumption rate is down 2 to 3 kWh/t. 2) The lives of liners and partition butt straps are extended. 3) The deterioration of coarse grinding efficiency by ball cracks is prevented. About 320,000US$ (1000 kW and 3 m class mill) [1US$=110]
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Item
Optimization of grinding media
Background
To minimize the power consumption rate of a finishing tube mill, the ball size and the mixing and filling factors have been optimized. These years, however, the ball diameter is decreasing as a classification liner and a pre-grinder are adopted. In addition, the lives of such grinding media as balls and back plates are being extended by improving the material (abrasion resistance). 1) Optimum ball size and mixing ratio For the optimum ball size and ball mixing, Starke, Bond, Paulsen, Bombled, and others have been proposing various calculation formulas from a long time ago. Based on these formulas and empirical rules, mixing has been determined. In recent years, the ball size is decreasing by the adoption of a classification liner and a pre-grinder. (The rate of tube mills using the smallest ball of 17 mm was about 10% in the 1979 survey by Japan Cement Association but increased to 80% in the 1991 survey.) 2) Filling factor of grinding media The filling factor of grinding media greatly affects the grinding capacity and power consumption of a mill. For cement grinding, the optimum value is in the range from 20% to 40% around 30%. To keep the filling factor of grinding media appropriate for high grinding efficiency, appropriate replenishment is necessary for compensating the abrasion of grinding media. Methods of determining media replenishment timing can be classified into five types below. Actually, however, they are used independently or in combination. (1) Load power (2) Blank height measurement (3) Run time (4) Ground tonnage (5) Other (mainly grinding efficiency) The amount of replenishment is determined by the following three elements: (1) Blank height measurement (Ball center measurement) (2) Load (3) Other These elements are used independently or in combination for determination. 3) Improving the material (abrasion resistance) of grinding media Many back plates used to be made of high-magnesium cast steel and many balls used to be made of carbon steel. The recent advance of manufacturing technology is increasing both back plates and balls made of high-chromium cast iron.
Descriptions
A finishing tube mill can be operated in the optimum status.
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Item
Improvement of separator
Background
With the conventional separator, which has built-in fan, such as sturtevantseparator, it is difficult to expand the grinding capacity by the scale-up because of lower classification efficiency. Therefore, a new high efficiency separator has been developed. The separators are divided into three types according to their structures. The first generation is the built-in fan type, the second is the cyclone air type, and the third is the rotor type. Mechanism (1) The cyclone air separator comprises the separation section and the cyclones to collect the fine particles. The air circulates by the outside (located) fan. The separation section consists of air vanes and turning blades. (2) The rotor type separator is the vortex flow type air separator comprised of guide vanes and rotating rotor. The fine particles are collected by a bag filter and cyclones equipped outside the separator housing. Characteristics (1) The second and third types have lower circulation of the fine particles and higher classification efficiency with more grinding capacity and less specific power consumption. The third type boasts higher classification efficiency with more compact structure. (2) The second and third types can adjust easily the fineness of products under various operating conditions. The third type can control classifying points in a more wide range just by varying the revolutions per minute. (3) The products temperature has been decreased as a result of the second and third types introducing much cooler air into the separator. The false set of cement is hard to occur.
Descriptions
Fig. 1. Cyclone air separator
separation chamber tailings cone air vanes distributor plate counterblades feed spout gearbox motor fines outlet tailings outlet cyclones air duct to fan fan dust collecting pipe to filter return air duct separator part optional duct ext. to fit layout desagglamerator grit separator spreader plate fines outlet feed from press bearling housing air by-pass shaft rotor joint desagglomerator rotor guide vane guide vane sections rotor blade 6 outlet to press reject cone 7 air inlet support 8 rotor blades reject outlet valve feed inlet densit wearcast 2000 air lock
guide vanes rotor blades distributor plate rotor shaft feed spouts sealing air + fines outlet tailings outlet air inlet gear box motor
Fig. 2. Rotating type
Fig. 3. Rotating type separator
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1)Grinding capacity 2)Specific power consumption
15% to 25% (Increase) 10% to 20% (Reduction) [1US$=110]
About 4.5 million US$ for 3,000kW-mill
- 38 104
Item
Pre-grinding of roll press system
Background
To decrease the specific power consumption in finishing process or to increase the output of finish mill, pre-grinding roll crasher, which is installed in the upstream of tube mill, has been introduced since the middle of 1980s. 1) System & Structure This system increases the output of finish tube mill by installing the pre-grinding roll crusher in upstream of the tube mill. By passing through the opening between two rolls (a fixed roll and a movable one), materials are crushed by high-pressure(as shown in Fig.1). High-pressure to crush the materials are generated by oil-hydraulics. Abrasion-resistant material is attached on the surface of rolls. Various kinds of system are available, and the typical one is shown in Fig.2. 2) Operation & Maintenance (1) Exerting pressures are 50 to 100bars on the basis of the projected area of the roll, onto the layer of clinkers passing between the two rolls. (2) Abrasion-resistant parts are classified in one unit type or segment type. In any type, abrasion-resistant parts should be replaced to new one or hard facing, if they are worn out.
Bucket elevator
Motor, Gear reducer
Clinker Pre-grinding roll crusher

Frame
Movable roll
Fixed roll
Separator
Descriptions
Clinker
Product
Tube mill
Fig.1 Structure
Fig. 2 Flow sheet
1) Grinding capacity of finish mill increases about 30%. 2) Specific power consumption in finishing process decreases about 10%. The installation cost is about 2.7 million US$ including auxiliary and construction cost, in case of 100t/h output. [1US$=110]
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Item
Pre-grinding of roller mill system
Background
For the purpose of decreasing the specific electrical power consumption in the finishing process, this installs a vertical roller mill for pre-grinding of clinker in the upstream of the tube mill. The roll press system preceded as pre-grinding system, but there are many machinery troubles (flake and crack of roll surface, damage of roll shaft and bearing) for high pressure. This system was developed on the vertical roller mill which has achieve satisfactory results. It was introduced from the latter half of the 1990s, and the introduction rate in 2000 is 13%. This system installs a vertical roller mill (of high grinding efficiency) for a pre-grinding in the upstream of the tube mill. Clinkers are milled the turn table and 2 4 rollers. The basic structure is the same as vertical roller mills for raw materials or cement. But the roller mill for pre-grinding have no classifier and air sweep. Pre-ground clinkers were discharged outside mill. Fine particles are separated from pre-ground clinkers with vibrating screen, and they are fed to finishing tube mill. The structure (Fig.1) and the flow (Fig.2) are shown below.
material feeding
gypsum
clinker
separator
Descriptions
roller table
product
roller mill pre-grainding

Fig.1 Structure
tube mill
Fig.2 Flow
Results Cost estimation Related materials Reference
1) rinding capacity of finish mill increases about 30~60%. 2) Specific power consumption in finishing process decreases 10~20%. 6.4~9.1 million US$ including cost of ancillary facilities and construction [100t/h] [1US$=110] 1) Raw material pre-grinding roll crusher
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Item
Automatic run control of tube mill
Background
Only several percent of the power consumption for a tube mill is used effectively and most of the energy is dissipated as heat or sound. Therefore, raising the grinding efficiency of the mill is very important for reducing the power consumption rate. To raise the efficiency, the filling factor of grinding media and materials to be crushed in the mill should be kept optimum. For this control, the power of the bucket elevator at the mill outlet used to be kept constant. This control method, however, has a disadvantage of reverse operation in case that the mill should be clogged. To compensate for this disadvantage, mill acoustic control and mill vibration control have been adopted. In addition, fuzzy control was also developed and implemented. The filling factor in a mill is kept constant by the following automatic control: 1) Power (current) control of the bucket elevator at the outlet of the mill The power of the elevator at the outlet of the mill is detected and the mill supply rate is adjusted to achieve the target power value. This method became popular at the earliest. This control has a disadvantage of reverse operation that the elevator power decreases and the supply amount increases when the slit clogging of the butt strap in the mill progresses. In this case, slit clogging must be monitored by the air flow rate through the mill. As of Year 2000, this control is adopted by about 70% of the finishing tube mills in Japan. 2) Mill acoustic control This control uses the fact that the grinding sound in a mill changes with the filling factor of ground materials in the mill. The grinding sound in the first chamber is picked up by a microphone and the supply amount is controlled by the pitch of the sound. When several mills are running adjacently at the same time, it is difficult to detect the grinding sound. This control is adopted by about 10% of the mills in Japan. 3) Mill vibration control This control uses the fact that the vibration of the large metal of a mill changes with the filling factor of ground materials in the mill. It is comparatively difficult to receive the influence of adjacent mills simultaneously running. As of Year 2000, the adoption ratio in Japan is less than 10%. According to the result of a survey by the Committee, the operators are very satisfied with the control performance. Fuzzy control automatically optimizes the filling factor in a mill. 4) Fuzzy control Based on the mill acoustic level, elevator power, mill differential pressure, and some more process data, fuzzy inference from present rules is conducted on changes of mill grinding conditions by a computer. Then the target value of filling factor in the mill is optimized to improve the grinding efficiency. Experiences and techniques are needed to set the rules. Once the rules have been set appropriately, efficient run is possible. As of Year 2000, this control is adopted by less than 10% of the mills in Japan.
Descriptions
1) The power consumption rate is down about 2 to 10%. 2) The labor for running operation can be reduced. 3) The quality becomes stable because of stable run.
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Item
Vertical roller mill for cement grinding
Background
In the cement grinding process, grinding system using the tube mill is widely applied for long year. Recently, especially from 1980s, grinding system using the vertical roller mill, which has effective grinding performance, is developed and applied in the cement grinding process. Basic equipment structure of the vertical roller mill for cement grinding is the same as the vertical roller mill of raw material and coal grindings. The materials such as clinker and gypsum fed into the mill are ground by compression and shearing forces between the grinding table and two or four rollers, which are hydraulically loaded and controlled. Ground cement materials are sent to separator installed in mill upper position by air and classified to coarse particles and fine product. Coarse particles are returned on the grinding table to re-ground and the fine product is sent to dust collectors such as cyclone and/or bag filter. The advantage of the vertical roller mill for cement (comparison with the tube mill) 1) Highly efficient grinding is possible with considerably low electrical power consumption. 2) The residence time of cement grinding in the vertical roller mill is much shorter than that of tube mill. Since system operational control response is superior, quality management on the cement product is easy. 3) Therefore the vertical roller mill for cement produces little heat for grinding, and quality trouble due to the excessive rise of temperature of cement is less likely to occur. 4) The installation area of the vertical roller mill is about half of tube mill grinding system. But the introduction of a pre-grinding grinder has become mainstream in Japan, and the above-mentioned technology is spreading mainly overseas.
Descriptions
Electrical power consumption can be reduced by 30 % (compared with the tube mills).
External circulating system to vertical roller mill for cement.
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Item
External materials circulating system to cement grinding vertical mill
Background
In the cement grinding process, the vertical roller mill having high grinding performance is applied especially cement grinding instead of the conventional tube mill. For further power saving, external material circulating system is adopted as same as raw material grinding process. As described in Page 2 of External Circulating System to Vertical Roller Mill, the external circulating system is adopted to vertical roller mill grinding process in order to reduce power consumption of mill fan. As explained in it, uncrushed large size materials jumped out from table of the mill fall through gas inlet box and collected by the external circulating system installed below the mill. And then they are retransported to fresh material feed equipment to re-send the mill. Since the uncrushed raw materials are not blown-up by the gas, transportation energy of the gas, which is generated by mill fan, extremely decreases. In the conventional roller mill system, in which the proposed external material circulation system is not installed, the power consumption by the mill fan occupies 60% of the system because high speed gas flow is blown at the around of the table to prevent falling of uncrushed larger material jumped out from the table. To the contrary, vertical roller mill having external circulating system does not require the high and large gas flow because the uncrushed materials can fall from the table to it and be re-sent to mill. As the result, gas flow rate is reduced about 30%, pressure loss is also reduced about 30% and power consumption of the mill fan reduces about 50%. The external circulation ratio (=external circulation material flow / new feed material flow) is about 50 to 100%
[Conventional process]
Descriptions
Mill fan
New feed materials
Dust collector (cyclone, EP etc.) Product (cement) Stone discharge amount: To zero
Gas [New process] (External circulation)
Vertical mill
New feed materials
Mill fan Dust collector (cyclone, EP etc.) Product (cement ) External circulation system
Gas
Vertical mill
Specific power consumption is down about 10% . System with a grinding capacity of about 100 t/h (including the incidental facilities and construction expenses): About 730 thousand US$ [1US$=110] External circulating system to vertical roller mill / Raw material process
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Item
Automatic control of cement grain size
Background
The grain size management of cement as the final product is important for maintaining stable quality and efficient run. When an finishing mill is in actual operation, however, the cement grain size changes with the passage of time under the influence of many factors. Therefore, a technology was developed and implemented to adjust the separator automatically. In finish grinding, the grain size of refined powder (product) changes with the passage of time under the influence of various factors even when the running conditions are fixed. These factors are as follows: (1) Crushability of clinker (2) Grain size and temperature of clinker (3) Type and addition rate of plaster and mixture Of these factors, a change of the clinker properties cannot be avoided to some extent as a main factor if the conditions of ground materials and facilities are considered. A means was expected to stabilize the grain size by absorbing the influence. For finish grinding, the mill run is often intermittent. The early stabilization of refined powder grain size after mill activation is another subject to solve for maintaining the stable quality and making the run efficient. Refined powder is automatically sampled and measured by a grain size distribution measuring device of the laser diffraction type. Then the separator blade or rotor rotation speed is automatically adjusted so that the measured value will match the target.
Descriptions
1) The cement quality (grain size) is stable. 2) The power consumption rate is down 3 to 5%. About 364,000US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
High efficiency grinding of blast furnace slag
Background
In the past, slag grinding is performed in a tube mill with dryer. This requires relatively higher power consumptions, and efficiency improvement in this process has become a great concern. Improvements in slag grinding efficiency was developed and implemented with existing cement manufacturing technology. Improvements in the grinding process to produce fine granulated blast furnace slag suitable for use in the production of blast furnace cement was achieved with pregrinding and vertical mill technologies used in cement manufacturing. 1. The installation of vertical mill In a vertical coal mill, drying, grinding, and separating/classifying of ground material are done simultaneously. The hot air used for drying is supplied with a hot wind generator. Slag contains iron grain, which could damage the rotating table and aggravate grinding efficiency. Hence, the removal of these iron grains before commencing the grinding process, using an external circulation system with a magnetic-separator device, is crucial. 2. The installation of pre-grinding equipment There are cases where a vertical mill is installed to the existing tube mill to enhance grinding efficiency while reducing power consumption. With the use of vertical mill, pre-grinding and cement grinding processes are performed separately. Reduction in the size of grinding media used in the tube mill is expected to improve grinding efficiency. However this would partially ruin overall efficiency improvement level.
Descriptions
Separater Bag Filter Separater
External Circulation
Vertical M ill Heat Generator Tube M ill
Fig. The example of the combination of tube mills and vertical mill
Reduction in unit electricity consumption (Blended value 4,000cm 2/g) * Tube mill 70kWh/t (approx., excluding drying) * Vertical mill <40kWh/t (including separator, wind-chamber/fan, conveyor systems, and etc) About 7.3 million US$ including cost of supplemental facilities and construction fees [40t/h] [1US$=110] Introduction of vertical raw material mill, vertical cement mill, vertical coal mill.
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Item
Automatic input facilities for waste tires
Application Use of Alternative Fuels and Raw materials <AFR>
Background
Waste tires used to cause illegal disposal and other social problems because their recycling by tire manufacturers or effective use as a fuel could not catch up with the growth. The cement industries in Japan tackled this problem early and has been using waste tires as a substitute fuel since about 1980. After used tires from passenger cars, trucks, and buses are cut or kept them on a shelf as they are, they are put into a kiln inlet (kiln bottom) to use them as a heat source for burning clinkers. 2) The tire input facilities generally consist of an aligner to automatically align tires and a conveyor to transport the aligned tires to the kiln inlet. A specified number of tires are input at fixed intervals. 3) In addition, waste tires may be processed with a fluidized bed furnace in the middle of an air bleed duct to heat the secondary air (air recovered from the clinker cooler) for calcinery. Fig. shows a waste tire processing flow by the kiln inlet input system and the fluidized bed furnace system.
Fluidized bed furnace system Waste tire Preheater Aligner Dumper Conveyor Fluidized bed furnace calciner Fuel Waste tire Aligner Dumper Conveyor kiln inlet input system Kiln Clinker cooler
1)
Descriptions
Fig. Waste tire processing flow
The effective heat from waste tires is about 25 to 29 MJ/kg (6,000 to 7,000 kcal/kg). Fossil fuels for the same amount of heat can be saved. System for 10,000 t/year: About 2.7 million US$ [1US$=110] Waste tire gasification facilities
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Item
Waste tire gasification facilities
Application Use of AFR
Background
Waste tires used to cause illegal disposal and other social problems because their recycling by tire manufacturers or effective use as a fuel could not catch up with the growth. The cement industry tackled this problem early and has been using waste tires as a substitute fuel since about 1980s. The conventional method of putting waste tires into a kiln as they are, however, has a quantitative limit depending on the kiln size. The gasification technology was developed to increase the capacity and improve the heat energy efficiency. 1) Used tires from passenger cars, trucks, and buses are put into a gasification furnace as they are or after cutting. The tires are heated in a reducing atmosphere and gas produced by their thermal decomposition is led into a calciner for effective use as a substitute fuel. 2) Steel and other incombustibles are discharged from the gasification furnace and eliminated from the system. This solves such problems as non-uniform components attributable to the mixing of much steel. 3) There are several types of gasification furnaces, such as the fluidized bed type and the kiln type. Fig. shows a flow of waste tire gasification flow by a fluidized bed furnace.
Fluidized bed furnace Preheater Waste tire Aligner
Descriptions
Conveyor Incombustibles calciner Fuel
Kiln Clinker cooler
Fig. Waste tire gasification flow
The heat energy from waste tires is about 25 to 29 MJ/kg (6,000 to 7,000 kcal/kg). Fossil fuels for the same amount of heat energy can be saved. System for 7,000 t/year: About 1.8 million US$ [1US$=110] Automatic waste tire input facilities
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Item
Waste oil and oil sludge input facilities
Background
Waste oil and oil sludge used to be left oil drums or incinerated. As the future shortage of fossil fuels is anticipated, waste oil and oil sludge utilization technologies have been developed and implemented since about 1985 in Japan, as part of energy conservation activities. 1) After waste oil and oil sludge brought in by oil drums or tank trucks are stored in a tank, they are put into a kiln or calciner by a pump for effective use as a heat energy for burning clinkers. 2) Flowmeters are installed on oil & oil sludge transportation pipes for the remote adjustment of flow to a set rate by controlling the pump rotation speed. Fig. shows a flow on a waste oil & oil sludge processing flow by calciner or kiln.
Tank truck Agitator Pump Preheater

Flowmeter Waste oil & oil sludge tank
Pump
Flowmeter
Descriptions
calciner Fuel
Kiln Clinker cooler
Fig. Waste oil and oil sludge processing flow
Results
Waste oil and oil sludge vary greatly in quantity but can produce heat energy of about 10 MJ/kg (several 1,000 kcal/kg). Fossil fuels for the same amount of heat energy can be saved. Storage and processing facilities for about 10,000 kl/year: About 727 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Waste plastic processing facilities
Background
Waste plastics generally used to be reclaimed on final disposal sites. Since it is difficult to secure final disposal sites and the shortage of fossil fuels is anticipated, waste plastic utilization technologies are being developed as part of resources and energy conservation activities. The waste plastic processing technologies recently developed and now in use are mainly to shred waste plastics until almost the same combustion characteristics as the main fuels can be obtained. 1) After foreign matter is removed, waste plastics are shred into pieces of 10 to 20 mm. Then the shreded plastics are fed to a kiln or calciner quantitatively rate for effective use as an alternative fuel. 2) A constant weigh feeder allows the remote adjustment of weighing or rotation speed. For transportation, a roots blower is used as the pneumatic conveyor. Fig. shows a waste plastic processing flow.
Waste plastics
Pneumatic conveyor
Descriptions
Preheater Blower calciner Fuel
Constant weight feeder
Kiln
Clinker cooler
Fig. Waste plastic processing flow
There are various kinds of waste plastics. The effective heat from waste plastics is about 17 to 42 MJ/kg (4,000 to 10,000 kcal/kg). Fossil fuels for the same amount of heat can be saved. System for about 10,000 t/year (including shredding facilities): About 3.6 million US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
RDF processing facilities
Background
Waste used to be incinerated or reduced in volume and then reclaimed on final disposal sites. Since the emission of dioxins from incinerators and the securing of final landfill sites are posing problems, however, it is expected to reduce and recycle waste. As a method of recycling, general garbage and industrial wastes are being solidified as RDF for use as a fuel (RDF: Refuse Derived Fuel). RDF processing is effective at cement plants where incinerated ashes are available as raw materials. 1) Burnable waste sorted and collected by local governments is crushed, sorted, dried, and molded into RDF of 10 to 30 mm in diameter and 20 to 50 mm in length for easy storage and transportability. 2) RDF carried to a cement plant is put into a kiln bottom or mouth by pneumatic transportation facilities to use effectively as a heat energy for burning clinkers. 3) This saves fossil fuels of the amount for heat energy. Incinerated ashes require no separate processing because they are used as part of the raw materials. 4) In addition, no dioxins are generated because of long stay at a high temperature in a cement kiln.
Hopper
Descriptions
RDF Calcination raw meal Blower RDF Rotary kiln Pulverized coal Blower Hopper
Results
RDF produces heat of 15,000 to 20,000 kJ/kg (3,500 to 4,500kcal/kg). RDF use of 10 t/d reduces coal consumption by about 5 t/d. Facilities for accepting and processing 10 t/d (excluding chlorine bypass facilities): 646 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
Cyclone clogging prevention technology
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Item
Recycling of pachinko machine
Background
In Japan, it is estimated that pachinko machines (Japanese pinball machine) are produced about 2.2 million units every year and are disposed as the same. The establishment of technologies for optimum processing and recycling has been expected because illegal disposal and large field heaping posed social problems. Pachinko, a machine for entertainment, consists of electronic parts and also metallic, plastic, and wooden sections and is difficult to handle at a later process if merely crushed for recycling. Therefore, a comprehensive processing system is constructed for complete recycling. This system consists of the following processes: 1) Recovery of LCD and other recyclable electronic parts and their return to manufacturers 2) Sorting and recovery of iron parts by magnetic force and their sale as scraps 3) Manufacture of solid fuels mainly from plastic and wooden materials 4) Fixed-quantity feed to and processing in cement kiln For solid fuel production, a volume reducer by compressive extrusion is used. Plastics molten by friction heat work as adhesives for molding and solidification. The solid fuel size is about 100 mm in diameter and 150 mm in length (about 2 kg/piece).
Flowchart
Description s
Magnetic selector Primary crusher Secondary crusher Volume reducer Chip silo Solid storage Scrap Hopper scale
Rawmaterials Rotary kiln Clinker
1) Slid fuel: 15 kg/unit Heat: 27 MJ/kg (6,500 kcal/kg) 2) Substitute of coal fuel
1) System for processing 400,000 units/year: About 8.2 million US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Substitute raw material processing technology (Coal ashes)
Background
Coal ashes recovered by dust collectors at pulverized coal combustion boilers are discharged a lot mainly from thermal power plants throughout the nation and predicted to further increase in future. Although various processing methods are now under aggressive study, further utilization at cement plans is expected because it is difficult to process large quantities and to secure disposal sites. 1) Coal ashes are mainly made of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) and used as a substitute for natural raw materials of cement. 2) According to the properties, coal ashes are put into a system at the stage of mixing non-processed raw materials or after the stage of grinding raw materials as part of mixed raw materials. 3) Coal ashes containing carbons not burnt help saving fossil fuels because their combustion heat is available as a heat source for burning clinkers. If coal ashes are used in large quantities, however, the heat balance may be lost. 4) Coal ashes are already used at many cement plants and the unit consumption is about 10 to 100 kg/t-cl.
Electrostatic Precipitator Exhaust
Fan Limestone
Descriptions
Clay
Silica Raw material mill
Iron source Coal ashes (wet)
Coal ashes (dry)
Raw meal silo
Blower
1) Natural raw materials (mainly clay) can be saved. 2) Fossil fuels can be saved by carbons not burnt (hundreds to thousands kJ/kg). 2000 ton-silo and input facillities: 2.7 to 3.2 million US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Substitute raw material processing technology (Slag)
Background
At the process of manufacturing iron & steel or nonferrous metals, a product of reaction between impurties in raw materials and limestone added as an agent to eliminate sulfur and impurities is discharged as a molten oxide. The oxide is cooled and crushed. This is called slag and discharged a lot throughout the nation. From a long time ago, slag has been used as cement raw materials and also road construction materials. As a representative slag having a hydraulic property, blast furnace slag is ground to fine particles, mixed with cement, and used widely as blast furnace cement. On the other hand, various kinds of slag lower in quality are used as raw materials for cement. 1) Blast furnace slag and convertor slag from iron & steel manufacturing and slag from non-ferrous metal manufacturing are used as substitutes for cement raw materials. 2) As one of raw materials, slag is used at the stage of mixing non-processed raw materials. The maximum consumption is about 250 kg/t-cl. 3) Slag contains CaO about 40 to 45%. Unlike limestone, however, decompositionheat is not necessary because decarboxylation reaction is already completed. The heat consumption rate is reduced corresponding to the amount of use.
Electrostatic precipitator Exhaust
Descriptions
Limestone Clay
Fan
Silica Iron source Raw material mill Raw meal silo Slag
Results
1) When slag of 10kg/t-cl is used, the heat consumption rate is reduced by about 17 kJ/kg-cl (4kcal/kg-cl). 2) As the generated carbon dioxide decreases, the fan power consumption is also reduced slightly.
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Item
Substitute raw material processing technology (Sludge)
Background
A large amount of construction sludge generated throughout the nation used to be reclaimed for final disposal. With the decrease of land for reclamation, illegal disposal increased. Since it is also difficult to secure disposal sites, an effective utilization technolgy is expected. 1) Construction sludge containing a certain amount of water or more is used at the stage of mixing non-processed raw materials. Construction sludge not containing so much water is supplied before the grinding of raw materials as a substitute for cement raw materials. 2) Construction sludge has various properties and components. The sludge is preprocessed when difficult to use as it is. 3) Construction sludge containing much water is used after handling is improved by filter press or mixing with other dry raw materials.
Fan Limestone
Electrostatic Precipitator Exhaust
Descriptions
Clay Mixing adjustment Raw meal silo Feedback
Silica
Iron source
Raw material mill
Construction sludge
Calciner Rotary kiln Clinker analysis
Results
1) The use of natural raw materials is reduced. 2) The service life of final disposal site is extended. The use of existing facilities cuts costs. Unchoking measures : hundreds of thousands to million of US$ Automation of raw material mixing control
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Item
Substitute raw material processing technology (Sewage sludge)
Background
Sewage sludge from local governments throughout the nation used to be disposed of mainly by reclamation or sea dumping. The sea dumping of industrial wastes is becoming a social problem and their effective utilization is expected. Sludge from sewage plants is brought to cement plants in the form of dehydrated cake (water content: about 80%) or incinerated ashes. 1) Incinerated ashes are mixed as a substitute for raw materials at the stage of mixing raw materials. 2) Because of the smell and difficult handling, dehydrated cake is directly put from the pressure feed pump into the furnace (rotary kiln or calciner). 3) The cake contains burnable organic substances. Because of high water content, however, the cake is thermally offset and used as a substitute for raw materials.
Fan Precipitator
Electrostatic
Exhaust
Mixed raw materials

Sewage sludge
Raw material dryer Raw material mill
Descriptions
Raw material silo
Sewage sludge Calciner Sewage sludge Rotary kiln
1) The consumption of natural resources is reduced. 2) The service life of final disposal site is extended. Pressure feed pump into the furnace : 1.8 to 3.6 million US$ [1US$=110]
Automation of raw material mixing control
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Item
Waste acid and alkali processing facilities
Background
The general method of disposing of waste acids and alkalis in large quantities used to be sea dumping after neutralization. Since sea dumping is now prohibited by the London Dumping Convention, a safe and effective processing method is expected. 1) Combustion exhaust gas discharged from a preheater is used effectively for drying and then its dust is collected by an electrostatic preciputator. To optimize the conditions of dust collection, industrial water is sprayed to adjust the temperature and humidity of exhaust gas. 2) Instead of this industrial water, waste acid and alkali solutions are used to evaporate the water content occupying a great percentage of waste liquid. 3) There is a comprehensive recovery system for treating waste liquid from liquor brewery and photographic development easy to collect and transport.
Waste acid reservoir tank
Electrostatic Precipitator
P
Waste alkali reservoir tank
Descriptions
Outlet gas temperature
Industrial water Preheater exhaust gas Non-processed raw materials Dried raw materials Rotary dryer
The consumption of water resources and the energy for waste water treatment can be reduced. Receiving and spray facilities : several hundreds of thousand US$ Chlorine bypass system
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Item
Power generation utilizing waste heat
Application
Waste heat recovery
Background
The temperature of the exhaust from the suspension preheater (SP) or the new suspension preheater (NSP) is about 400 . The exhaust has the surplus heat even if it is used to dry the raw materials. Also the surplus heat comes from the clinker cooler. It was desired to utilize the surplus heat (= waste heat) for energy saving. The power generator by the waste heat has been installed with the progress of technologies on the waste heat generation and after the appearance of large-scale kilns. The popular system is as follows. The boilers are installed at the outlet of suspension preheater or clinker cooler. The low pressure steam is made in boiler by waste heat recovery. And, the electrical power is generated with the steam turbine. The amount of generated electrical power per 1 ton of clinker is 35-40kW on an average. In the case of kiln of 5000 ton per 1 day, the 8000kW of electrical power are generated. In the typical NSP kiln equipped with power station by waste heat, the energy utilization efficiency on the burning process reaches about 80% and the temperature of the exhaust after using of drying raw materials is about 100 .
Descriptions
SP boiler
SP
Precalciner
AQC boiler
KIDF
Rotary kiln AQC
Results Cost estimation Related materials Reference
The power station by waste heat can generate electrical power of about 35 to 40 kW per 1 ton of clinker. About 27.3 million US$ including cost of supplemental facilities [1US$=110]
The recycled utilization of the exhaust gas of the clinker cooler
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Item
Recirculation of exhaust air from cooler
Application Waste heat recovery
Background
A clinker cooler exhausts air of about 200 to 300C. This exhaust air used to be released into the atmosphere as it is. Installing a waste heat boiler is an effective means of using potential heat from the exhaust air. However, means of thorough energy conservation are expected. Regarding a cooler, it is most important to improve the recovery of heat to the secondary air for combustion. From the viewpoint of an whole kiln, it is also important to thoroughly make an effective use of residual heat not having a very great value as heat. From air discharged out of a cooler, dust is removed by an electrostatic precipitator or bag filter. Then the low-temperature air is circulated again to cool clinkers. This cooler exhaust recirculation technology minimizes heat discharge out of the system by using potential heat effectively. (a) If a waste heat boiler is installed on a cooler, exhaust air of about 100C at the boiler outlet is led again to the fan for the rear stage of the cooler to increase heat recovery at the boiler. The cooler exhaust of a great heat value increases the recovery efficiency at the boiler. (b) In a grate-type cooler, low-temperature exhaust air is led again to the fan for the front stage of the cooler to get the high-tempetrature secondary air for burning.
Descriptions
Example : With waste heat boiler

Fan
Results
Cost estimation
Related matters
Reference
1) (a): Waste heat recovery rate up about 10% (50% of exhaust air circulated) 2) (b): Heat consumption rate down about 25 kJ/kg-cl (6 kcal/kg)
0.9 to 1.4 million US$ [1US$=110]
Power generation from waste heat
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Item
Reduction of cyclone pressure loss
Application Common
Background
The power consumption rate of an exhaust fan at a preheater is affected by cyclone pressure loss. If the negative pressure is great, leakage air increases. Therefore, a cyclone of low pressure loss was expected. A cyclone pressure loss is reduced by the following technologies: 1) Adopting a cyclone of a special shape The inlet shape of an ordinary cyclone is devised to reduce the inlet wind velocity. This exhibits the gravity sedimentation effect and reduces the pressure loss while maintaining the dust collection efficiency. Such special types as axial and horizontal are also available. 2) Installing a guide vane A vane is installed where the inlet gas flow collides against the swirling gas flow. This prevents the inlet gas flow from diminishing and assists the formation of a downward flow in the cyclone to reduce the pressure loss while maintaining the dust collection efficiency. 3) Devising the cylinder in the cyclone By considering the applicable cyclone position, the internal cylinder and the length of the rectifier plate in the cylinder are adjusted. According to a report, the pressure loss at inversion can also be reduced greatly by installing a special device at the lower part of the internal cylinder.
Descriptions

Special cyclone
Guide vane
Results
1) Guide vane type: Pressure loss down 5 to 10% (equivalent dust collection efficiency) 2) Special cyclone: Pressure loss down 30 to 40% (equivalent dust collection efficiency) 1) About 9,000 to 14,000US$ [1US$=110] 2) About 55,000US$ [1US$=110] (straight body of 4,000 mm in diameter 2 + duct alteration) Five-stage preheater
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Item
Reduction of bag filter pressure loss
Application Common
Background
The conventional bag filter has disadvantages that the pressure loss and power consumption rate increase with the passage of time as the filter cloth deteriorates and that the filter cloth is damaged in a short period. Therefore, a filter cloth of a low pressure loss was expected to support stable run for a long period. The conventional bag filter uses a felt cloth for filtration. This cloth is for three-dimensional filtration where the primary dust layer formed on the surface of the cloth filters later dust. Therefore, dust penetrates into the material and increases the pressure loss with the passage of time. To solve this disadvantage, a new filter cloth was developed by laminating a fine multipore film on the surface of a felt substrate. Since this is surface filtration by micropores, dust comes off easily from the filter cloth. By shaking off dust appropriately, the pressure loss of the filter cloth can be kept almost constant. Compared with the felt filter cloth, the filter cloth has a slightly great pressure cloth at the beginning of use but is almost free of influence by residual dust. Therefore, the new filter cloth can be used stably for a long time with a low pressure loss.
Descriptions
Pressure loss of filter cloth
3D filtration type
Damage
Surface filtration type
Life of filter cloth
Life of filter cloth and pressure loss
Results
1) The pressure loss is down about 30%. (Electric power down or processing wind rate up) 2) The maintenance frequency is reduced. 3) The bag filter can be used for a long period at a stable wind rate. 4) The filter cloth has a twice or longer life. 150 mm dia. 3,500 mm long: About 450US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Fan rotation control
Application Common
Background
At the cement manufacturing process, many large fans are used. Power consumption by these fans is regulated by throttle control and rotation speed control. Rotation speed control is superior to throttle control in energy saving performance. Rotation speed control can be classified into mechanical control, like fluid joint and secondary resistance control, and into electric control, like Scherbius control and inverter control. Depending on the motor types, there are several methods of controlling the fan rotation speed by varying the rotation speed of the motor that drives the fan. The representative static Scherbius control is explained here. A wound-rotor induction motor for a large fan, like a preheater ventilation fan, used to be controlled by secondary resistance control that changes a rotation speed with a variable resistor on the secondary side. The typical variable resistor is liquid resistor. This control method is more economical than any other method because the structure is simple. However, the method also has disadvantages that the rotation speed changes by steps and that the efficiency is low, compared with other methods, because the secondary resistance loss becomes greater at a low speed. Low efficiency attributable to the secondary resistance loss did not matter in the past production for maximum output but began to appear a problem during the long-term suppressed production. Replacing this, the static Scherbius control was aggressively adopted as a control method of high efficiency. The static Scherbius control changes the rotation speed by applying a voltage to the secondary circuit. Of the secondary power, the secondary slip power is converted into AC by an inverter for the primary power (power supply). Therefore, this control method features higher efficiency than secondary resistance control and a smaller loss attributable to a decrease of power factor at a low speed. However, the cost is higher.
Descriptions
Pi
Po
. .
Pi P Po
I.M.
. . .
(Power) Pb
IM
Transformer
P L (Thermal loss) R Secondary resistance control
Rectifier DC
Inverter
AC
Static Scherbius control
Control Method
Output (kW) 1,487 1,487
General Efficiency (%) 93.0 81.7
Input (kW) 1,599 1,819
Power Saving (kW) 220 --
Results
Scherbius control Secondary resistance control
270 thousand US$ (Motor ratings: 2,350 kW, 6 P, 3,300 V, and 60 Hz) [1US$=110]
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Item
Fan impeller cutting
Application Common
Background
At the cement manufacturing process, many fans are used to process combustion gas and air. These fans have necessary capacities for their positions. However, some fans may have excess margins which may increase as process changes. Since these margins waste power, fan impeller cutting is executed.
Fan impeller (runner) cutting is generally executed as shown below.
Cut
2620
Descriptions
When the rotation speed is the same, the wind rate is proportional to the ratio of impeller diameter. The pressure is proportional to the second power of the ratio and the electric power is proportional to the third power of the ratio. Therefore, the energy saving effect is great. The limit of impeller cutting is generally said to be about 20% of the original diameter. Excess cutting may 1) lower the fan efficiency to an non-ignorable level, 2) reduce the mechanical strength of fan greatly, 3) increase mechanical instability at a high speed, causing vibration, or 4) cause problems easily due to insufficient margin. When reducing the wind rate more 20% or more, the impeller should be replaced.
Effect on 1700 kW kiln IDF (same wind rate)

Impeller Diameter (mm) Rotation Speed -1 (min ) 1,200 1,300 Power Consumption (kW) 1,475 1,313 Power Saving (kW) -162
Results
Before cutting After cutting
2380
2,620 2,380
Fan impeller replacement: 0.5 million US$ [1US$=110] (Impeller cutting, including the main and side plates) Vane cutting only: 27 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
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Item
Material sealing
Application Common
Background
Undesired air leakage, which is made by huge pressure difference, especially occurred at material feed area of vertical mill, makes many operational troubles such as un desired increasing of gas flow, reduction of mill grinding capacity by poor drying performance caused by decreasing of gas temperature with cold leak air and undesired increasing of power consumption of mill fan caused by increasing of gas flow by leak air. Air leakage can be reduced by using flap dampers of multiple stage or screw feeders having multiple screw shafts. The figures below show the 3-stage FD method. The 3-stage FD consists of three flaps. Flaps sequentially open from top, middle and lower stage. When one stage is open, the remaining other stages are fully closed and their spaces are fully filled by materials. This makes strong seal for leakages. Raw material
FLAP OPERATION
21 22 23
UNDER OPENING OPERATION UNDER CLOSING OPERATION CLOSE
11 12 13
1 1 FLAP 1 2 FLAP OPEN 1 3 FLAP 2 1 FLAP 2 2 FLAP 2 3 FLAP
Descriptions
In the double screw method, Raw materials are fed and discharged to vertical mill by the filled up conditions made by double parallel shaft screw rotating inward. This mechanism makes effective seal conditions.
Raw materials
Results
The 3-stage FD method reduced 30,000 m3 N/h or 30% of 100,000 m3 N/h leakage from 330,000 m3N/h gas flow at the outlet of a vertical raw material mill. This corresponds to a reduction of 150 kW or 4% in IDF power.
3-stage FD system: 180 thousand US$ [1US$=110]
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4. Republic of Korea
130
Item
Introduction of a Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveyance Process

A.Structure
Application Pneumatic Conveyance Process
Background
Turbo Blower is the ultimate machines equipped with Foil bearing, PM motor of 95% efficiency, and no lubricant, save above 30% of energy with respect to roots blower Therefore, Introduce highly efficient Pneumatic Conveyance equipment 1) Air Foil Bearing : No Lubricant, Environmental Friendly 2) PM Motor & Inverter : Keep high efficiency at part loading conditions 3) Turbo Type : Superior efficiency compared to displacement type such as Piston/Screw 4) High Speed Direct Drive : Small footprint, no vibration
B. Features
1) Reliability Maximum Mechanical Reliability Maximum Electrical Reliability Rapid Surge Protection (patent) Quick Recovery 2) Performance True Oilless Foil bearing (Patent) High speed PM Motor : 95% (=Shaft Power/Motor Input Power) Fig.1 Turbo Blower Minimum leak : Seal functioned foil bearing (Patent) No bearing cooling loss : high temperature coating (Patent) Minimum starting current 3) Operation Cost Higher efficiency : 30% saving than roots blower Variable frequency drive : 30% more energy saving Efficiency of constant frequency drive may be pretty at the design point, but it decreases rapidly at part loading conditions. VFD keeps good performance at part loading conditions. Minimum Unload Power consumption : 1% of Full Power Minimum Maintenance cost : Air filter only No Cooling Water cost 4) Ecology Supply absolutely clean air and low noise : No oil and no mechanical contact system makes absolutely clean air and low noise, and is free from environmental problem 5) Ownership Cost Smaller Space (Area, Noise-proof, vibration-proof) Smaller electric facility
Descriptions
Results
Production
Table1
Energy saving effect of the Turbo Blower

Roots Blower Turbo Blower Effect(%) 109(37%)
(Reduction)
kW kWh/y
310 T/h * 65 meter height 298.5 189
Power consumption The reduction of power consumption(*)
36 million/Year (109kw * 365Day * 24Hr * 70% * 54/kw)
NoteThe case of capacity: 310t/h at operation
Cost estimation Related matters References
About 50million/Set [Newly-built] : 132m/min * 0.63bar
131
Item
Introduction of CleanSYS
Application
Background
z CleanSYS is a remote monitoring system, which enables pollutants of smokestack from environmental sites to be measured automatically and transmitted as data via telecommunication lines
Refer to attached pdf file
Descriptions
Results
1. Improvement of air quality by reducing emissions Reduced emission : 40~70% Air quality : 50~80% 2. Save the operation cost of Emission & social cost Saving the operation cost of prevention facilities : $35.8 million (22 superior facilities) 318 companies, 2004 379 companies, 2006 Pollutant emissions : 21% The total social cost is reduced about $1 billion a year z For installing of one measuring device for industry, 50~200million kwon(average 140mil), depending on the number of items measurable(2~7 items). z For construction of CleanSYS Center, approximately 3~4 billion kwon. z Operation Cost is approximately 4.5 billion kwon a year including personnel cost of 60 staff. -Government law arrangement Clean Air Conservation Act, Ordinance 17 Target of CleanSYS installation, Measured items and time" -Know-how and regulation of how to manage the collected data including contingency such as discrepancy and corrupt data. EMC made presentation in Vietnam, Taiwan for future technology transfer. Several local governments in China shows interests in the system and visited for detailed explanation. z 2007 : Certification of Quality Standard ISO 9001 and the patent z 2008 : Applied to United Nations Public Service Awards
Cost estimation
Related matters
References
132
133
Contents
Overview of CleanSYS Main Functions Result of our efforts
Plan of the future
134
.Overview of CleanSYS
What is CleanSYS?
CleanSYS is a new brand name of the existing TMS(CEMS)
CleanSYS means eco-friendly operating system to clean up environment.
CleanSYS is a remote monitoring system, which enables pollutants of

smokestack from environmental sites to be measured automatically and transmitted as data via telecommunication lines - Before installing CleanSYS, public officials visited facilities and took pollutant samples manually from smokestacks
*Needs for Manual Sampling : For one stack, 3 persons a team for a day
- Air pollutions are spread around Ulsan & Yeosu industrial complexes Changes in Environment Management Policy (Self-monitoring by companies) Application of scientific Environmental Administration
(Ex. Comprehensive air pollutant management)
135
Brief History
1997~2001 : Nationwide management (Completed the construction of 4 Control Centers) Honam(98), Youngnam(99), Sudo(01), Jungbu(02) 2002 : Application to administration data (Administrative Measure, etc) 2002 : Winner of Chosun Daily Environment Award 2006 : Selected the one of the best ten brands of government (Won the Encouragement Award) 2007 : Certification of Quality Standard ISO 9001 and the patent 2008 : Applied to United Nations Public Service Awards
136
Targets of CleanSYS
Installation Targets
- 1,237 stacks of 498 companies, the end of July. 2008
Measuring Items
-
7 pollutants : Dust, SO2, NOX, HCl, HF, NH3, CO 3 non-pollutants : O2, Temperature, Flow rate
Location of Control centers : Divided 4 areas

(2008.7)
Control Center Sudo Youngnam Concentration Management Honam Jungbu Sub total Total Emissions - Sudo Total Facilities 56 176 78 97 407 91 498
137
Smokestacks 81 411 210 279 981 256 1,237
Target Items 279 957 526 684 2,446 552 2,998
Operation of CleanSYS
Remote Control Wire(Leased line)
EMC
MOE
Datalogger (D/L)
MODEM
Wire (Leased line)
Sudo Center
Wireless (CDMA)
Honam Center
Integrated Center
CEMS
Self Monitoring System
Internet
Youngnam Center
Jungbu Center
138
Local governments
Role Division by Organization
MOE
Establishing air quality management policy Enacting and amending Laws & regulations
Local Government
Ordering facilities to install CleanSYS Enforcing regulations
EMC (Control center) Source facility

Establishing & Managing Control center Data acquisition and analysis Report to government offices Providing technical help to source facilities Relative accuracy test System suitability test Compliance test Other technical help
139
Installing CleanSYS Clean Air Conservation Act, Article 32 Clean Air Conservation Act, Ordinance 17
Target Target of of CleanSYS CleanSYS installation, installation, Measured Measured items items and and time" time"
Transmitting data Managing CleanSYS analyzers
. Main Functions
Real-time data Search, Statistics,& Analysis
140
. Main Functions
Remote Control
Analyzer
Data Logger
Control Center
Zero Check Span Measurement Standard Zero End
Span Zero Standard Standard Gas Gas

141
Span Time
. Main Functions
ARS for forecasting & warning
Facilities
Emission level 80%
D/L
Forecasting
Control Center
Forecasting & warning ARS/SMS/FAX
Local Government
CleanSYS Analyzers
Main Server
Warning Excess Emission level
D/L + FEP
142
.Result of our efforts

ScientificSelf-regulating Environmental Management System Construction
Manual Sampling
Potential safety concerns unscientific & inefficient
AutomaticRemote Sampling
Preventing safety concerns Scientific & efficient operation
Irregular sampling 1~4 times a year

Limitations of air quality management & aftercare Difficult to find problems
24hr real-time management

Preventing air pollution accident Fast finding and solving problems
Direct contact between public officers & operators

Worries to conspire with operators
Public officials dont need to visit facilities

Transparent administrative measure
143

Efficient Operation & Convenience for residents
Administrative Agencies
Reducing public officials for sampling, Transparency of environmental administration Removal worries to conspire with businesses by direct contact
Instant management & prevention of violation of laws by continuous
Businesses
monitoring Reducing resources by process development, Relief of problems with residents
Improvement of life environment by reducing air pollution
Residents
Formation of confidence between businesses and residents by transparent management
144

Environmental & Economic Effects Improvement of air quality by reducing emissions
Environmental effects Reduced emission : 40~70% Air quality : 50~80%
SO2 2 (Ulsan industrial complex) 0.019ppm, 1997 0.007ppm, 2006 : 63%
Save the operation cost of Emission & social cost

Economic effects
Saving the operation cost of prevention facilities : $35.8 million (22 superior facilities)
318 companies, 2004 379 companies, 2006 Pollutant emissions : 21% The total social cost is reduced about $1 billion a year
145
.Plan of the future
1st
[2006]
4th 2nd
[2007]
3rd
[2008]
[2009]
Smokestack Water Noise & Vibration Indoor air quality
146
147
5. United States of America
148
LBNL-54036-Revision
ERNEST ORLANDO LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY
Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for Cement Making
An ENERGY STAR Guide for Energy and Plant Managers
Ernst Worrell and Christina Galitsky,
Environmental Energy Technologies Division
Sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
March 2008
149
Disclaimer This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. While this document is believed to contain correct information, neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor The Regents of the University of California, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by its trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof, or The Regents of the University of California. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof, or The Regents of the University of California. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is an equal opportunity employer.
150
LBNL-54036-Revision
Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for Cement Making An ENERGY STAR Guide for Energy and Plant Managers
Ernst Worrell and Christina Galitsky
Energy Analysis Department Environmental Energy Technologies Division Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of California Berkeley, California 94720 March 2008
This work was funded by U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Climate Protection Partnerships Division as part of ENERGY STAR. ENERGY STAR is a government-backed program that helps businesses protect the environment through superior energy efficiency. The work was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through the U.S. Department of Energy Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.
151
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Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for Cement Making An ENERGY STAR Guide for Energy and Plant Managers
Ernst Worrell and Christina Galitsky Energy Analysis Department Environmental Energy Technologies Division Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory March 2008
ABSTRACT The cost of energy as part of the total production costs in the cement industry is significant, warranting attention for energy efficiency to improve the bottom line. Historically, energy intensity has declined, although more recently energy intensity seems to have stabilized with the gains. Coal and coke are currently the primary fuels for the sector, supplanting the dominance of natural gas in the 1970s. Most recently, there is a slight increase in the use of waste fuels, including tires. Between 1970 and 1999, primary physical energy intensity for cement production dropped 1%/year from 7.3 MBtu/short ton to 5.3 MBtu/short ton. Carbon dioxide intensity due to fuel consumption and raw material calcination dropped 16%, from 609 lb. C/ton of cement (0.31 tC/tonne) to 510 lb. C/ton cement (0.26 tC/tonne). Despite the historic progress, there is ample room for energy efficiency improvement. The relatively high share of wet-process plants (25% of clinker production in 1999 in the U.S.) suggests the existence of a considerable potential, when compared to other industrialized countries. We examined over 40 energy efficient technologies and measures and estimated energy savings, carbon dioxide savings, investment costs, and operation and maintenance costs for each of the measures. The report describes the measures and experiences of cement plants around the wold with these practices and technologies. Substantial potential for energy efficiency improvement exists in the cement industry and in individual plants. A portion of this potential will be achieved as part of (natural) modernization and expansion of existing facilities, as well as construction of new plants in particular regions. Still, a relatively large potential for improved energy management practices exists.
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Table of Contents 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................................1 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................................1 2. The U.S. Cement Industry .......................................................................................................................2 3. Process Description..................................................................................................................................4 4. Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the U.S. Cement Industry ..............................................8 4.1 Historical Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Trends..................................................8 4.2 Historical Energy Intensity and Specific Carbon Dioxide Emission Trends ...........................10 5. 1999 Baseline Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions ..................................................................14 6. Energy Efficiency Technologies and Measures for the U.S. Cement Industry .....................................16 6.1 Energy Management Systems and Programs ...........................................................................18 6.2 Raw Materials Preparation .......................................................................................................21 6.3 Fuel Preparation .......................................................................................................................23 6.4 Clinker Production All Kilns.................................................................................................24 6.5 Clinker Production - Wet Process Kilns...................................................................................29 6.6 Clinker Production - Dry Process Preheater Kilns ...................................................................30 6.7 Finish Grinding.........................................................................................................................32 6.8 Plant-Wide Measures ...............................................................................................................34 6.9 Lighting ....................................................................................................................................40 6.10 Product & Feedstock Changes................................................................................................41 6.11 Advanced Technologies .........................................................................................................43 7. Summary and Conclusions ....................................................................................................................46 8. References..............................................................................................................................................49 Tables Table 1. 1999 Energy Consumption and Specific Energy Consumption in the U.S. Cement Industry by Process. ....................................................................................................................14 Table 2. Energy-Efficient Practices and Technologies in Cement Production..........................................17 Table 3. Energy Efficiency Measures in Dry Process Cement Plants.. .....................................................47 Table 4. Energy Efficiency Measures in Wet Process Cement Plants.......................................................48 Figures Figure 1. U.S. Clinker Production by Process, 1970 to 1999.......................................................................3 Figure 2. U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999.....................................................................3 Figure 3. Simplified process schematic for cement making..........................................................................4 Figure 4. Primary Energy Consumption in U.S. Cement Production by Process, 1970 to 1999. .................9 Figure 5. Energy Consumption in U.S. Cement Production by Fuel, 1970 to 1999 .....................................9 Figure 6. Primary Energy Intensity of U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999 ......................10 Figure 7. Specific fuel and electricity consumption per ton of cement produced.. .....................................11 Figure 8. Carbon Intensity of U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999....................................12 Figure 9. Main elements of a strategic energy management program.........................................................20
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1. Introduction
As U.S. manufacturers face an increasingly competitive global business environment, they seek opportunities to reduce production costs without negatively affecting product yield or quality. Uncertain energy prices in todays marketplace negatively affect predictable earnings, a concern for publicly traded companies in the beer industry. For public and private companies alike, increasing energy prices are driving up costs and decreasing their value added. Successful, cost-effective investment into energy efficiency technologies and practices meet the challenge of maintaining the output of a high quality product despite reduced production costs. This is especially important, as energy-efficient technologies often include additional benefits, such as increasing the productivity of the company. Energy efficiency is an important component of a companys environmental strategy. End-of-pipe solutions can be expensive and inefficient while energy efficiency can often be an inexpensive opportunity to reduce criteria and other pollutant emissions. Energy efficiency can be an effective strategy to work towards the so-called triple bottom line that focuses on the social, economic, and environmental aspects of a business. 1 In short, energy efficiency investment is sound business strategy in todays manufacturing environment. Voluntary government programs aim to assist industry to improve competitiveness through increased energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact. ENERGY STAR, a voluntary program operated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, stresses the need for strategic corporate energy management. ENERGY STAR provides guidance, energy management tools, and strategies for successful corporate energy management programs. This guide reports on research conducted to support ENERGY STAR and its work with the cement industry. This research provides information on potential energy efficiency opportunities for cement plants. Besides technical information, ENERGY STAR provides tools to facilitate stronger corporate energy management practices in U.S. industry, including plant energy benchmarks. ENERGY STAR can be contacted through www.energystar.gov for additional energy management tools that facilitate stronger corporate energy management practices in U.S. industry. This report reflects an in-depth analysis of the cement industry, and identifies energy savings and carbon dioxide emissions reduction potentials. In this analysis, the cement industry (Standard Industrial Classification 3241) includes establishments engaged in manufacturing hydraulic cements, including portland, natural, masonry, and pozzolana cements. The production of cement is an energy-intensive process. Annually the cement industry spends over $1 billion energy purchases. The production of cement results in the emission of carbon dioxide from both the consumption of fuels and from the calcination of limestone. This report briefly describes the various stages in the cement production process. Details on energy consumption in the U.S. cement industry in 1999 are provided, followed by an assessment of various energy efficiency measures applicable to U.S. cement plants.
The concept of the triple bottom line was introduced by the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD). The three aspects are interconnected as society depends on the economy and the economy depends on the global ecosystem, whose health represents the ultimate bottom line.
1
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2. The U.S. Cement Industry

Cement is an inorganic, non-metallic substance with hydraulic binding properties, and is used as a bonding agent in building materials. It is a fine powder, usually gray in color, that consists of a mixture of the hydraulic cement minerals to which one or more forms of calcium sulfate have been added (Greer et al., 1992). Mixed with water it forms a paste, which hardens due to formation of cement mineral hydrates. Cement is the binding agent in concrete, which is a combination of cement, mineral aggregates and water. Concrete is a key building material for a variety of applications. The U.S. cement industry is made up of either portland cement plants that produce clinker and grind it to make finished cement, or clinker-grinding plants that intergrind clinker obtained elsewhere, with various additives. Clinker is produced through a controlled high-temperature burn in a kiln of a measured blend of calcareous rocks (usually limestone) and lesser quantities of siliceous, aluminous, and ferrous materials. The kiln feed blend (also called raw meal or raw mix) is adjusted depending on the chemical composition of the raw materials and the type of cement desired. Portland and masonry cements are the chief types produced in the United States. More than 90% of the cement produced in the U.S. in 1999 was portland cement, while masonry cement accounted for 5.0% of U.S. cement output in 1999 (USGS, 2001). Cement plants are typically constructed in areas with substantial raw materials deposits (e.g. 50 years or longer). There were 117 operating cement plants in the U.S. in 1999, spread across 37 states and in Puerto Rico, owned by 42 companies. Portland cement was produced at 116 plants in 1999, while masonry cement was produced at 83 plants (82 of which also produced portland cement). Clinker was produced at 109 plants (111 including Puerto Rico) in the U.S. in 1999. Production rates per plant vary between 0.5 and 3.1 million metric tons (Mt) per year. Total production of U.S. cement plants in 1997 was nearly 86 Mt, excluding Puerto Rico (USGS, 2001). Clinker is produced with either the wet or dry process. These processes are discussed in detail in chapter 3. Modern plants are constructed in areas where high quality limestone is available, and a high demand for cement exists. These new plants have large capacities. Clinker production, cement production, and materials consumption trends are quite similar. All three categories experienced gradual growth between 1970 and 1999, with prominent dips in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Clinker production increased from 67 Mt in 1970 to 77 Mt in 1999, at an average rate of 0.4% per year, hitting a low of 55 Mt in 1982, and its current high in 1999 (USGS, various years). Within this slow production increase, the type of facility used to produce clinker changed significantly between 1970 and 1999. Clinker produced with the wet process decreased at an average of 2.7% per year, falling from a 60% share of total clinker production in 1970 to a 25% share in 1999. Clinker produced with the dry process increased at an average of 2.6% per year, increasing from a 40% share of total clinker production in 1970 to a 73% share in 1999, with the remainder being plants classified as wet or dry. Cement production increased at 0.7% per year between 1970 and 1999, rising from 69 Mt in 1970 to 86 Mt in 1999 (USGS, various years). Portland cement remained the dominant cement type during that time span, maintaining a share between 94% and 96%. Between 1970 and 1999, the clinker to cement ratio (expressed as clinker production divided by cement production) decreased from 0.97 to 0.88 t clinker/t cement. The number of clinker plants has decreased from 169 in 1970 to 111 in 1999, and the number of clinker grinding plants reduced to 6 (a total of 117 facilities in 1999). Thus, average plant capacity has increased.
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90 80 Production (Million tonnes) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Wet Process 0

19 70 19 72 19 74 19 76 19 78 19 80 19 82 19 84 19 86 19 88 19 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98
Both
Dry Process
Figure 1. U.S. Clinker Production by Process, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in million metric tons/year). Source: USGS, various years. The term both accounts for plants that are not categorized as a wet or dry process plant in the USGS minerals yearbooks.
100 Production (Million tonnes) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
19 70 19 72 19 74 19 76 19 78 19 80 19 82 19 84 19 86 19 88 19 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98
clinker cement
Figure 2. U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in million metric tons/year). Source: USGS, various years.
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3. Process Description
Mining and Quarrying The most common raw materials used for cement production are limestone, chalk and clay (Greer et al, 1992). The major component of the raw materials, the limestone or chalk, is usually extracted from a quarry adjacent to or very close to the plant. Limestone provides the required calcium oxide and some of the other oxides, while clay, shale and other materials provide most of the silicon, aluminum and iron oxides required for the manufacture of portland cement. The limestone is most often extracted from open-face quarries but underground mining can be employed (Greer et al., 1992). The raw materials are selected, crushed, ground, and proportioned so that the resulting mixture has the desired fineness and chemical composition for delivery to the pyroprocessing systems (see Figure 3). It is often necessary to raise the content of silicon oxides or iron oxides by adding quartz sand and iron ore, respectively. The quarried material is reduced in size by processing through a series of crushers. Normally primary size reduction is accomplished by a jaw or gyratory crusher, and followed by secondary size reduction with a roller or hammer mill. The crushed material is screened and stones are returned. More than 1.5 tons of raw materials are required to produce one ton of portland cement (Greer et al., 1992; Alsop and Post, 1995).
Limestone
Crusher
Grinder
Raw meal
Kiln
Clinker Grinder
Additives
Cement
Figure 3. Simplified process schematic for cement making. Limestone is the major process input. However, other raw materials such as clay, shale, sand, quartz or iron ore may be added.
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Kiln Feed Preparation Raw material preparation is an electricity-intensive production step requiring generally about 25-35 kWh/tonne raw material (23-32 kWh/short ton), although it could require as little as 11 kWh/tonne. After primary and secondary size reduction, the raw materials are further reduced in size by grinding. The grinding differs with the pyroprocessing process used. In dry processing, the materials are ground into a flowable powder in horizontal ball mills or in vertical roller mills. In a ball (or tube) mill, steelalloy balls (or tubes) are responsible for decreasing the size of the raw material pieces in a rotating cylinder, referred to as a rotary mill. Rollers on a round table fulfill this task of comminution in a roller mill. Utilizing waste heat from the kiln exhaust, clinker cooler hood, or auxiliary heat from a standalone air heater before pyroprocessing may further dry the raw materials. The moisture content in the kiln feed of the dry kiln is typically around 0.5% (0 - 0.7%). When raw materials are very humid, as found in some countries and regions, wet processing can be preferable 2 . In the wet process, raw materials are ground with the addition of water in a ball or tube mill to produce a slurry typically containing 36% water (range of 24-48%). Various degrees of wet processing exist, e.g. semi-wet (moisture content of 17-22%) to reduce the fuels consumption in the kiln. Clinker Production (Pyro-Processing) Clinker production is the most energy-intensive stage in cement production, accounting for over 90% of total industry energy use, and virtually all of the fuel use. Clinker is produced by pyroprocessing in large kilns. These kiln systems evaporate the inherent water in the raw meal, calcine the carbonate constituents (calcination), and form cement minerals (clinkerization) (Greer et al., 1992). The main pyroprocessing kiln type used in the U.S. is the rotary kiln. In these rotary kilns a tube with a diameter up to 8 meters (25 feet) is installed at a 3-4 degree angle that rotates 1-3 times per minute. The ground raw material, fed into the top of the kiln, moves down the tube countercurrent to the flow of gases and toward the flame-end of the rotary kiln, where the raw meal is dried, calcined, and enters into the sintering zone. In the sintering (or clinkering) zone, the combustion gas reaches a temperature of 1800-2000C (33003600 F). While many different fuels can be used in the kiln, coal has been the primary fuel in the U.S. since the 1970s. In a wet rotary kiln, the raw meal typically contains approximately 36% moisture. These kilns were developed as an upgrade of the original long dry kiln to improve the chemical uniformity in the raw meal. The water (due to the high moisture content of the raw meal) is first evaporated in the kiln in the low temperature zone. The evaporation step makes a long kiln necessary. The length to diameter ratio may be up to 38, with lengths up to 230 meters (252 yards). The capacity of large units may be up to 3600 tonnes (3970 short tons) of clinker per day. Fuel use in a wet kiln can vary between 5.3 and 7.1 GJ/tonne clinker (4.6 and 6.1 MBtu/short ton clinker) (COWIconsult et al., 1993; Vleuten, 1994). In a dry rotary kiln, feed material with much lower moisture content (0.5%) is used, thereby reducing the need for evaporation and reducing kiln length. The first development of the dry process took place in the U.S. and was a long dry kiln without preheating (Cembureau, 1997). Later developments have added multi-stage suspension preheaters (i.e. a cyclone) or shaft preheater. Pre-calciner technology was more recently developed in which a second combustion chamber has been added between the kiln and a conventional pre-heater that allows for further reduction of kiln fuel requirements. The typical fuel consumption of a dry kiln with 4 or 5-stage preheating can vary between 3.2 and 3.5 GJ/tonne clinker
2
Originally, the wet process was the preferred process, as it was easier to mix, grind and control the size distribution of the particles in a slurry form. The need for the wet process was reduced by the development of improved grinding processes, and improvement of the energy efficiency of the pyroprocessing systems.
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(2.7 and 3.0 MBtu/short ton clinker) (COWIconsult et al., 1993), electricity use increases slightly due to the increased pressure drop across the system. A six stage preheater kiln can theoretically use as low as 2.9-3.0 GJ/tonne clinker (2.5-2.6 MBtu/short ton clinker) (Vleuten, 1994). The most efficient preheater, pre-calciner kilns use approximately 2.9 GJ/tonne clinker (2.5 MBtu/short ton clinker) (Anon (a), 1994; Somani et al., 1997; Su, 1997; Steuch and Riley, 1993). Alkali or kiln dust (KD) bypass systems may be required in kilns to remove alkalis, sulfates, and/or chlorides. Such systems lead to additional energy losses since sensible heat is removed with the bypass gas and dust. Once the clinker is formed in the rotary kiln, it is cooled rapidly to minimize the formation of a glass phase and ensure the maximum yield of alite (tricalcium silicate) formation, an important component for the hardening properties of cement. The main cooling technologies are either the grate cooler or the tube or planetary cooler. In the grate cooler, the clinker is transported over a reciprocating grate through which air flows perpendicular to the flow of clinker. In the planetary cooler (a series of tubes surrounding the discharge end of the rotary kiln), the clinker is cooled in a counter-current air stream. The cooling air is used as secondary combustion air for the kiln. Finish Grinding After cooling, the clinker can be stored in either the clinker dome, silos, bins or outside. The material handling equipment used to transport clinker from the clinker coolers to storage and then to the finish mill is similar to that used to transport raw materials (e.g. belt conveyors, deep bucket conveyors, and bucket elevators) (Greer et al., 1992). To produce powdered cement, the nodules of cement clinker are ground to the consistency of face powder. Grinding of cement clinker, together with additions (3-5% gypsum to control the setting properties of the cement) can be done in ball mills, ball mills in combination with roller presses, roller mills, or roller presses (Alsop and Post, 1995). While vertical roller mills are feasible, they have not found wide acceptance in the U.S. Coarse material is separated in a classifier that is re-circulated and returned to the mill for additional grinding to ensure a uniform surface area of the final product. Power consumption for grinding depends on the surface area required for the final product and the additives used. Electricity use for raw meal and finish grinding depends strongly on the hardness of the material (limestone, clinker, pozzolana extenders) and the desired fineness of the cement as well as the amount of additives. Blast furnace slags are harder to grind and hence use more grinding power, between 50 and 70 kWh/tonne (45 and 64 kWh/short ton) for a 3,500 Blaine 3 (expressed in cm2/g). (COWIconsult et al., 1993). Traditionally, ball mills are used in finish grinding, while many plants use vertical roller mills. In ball or tube mills, the clinker and gypsum are fed into one end of a horizontal cylinder and partially ground cement exits from the other end. Modern ball mills may use between 32 and 37 kWh/tonne (29 and 34 kWh/short ton) (Seebach et al., 1996, Cembureau, 1997) for cements with a Blaine of 3,500. Modern state-of-the-art concepts utilize a high-pressure roller mill and the horizontal roller mill (e.g. Horomill) (Seebach et al., 1996) that are claimed to use 20-50% less energy than a ball mill. The roller press is a relatively new technology, and is more common in Western Europe than in North America (Holderbank, 1993). Various new grinding mill concepts are under development or have been demonstrated (Seebach et al., 1996), e.g. the Horomill (Buzzi, 1997), Cemax (Folsberg, 1997), the IHI mill, and the air-swept ring roller mill (Folsberg, 1997).
Blaine is a measure of the total surface of the particles in a given quantity of cement, or an indicator of the fineness of cement. It is defined in terms of square centimetres per gram. The higher the Blaine, the more energy required to grind the clinker and additives (Holderbank, 1993).
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Finished cement is stored in silos, tested and filled into bags, or shipped in bulk on bulk cement trucks, railcars, barges or ships. Additional power is consumed for conveyor belts and packing of cement. The total consumption for these purposes is generally low and not more than 5% of total power use (Vleuten, 1994). Total power use for auxiliaries is estimated at roughly 10 kWh/tonne clinker (9 kWh/short ton clinker) (Heijningen et al., 1992). The power use for conveyor belts is estimated at 1-2 kWh/tonne cement (0.8-1.8 kWh/short ton cement) (COWIconsult et al., 1993). The power consumption for packing depends on the share of cement packed in bags.
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4. Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions 4 in the U.S. Cement Industry
4.1 Historical Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Trends Energy consumption in the U.S. cement industry declined between 1970 and 1999 (see Figure 4). Primary energy use decreased at an average of 0.3% per year, from 555 TBtu (586 PJ) in 1970 to 531 TBtu (560 PJ) in 1999, although production increased over that time span. The overall energy consumption trend in the U.S. cement industry between 1970 and 1999 shows a gradual decline. Energy consumption started to increase in the early 1990s and increased between 1992 and 1999 at an average of 4.5% per year. The share of the two main clinker-making processes in energy consumption changed significantly between 1970 and 1997. While the wet process consumed 62% of total cement energy consumption in 1970, it used only 28% in 1997, while energy consumption of the dry process increased from 38% of total cement energy consumption in 1970 to 68% in 1997. Since the 1980s the use of waste derived fuels is growing in the cement industry replacing clinker fuels. As Figure 5 shows, by 1999 17% of all fuels were waste derived fuels, e.g. tires, solid and liquid wastes (solvents) (USGS, 2001). USGS has collected data on waste fuel use starting 1992, although waste fuel use started before that time. The trend towards increased waste use will likely increase after successful tests with different wastes in Europe and North America. New waste streams include carpet and plastic wastes, filter cake, paint residue and (dewatered) sewage sludge. The energy recovery efficiency in clinker kilns is often high compared to alternative thermal waste treatments methods, resulting in net energy savings. The cement industry contributes approximately 5% to all industrial carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the United States (equivalent to approximately 2% of total U.S.CO2 emissions). CO2 emissions from fuel consumption in the cement industry in 1999 were virtually back at the 1970 level around 11.9 MtC, despite a drop in the years in between, due to improvements in the pyroprocessing systems. CO2 emissions from the calcination process increased from 9.3 MtC in 1970 to 10.7 MtC in 1999 due to the increased clinker production. Hence, total carbon dioxide emissions from the cement industry increased to 22.6 MtC (including emissions from power generation). Carbon dioxide emissions from fuel consumption have decreased with energy consumption, and shifting fuel use patterns have affected carbon emissions significantly as well. The largest change occurred in natural gas use, which decreased from a 44% fuel share in 1970 to a 7% fuel share in 1999, due to natural gas price increases and fuel diversification policies after the oil price shocks. Natural gas was commonly substituted by coal and coke, which increased fuel share from 36% in 1970 to 61% in 1999, petroleum coke (11% in 1999) and wastes (liquid and solid, 10% in 1999). Oils share fell from 13% in 1970 (17% in 1973) to 1% in 1999. Electricitys share increased from 7% in 1970 to 11% in 1999.
Carbon dioxide emissions are commonly expressed in metric tons carbon. To convert to carbon dioxide multiply by 44/12.
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700 600 Primary Energy (TBtu) 500 400 300 200 100 0
19 75 19 70 19 85 19 80 19 90 19 95
Electricity Liquid Waste Solid Waste Tires 300 Natural Gas Oil Petcoke 200 Coke Coal 100
Either
Dry Process
Wet Process
Figure 4. Primary Energy Consumption in U.S. Cement Production by Process, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in TBtu). Source: derived from USGS, various years.
600
500
Energy Use (TBtu)
400
0 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997
Figure 5. Energy Consumption in U.S. Cement Production by Fuel, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in TBtu). Source: derived from USGS, various years.
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4.2 Historical Energy Intensity and Specific Carbon Dioxide Emission Trends Primary energy intensity in the U.S. cement industry decreased between 1970 and 1999. Primary energy intensity of cement production decreased at an average rate of 1.0% per year from 1970 to 1992, but increased 1.4%/year from 1992 to 1999. Between 1970 and 1999 the primary energy intensity fell from 7.3 MBtu/ton in 1970 to 5.3 MBtu/ton in 1999 (see Figure 6). Energy intensity of cement production decreased due to increased capacity of the more energy efficient dry process for clinkermaking (see Figure 1), energy efficiency improvements (see Figure 7) and reduced clinker production per ton of cement produced (see Figure 2).
9 8 7 SEC (MBtu/ton) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
70 72 76 74 78 82 80 84 86 88 90 94 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 92 19 19 19 19 19 96 98
WET DRY EITHER CLINKER (AVERAGE) CEMENT
Figure 6. Primary Energy Intensity of U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in MBtu/short ton, HHV). This graph excludes use of wastes as kiln fuel between 1977 and 1992, as USGS did not collect this data before 1993. See below for a discussion on the impact of including assumptions on waste use. Source: derived from USGS, various years. Figure 7 shows the developments in specific fuel and electricity consumption. The figure shows a slow increase in specific electricity consumption, which is due to the increased penetration of the modern dry process (preheater/precalciner technology), but is very small in comparison to fuels consumption. Specific fuel consumption decreases strongly till around 1987, and is stable after that, with a slight growth in recent years.
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7.0 FUEL 6.0 ELECTRICITY
5.0 SEC (MBtu/ton)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 98
Figure 7. Specific fuel and electricity consumption per ton of cement produced. Energy is expressed as final energy (or site energy) and excludes power generation conversion losses. Fuels include waste fuel use estimates starting in 1977 (based on PCA data, and after 1993 on USGS reported data). Specific carbon dioxide emissions 5 from fuel consumption declined from 352 lbC/ton cement (175 kgC/tonne) in 1970 to 304 lbC/ton cement in 1999. Total carbon dioxide emissions (including emissions from limestone calcination for clinker-making) decreased at 0.3% per year, on average, from 609 lbC/ton cement (305 kg C/t) in 1970 to 510 lbC/ton cement (255 kg C/t) in 1999. Like the energy intensity trend, specific carbon dioxide emissions decreased overall between 1970 and 1990. The specific carbon dioxide emissions from both the wet and dry processes decreased between 1970 and 1999, the wet process at an average of -0.01% per year and the dry process at an average rate of -0.6% per year. The increased dry process clinker production capacity, improved energy efficiency, and decreasing clinker/cement-production ratio reduced the specific carbon dioxide emissions, while the substantial fuel shifts towards more carbon intensive fuels like coal and coke contributed to an increase in specific carbon dioxide emissions (see Figure 8). Overall, fuel mix trends were more than offset by energy intensity reductions, leading to an overall decrease in specific carbon dioxide emissions.
Carbon dioxide emissions were calculated based on the fuels and electricity consumption as given by USGS (various years), average US power generation efficiency and fuel use as given by the EIA (various years) and clinker production data as given by USGS (various years). Emission factors are provided by EIA and IPCC (1996).
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350
300 Caron Intensity (kgC/short ton) 250
Wet (energy)
Dry (energy)
200
Either (energy)
Average (energy)
150
100 50
Energy + Calcination (Clinker)
Energy + Calcination (Cement)
0
19 70 19 72 19 74 19 76 19 78 19 80 19 82 19 84 19 86 19 88 19 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98
Figure 8. Carbon Intensity of U.S. Cement and Clinker Production, 1970 to 1999 (expressed in kgC/short ton of product). This graph excludes use of wastes as kiln fuel between 1977 and 1992, as USGS did not collect this data before 1993. See below for a discussion on the impact of including assumptions on waste use. Source: derived from USGS, various years. Figure 6 shows an increasing trend in the energy intensity of the cement industry in recent years. This trend is opposite the trend provided by data of the Portland Cement Association (PCA) in their annual survey. The PCA survey results show a slight but steady decline in energy intensity over the same period. This report is based on energy consumption data collected by the USGS. USGS provides a complete time series of the past 30 years. Both the PCA and USGS datasets on energy use and production trends are very valuable datasets, certainly when compared to those existing for other industrial sectors in the U.S. Given the different approaches and boundaries between both datasets it is impossible to fully understand the differences found for energy use. The uncertainty of the statistical data on energy is estimated at +/-5%, based on the factors discussed below. Comparison of the average specific energy consumption derived from USGS and PCA for 2000 showed that the differences are in that range (van Oss, 2002). There are differences between the USGS and PCA data (based on personal communication with USGS and PCA): USGS data before 1993 do not report the use of waste fuels, as it was not collected. Waste use started around the mid-1980s after early experiments in the mid-1970s (Bouse and Kamas, 1987). This means that the USGS data under-represent fuel and hence energy data from the mid-1980's through 1992, especially the period 1990-1992. Note that both surveys may not contain sufficient information to correctly estimate the heat content of liquid waste fuels (see also below). Some private databases contain information starting in 1989 (Lusk, 2002). Industry statistics first report waste fuel use for 1977 (PCA, 1980), approximately 3% of fuels were waste-derived in 1988, and 5.2% of fuels were waste derived in 1989 (PCA, 1990). The impacts of increased waste fuel use have been estimated, starting in 1977 and growing to 1993 levels by 1993, calibrating on the PCA data for 1977-1985, 1988 and 1989. This would lead to increased fuel use of up to 6% by 1992. This would reduce the observed trend in Figure 6 and show only a slight growth in energy intensity 12
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in the 1990s. It would also result in almost flat or slightly falling total CO2 emission intensities (Figure 7) since 1985. This report used constant conversion values for the higher (or gross) heating value of the fuels reported by USGS, based on industrial average heating values as reported by the Energy Information Administration (EIA, 1997). The PCA has a more detailed breakdown of the fuels used, which gives a better estimate of fuel use. The PCA data probably provides a better estimate of the energy content of the wastes used, than our estimate. This analysis uses primary energy to express energy use. Purchased electricity consumption has been converted to the fuels used to generate the electricity. This report has used the average national conversion efficiency of the public grid for each year as reported by the Energy Information Administration. When using final energy consumption (i.e. adding electricity and fuels directly without including conversion losses) for the analysis of energy intensity trends, our results show a slight annual decline in energy intensity until 1991, relative stabilization between 1991 and 1997, followed by a slight increase in energy intensity in 1998 and 1999. The PCA uses an "equivalent ton" (equivalent to 92% clinker + 8% finished cement production) to estimate total cement production, while the USGS uses real reported cement production. The PCA only surveys PCA members and the response rate is 90-100% of members (e.g. 91% in 2000); trade association membership has comprised 90-95% of total U.S. capacity during the 1970s and 1990s, and lesser percentages during the 1980s. The PCA survey excludes (energy-intensive) white cement plants and grinding-only plants. The USGS survey includes all of the industry and has a high response rate, equal to 97-98% (or 99% based on total cement production) in recent years. Both surveys suffer from occasional poor/error-prone data and the dangers of imposing default values. However, the PCA survey is focused on energy use whereas the fuel and energy information are but one part of the large, general, USGS survey, which may lead to different reports by surveyed companies. Both data sets suffer from order of magnitude and unit reporting, and in both surveys, there may be inconsistent use among plants in the use of conversion factors for the solid and gaseous fuels. One observation can be made regarding the USGS surveys observed increase and the PCAs decrease in intensity in the cement industry. Over the period of the 1990s, it appears that no major gains were made in improving the energy intensity of this industry since any movement in intensity in either direction was only slight or minimal.
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5. 1999 Baseline Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions

In 1999, the U.S. cement industry consumed 427 TBtu (450 PJ) of final energy (about 2% of total U.S. manufacturing energy use) and emitted 22.3 MtC of carbon dioxide6 (about 4% of total U.S. manufacturing carbon emissions). Table 1 provides our estimate of 1999 U.S. baseline energy consumption by process. The estimates are based on the throughput of the different processes, energy consumption information provided for the different processes, and the total energy consumption in the U.S. cement industry in 1999. Table 1. 1999 Energy Consumption and Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) in the U.S. Cement Industry by Process. All energy units are expressed in higher heating value (HHV). Emissions are expressed in metric units (i.e. kg and metric ton).
Process Stage Carbon Carbon Carbon Dioxide Dioxide Primary Fuel Elec. Primary Emissions Emissions Dioxide Fuel Elec. Energy SEC SEC SEC Energy Use Calcination Intensity (TBtu) (TBtu) (TBtu) MBtu/st kWh/st MBtu/st (MMtCe) (MMtCe) (kgC/st)
Wet Process Kiln Feed Preparation 0 4 13 0.0 27 0.3 0.2 0.0 4.4 Clinker Production 7 125 3 128 6.0 39 6.4 3.2 2.8 268.5 Finish Grinding 0 5 16 0.0 57 0.6 0.2 0.0 9.2 Total Wet Process Cement 125 12 157 4.8 132 6.3 3.6 2.7 249 Dry Process Kiln Feed Preparation 0 15 48 0.0 38 0.4 0.7 0.0 6.1 Clinker Production 254 9 281 4.0 45 4.5 6.7 7.9 231.7 Finish Grinding 0 12 40 0.0 52 0.6 0.6 0.0 8.3 Total Dry Process - Cement 254 36 370 3.6 150 5.2 8.0 7.9 224.2 Total All Cement 379 48 531 3.9 146 5.5 11.6 10.7 230.8 Notes: To convert from Trillion Btu to PJ multiply by 1.055. To convert from MBtu/short ton to GJ/tonne multiply by 1.163. To convert from kgC/short ton to kgC/tonne multiply by 1.103. To convert from kgC/st to lbC/st multiply by 2.203. All energy units are expressed in Higher Heating Value (HHV), as is common in U.S. energy statistics. International energy statistics generally report energy in Lower Heating Value (LHV). Comparing energy intensities in Table 1 with other countries should only be done after conversion to LHV. Unfortunately, available statistics do not allow to further disaggregate energy use for dry kilns into preheater and pre-calciner kilns.
Raw Materials In 1999, 158 Million short tons (143 Mt) of raw materials were used in the cement industry (USGS, 1999). 8 It is assumed that 26% of raw materials were for the wet process kilns and 74% of raw materials were used for dry process kilns. Electricity use is estimated at 27 kWh/short ton raw material preparation for wet kilns and 38 kWh/short ton for dry kilns due to the additional processing (COWIconsult et al., 1993; Jaccard and Willis, 1996). Clinker Production According to USGS (USGS, 1999) wet process clinker production was 20.8 Million short tons (18.9 Mt) while dry process production was 62.9 Million short tons (57.0 Mt). Accounting for production
6
We express carbon dioxide emissions in their carbon equivalent using metric tons. To obtain carbon dioxide emissions expressed in full molecular weight multiply by 44/12. 7 Imported clinker into the U.S. is not counted in clinker production, but is included in the energy consumption for finish grinding. 8 The import of 4.6 Million tons of clinker (1999) would account for an additional 7.8 Million tons of raw material use. However, we only include materials processed in the U.S. cement industry to determine energy intensities.
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from plants with both wet and dry processes on site, USGS gives a total clinker production of 85.2 million short tons (77.3 Mt) in that year. The average U.S. wet kiln fuel intensity in 1999 is estimated at 6.0 MBtu/short ton clinker (7.0 GJ/t) and an average dry kiln fuel intensity of 4.0 MBtu/short ton (4.7 GJ/tonne) (Holderbank, 1993; PCA, 1996b; Jaccard and Willis, 1996; van Oss, 1999). Electricity requirements of 39 kWh/short ton (43 kWh/tonne) are assumed for fuel preparation and for operating the kiln, fans, and coolers for wet kilns and 45 kWh/short ton (50 kWh/tonne) for dry kilns (COWIconsult et al., 1993; Ellerbrock and Mathiak, 1994). Finish Grinding The amount of throughput for finish grinding is assumed to be the same as the total amount of cement produced in 1999, 25.8 million short tons (21.8 Mt) for wet cement, 68.1 million short tons (61.8 Mt) for dry cement and 1.8 million short tons (1.7 Mt) for other processes (USGS, 2001). Based on Lowes (1990) and COWIconsult (1993), the average energy requirements for finish grinding are estimated to be 52 kWh/short ton (57 kWh/t) for the newer plants using dry kilns and 57 kWh/short ton (63 kWh/t) for the older wet process plants. Carbon Dioxide Emissions Carbon dioxide emissions in the cement industry are produced both through the combustion of fossil fuels and waste fuels, and the calcination of limestone. In the calcination process 0.14 tonnes of carbon are emitted for every tonne of clinker produced (UNEP et al., 1996). This amounts to 10.7 MtC given a production of 77.3 million tonnes of clinker (85.3 million short tons) in 1999 (USGS, 2001). Energy consumption data is based on the physical consumption data as provided by the U.S. Geological Survey. The consumption data are multiplied with typical U.S. energy contents for the different fuels, as given by the Energy Information Administrations Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey (MECS). U.S. Energy Information Administration and U.S. EPA (EIA, 1996, Appendix B) are the sources for 1999 carbon dioxide emission coefficients for the various commercial fuels, except for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNEP et al., 1996) coefficients for coke and breeze. For electricity, the 1999 average fuel mix for electricity generation in the U.S is used.
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6. Energy Efficiency Technologies and Measures for the U.S. Cement Industry
Opportunities exist within U.S. cement plants to improve energy efficiency while maintaining or enhancing productivity. Improving energy efficiency at a cement plant should be approached from several directions. First, plants use energy for equipment such as motors, pumps, and compressors. These important components require regular maintenance, good operation and replacement, when necessary. Thus, a critical element of plant energy management involves the efficient control of crosscutting equipment that powers the production process of a plant. A second and equally important area is the proper and efficient operation of the process. Process optimization and ensuring the most efficient technology is in place is a key to realizing energy savings in a plants operation. Finally, throughout a plant, there are many processes simultaneously. Fine-tuning their efficiency is necessary to ensure energy savings are realized. If a corporation owns more than one plant, energy management can be more complex than just considering the needs of a single one. A corporate energy management program helps to ensure energy efficiency is achieved across the companys plants. Whether for a single plant or for an entire corporation, establishing a strong organizational energy management framework is important to implement energy efficiency measures effectively. Several technologies and measures exist that can reduce the energy intensity (i.e. the electricity or fuel consumption per unit of output) of the various process stages of cement production. This section provides more detailed estimates on the technologies and measures, their costs, and potential for implementation in the U.S. Table 2 lists the technologies and measures that were considered in this analysis.
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Table 2. Energy-Efficient Practices and Technologies in Cement Production.

Raw Materials Preparation Efficient transport systems (dry process) Slurry blending and homogenization (wet process) Raw meal blending systems (dry process) Conversion to closed circuit wash mill (wet process) High-efficiency roller mills (dry process) High-efficiency classifiers (dry process) Fuel Preparation: Roller mills Clinker Production (Wet) Energy management and process control Seal replacement Kiln combustion system improvements Kiln shell heat loss reduction Use of waste fuels Conversion to modern grate cooler Refractories Optimize grate coolers Conversion to pre-heater, pre-calciner kilns Conversion to semi-dry kiln (slurry drier) Conversion to semi-wet kiln Efficient kiln drives Oxygen enrichment
Clinker Production (Dry) Energy management and process control Seal replacement Kiln combustion system improvements Kiln shell heat loss reduction Use of waste fuels Conversion to modern grate cooler Refractories Heat recovery for power generation Low pressure drop cyclones for suspension pre-heaters Optimize grate coolers Addition of pre-calciner to pre-heater kiln Long dry kiln conversion to multi-stage pre-heater kiln Long dry kiln conversion to multi-stage pre-heater, precalciner kiln Efficient kiln drives Oxygen enrichment
Finish Grinding Energy management and process control Improved grinding media (ball mills) High-pressure roller press High efficiency classifiers General Measures Preventative maintenance (insulation, compressed air system, maintenance) High efficiency motors Efficient fans with variable speed drives Optimization of compressed air systems Efficient lighting Product & Feedstock Changes Blended Cements Limestone cement Low Alkali cement Use of steel slag in kiln (CemStar) Reducing fineness of cement for selected uses
Not all measures in Table 2 will apply to all plants. Applicability will depend on the current and future situation in individual plants. For example, expansion and large capital projects are likely to be implemented only if the company has about 50 years of remaining limestone reserves onsite. Plants that have a shorter remaining supply are unlikely to implement large capital projects, and would rather focus on minor upgrades and energy management measures. Although technological changes in equipment can help to reduce energy use, changes in staff behavior and attitude may have a greater impact. Staff should be trained in both skills and the companys general
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approach to energy efficiency in their day-to-day practices. Personnel at all levels should be aware of energy use and objectives for energy efficiency improvement. Often this information is acquired by lower level managers but not passed to upper management or down to staff (Caffal, 1995). Programs with regular feedback on staff behavior, such as reward systems, have had the best results. Though changes in staff behavior, such as switching off lights or closing windows and doors, often save only small amounts of energy at one time, taken continuously over longer periods they may have a much greater effect than more costly technological improvements. Most importantly, companies need to institute strong energy management programs that oversee energy efficiency improvement across the corporation. An energy management program will see to it that all employees actively contribute to energy efficiency improvements. Participation in voluntary programs like EPAs ENERGY STAR program, or implementing an environmental management system such as ISO 14001 can help companies track energy and implement energy efficiency measures. One ENERGY STAR partner noted that combining the energy management programs with the ISO 14001program has had the largest effect on saving energy at their plants. 6.1 Energy Management Systems and Programs Improving energy efficiency should be approached from several directions. A strong, corporate-wide energy management program is essential. Crosscutting equipment and technologies such as compressed air and motors, common to most plants and manufacturing industries, including cement, present welldocumented opportunities for improvement. Equally important, the production process can be fine-tuned to produce even greater savings. Below are some measures concerning these and other general crosscutting utilities that apply to the cement industry. Although technological changes in equipment conserve energy, changes in staff behavior and attitude can also have a great impact. Energy efficiency training programs can help a companys staff incorporate energy efficiency practices into their day-to-day work routines. Personnel at all levels should be aware of energy use and company objectives for energy efficiency improvement. Often such information is acquired by lower-level managers but neither passed up to higher-level management nor passed down to staff (Caffal 1995). Energy efficiency programs with regular feedback on staff behavior, such as reward systems, have had the best results. Though changes in staff behavior (such as switching off lights or closing windows and doors) often save only small amounts of energy at one time, taken continuously over longer periods they can have a much greater effect than more costly technological improvements. Establishing formal management structures and systems for managing energy that focus on continuous improvement are important strategies for helping companies manage energy use and implement energy efficiency measures. The U.S. EPAs ENERGY STAR program has developed a framework for energy management based on the observed best practices of leading companies. Other management frameworks, such as ISO 14001, can be used to ensure better organizational management of energy. One ENERGY STAR partner noted that using energy management programs in combination with the ISO 14001 program has had a greater impact on conserving energy at its plants than any other strategy. Improving energy efficiency in glass manufacturing should be approached from several directions. A strong, corporate-wide energy management program is essential. Ideally, such a program would include facility, operations, environmental, health, and safety, and management personnel. Energy efficiency improvements to cross-cutting technologies, 9 such as the use of energy-efficient motors and the
9
Cross-cutting technologies are defined as equipment that is commonly used in many different sectors, such as boilers, pumps, motors, compressed air systems, and lighting.
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optimization of compressed air systems, present well-documented opportunities for energy savings. Optimizing system design and operations, such as maximizing process waste heat recovery, can also lead to significant reductions in energy use. In addition, production processes can often be fine-tuned to produce similar savings. Energy management programs. Changing how energy is managed by implementing an organizationwide energy management program is one of the most successful and cost-effective ways to bring about energy efficiency improvements. Energy efficiency does not happen on its own. A strong energy management program is required to create a foundation for positive change and to provide guidance for managing energy throughout an organization. Energy management programs also help to ensure that energy efficiency improvements do not just happen on a one-time basis, but rather are continuously identified and implemented in an ongoing process of continuous improvement. Furthermore, without the backing of a sound energy management program, energy efficiency improvements might not reach their full potential due to lack of a systems perspective and/or proper maintenance and follow-up. In companies without a clear program in place, opportunities for improvement may be known but may not be promoted or implemented because of organizational barriers. These barriers may include a lack of communication among plants, a poor understanding of how to create support for an energy efficiency project, limited finances, poor accountability for measures, or organizational inertia to changes from the status quo. Even when energy is a significant cost, many companies still lack a strong commitment to improve energy management. The U.S. EPA, through ENERGY STAR, has worked with many of the leading industrial manufacturers to identify the basic aspects of an effective energy management program. 10 The major elements in a strategic energy management program are depicted in Figure 9.
10
Read about strategic energy management at www.energystar.gov.
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Figure 9. Main elements of a strategic energy management program
A successful program in energy management begins with a strong organizational commitment to continuous improvement of energy efficiency. This involves assigning oversight and management duties to an energy director, establishing an energy policy, and creating a cross-functional energy team. Steps and procedures are then put in place to assess performance through regular reviews of energy data, technical assessments, and benchmarking. From this assessment, an organization is able to develop a baseline of energy use and set goals for improvement. Performance goals help to shape the development and implementation of an action plan. An important aspect for ensuring the success of the action plan is involving personnel throughout the organization. Personnel at all levels should be aware of energy use and goals for efficiency. Staff should be trained in both skills and general approaches to energy efficiency in day-to-day practices. In addition, performance results should be regularly evaluated and communicated to all personnel, recognizing high achievement. Some examples of simple tasks employees can do are outlined in Appendix A. Progress evaluation involves the regular review of both energy use data and the activities carried out as part of the action plan. Information gathered during the formal review process helps in setting new performance goals and action plans and in revealing best practices. Once best practices are established, the goal of the cross-functional energy team should be to replicate these practices throughout the organization. Establishing a strong communications program and seeking recognition for
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accomplishments are also critical steps. Strong communication and receiving recognition help to build support and momentum for future activities. A quick assessment of an organizations efforts to manage energy can be made by comparing its current energy management program against the ENERGY STAR Energy Program Assessment Matrix provided in Appendix B. An important step towards the development and successful implementation of a corporate energy management program is the formation of energy teams. Successful programs in many companies have demonstrated the benefits of forming teams consisting of people from various plants and departments of the company to bring together the wide expertise needed for the successful development of energy efficiency programs and projects within a company or at a site. ENERGY STAR has developed a separate guide on forming energy management teams (US EPA 2006). Appendix C provides a checklist for the development of energy teams. As discussed above, internal support for a business energy management program is crucial; however, support for business energy management programs can come from outside sources as well. Some utility companies work together with industrial clients to achieve energy savings. In these cases, utility personnel work directly with the company onsite. Furthermore, programs to support energy-efficiency improvements at industrial sites exist. Both the federal government and various states offer dedicated programs. Appendix D provides suggestions for programs that may offer support for energy management activities (e.g. tools, audits, financial support). Energy monitoring systems. The use of energy monitoring and process control systems can play an important role in energy management and in reducing energy use. These may include submetering, monitoring, and control systems. They can reduce the time required to perform complex tasks, often improve product and data quality and consistency, and optimize process operations. Typically, energy and cost savings are around 5% or more for many industrial applications of process control systems. These savings apply to plants without updated process control systems; many U.S. plants may already have modern process control systems in place to improve energy efficiency. 6.2 Raw Materials Preparation Efficient Transport Systems (Dry Process). Transport systems are required to convey powdered materials such as kiln feed, kiln dust, and finished cement throughout the plant. These materials are usually transported by means of either pneumatic or mechanical conveyors. Mechanical conveyors use less power than pneumatic systems. Based on Holderbank, (1993) the average energy savings are estimated at 1.9 kWh/short ton raw material (2.0 kWh/tonne) with a switch to mechanical conveyor systems. Installation costs for the system are estimated at $2.7/ton raw material production based on the Holderbank study (1993). Conversion to mechanical conveyors is cost-effective when replacement of conveyor systems is needed to increase reliability and reduce downtime. Raw Meal Blending (Homogenizing) Systems (Dry Process). To produce a good quality product and to maintain optimal and efficient combustion conditions in the kiln, it is crucial that the raw meal is completely homogenized. Quality control starts in the quarry and continues to the blending silo. On-line analyzers for raw mix control are an integral part of the quality control system (Fujimoto, 1993; Holderbank, 1993). Most plants use compressed air to agitate the powdered meal in so-called air-fluidized homogenizing silos (using 1-1.4 kWh/ton raw meal). Older dry process plants use mechanical systems, which simultaneously withdraw material from 6-8 different silos at variable rates (Fujimoto, 1993), using 2-
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2.4 kWh/ton raw meal. Modern plants use gravity-type homogenizing silos (or continuous blending and storage silos) reducing power consumption. In these silos, material funnels down one of many discharge points, where it is mixed in an inverted cone. Gravity-type silos may not give the same blending efficiency as air-fluidized systems. Although most older plants use mechanical or air-fluidized bed systems, more and more new plants seem to have gravity-type silos, because of the significant reduction in power consumption (Holderbank, 1993). Silo retrofit options are cost-effective when the silo can be partitioned with air slides and divided into compartments which are sequentially agitated, as opposed to the construction of a whole new silo system (Gerbec, 1999). The energy savings are estimated at 0.9-2.3 kWh/ton raw meal (Fujimoto, 1993; Holderbank, 1993; Alsop & Post, 1995, Cembureau, 1997; Gerbec, 1999). Costs for the silo retrofit are estimated at $3.3/ton raw material (assuming $550K per silo and an average capacity of 150,000 tonnes annual capacity). Slurry Blending and Homogenizing (Wet Process). In the wet process the slurry is blended and homogenized in a batch process. The mixing is done using compressed air and rotating stirrers. The use of compressed air may lead to relatively high energy losses because of its poor efficiency. An efficiently run mixing system may use 0.3 0.5 kWh/ton raw material (Cembureau, 1997). The main energy efficiency improvement measures for slurry blending systems are found in the compressed air system (see below under plant-wide measures). Wash Mills with Closed Circuit Classifier (Wet Process). In most wet process kilns, tube mills are used in combination with closed or open circuit classifiers. An efficient tube mill system consumes about 13 kWh/ton (Cembureau, 1997). Replacing the tube mill by a wash mill would reduce electricity consumption to 5-7 kWh/ton (Cembureau, 1997) at comparable investment and operation costs as a tube mill system. When replacing a tube mill a wash mill should be considered as an alternative, reducing electricity consumption for raw grinding by 5-7 kWh/ton, or 40-60%. Use of Roller Mills (Dry Process). Traditional ball mills used for grinding certain raw materials (mainly hard limestone) can be replaced by high-efficiency roller mills, by ball mills combined with high-pressure roller presses, or by horizontal roller mills. The use of these advanced mills saves energy without compromising product quality. Energy savings of 6-7 kWh/t raw materials (Cembureau, 1997) are assumed through the installation of a vertical or horizontal roller mill. An additional advantage of the inline vertical roller mills is that they can combine raw material drying with the grinding process by using large quantities of low grade waste heat from the kilns or clinker coolers (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Various roller mill process designs are marketed. In 1998, Arizona Portland cement (Rillito, Arizona) installed a roller mill for raw material grinding increasing throughput, flexibility, raw meal fineness and reducing electricity consumption (De Hayes, 1999). In North America, LBNL estimates that over 20% of raw grinding capacity is using roller mills (Holderbank, 1993). The investments are estimated at $5.0/ton raw material (Holderbank, 1993). Raw Meal Process Control (Dry process - Vertical Mill). The main difficulty with existing vertical roller mills are vibration trips. Operation at high throughput makes manual vibration control difficult. When the raw mill trips, it cannot be started up for one hour, until the motor windings cool. A model predictive multivariable controller maximizes total feed while maintaining a target residue and enforcing a safe range for trip-level vibration. The first application eliminated avoidable vibration trips (which were 12 per month prior to the control project). The cited increase in throughput was 6% with a corresponding reduction in specific energy consumption of 6% (Martin and McGarel, 2001b), or 0.8 1.0 kWh/ton of raw material (based on Cembureau, 1997). High-efficiency Classifiers/Separators. A recent development in efficient grinding technologies is the use of high-efficiency classifiers or separators. Classifiers separate the finely ground particles from the
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coarse particles. The large particles are then recycled back to the mill. High efficiency classifiers can be used in both the raw materials mill and in the finish grinding mill. Standard classifiers may have a low separation efficiency, which leads to the recycling of fine particles, and results in to extra power use in the grinding mill. Various concepts of high-efficiency classifiers have been developed (Holderbank, 1993; Sssegger, 1993). In high-efficiency classifiers, the material stays longer in the separator, leading to sharper separation, thus reducing overgrinding. Electricity savings through implementing high-efficiency classifiers are estimated at 8% of the specific electricity use (Holderbank, 1993). In 1990, Tilbury Cement (Delta, British Columbia, Canada) modified a vertical roller mill with a highefficiency classifier increasing throughput and decreasing electricity use (Salzborn and Chin-Fatt, 1993). Case studies have shown a reduction of 2.5-3.4 kWh/ton raw material (Salzborn and Chin-Fatt, 1993; Sssegger, 1993). Replacing a conventional classifier by a high-efficiency classifier has led to 15% increases in the grinding mill capacity (Holderbank, 1993) and improved product quality due to a more uniform particle size (Salzborn and Chin-Fatt, 1993), both in raw meal and cement. The better size distribution of the raw meal may lead to fuel savings in the kiln and improved clinker quality. Investment costs are estimated at $2/annual ton raw material production based on the Holderbank study (Holderbank, 1993). 6.3 Fuel Preparation Coal is the most widely used fuel in the cement industry. Fuels preparation is most often performed onsite. Fuels preparation may include crushing, grinding and drying of coal. Coal is shipped wet to prevent dust formation and fire during transport. Passing hot gasses through the mill combines the grinding and drying. Coal is the most used fuel in the cement industry, and the main fuel for the vast majority of clinker kilns in the U.S. Most commonly a Raymond bowl mill or a roller mill is used for coal grinding. An impact mill would consume around 45-60 kWh/ton and a tube mill around 25 26 kWh/ton (total system requirements) (Cembureau, 1997). Waste heat of the kiln system (e.g. the clinker cooler) is used to dry the coal if needed. Other advantages of a roller mill are that it is able to handle larger sizes of coal (no pre-crushing needed) and coal types with a higher humidity, and can manage larger variations in throughput. However, tube mills are preferred for more abrasive coal types. Currently, roller mills are the most common coal mills in the U.S. cement industry. Coal roller mills are available for throughputs of 5 to 200 tons/hour. Lehigh Portland Cement installed a vertical roller mill for coal grinding in 1999 at the Union Bridge, Maryland plant. Blue Circle cement has ordered a vertical roller mill for the new kiln line V at the Roberta plant in Calera, Alabama. It has a capacity of 37.5 ton/hour and was commissioned in early 2001. Outside the US, coal grinding roller mills can be found in many countries around the world, e.g. Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Japan and Thailand. All major suppliers of cement technology offer roller mills for coal grinding. Vertical roller mills have been developed for coal grinding, and are used by over 100 plants around the world (Cembureau, 1997). Electricity consumption for a vertical roller mill is estimated at 16-18 kWh/ton coal (Cembureau, 1997). The investment costs for a roller mill are typically higher than that of a tube mill or an impact mill, but the operation costs are also lower; roughly 20% compared to a tube mill and over 50% compared to an impact mill (Cembureau, 1997), estimating savings at 7-10 kWh/ton coal. Roller Press for Coal Grinding. Roller presses, like those used for cement and raw material grinding, are generally more efficient than conventional grinding mills. Roller presses can be used to grind raw
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materials and coal interchangeably, although coal-grinding equipment needs special protection against explosions. Penetration of roller presses is still relatively low in the U.S. 6.4 Clinker Production All Kilns Process Control & Management Systems - Kilns. Heat from the kiln may be lost through non-optimal process conditions or process management. Automated computer control systems may help to optimize the combustion process and conditions. Improved process control will also help to improve the product quality and grindability, e.g. reactivity and hardness of the produced clinker, which may lead to more efficient clinker grinding. In cement plants across the world, different systems are used, marketed by different manufacturers. Most modern systems use so-called 'fuzzy logic' or expert control, or rulebased control strategies. Expert control systems do not use a modeled process to control process conditions, but try to simulate the best human operator, using information from various stages in the process. One such system, called ABB LINKman, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Blue Circle Industries and SIRA (ETSU, 1988). The first system was installed at Blue Circle's Hope Works in 1985, which resulted in a fuel consumption reduction of nearly 8% (ETSU, 1988). The LINKman system has successfully been used in both wet and dry kilns. After their first application in 1985, modern control systems now find wider application and can be found in many European plants. Other developers also market fuzzy logic control systems, e.g., F.L. Smidth (Denmark) Krupp Polysius (Germany) and Mitsui Mining (Japan). All report typical energy savings of 3-8%, while improving productivity and availability. For example Krupp Polysius reports typical savings of 2.5 5%, with similar increased throughput and increased refractory life of 25 100%. Ash Grove implemented a fuzzy control system at the Durkee (OR) plant in 1999. An alternative to expert systems or fuzzy logic is model-predictive control using dynamic models of the processes in the kiln. A model predictive control system was installed at a kiln in South Africa in 1999, reducing energy needs by 4%, while increasing productivity and clinker quality. The payback period of this project is estimated at 8 months, even with typically very low coal prices in South Africa (Martin & McGarel, 2001). Additional process control systems include the use of on-line analyzers that permit operators to instantaneously determine the chemical composition of raw materials being processed in the plant, thereby allowing for immediate changes in the blend of raw materials. A uniform feed allows for more steady kiln operation, thereby saving ultimately on fuel requirements. Blue Circles St. Marys plant (Canada) installed an on-line analyzer in 1999 in its precalciner kiln, and achieved better process management as well as fuel savings. Energy savings from process control systems may vary between 2.5% and 10% (ETSU, 1988; Haspel and Henderson, 1993; Ruby, 1997), and the typical savings are estimated at 2.5-5%. The economics of advanced process control systems are very good and payback periods can be as short as 3 months (ETSU, 1988). The system at Blue Circle's Hope Works (U.K.) needed an investment of 203,000 (1987), equivalent to $0.3/annual tonne clinker (ETSU, 1988), including measuring instruments, computer hardware and training. Holderbank (1993) notes an installation cost for on-line analyzers of $0.7-1.5/annual ton clinker. A payback period of 2 years or less is typical for kiln control systems, while often much lower payback periods are achieved (ETSU, 1988; Martin and McGarel, 2001).
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Process control of the clinker cooler can help to improve heat recovery, material throughput, improved control of free lime content in the clinker and reduce NOx emissions (Martin et al., 2000). Installing a Process Perfecter (of Pavilion Technologies Inc.) has increased cooler throughput by 10%, reduced free lime by 30% and reduced energy by 5%, while reducing NOx emissions by 20% (Martin et al., 1999; Martin et al., 2001). The installation costs equal $0.32/annual ton of clinker, with an estimated payback period of 1 year (Martin et al., 2001). Kiln Combustion System Improvements. Fuel combustion systems in kilns can be contributors to kiln inefficiencies with such problems as poorly adjusted firing, incomplete fuel burn-out with high CO formation, and combustion with excess air (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Improved combustion systems aim to optimise the shape of the flame, the mixing of combustion air and fuel and reducing the use of excess air. Various approaches have been developed. One technique developed in the U.K. for flame control resulted in fuel savings of 2-10% depending on the kiln type (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Lowes, (1990) discusses advancements from combustion technology that improve combustion through the use of better kiln control. He also notes that fuel savings of up to 10% have been demonstrated for the use of flame design techniques to eliminate reducing conditions in the clinkering zone of the kiln in a Blue Circle plant (Lowes, 1990). A recent technology that has been demonstrated in several locations is the Gyro-Therm technology that improves gas flame quality while reducing NOx emissions. Originally developed at the University of Adelaide (Australia), the Gyro-Therm technology can be applied to gas burners or gas/coal dual fuel. The Gyro-Therm burner uses a patented "precessing jet" technology. The nozzle design produces a gas jet leaving the burner in a gyroscopic-like precessing motion. This stirring action produces rapid large scale mixing in which pockets of air are engulfed within the fuel envelope without using high velocity gas or air jets. The combustion takes place in pockets within the fuel envelope under fuel rich conditions. This creates a highly luminous flame, ensuring good radiative heat transfer. A demonstration project at an Adelaide Brighton plant in Australia found average fuel savings between 5 and 10% as well as an increase in output of 10% (CADDETT, 1997). A second demonstration project at the Ash Grove plant in the U.S. (Durkee, Oregon) found fuel savings between 2.7% and 5.7% with increases in output between 5 and 9% (CADDET, 1998; Vidergar and Rapson, 1997). Costs for the technology vary by installation. An average cost of $0.9/annual ton clinker capacity is assumed based on reported costs in the demonstration projects. Indirect Firing. Historically the most common firing system is the direct-fired system. Coal is dried, pulverized and classified in a continuous system, and fed directly to the kiln. This can lead to high levels of primary air (up to 40% of stoichiometric). These high levels of primary air limit the amount of secondary air introduced to the kiln from the clinker cooler. Primary air percentages vary widely, and non-optimized matching can cause severe operational problems with regard to creating reducing conditions on the kiln wall and clinker, refractory wear and reduced efficiency due to having to run at high excess air levels to ensure effective burnout of the fuel within the kiln. In more modern cement plants, indirect fired systems are most commonly used. In these systems, neither primary air nor coal is fed directly to the kiln. All moisture from coal drying is vented to the atmosphere and the pulverized coal is transported to storage via cyclone or bag filters. Pulverized coal is then densely conveyed to the burner with a small amount of primary transport air (Smart and Jenkins, 2000). As the primary air supply is decoupled from the coal mill in multi-channel designs, lower primary air percentages are used, normally between 5 and 10%. The multi-channel arrangement also allows for a degree of flame optimization. This is an important feature if a range of fuels is fired. Input conditions to the multi-channel burner must be optimized to secondary air and kiln aerodynamics for optimum operation (Smart and Jenkins, 2000). The optimization of the combustion conditions will lead
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to reduced NOx emissions, better operation with varying fuel mixtures, and reduced energy losses. This technology is standard for modern plants. The majority of U.S. plants have indirect firing systems. Excess air infiltration is estimated to resort in heat losses equal to 65 kBtu/ton (75 MJ/tonne). Assuming a reduction of excess air between 20% and 30% may lead to fuel savings of 130 190 kBtu/ton of clinker. The advantages of improved combustion conditions will lead to a longer lifetime of the kiln refractories and reduced NOx emissions. These co-benefits may result in larger cost savings than the energy savings alone. The disadvantage of an indirect firing system is the additional capital cost. In 1997 California Portlands plant in Colton (California) implemented an indirect firing system for their plant, resulting in NOx emission reductions of 30-50%, using a mix of fuels including tires. The investment costs of the indirect firing system were $5 Million for an annual production capacity of 680,000 tonnes. Oxygen Enrichment. Several plants in the U.S. have experimented with the use of oxygen enrichment in the kiln to increase production capacity. Several plants use it to increase production if the local market demand for cement can justify the additional costs for oxygen purchase or production. Experience exists with wet (e.g. TXI, Midlothian, Texas) and dry process kilns (e.g. CPC, Mojave, California; Cemex, Victorville, California). Production increases of around 3-7% have been found on the basis of annual production (Mayes, 2001; Gotro, 2001). Although some authors claim fuel savings due to oxygen enrichment (Leger and Friday, 2001), others do not report net energy savings (Shafer, 2001; Gotro, 2001). Any energy savings will depend on the electricity consumed for oxygen generation (approximately 0.01 kWh/scf) (Shafer, 2001). Oxygen enrichment may result in higher NOx emissions, if the injection process is not carefully managed (Mayes, 2001). Oxygen enrichment is unlikely to result in net energy savings. Seals. Seals are used at the kiln inlet and outlet to reduce false air penetration, as well as heat losses. Seals may start leaking, increasing the heat requirement of the kiln. Most often pneumatic and lamella-type seals are used, although other designs are available (e.g. spring-type). Although seals can last up to 10,000 to 20,000 hours, regular inspection may be needed to reduce leaks. Energy losses resulting from leaking seals may vary, but are generally relatively small. Philips Kiln Services reports that upgrading the inlet pneumatic seals at a relatively modern plant in India (Maihar cement), reduced fuel consumption in the kiln by 0.4% (or 0.01 MBtu/ton clinker) (Philips Kiln Services, 2001). The payback period for improved maintenance of kiln seals is estimated at 6 months or less (Canadian Lime Institute, 2001). Kiln Shell Heat Loss Reduction. There can be considerable heat losses through the shell of a cement kiln, especially in the burning zone. The use of better insulating refractories (e.g. Lytherm) can reduce heat losses (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Refractory choice is the function of insulating qualities of the brick and the ability to develop and maintain a coating. The coating helps to reduce heat losses and to protect the burning zone refractory bricks. Estimates suggest that the development of hightemperature insulating linings for the kiln refractories can reduce fuel use by 0.1-0.34 MBtu/ton (Lowes, 1990; COWIconsult, 1993; Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Costs for insulation systems are estimated to be $0.23/annual ton clinker capacity (Lesnikoff, 1999). Structural considerations may limit the use of new insulation materials. The use of improved kiln-refractories may also lead to improved reliability of the kiln and reduced downtime, reducing production costs considerably, and reducing energy needs during start-ups. Refractories. Refractories protect the steel kiln shell against heat, chemical and mechanical stress. The choice of refractory material depends on the combination of raw materials, fuels and operating conditions. Extended lifetime of the refractories will lead to longer operating periods and reduced lost production time between relining of the kiln, and, hence, offset the costs of higher quality refractories (Schmidt, 1998; van Oss, 2002). It will also lead to additional energy savings due to the relative
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reduction in start-up time and energy costs. The energy savings are difficult to quantify, as they will strongly depend on the current lining choice and management. Kiln Drives. A substantial amount of power is used to rotate the kiln. In the U.S. mostly synchronous motors are used (Regitz, 1996) up to 1,000 hp. The highest efficiencies are achieved using a single pinion drive with an air clutch and a synchronous motor (Regitz, 1996). The system would reduce power use for kiln drives by a few percent, or roughly 0.5 kWh/ton clinker at slightly higher capital costs (+6%). More recently, the use of AC motors is advocated to replace the traditionally used DC drive. The AC motor system may result in slightly higher efficiencies (0.5 1% reduction in electricity use of the kiln drive) and has lower investment costs (Holland, 2001). Using high-efficiency motors to replace older motors or instead of re-winding old motors may reduce power costs by 2 to 8% (see below). Adjustable Speed Drive for Kiln Fan. Adjustable or variable speed drives (ASDs) for the kiln fan result in reduced power use and reduced maintenance costs. The use of ASDs for a kiln fan at the Hidalgo plant of Cruz Azul Cement in Mexico resulted in improved operation, reliability and a reduction in electricity consumption of almost 40% (Dolores and Moran, 2001) of the 1,000 hp motors. The replacement of the damper by an ASD was driven by control and maintenance problems at the plant. The energy savings may not be typical for all plants, as the system arrangement of the fans was different from typical kiln arrangements. For example, Fujimoto, (1994) notes that Lafarge Canadas Woodstock plant replaced their kiln fans with ASDs and reduced electricity use by 5 kWh/ton (see also section 6.7). Use of Waste-Derived Fuels. Waste fuels can be substituted for traditional commercial fuels in the kiln. The U.S. cement industry is increasingly using waste fuels (see above). In 1999 tires accounted for almost 5% of total fuel inputs in the industry, while all wastes total about 17% of all fuel inputs. The trend towards increased waste use will likely increase after successful tests with different wastes in Europe and North America. New waste streams include carpet and plastic wastes, filter cake, paint residue and (dewatered) sewage sludge (Hendriks et al., 1999). Cement kilns also use hazardous wastes. Since the early 1990s cement kilns burn annually almost 1 million tons of hazardous waste (CKRC, 2002). The revenues from waste intake have helped to reduce the production costs of all waste-burning cement kilns, and especially of wet process kilns. Waste-derived fuels may replace the use of commercial fuels, and may result in net energy savings and reduced CO2 emissions, depending on the alternative use of the wastes (e.g. incineration with or without energy recovery). A cement kiln is an efficient way to recover energy from waste. The carbon dioxide emission reduction depends on the carbon content of the waste-derived fuel, as well as the alternative use of the waste and efficiency of use (e.g. incineration with or without heat recovery). The high temperatures and long residence times in the kiln destroy virtually all organic compounds, while efficient dust filters may reduce any potential emissions to safe levels (Hendriks et al., 1999; Cembureau, 1997). Our analysis focuses on the use of tires or tire-derived fuel. Since 1990 more than 30 cement plants have gained approval to use tire-derived fuels, burning around 35 million tires per year (CKRC, 2002). The St. Lawrence Cement Factory in Joliette, Quebec completed a project in 1994 where they installed an automated tire feed system to feed whole tires into the mid-section of the kiln, which replaced about 20% of the energy (CADDET, 1995). This translates to energy savings of 0.5 MBtu/ton clinker. Costs for the installation of the Joliette system ran about $3.40/annual ton clinker capacity. Costs for less complex systems where the tires are fed as input fuel are $0.1-$1/annual ton clinker. Other plants have experience injecting solid and fluid wastes, as well as ground plastic wastes. A net reduction in operating costs (CADDET, 1995; Gomes, 1990, Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988) is assumed.
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Investment costs are estimated at $1/annual ton clinker for a storage facility for the waste-derived fuels and retrofit of the burner (if needed). Conversion to Reciprocating Grate Cooler. Four main types of coolers are used in the cooling of clinker: shaft, rotary, planetary and travelling and reciprocating grate coolers. There are no longer any rotary or shaft coolers in operation in North America. However, some travelling grate coolers may still be in operation. In the U.S., planetary and grate coolers are the coolers of choice. Cembureau (1997) provides data on cooler types for U.S. cement plants. Plants that responded to the Cembureau survey (92% of plants) indicated that 6% of the industry still utilized planetary or rotary coolers. The grate cooler is the modern variant and is used in almost all modern kilns. The advantages of the grate cooler are its large capacity (allowing large kiln capacities) and efficient heat recovery (the temperature of the clinker leaving the cooler can be as low as 83C, instead of 120-200C, which is expected from planetary coolers (Vleuten, 1994)). Tertiary heat recovery (needed for pre-calciners) is impossible with planetary coolers (Cembureau, 1997), limiting heat recovery efficiency. Grate coolers recover more heat than do the other types of coolers. For large capacity plants, grate coolers are the preferred equipment. For plants producing less than 500 tonnes per day the grate cooler may be too expensive (COWIconsult et al., 1993). Replacement of planetary coolers by grate coolers is not uncommon (Alsop and Post, 1995). Grate coolers are standard technology for modern large-scale kilns. Modern reciprocating coolers have a higher degree of heat recovery than older variants, increasing heat recovery efficiency to 65% or higher, while reducing fluctuations in recuperation efficiency (i.e. increasing productivity of the kiln). When compared to a planetary cooler, additional heat recovery is possible with grate coolers at an extra power consumption of approximately 2.7 kWh/ton clinker (COWIconsult et al., 1993; Vleuten, 1994). The savings are estimated to be up to 8% of the fuel consumption in the kiln (Vleuten, 1994). Cooler conversion is generally economically attractive only when installing a precalciner, which is necessary to produce the tertiary air (see above), or when expanding production capacity. The cost of a cooler conversion is estimated to be between $0.4 and $5/annual ton clinker capacity, depending on the degree of reconstruction needed. Annual operation costs increase by $0.1/ton clinker (Jaccard and Willis, 1996). Optimization of Heat Recovery/Upgrade Clinker Cooler. The clinker cooler drops the clinker temperature from 1200C down to 100C. The most common cooler designs are of the planetary (or satellite), traveling and reciprocating grate type. In the U.S. 94% of coolers in 1994 were grate coolers. All coolers heat the secondary air for the kiln combustion process and sometimes also tertiary air for the precalciner (Alsop and Post, 1995). Reciprocating grate coolers are the modern variant and are suitable for large-scale kilns (up to 10,000 tpd). Grate coolers use electric fans and excess air. The highest temperature portion of the remaining air can be used as tertiary air for the precalciner. Rotary coolers (used for approximately 5% of the world clinker capacity for plants up to 2200-5000 tpd) and planetary coolers (used for 10% of the world capacity for plants up to 3300-4400 tpd) do not need combustion air fans and use little excess air, resulting in relatively lower heat losses (Buzzi and Sassone, 1993; Vleuten, 1994). Grate coolers may recover between 1.1 and 1.4 MBtu/ton clinker sensible heat (Buzzi and Sassone, 1993). Improving heat recovery efficiency in the cooler results in fuel savings, but may also influence product quality and emission levels. Heat recovery can be improved through reduction of excess air volume (Alsop and Post, 1995), control of clinker bed depth and new grates such as ring grates (Buzzi and Sassone, 1993; Lesnikoff, 1999). Control of cooling air distribution over the grate may result in lower clinker temperatures and high air temperatures. Additional heat recovery results in reduced energy use in the kiln and precalciner, due to higher combustion air temperatures. Birch, (1990) notes a savings of 0.04-0.07 MBtu/ton clinker through the improved operation of the grate cooler, while
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Holderbank, (1993) notes savings of 0.14 MBtu/ton clinker for retrofitting a grate cooler. COWIconsult et al. (1993) note savings of 0.07 MBtu/ton but an increase in electricity use of 1.8 kWh/ton. The costs of this measure are assumed to be half the costs of the replacement of the planetary to grate cooler, or $0.2/annual ton clinker capacity. A recent innovation in clinker coolers is the installation of a static grate section at the hot end of the clinker cooler. This has resulted in improved heat recovery and reduced maintenance of the cooler. Modification of the cooler would result in improved heat recovery rates of 2-5% over a conventional grate cooler. Investments are estimated at $0.1 - $0.3/annual ton clinker capacity (Young, 2002). 6.5 Clinker Production - Wet Process Kilns Wet Process Conversion to Semi-Dry Process (Slurry Drier). In modernized wet kilns, a slurry drier can be added to dry the slurry before entering the kiln using waste heat from the kiln (Cembureau, 1997). This reduces energy consumption considerably and increases productivity. This is different from a semi-wet process as a gas drier is used instead of a slurry press filter. The drier can be combined with a hammer mill for a reliable and efficient disagglomeration and drying system (Grydgaard, 1998). Gas suspension driers are also considered, but no installation has been built yet (Grydgaard, 1998). Gas suspension driers could increase drying efficiency and potentially reduce fuel consumption in the kiln by up to 1.4 MBtu/ton clinker (Grydgaard, 1998). The principal of preheating/drying is similar to the semi-dry process (or Lepol kiln), although in the semi-dry process dry raw meal (10-12% water) is used instead of slurry (28-48% water). The Lepol kiln uses a traveling grate preheater, and uses dry raw material grinding, followed by a pelletizer that mixes water with the dry meal to form pellets that can be carried by the traveling grate into the rotary kiln. The size of the pellets also determines the size of clinker pellets. The energy needs for water evaporation in a wet process kiln are estimated at over 2 MBtu/ton clinker (Worrell et al., 2001). For comparison, a Lepol kiln consumes about a quarter of that for evaporation, while increasing electricity use by approximately 5-7 kWh/ton clinker (Cembureau, 1997). Evaporation energy needs can be cut in half by adding a slurry drier, reducing fuel consumption by 1 MBtu/ton clinker. Net energy savings are estimated at 0.95 MBtu/ton. The first plant that coupled a drier directly to the kiln was put in operation in 1982 in Sutham, England (Grydgaard, 1998). The first plant in the U.S. to apply the semi-dry process is Lonestars Greencastle, Indiana, plant, almost doubling its production capacity to 1.7 million tones per year (anon., 2001). No recent estimates of the costs of adding a slurry drier (including waste heat distribution) to an existing wet process kiln were available for this study. Wet Process Conversion to Semi-Wet Process (Filter Press System). In the wet process the slurry typically contains 36% water (range of 24-48%). A filter press can be installed in a wet process kiln in order to reduce the moisture content to about 20% of the slurry and obtain a paste ready for extrusion into pellets (COWIconsult et al., 1993; Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). In the U.S. several plants have tried slurry filters, but have not been very successful. Currently, there seem to be no plants in the U.S. using this technology (Young, 2002). Additional electricity consumption is 3-5 kWh/ton clinker (COWIconsult et al., 1993). In this analysis it is assumed that energy use increases by 4 kWh/ton clinker to reduce the moisture content to 20%. The corresponding fuel savings are 1.0 MBtu/ton (COWIconsult et al., 1993). Jaccard and Willis (1996) estimate the conversion cost to run $1.6/annual ton clinker capacity with increased operation costs of $0.1/ton clinker (Jaccard and Willis, 1996). Wet Process Conversion to Pre-heater/Pre-calciner Kiln. If economically feasible a wet process kiln can be converted to a state-of-the art dry process production facility that includes either a multi-stage preheater, or a pre-heater/pre-calciner. Average specific fuel consumption in U.S. wet kilns is estimated at 6.0 MBtu/ton clinker. Studies of several kiln conversions in the U.S. in the 1980s found fuel savings
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of 2.9 MBtu/ton or less (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). In Hranice (Czech Republic) a 1,050 tonne per day wet process plant was converted to a dry kiln plant with a new kiln specific fuel consumption of 2.7 MBtu/ton clinker (Anon., 1994b). Fuel savings of 2.7 MBtu/ton clinker and an increase in power use of about 9 kWh/ton clinker (Vleuten, 1994) are assumed. The cost of converting a wet plant to a dry process plant may be high, as it involves the full reconstruction of an existing facility. Costs may vary between $50/annual ton clinker capacity and $100/annual ton clinker capacity (van Oss, 1999; Nisbet, 1996). 6.6 Clinker Production - Dry Process Preheater Kilns Low Pressure Drop Cyclones for Suspension Preheaters. Cyclones are a basic component of plants with pre-heating systems. The installation of newer cyclones in a plant with lower pressure losses will reduce the power consumption of the kiln exhaust gas fan system. Depending on the efficiency of the fan, 0.6-0.7 kWh/ton clinker can be saved for each 50 mm W.C. (water column) the pressure loss is reduced. For most older kilns this amounts to savings of 0.6-1.0 kWh/ton (Birch, 1990). Fujimoto (1994) discussed a Lehigh Cement plant retrofit in which low-pressure drop cyclones were installed in their Mason City, Iowa plant and saved 4 kWh/ton clinker (Fujimoto, 1994). Installation of the cyclones can be expensive, however, since it may often entail the rebuilding or the modification of the preheater tower, and the costs are very site specific. Also, new cyclone systems may increase overall dust loading and increase dust carryover from the preheater tower. However, if an inline raw mill follows it, the dust carryover problem becomes less of an issue. A cost of $2.7/annual ton clinker is assumed for a lowpressure drop cyclone system. Heat Recovery for Cogeneration. Waste gas discharged from the kiln exit gases, the clinker cooler system, and the kiln pre-heater system all contain useful energy that can be converted into power. Only in long-dry kilns is the temperature of the exhaust gas sufficiently high, to cost-effectively recover the heat through power generation. 11 Cogeneration systems can either be direct gas turbines that utilize the waste heat (top cycle), or the installation of a waste heat boiler system that runs a steam turbine system (bottom cycle). This report focuses on the steam turbine system since these systems have been installed in many plants worldwide and have proven to be economic (Steinbliss, 1990; Jaccard and Willis, 1996; Neto, 1990). Heat recovery has limited application for plants with in-line raw mills, as the heat in the kiln exhaust is used for raw material drying. While electrical efficiencies are still relatively low (18%), based on several case studies power generation may vary between 10 and 23 kWh/ton clinker (Scheur & Sprung, 1990; Steinbliss, 1990; Neto, 1990). Electricity savings of 20 kWh/ton clinker are assumed. Jaccard and Willis (1996) estimate installation costs for such a system at $2-4/annual ton clinker capacity with operating costs of $0.2-0.3/ton clinker. The estimate of the investment costs by Jaccard and Willis (1996) may be on the low side, but found no other recent costs estimates. In 1999, 4 U.S. cement plants cogenerated 486 million kWh (USGS, 2001). Assuming that 34% of the energy introduced into long dry kilns is exhausted as waste gas (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988), this suggests a potential generation of 1,200 GWh. Dry Process Conversion to Multi-Stage Preheater Kiln. Older dry kilns may only preheat in the chain section of the long kiln, or may have single- or two-stage preheater vessels. Especially, long dry kilns may not have any preheater vessels installed at all. This leads to a low efficiency in heat transfer and higher energy consumption. Installing multi-stage suspension preheating (i.e. four- or five-stage) may reduce the heat losses and thus increase efficiency. Modern cyclone or suspension preheaters also have a reduced pressure drop, leading to increased heat recovery efficiency and reduced power use in fans (see low pressure drop cyclones above). By installing new preheaters, the productivity of the kiln will
11
Technically, organic rankine cycles or Kalina cycles (using a mixture of water and ammonia) can be used to recover low-temperature waste heat for power production, but this is currently not economically attractive, except for locations with high power costs.
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increase, due to a higher degree of pre-calcination (up to 30-40%) as the feed enters the kiln. Also, the kiln length may be shortened by 20-30% thereby reducing radiation losses (van Oss, 1999). As the capacity increases, the clinker cooler may have to be adapted to be able to cool the large amounts of clinker. The conversion of older kilns is attractive when the old kiln needs replacement and a new kiln would be too expensive, assuming that limestone reserves are adequate. Energy savings depend strongly on the specific energy consumption of the dry process kiln to be converted as well as the number of preheaters to be installed. For example, cement kilns in the former German Democratic Republic were rebuilt by Lafarge to replace four dry process kilns originally constructed in 1973 and 1974. In 1993 and 1995 three kilns were equipped with four-stage suspension preheaters. The specific fuel consumption was reduced from 3.5 MBtu/ton to 3.1 MBtu/ton clinker, while the capacity of the individual kilns was increased from 1650 to 2500 tpd (Duplouy and Trautwein, 1997). In the same project, the power consumption was reduced by 25%, due to the replacement of fans and the finish grinding mill. Energy savings are estimated at 0.8 MBtu/ton clinker for the conversion which reflects the difference between the average dry kiln specific fuel consumption and that of a modern preheater kiln, based on a study of the Canadian cement industry (Holderbank, 1993). The study estimates the specific costs at $36-37 US/annual ton capacity for conversion to a multi-stage preheater kiln while Vleuten, 1994 estimates a cost of $25/annual ton clinker capacity for the installation of suspension pre-heaters. Installation or Upgrading of a Preheater to a Preheater/Precalciner Kiln. An existing preheater kiln may be converted to a multi-stage preheater precalciner kiln by adding a precalciner and, when possible an extra preheater. The addition of a precalciner will generally increase the capacity of the plant, while lowering the specific fuel consumption and reducing thermal NOx emissions (due to lower combustion temperatures in the pre-calciner). Using as many features of the existing plant and infrastructure as possible, special precalciners have been developed by various manufacturers to convert existing plants, e.g. Pyroclon-RP by KHD in Germany. Generally, the kiln, foundation and towers are used in the new plant, while cooler and preheaters are replaced. Cooler replacement may be necessary in order to increase the cooling capacity for larger production volumes. The conversion of a plant in Italy, using the existing rotary kiln, led to a capacity increase of 80-100% (from 1100 tpd to 2000-2200 tpd), while reducing specific fuel consumption from 3.06 to 2.63-2.74 MBtu/ton clinker, resulting in savings of 11-14% (Sauli,1993). Fuel savings will depend strongly on the efficiency of the existing kiln and on the new process parameters (e.g. degree of precalcination, cooler efficiency). Older calciners can also be retrofitted for energy efficiency improvement and NOx emission reduction. Retrofitting the pre-calciner at the Lengerich plant of Dyckerhoff Zement (Germany) in 1998 reduced NOx emissions by almost 45% (Mathe, 1999). Similar emission reductions have been found at kilns in Germany, Italy and Switzerland (Menzel, 1997). Ash Groves Durkee, Oregon original 1979 plant installed new preheaters and a precalciner in 1998, expanding production from 1700 tons/day to 2700 tons/day (Hrizuk, 1999). The reconstruction reduced fuel consumption by 0.14 0.6 MBtu/ton clinker (Hrizuk, 1999), while reducing NOx emissions. Capitol Cement (San Antonio, Texas) replaced an older in-line calciner with a new downdraft calciner to improve production capacity. This was part of a larger project replacing preheaters, installing SOx emission reduction equipment, as well as increasing capacity of a roller mill. The new plant was successfully commissioned in 1999. Fuel consumption at Capitol Cement was reduced to 2.89 MBtu/ton of clinker (Fraily & Happ, 2001). Average savings of new calciners can be 0.34 MBtu/ton clinker (Sauli, 1993). Sauli (1993) does not outline the investments made for the conversion project. Vleuten (1994) estimates the cost of adding a precalciner and suspension preheaters at $28 US/annual tonne annual capacity (it is not clear what is included in this estimate). Jaccard and Willis (1996) estimate a much lower cost of $8.5/ton clinker
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capacity. This report assumes a cost of $15/annual ton clinker. The increased production capacity is likely to save considerably in operating costs, estimated at $1 /ton (Jaccard & Willis, 1996). Conversion of Long Dry Kilns to Preheater/Precalciner Kiln. If economically feasible a long dry kiln can be upgraded to the current state of the art multi-stage preheater/precalciner kiln. Energy savings are estimated at 1.2 MBtu/ton clinker for the conversion. These savings reflect the difference between the average dry kiln specific fuel consumption and that of a modern preheater, pre-calciner kiln based on a study of the Canadian cement industry and the retrofit of an Italian plant (Holderbank, 1993; Sauli, 1993). The Holderbank study gives a range of $21-26/ton clinker for a pre-heater, pre-calciner kiln. Jaccard and Willis (1996) give a much lower value of $8.6/t clinker capacity. A cost of $25/annual ton clinker capacity is assumed. 6.7 Finish Grinding Process Control and Management Grinding Mills. Control systems for grinding operations are developed using the same approaches as for kilns (see above). The systems control the flow in the mill and classifiers, attaining a stable and high quality product. Several systems are marketed by a number of manufacturers. Expert systems have been commercially available since the early 1990s. The Karlstadt plant of Schwenk KG (Germany) implemented an expert system in a finishing mill in 1992, increasing mill throughput and saving energy. The payback is estimated between 1.5 and 2 years in Germany (Albert, 1993). Magotteaux (Belgium) has marketed a control system for mills since 1998 and has sold six units to plants in Germany (Rohrdorfer Zement), Greece (Heracles General Cement), SouthAfrica (PPC Group) and the United Kingdom (UK) (Rugby Group). Experience with a cement mill at the South Ferriby plant of the Rugby Group in the UK showed increased production (+3.3%) and power savings equal to 3%, while the standard deviation in fineness went down as well (Van den Broeck, 1999). Krupp Polysius markets the PolExpert system and reports energy savings between 2.5 and 10% (typically 8%), with increased product quality (lower deviation) and production increases of 2.5 10%, after installing control systems in finishing mills (Goebel, 2001). Similar results have been achieved with model predictive control (using neural networks) for a cement ball mill at a South-African cement plant (Martin and McGarel, 2001). Pavilion Technologies (US) has developed a new control system using neural networks. Pavilion Technologies reports a 4-6% throughput increase (and corresponding reduction in specific power consumption) for installing a model predictive control system in finish ball mill (Martin et al., 2001). Payback periods are typically between 6 and 8 months (Martin and McGarel, 2001). Penetration of advanced control systems for cement mills in the U.S. is still relatively low. For example, Krupp Polysius has not sold any PolExpert systems in the U.S. despite worldwide sales (Goebel, 2001). Advanced Grinding Concepts. The energy efficiency of ball mills for use in finish grinding is relatively low, consuming up to 30-42 kWh/ton clinker depending on the fineness of the cement (Marchal, 1997; Cembureau, 1997). Several new mill concepts exist that can significantly reduce power consumption in the finish mill to 20-30 kWh/ton clinker, including roller presses, roller mills, and roller presses used for pre-grinding in combination with ball mills (Alsop and Post, 1995; Cembureau, 1997; Seebach et al., 1996). Roller mills employ a mix of compression and shearing, using 2-4 grinding rollers carried on hinged arms riding on a horizontal grinding table (Cembureau, 1997; Alsop and Post, 1995). In a high-pressure roller press, two rollers pressurize the material up to 3,500 bar (Buzzi, 1997), improving the grinding efficiency dramatically (Seebach et al., 1996). Air swept vertical roller mills with integral classifiers are used for finish grinding, whereas a recent offshoot technology which is not air swept is now being used as a pre-grinding system in combination with a ball mill. A variation of the roller mill is the air swept ring roller mill, which has been shown to achieve an electricity consumption of 23 kWh/ton with a Blaine of 3000 (Folsberg, 1997). A new mill
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concept is the Horomill, first demonstrated in Italy in 1993 (Buzzi, 1997). In the Horomill a horizontal roller within a cylinder is driven. The centrifugal forces resulting from the movement of the cylinder cause a uniformly distributed layer to be carried on the inside of the cylinder. The layer passes the roller (with a pressure of 700-1000 bar (Marchal, 1997). The finished product is collected in a dust filter. The Horomill is a compact mill that can produce a finished product in one step and hence has relatively low capital costs. Grinding portland cement with a Blaine of 3200 cm2/g consumes approximately 21 kWh/ton (Buzzi,1997) and even for pozzolanic cement with a Blaine of 4000, power use may be as low as 25 kWh/ton (Buzzi,1997). Today, high-pressure roller presses are most often used to expand the capacity of existing grinding mills, and are found especially in countries with high electricity costs or with poor power supply (Seebach et al, 1996). After the first demonstration of the Horomill in Italy, this concept is now also applied in plants in Mexico (Buzzi, 1997), Germany, Czech Republic and Turkey (Duplouy and Trautwein, 1997). New designs of the roller mills allow for longer operation times (> 20,000 hours). The electricity savings of a new finish grinding mill when replacing a ball mill is estimated at 25 kWh/ton cement. The addition of a pre-grinding system to a ball mill will result in savings of 6-22 kWh/ton cement for (Cembureau, 1997; Holland and Ranze, 1997; Scheur and Sprung, 1990) Capital cost estimates for installing a new roller press vary widely in the literature, ranging from low estimates like $2.3/annual ton cement capacity (Holderbank, 1993) or $3.3/annual ton cement capacity (Kreisberg, 1993) to high estimates of $7.3/annual ton cement capacity (COWIconsult et al., 1993). The costs are estimated at approximately $4/annual ton cement capacity. The capital costs of roller press systems are lower than those for other systems (Kreisberg, 1993) or at least comparable (Patzelt, 1993). Some new mill concepts may lead to a reduction in operation costs of as much as 30-40% (Sutoh et al., 1992). In 1994 only 8% of cement grinding capacity had installed roller presses. High Efficiency Classifiers. A recent development in efficient grinding technologies is the use of highefficiency classifiers or separators. Classifiers separate the finely ground particles from the coarse particles. The large particles are then recycled back to the mill. Standard classifiers may have a low separation efficiency, which leads to the recycling of fine particles, resulting in extra power use in the grinding mill. In high-efficiency classifiers, the material is more cleanly separated, thus reducing overgrinding. High efficiency classifiers or separators have had the greatest impact on improved product quality and reducing electricity consumption. A study of the use of high efficiency classifiers in Great Britain found a reduction in electricity use of 6 kWh/ton cement after the installation of the classifiers in their finishing mills and a 25% production increase (Parkes, 1990). Holderbank (1993) estimates a reduction of 8% of electricity use (5 kWh/ton cement) while other studies estimate 1.7-2.3 kWh/ton cement (Salborn and Chin-Fatt, 1993; Sussegger, 1993). Newer designs of high-efficiency separators aim to improve the separation efficiency further and reduce the required volume of air (hence reducing power use), while optimizing the design. All major suppliers market new classifier designs, e.g. Polysius (SEPOL), F.L.Smidth/Fuller and Magotteaux (Sturtevant SD). The actual savings will vary by plant and cement type and fineness required. For example, the electricity savings from installing a new high-efficiency classifier at a cement plant in Origny-Rochefort (France) varied between 0 and 5 kWh/ton (Van den Broeck, 1998), and investment costs of $2/annual ton finished material based on the Holderbank study (Holderbank, 1993). Improved Grinding Media. Improved wear resistant materials can be installed for grinding media, especially in ball mills. Grinding media are usually selected according to the wear characteristics of the material. Increases in the ball charge distribution and surface hardness of grinding media and wear resistant mill linings have shown a potential for reducing wear as well as energy consumption. (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Improved balls and liners made of high chromium steel is one such material but other materials are also possible. Other improvements include the use of improved liner
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designs, such as grooved classifying liners. These have the potential to reduce grinding energy use by 510% in some mills, which is equivalent to estimated savings of 1.8 kWh/ton cement (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). 6.8 Plant-Wide Measures Preventative Maintenance. Preventative maintenance includes training personnel to be attentive to energy consumption and efficiency. Successful programs have been launched in a variety of industries (Caffal, 1995; Nelson, 1994). While many processes in cement production are primarily automated, there still are opportunities, requiring minimal training of employees, to increase energy savings. Also, preventative maintenance (e.g. for the kiln refractory) can also increase a plants utilization ratio, since it has less downtime over the long term. Birch (1990) mentions that the reduction of false air input into the kiln at the kiln hood has the potential to save 11 kcal/kg clinker or 0.04 MBtu/ton. This is used as the estimate of fuel savings. Lang (1994) notes a reduction of up to 5 kWh for various preventative maintenance and process control measures (typically around 3 kWh/ton). Based on similar programs in other industries, annual and start up costs for implementing this training are estimated to be minimal and would be paid back in less than one year. For preventative maintenance of compressed air systems see below. Motor Systems. When considering energy efficiency improvements to a facilitys motor systems, it is important to take a systems approach. A systems approach strives to optimize the energy efficiency of entire motor systems (i.e., motors, drives, driven equipment such as pumps, fans, and compressors, and controls), not just the energy efficiency of motors as individual components. A systems approach analyzes both the energy supply and energy demand sides of motor systems as well as how these sides interact to optimize total system performance, which includes not only energy use but also system uptime and productivity. A systems approach typically involves the following steps. First, all applications of motors in a facility should be located and identified. Second, the conditions and specifications of each motor should be documented to provide a current systems inventory. Third, the needs and the actual use of the motor systems should be assessed to determine whether or not motors are properly sized and also how well each motor meets the needs of its driven equipment. Fourth, information on potential repairs and upgrades to the motor systems should be collected, including the economic costs and benefits of implementing repairs and upgrades to enable the energy efficiency improvement decision-making process. Finally, if upgrades are pursued, the performance of the upgraded motor systems should be monitored to determine the actual costs savings (SCE 2003). The motor system energy efficiency measures below reflect important aspects of this systems approach, including matching motor speeds and loads, proper motor sizing, and upgrading system components. Motor management plan. A motor management plan is an essential part of a plants energy management strategy. Having a motor management plan in place can help companies realize long-term motor system energy savings and will ensure that motor failures are handled in a quick and cost effective manner. The Motor Decisions MatterSM Campaign suggests the following key elements for a sound motor management plan (MDM 2007): 1. Creation of a motor survey and tracking program. 2. Development of guidelines for proactive repair/replace decisions. 3. Preparation for motor failure by creating a spares inventory. 4. Development of a purchasing specification. 5. Development of a repair specification.
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6. Development and implementation of a predictive and preventive maintenance program. The Motor Decisions MatterSM Campaigns Motor Planning Kit contains further details on each of these elements (MDM 2007). Strategic motor selection. Several factors are important when selecting a motor, including motor speed, horsepower, enclosure type, temperature rating, efficiency level, and quality of power supply. When selecting and purchasing a motor, it is also critical to consider the life-cycle costs of that motor rather than just its initial purchase and installation costs. Up to 95% of a motors costs can be attributed to the energy it consumes over its lifetime, while only around 5% of a motors costs are typically attributed to its purchase, installation, and maintenance (MDM 2007). Life cycle costing (LCC) is an accounting framework that allows one to calculate the total costs of ownership for different investment options, which leads to a more sound evaluation of competing options in motor purchasing and repair or replacement decisions. A specific LCC guide has been developed for pump systems (Fenning et al. 2001), which also provides an introduction to LCC for motor systems. The selection of energy-efficient motors can be an important strategy for reducing motor system lifecycle costs. Energy-efficient motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better materials, tighter tolerances, and improved manufacturing techniques. With proper installation, energy-efficient motors can also run cooler (which may help reduce facility heating loads) and have higher service factors, longer bearing life, longer insulation life, and less vibration. To be considered energy efficient in the United States, a motor must meet performance criteria published by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). The Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE) has described the evolution of standards for energy-efficient motors in the United States, which is helpful for understanding efficient motor nomenclature (CEE 2007): NEMA Energy Efficient (NEMA EE) was developed in the mid-1980s to define the term energy efficient in the marketplace for motors. NEMA Standards Publication No. MG-1 (Revision 3), Table 12-11 defines efficiency levels for a range of different motors (NEMA 2002). The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) required that many commonly used motors comply with NEMA energy efficient ratings if offered for sale in the United States. In 1996, the CEE Premium Efficiency Criteria specification was designed to promote motors with higher efficiency levels than EPACT required, for the same classes of motors covered by EPACT. The CEE efficiency levels specified were generally two NEMA efficiency bands (Table 12-10, NEMA MG-1 Revision 3) above those required by EPACT. In 2001, the NEMA Premium Efficiency Electric Motor specification was developed to address confusion with respect to what constituted the most efficient motors available in the market. This specification was developed by NEMA, CEE, and other stakeholders, and was adapted from the CEE 1996 criteria. It currently serves as the benchmark for premium energy efficient motors. NEMA PremiumR also denotes a brand name for motors which meet this specification. Specifically, this specification covers motors with the following attributes: Speed: 2, 4, and 6 pole Size: 1-500 horsepower (hp) Design: NEMA A and B Enclosure type: open and closed Voltage: low and medium voltage Class: general, definite, and special purpose
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The choice of installing a premium efficiency motor strongly depends on motor operating conditions and the life cycle costs associated with the investment. In general, premium efficiency motors are most economically attractive when replacing motors with annual operation exceeding 2,000 hours/year. However, software tools such as MotorMaster+ (see Appendix D) can help identify attractive applications of premium efficiency motors based on the specific conditions at a given plant. Sometimes, even replacing an operating motor with a premium efficiency model may have a low payback period. According to data from the Copper Development Association, the upgrade to high-efficiency motors, as compared to motors that achieve the minimum efficiency as specified by EPACT, can have paybacks of less than 15 months for 50 hp motors (CDA 2001). Payback times will vary based on size, load factor, running time, local energy costs, and available rebates and/or incentives (see Appendix D). Given the quick payback time, it usually makes sense to by the most efficient motor available (U.S. DOE and CAC 2003). NEMA and other organizations have created the Motor Decisions MatterSM campaign to help industrial and commercial customers evaluate their motor repair and replacement options, promote cost-effective applications of NEMA PremiumR motors and best practice repair, and support the development of motor management plans before motors fail. In some cases, it may cost-effective to rewind an existing energy efficient motor, instead of purchasing a new motor. As a rule of thumb, when rewinding costs exceed 60% of the costs of a new motor, purchasing the new motor may be a better choice (MDM 2007). When rewinding a motor, it is important to choose a motor service center that follows best practice motor rewinding standards in order to minimize potential efficiency losses. An ANSI-approved recommended best practice standard has been offered by the Electric Apparatus Service Association (EASA) for the repair and rewinding of motors (EASA 2006). When best rewinding practices are implemented, efficiency losses are typically less than 0.5% to 1% (EASA 2003). However, poor quality rewinds may result in larger efficiency losses. It is therefore important to inquire whether the motor service center follows EASA best practice standards (EASA 2006). Maintenance. The purposes of motor maintenance are to prolong motor life and to foresee a motor failure. Motor maintenance measures can be categorized as either preventative or predictive. Preventative measures, the purpose of which is to prevent unexpected downtime of motors, include electrical consideration, voltage imbalance minimization, load consideration, and motor ventilation, alignment, and lubrication. The purpose of predictive motor maintenance is to observe ongoing motor temperature, vibration, and other operating data to identify when it becomes necessary to overhaul or replace a motor before failure occurs (Barnish et al. 1997). The savings associated with an ongoing motor maintenance program are significant, and could range from 2% to 30% of total motor system energy use (Efficiency Partnership 2004). Properly sized motors. Motors that are sized inappropriately result in unnecessary energy losses. Where peak loads on driven equipment can be reduced, motor size can also be reduced. Replacing oversized motors with properly sized motors saves, on average for U.S. industry, 1.2% of total motor system electricity consumption (Xenergy 1998). Higher savings can often be realized for smaller motors and individual motor systems. To determine the proper motor size, the following data are needed: load on the motor, operating efficiency of the motor at that load point, the full-load speed of the motor to be replaced, and the full-load speed of the replacement motor. The U.S. DOEs BestPractices program provides a fact sheet that can assist in decisions regarding replacement of oversized and under loaded motors (U.S. DOE 1996). Additionally, software packages such as MotorMaster+ (see Appendix D) can aid in proper motor selection.
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Adjustable speed drives (ASDs). 12 Adjustable-speed drives better match speed to load requirements for motor operations, and therefore ensure that motor energy use is optimized to a given application. Adjustable-speed drive systems are offered by many suppliers and are available worldwide. Worrell et al. (1997) provide an overview of savings achieved with ASDs in a wide array of applications; typical energy savings are shown to vary between 7% and 60%. Also, in cement plants large variations in load occur (Bsche, 1993). The savings depend on the flow pattern and loads. The savings may vary between 7 and 60%. ASD equipment is used more and more in cement plants (Bsche, 1993; Fujimoto, 1993), but the application may vary widely, depending on electricity costs. Within a plant, ASDs can mainly be applied for fans in the kiln, cooler, preheater, separator and mills, and for various drives. Blue Circles Bowmanville plant (Canada) installed a variable air inlet fan, reducing electricity and fuel use in the kiln (because of reduced inlet air volume), saving C$75,000/year in energy costs (approximately $47,000 in U.S. dollars) (CIPEC, 2001). One case study for a modern cement plant estimated potential application for 44% of the installed motor power capacity in the plant (Bsche, 1993). ASDs for clinker cooler fans have a low payback, even when energy savings are the only reason for installing ASDs (Holderbank, 1993). Energy savings strongly depend on the application and flow pattern of the system on which the ASD is installed. Although savings are significant (Holderbank, 1993), not many quantitative studies are available for the cement industry. One hypothetical case study estimates the savings at 70%, compared to a system with a throttle valve (or 37% compared with a regulated system) for the raw mill fan (Bsche, 1993). In practice savings of 70% are unrealistic (Young, 2002). Fujimoto, (1994) notes that Lafarge Canadas Woodstock plant replaced their kiln ID fans with ASDs and reduced electricity use by 5 kWh/ton. It is estimated the potential savings are at 15% for 44% of the installed power, or roughly equivalent to 7 kWh/ton cement. The specific costs depend strongly on the size of the system. For systems over 300 kW the costs are estimated at 70 ECU/kW (75 US$/kW) or less and for the range of 30-300 kW at 115-130 ECU/kW (120-140 US$/kW) (Worrell et al., 1997). Using these cost estimates, the specific costs for a modern cement plant, as studied by Bsche (1993), can be estimated at roughly 0.8-0.9 $/annual ton cement capacity. Other estimates vary between $0.4 and $2.7/annual ton cement (Holland and Ranze, 1997; Holderbank, 1993). Power factor correction. Inductive loads like transformers, electric motors, and HID lighting may cause a low power factor. A low power factor may result in increased power consumption, and hence increased electricity costs. The power factor can be corrected by minimizing idling of electric motors (a motor that is turned off consumes no energy), replacing motors with premium-efficient motors (see above), and installing capacitors in the AC circuit to reduce the magnitude of reactive power in the system. Minimizing voltage unbalances. A voltage unbalance degrades the performance and shortens the life of three-phase motors. A voltage unbalance causes a current unbalance, which will result in torque pulsations, increased vibration and mechanical stress, increased losses, and motor overheating, which can reduce the life of a motors winding insulation. Voltage unbalances may be caused by faulty operation of power factor correction equipment, an unbalanced transformer bank, or an open circuit. A rule of thumb is that the voltage unbalance at the motor terminals should not exceed 1%. Even a 1% unbalance will reduce motor efficiency at part load operation, while a 2.5% unbalance will reduce motor efficiency at full load operation.
Several terms are used in practice to describe a motor system that permits a mechanical load to be driven at variable speeds, including adjustable speed drives (ASDs), variable speed drives (VSDs), adjustable frequency drives (AFDs), and variable frequency drives (VFDs). The term ASD is used throughout this Energy Guide for consistency.
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For a 100 hp motor operating 8,000 hours per year, a correction of the voltage unbalance from 2.5% to 1% will result in electricity savings of 9,500 kWh or almost $500 at an electricity rate of $0.05/kWh (U.S. DOE 2005). By regularly monitoring the voltages at the motor terminal and through regular thermographic inspections of motors, voltage unbalances may be identified. It is also recommended to verify that single-phase loads are uniformly distributed and to install ground fault indicators as required. Another indicator that a voltage unbalance may be a problem is 120 Hz vibration, which should prompt an immediate check of voltage balance (U.S. DOE 2005). The typical payback period for voltage controller installation on lightly loaded motors in the United States is 2.6 years (IAC 2005). Compressed Air Systems. Compressed air systems are used in different parts of the plants, i.e. mixing of slurry (in wet process plants) and in the baghouse Pulse-Jet or Plenum Pulse dust collector filters and other parts. Total energy consumption by compressed air systems is relatively small in cement plants, however, it can amount to a considerable expense if the systems run continuously and end-uses are offline. Still, energy efficiency improvement measures may be found in these systems. Compressed air is probably the most expensive form of energy available in a plant because of its poor efficiency. Typically overall efficiency is around 10% for compressed air (LBNL et al., 1998). Because of this inefficiency, if compressed air is used, it should be of minimum quantity for the shortest possible time, constantly monitored and weighed against alternatives. Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems. Inadequate maintenance can lower compression efficiency and increase air leakage or pressure variability, as well as lead to increased operating temperatures, poor moisture control, and excessive contamination. Improved maintenance will reduce these problems and save energy. Proper maintenance includes the following (LBNL et al., 1998): Keep the compressor and intercooling surfaces clean and foul-free. Blocked filters increase pressure drop. By inspecting and periodically cleaning filters, the pressure drop may be kept low. Seek filters with just a 1 psig pressure drop over 10 years. The payback for filter cleaning is usually under 2 years (Ingersoll-Rand, 2001). Fixing improperly operating filters will also prevent contaminants from entering into tools and causing them to wear out prematurely. Generally, when pressure drop exceeds 2 to 3 psig, replace the particulate and lubricant removal elements, and inspect all systems at least annually. Also, consider adding filters in parallel that decrease air velocity, and, therefore, decrease air pressure drop. A 2% reduction of annual energy consumption in compressed air systems is projected for more frequent filter changing (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001). Keep motors properly lubricated and cleaned. Poor motor cooling can increase motor temperature and winding resistance, shortening motor life, in addition to increasing energy consumption. Compressor lubricant should be changed every 2 to 18 months and checked to make sure it is at the proper level. In addition to energy savings, this can help avoid corrosion and degradation of the system. Inspect drain traps periodically to ensure they are not stuck in either the open or closed position and are clean. Some users leave automatic condensate traps partially open at all times to allow for constant draining. This practice wastes substantial energy and should never be undertaken. Instead, install simple pressure driven valves. Malfunctioning traps should be cleaned and repaired instead of left open. Some auto drains, such as float switch or electronic drains, do not waste air. Inspecting and maintaining drains typically has a payback of less than 2 years (Ingersoll-Rand, 2001). Maintain the coolers on the compressor to ensure that the dryer gets the lowest possible inlet temperature (Ingersoll-Rand, 2001). Check belts for wear and adjust them. A good rule of thumb is to adjust them every 400 hours of operation.
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Replace air lubricant separators according to specifications or sooner. Rotary screw compressors generally start with their air lubricant separators having a 2 to 3 psid pressure drop at full load. When this increases to 10 psid, change the separator (LBNL at al., 1998). Check water cooling systems for water quality (pH and total dissolved solids), flow, and temperature. Clean and replace filters and heat exchangers per manufacturers specifications.
Reduce Leaks. Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy. A typical plant that has not been well maintained will likely have a leak rate equal to 20 to 50% of total compressed air production capacity (Ingersoll Rand, 2001; Price and Ross, 1989). Leak maintenance can reduce this number to less than 10%. Overall, a 20% reduction of annual energy consumption in compressed air systems is projected for fixing leaks (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001). Estimations of leaks vary with the size of the hole in the pipes or equipment. In addition to increased energy consumption, leaks can make air tools less efficient and adversely affect production, shorten the life of equipment, lead to additional maintenance requirements and increase unscheduled downtime. In the worst case, leaks can add unnecessary compressor capacity. The most common areas for leaks are couplings, hoses, tubes, fittings, pressure regulators, open condensate traps and shut-off valves, pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants. A simple way to detect leaks is to apply soapy water to suspect areas. The best way to detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic acoustic detector, which can recognize the high frequency hissing sounds associated with air leaks. After identification, leaks should be tracked, repaired, and verified. Leak detection and correction programs should be ongoing efforts. Reducing the Inlet Air Temperature. Reducing the inlet air temperature reduces energy used by the compressor. In many plants, it is possible to reduce inlet air temperature to the compressor by taking suction from outside the building. Importing fresh air can have paybacks of 2 to 5 years (CADDET, 1997b). As a rule of thumb, each 5F (3C) will save 1% compressor energy use (CADDET, 1997b; Parekh, 2000). Maximize Allowable Pressure Dew Point at Air Intake. Choose the dryer that has the maximum allowable pressure dew point, and best efficiency. A rule of thumb is that desiccant dryers consume 7 to 14% of the total energy of the compressor, whereas refrigerated dryers consume 1 to 2% as much energy as the compressor (Ingersoll Rand, 2001). Consider using a dryer with a floating dew point. Compressor Controls. The objective of any control strategy is to shut off unneeded compressors or delay bringing on additional compressors until needed. All units that are on should be running at full-load, except for one. Positioning of the control loop is also important; reducing and controlling the system pressure downstream of the primary receiver can result in energy consumption of up to 10% or more (LBNL, et al., 1998). Energy savings for sophisticated controls are 12% annually (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001). Start/stop, load/unload, throttling, multi-step, variable speed and network controls are options for compressor controls and described below. Start/stop (on/off) is the simplest control available and can be applied to reciprocating or rotary screw compressors. For start/stop controls, the motor driving the compressor is turned on or off in response to the discharge pressure of the machine. They are used for applications with very low duty cycles. Applications with frequent cycling will cause the motor to overheat. Typical payback for start/stop controls is 1 to 2 years. Load/unload control, or constant speed control, allows the motor to run continuously but unloads the compressor when the discharge pressure is adequate. In most cases, unloaded rotary screw compressors still consume 15 to 35% of full-load power while delivering no useful work (LBNL et al., 1998). Hence, load/unload controls can be inefficient. 39
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Modulating or throttling controls allow the output of a compressor to be varied to meet flow requirements by closing down the inlet valve and restricting inlet air to the compressor. Throttling controls are applied to centrifugal and rotary screw compressors. Changing the compressor control from on/zero/off to a variable speed control can save up to 8% per year (CADDET, 1997b). Sizing Pipe Diameter Correctly. Inadequate pipe sizing can cause pressure losses, increase leaks and increase generating costs. Pipes must be sized correctly for optimal performance or resized to fit the current compressor system. Increasing pipe diameter typically reduces annual energy consumption by 3% (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001). Heat Recovery for Water Preheating. As much as 80 to 93% of the electrical energy used by an industrial air compressor is converted into heat. In many cases, a heat recovery unit can recover 50 to 90% of this available thermal energy for space heating, industrial process heating, water heating, makeup air heating, boiler makeup water preheating, industrial drying, industrial cleaning processes, heat pumps, laundries or preheating aspirated air for oil burners (Parekh, 2000). Its been estimated that approximately 50,000 Btu/hour of energy is available for each 100 cfm of capacity (at full load) (LBNL et al., 1998). Paybacks are typically less than one year. Heat recovery for space heating is not as common with water-cooled compressors because an extra stage of heat exchange is required and the temperature of the available heat is lower. However, with large water cooled compressors, recovery efficiencies of 50 to 60% are typical (LBNL et al., 1998). Implementing this measure saves up to 20% of the energy used in compressed air systems annually for space heating (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001). 6.9 Lighting Energy use for lighting in the cement industry is very small. Still, energy efficiency opportunities may be found that can reduce energy use cost-effectively. Lighting is used either to provide overall ambient lighting throughout the manufacturing, storage and office spaces or to provide low-bay and task lighting to specific areas. High-intensity discharge (HID) sources are used for the former, including metal halide, high-pressure sodium and mercury vapor lamps. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent (CFL) and incandescent lights are typically used for task lighting in offices. Lighting Controls. Lights can be shut off during non-working hours by automatic controls, such as occupancy sensors which turn off lights when a space becomes unoccupied. Manual controls can also be used in addition to automatic controls to save additional energy in smaller areas. Payback of lighting control systems is generally less than 2 years. Replace T-12 Tubes by T-8 Tubes. In industry, typically T-12 tubes have been used. T-12 refers to the diameter in 1/8 inch increments (T-12 means 12/8 inch or 3.8 cm diameter tubes). The initial output for these lights is high, but energy consumption is also high. They also have extremely poor efficacy, lamp life, lumen depreciation, and color rendering index. Because of this, maintenance and energy costs are high. Replacing T-12 lamps with T-8 lamps (smaller diameter) approximately doubles the efficacy of the former. Replace Mercury Lights by Metal Halide or High Pressure Sodium Lights. Where color rendition is critical, metal halide lamps can replace mercury or fluorescent lamps with an energy savings of 50%. Where color rendition is not critical, high pressure sodium lamps offer energy savings of 50 to 60% compared to mercury lamps (Price and Ross, 1989). Replace Metal Halide HID with High-Intensity Fluorescent Lights. Traditional HID lighting can be replaced with high-intensity fluorescent lighting. These new systems incorporate high-efficiency
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fluorescent lamps, electronic ballasts and high-efficacy fixtures that maximize output to the work plane. Advantages to the new system are many; they have lower energy consumption, lower lumen depreciation over the lifetime of the lamp, better dimming options, faster start-up and restrike capability, better color rendition, higher pupil lumens ratings and less glare. (Martin, et al., 2000). High-intensity fluorescent systems yield 50% electricity savings over standard metal halide HID. Dimming controls that are impractical in the metal halide HIDs can also save significant energy. Retrofitted systems cost about $185 per fixture, including installation costs (Martin, et al., 2000). In addition to energy savings and better lighting qualities, high-intensity fluorescents can help improve productivity and have reduced maintenance costs. Replace Magnetic Ballasts with Electronic Ballasts. A ballast is a mechanism that regulates the amount of electricity required to start a lighting fixture and maintain a steady output of light. Electronic ballasts save 12-25 percent more power than their magnetic predecessors do (EPA, 2001). 6.10 Product & Feedstock Changes Alkali Content. In North America, part of the production of the cement industry are cements with a low alkali content (probably around 20-50% of the market), a much higher share than found in many other countries (Holderbank, 1993). In some areas in the U.S., aggregate quality may be such that low-alkali cements are required by the cement companys customers. Reducing the alkali content is achieved by venting (called the by-pass) hot gases and particulates from the plant, loaded with alkali metals. The bypass also avoids plugging in the preheaters. This becomes cement kiln dust (CKD). Disposal of CKD is regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Many customers demand a lower alkali content, as it allows greater freedom in the choice of aggregates. The use of fly-ash or blast-furnace slags as aggregates (or in the production of blended cement, see below) may reduce the need for lowalkali cement. Low alkali cement production leads to higher energy consumption. Savings of 2-5 Kcal/kg per percent bypass are assumed (Alsop and Post, 1995). The lower figure is for precalciner kilns, while the higher figure is for preheater kilns. Typically, the bypass takes 10-70% of the kiln exhaust gases (Alsop and Post, 1995). Additionally, electricity is saved due to the increased cement production, as the CKD would otherwise end up as clinker. For illustrative purposes, assume a 20%-point reduction in bypass volume, resulting in energy savings of 0.16-0.4 MBtu/ton clinker. There are no investments involved in this product change, although cement users (e.g. ready-mix producers) may need to change the type of aggregates used (which may result in costs). Hence, this measure is most successfully implemented in coordination with ready-mix producers and other large cement users. Blended Cements. The production of blended cements involves the intergrinding of clinker with one or more additives (fly ash, pozzolans, granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, volcanic ash) in various proportions. The use of blended cements is a particularly attractive efficiency option since the intergrinding of clinker with other additives not only allows for a reduction in the energy used (and carbon emissions) in clinker production, but also corresponds to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions in calcination as well. Blended cement has been used for many decades and longer around the world. Blended cements are very common in Europe, and blast furnace and pozzolanic cements account for about 12% of total cement production with portland composite cement accounting for an additional 44% (Cembureau, 1997). Blended cement was introduced in the U.S. to reduce production costs for cement (especially energy costs), expand capacity without extensive capital costs, to reduce emissions from the kiln. In Europe a common standard has been developed for 25 types of cement (using different compositions for different applications). The European standard allows wider applications of additives. Many other countries around the world use blended cement. Blended cements demonstrate a higher long-term strength, as well as improved resistance to acids and sulfates, while using waste materials for high-value applications. Short-term strength (measured after less than 7 days) may be lower, although
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cement containing less than 30% additives will generally have setting times comparable to concrete based on portlandcement. In the U.S. the consumption and production of blended cement is still limited. In the U.S., the most prevalent blending materials are fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag. Not all slag and fly ash is suitable for cement production. It is estimated that 68% of the fly ash in the U.S. conforms to ASTM C618 (PCA, 1997). Currently, only a small part of the blast furnace slag is produced as granulated slag, while the majority is air-cooled. Air-cooled slag cannot be used for cement production, and is of lesser value. However, investments in slag processing by slag processors and cement companies will increase this fraction. ASTM Standards exist for different types of blended cements, i.e. C989 (slag cement), C595 and C1157. U.S. EPA (2000) has issued procurement guidelines to support the use of blended cement in (federal) construction projects. A recent analysis of the U.S. situation cited an existing potential of producing 34 million tons of blended cement in 2000 using both fly ash and blast furnace slag, or 36% of U.S. capacity (PCA, 1997). This analysis was based on estimates of the availability of intergrinding materials and surveying readymix companies to estimate feasible market penetration. The blended cement produced would have, on average, a clinker/cement ratio of 65% or would result in a reduction in clinker production of 10.3 million tons. The reduction in clinker production corresponds to a specific fuel savings of 1.22 MBtu/ton. There is an increase in fuel use of 0.08 MBtu/ton for drying of the blast furnace slags but a corresponding energy savings of 0.17 MBtu/ton for reducing the need to use energy to bypass kiln exit gases to remove alkali-rich dust. Energy savings are estimated at 4-10 Btu/lb per percent bypass (Alsop and Post, 1995). The bypass savings are due to the fact that blended cements offer an additional advantage in that the interground materials also lower alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) thereby allowing a reduction in energy consumption needed to remove the high alkali content kiln dusts. In practice, bypass savings may be minimal to avoid plugging of the preheaters, requiring a minimum amount of bypass volume. This measure therefore results in total fuel savings of 1.21 MBtu/ton blended cement. Electricity consumption however is expected to increase due to the added electricity consumption associated with grinding blast furnace slag (as other materials are more or less fine enough). The costs of applying additives in cement production may vary. Capital costs are limited to extra storage capacity for the additives. However, blast furnace slag may need to be dried before use in cement production. This can be done in the grinding mill, using exhaust from the kiln, or supplemental firing, either from a gas turbine used to generate power or a supplemental air heater. The operational cost savings will depend on the purchase (including transport) costs of the additives 13 , the increased electricity costs for (finer) grinding, the reduced fuel costs for clinker production and electricity costs for raw material grinding and kiln drives, as well as the reduced handling and mining costs. These costs will vary by location, and would need to be assessed on the basis of individual plants. An increase in electricity consumption of 15 kWh/ton (Buzzi, 1996) is estimated while an investment cost of $0.65/ton cement capacity, which reflects the cost of new delivery and storage capacity (bin and weigh-feeder) is assumed. Limestone Portland Cement. Similar to blended cement, ground limestone is interground with clinker to produce cement, reducing the needs for clinker-making and calcination. This reduces energy use in the kiln and clinker grinding and CO2 emissions from calcination and energy use. Addition of up to 5% limestone has shown to have no negative impacts on the performance of portland cement, while an
To avoid disclosing proprietary data, the USGS does not report separate value of shipments data for cementquality fly ash or granulated blast furnace slag, making it impossible to estimate an average cost of the additives.
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optimized limestone cement would improve the workability slightly (Detwiler and Tennis, 1996). Adding 5% limestone would reduce fuel consumption by 5% (or on average 0.3 MBtu/ton clinker), power consumption for grinding by 3.0 kWh/ton cement, and CO2 emissions by almost 5%. Additional costs would be minimal, limited to material storage and distribution, while reducing kiln operation costs by 5%. CemStar. Texas Industries (Midlothian, Texas) in 1994 developed a system to use electric arc furnace (EAF) slags of the steel industry as input in the kiln, reducing the use of limestone. The slag that contains C3S, which can more easily be converted to free lime than limestone. The slags replace limestone (approximately 1.6 times the weight in limestone). EAFs produce between 110 and 420 pounds of slag per ton of steel (on average 232 lbs/ton) (U.S. DOE-OIT, 1996). EAF steel production is estimated at almost 50 million tons (1999) (45.1 million tonnes). EAF-slag production is estimated at 5.8 million tons, potentially replacing an equal amount of clinker. The CemStar process allows replacing 10-15% of the clinker by EAF-slags, reducing energy needs for calcination. The advantage of the CemStar process is the lack of grinding the slags, but adding them to the kiln in 2 inch lumps. Depending on the location of injection it may also save heating energy. Calcination energy is estimated at 1.6 MBtu/ton clinker (Worrell et al., 2001). Because the lime in the slag is already calcined, it also reduces CO2 emissions from calcination, while the reduced combustion energy and lower flame temperatures lead to reduced NOx emissions (Battye et al., 2000). For illustrative purposes alone, using a 10% injection of slags would reduce energy consumption by 0.16 MBtu/ton of clinker, while reducing CO2 emissions by roughly 11%. Energy savings can be higher in wet kilns due to the reduced evaporation needs. Reductions in NOx emissions vary by kiln type and may be between 9 and 60%, based on measurements at two kilns (Battye et al., 2000). Equipment costs are mainly for material handling and vary between $200,000 and $500,000 per installation. Total investments are approximately double the equipment costs. CemStar charges a royalty fee (Battye et al., 2000). Costs savings consist of increased income from additional clinker produced without increased operation and energy costs, as well as reduced iron ore purchases (as the slag provides part of the iron needs in the clinker). The iron content needs to be balanced with other iron sources such as tires and iron ore. EPA awarded the CemStar process special recognition in 1999 as part of the ClimateWise program. Reducing the Fineness for Particular Applications. Cement is normally ground to a uniform fineness. However, the applications of cement vary widely, and so does the optimal fineness. The grinding of the cement to the desired fineness could reduce the energy demand for grinding. Holderbank (1993) suggests that cement in Canada and the U.S. is ground finer (on average) than in Western Europe, which suggests that energy savings could be achieved. The exact savings will depend on the grindability of the clinker. As a rule of thumb, for each 100 additional Blaine points, grinding power requirements increase by 5% (Holderbank, 1993). Holderbank (1993) reviewed 23 European and 20 North-American plants and found that the European plants use on average 14 kWh/ton less for cement grinding than the North-American plants. Note that finer cement may reduce the amount of concrete needed for a structure, due to the higher strength. It is hard to estimate the total savings due to the many factors affecting strength of concrete and grinding energy requirements. Also, without a detailed assessment of the market and applications of cement, it is difficult to estimate the total potential contribution of this measure to potential energy savings in the U.S. cement industry. 6.11 Advanced Technologies In this section several advanced technologies for cement production are discussed. As our study focuses on commercially available technologies, the advanced technologies are not included in the analysis of the cost-effective potential for energy efficiency improvement. They are discussed for completeness of the technical analysis.
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Fluidized Bed Kiln. The Fluidized Bed Kiln (FBK) is a totally new concept to produce clinker. Developments in FBK technology started as early as the 1950s (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Today, developments mainly take place in Japan (Kawasaki Heavy Industries) and the U.S. (Fuller Co.) (Cohen, 1995; Van Kuijk et al., 1997). In an FBK, the rotary kiln is replaced by a stationary vertical cylindrical vessel, in which the raw materials are calcined in a fluidized bed. An overflow at the top of the reactor regulates the transfer of clinker to the cooling zone. The (expected) advantages of FBK technology are lower capital costs because of smaller equipment, lower temperatures resulting in lower NOx-emissions and a wider variety of the fuels that can be used, as well as lower energy use. The Kawasaki design uses cyclone preheaters, a precalciner kiln and a fluidized bed kiln. Energy use is expected to be 10-15% lower compared to conventional rotary kilns (Vleuten, 1994). The Fuller Co. stood at the basis of the U.S. development of a fluidized bed kiln for clinker making. Early developments did not prove to be commercially successful due to the high clinker recycling rate (Cohen, 1992) and were commercialized for alkali dust recycling only (Cohen, 1993). The technology was also used in the development of the advanced cement furnace (CAF). CAF uses a preheated pellet feed, using primarily natural gas or liquid fuels (Cohen, 1993). A pilot plant was built and used to produce clinker. The NOx emissions were reduced to 1.7 lbs/ton clinker, compared to 4.6-5.8 lbs/ton for conventional plants due to lower combustion temperatures (Cohen, 1993). The future fuel consumption is estimated at 2.52-2.9 MBtu/ton clinker (Cohen, 1995). The fuel use of the FBK may be lower than that of conventional rotary kilns, although modern precalciner rotary kilns have shown fuel use of 2.6-2.7 MBtu/ton clinker. No data are available on the expected power use for the FBK. The use of the FBK may result in lower alkali-content of the clinker (Cohen, 1992). FBK needs less space and also has a higher flexibility with respect to raw material feed. Advanced Comminution Technologies. Grinding is an important power consumer in modern cementmaking. However, current grinding technologies are highly inefficient. Over 95% of the energy input in the grinding process is lost as waste heat, while only 1-5% of the energy input is used to create new surface area (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Some of the heat may be used to dry the raw materials, for example in finish grinding or the grinding of limestone. Current high-pressure processes already improve the grinding efficiency in comparison with conventional ball mills (see above). In the longer term, further efficiency improvements can be expected when non-mechanical "milling" technologies become available (OTA, 1993). Non-mechanical systems may be based on ultrasound (Suzuki et al., 1993), laser, thermal shock, electric shock or cryogenics. However, non-mechanical grinding technologies have not been demonstrated yet and will not be commercially available in the next decades. Although the theoretical savings of non-mechanical comminution are large, no estimate of the expected savings can be given at this stage of fundamental research. Mineral Polymers. Clinker is made by calcining calcium carbonate (limestone), which releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Mineral polymers can be made from inorganic alumino-silicate compounds. An inorganic polycondensation reaction results in a three-dimensional structure, like that of zeolites. It can be produced by blending three elements, i.e. calcined alumino-silicates (from clay), alkali-disilicates and granulated blast furnace slag or fly-ash (Davidovits, 1994). The cement hardens at room temperatures and provides compressive strengths of 20 MPa after 4 hours and up to 70-100 MPa after 28 days (Davidovits, 1994). The zeolite-like matrix results in the immobilization of materials, e.g. wastes. Despite the high alkali content, mineral polymers do not show alkali aggregate reactions (Davidovits, 1993). Research on mineral polymers was already going on in Eastern Europe and the U.S in the early 1980s. CO2 emissions from the production of mineral polymers are determined by the carbon content of the raw materials and the energy used in the production. The silica-alumina raw materials can be found on all continents. Calcination of the potassium or sodium may result in CO2 emissions. Research in this area is still ongoing. The manufacturing of mineral polymers is done at relatively low temperatures. The calcining of alumino-silicates occurs at temperatures of 1290F (750C) (Davidovits, 1994). However, no energy consumption data have been found in the literature.
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The use of mineral polymers results in the immobilization of solid wastes in the matrix (Davidovits, 1991).
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7. Summary and Conclusions

The historic trends for energy efficiency in the U.S. cement industry and the cost-effective energy and carbon dioxide savings that can be achieved in the near future are analyzed in this report. The report focuses on the detailed analysis of energy use and carbon dioxide emissions by process, specific energy efficiency technologies and measures to reduce energy use and carbon dioxide emissions, and the energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions reduction potential for cement production. The cost of energy as part of the total production costs in the cement industry is significant, warranting attention for energy efficiency to improve the bottom line. Historically, energy intensity has been reducing, although more recently energy intensity seems to have stabilized with little improvement. Coal and coke are currently the primary fuels for the sector, supplanting the dominance of natural gas in the 1970s. Most recently, there is a slight increase in the use of waste fuels, including tires. Between 1970 and 1999, primary physical energy intensity for cement production dropped 1%/year from 7.3 MBtu/short ton to 5.3 MBtu/short ton. Carbon dioxide intensity due to fuel consumption and raw material calcination dropped 16%, from 609 lb. C/ton of cement (0.31 tC/tonne) to 510 lb. C/ton cement (0.26 tC/tonne). Despite the historic progress, there is ample room for energy efficiency improvement. The relatively high share of wet-process plants (25% of clinker production in 1999) suggests the existence of a considerable potential, when compared to other industrialized countries. Over 40 energy efficient technologies and measures and estimated energy savings, carbon dioxide savings, investment costs, and operation and maintenance costs for each of the measures were examined. In Tables 3 and 4, the efficiency measures and estimated savings for the dry and wet process plants respectively are summarized. Substantial potential for energy efficiency improvement exist in the cement industry, and in individual plants. However, part of this potential may only be achieved as part of (natural) stock turnover and expansion of existing facilities. Still, a relatively large potential for improved energy management practices exists.
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Table 3. Energy Efficiency Measures in Dry Process Cement Plants. The estimated savings and payback periods are averages for indication, based on the average performance of the U.S. cement industry (e.g. clinker to cement ratio). The actual savings and payback period may vary by project based on the specific conditions in the individual plant. More information can be found in the description of the measures above.
Energy Efficiency Measure Specific Fuel Savings (MBtu/ton cement) Specific Electricity Savings (kWh/ton cement) Estimated Payback Period (1)
(years) Raw Materials Preparation Efficient Transport System 3.2 > 10 (1) Raw Meal Blending 1.5 3.9 N/A (1) Process Control Vertical Mill 0.8 1.0 1 High-Efficiency Roller Mill 10.2 11.9 > 10 (1) High-Efficiency Classifiers 4.3 5.8 > 10 (1) Fuel Preparation: Roller Mills 0.7 1.1 N/A (1) Clinker Making Energy Management & Control Systems 0.10 0.20 1.2 2.6 13 Seal Replacement 0.02 <1 Combustion System Improvement 0.10 0.39 23 Indirect Firing 0.13 0.19 N/A Shell Heat Loss Reduction 0.09 0.31 1 Optimize Grate Cooler 0.06- 0.12 0 - -1.8 12 Conversion to Grate Cooler 0.23 -2.4 12 Heat Recovery for Power Generation 18 3 Low-pressure Drop Suspension Preheaters 0.5 3.5 > 10 (1) Addition of Precalciner or Upgrade 0.12 0.54 5 (1) Conversion of Long Dry Kiln to Preheater 0.36 0.73 > 10 (1) Conversion of Long Dry Kiln to Precalciner 0.55 - 1.10 > 10 (1) Efficient Mill Drives 0.8 3.2 1 Use of Secondary Fuels > 0.5 1 Finish Grinding Energy Management & Process Control 1.6 <1 Improved Grinding Media in Ball Mills 1.8 8 (1) High Pressure Roller Press 7 25 > 10 (1) High-Efficiency Classifiers 1.7 6.0 > 10 (1) Plant Wide Measures Preventative Maintenance 0.04 05 <1 High Efficiency Motors 05 <1 Adjustable Speed Drives 5.5 7.0 2- 3 Optimization of Compressed Air Systems 02 <3 Efficient Lighting 0 0.5 N/A Product Change Blended Cement 1.21 -15 <1 Limestone Portland Cement 0.30 3.0 <1 Use of Steel Slag in Clinker (CemStar) 0.16 <2 Low Alkali Cement 0.16 0.4 N/A Immediate Reduced Fineness of Cement for Selected Uses 0 14 Immediate Notes: (1) Payback periods are calculated on the basis of energy savings alone. In reality this investment may be driven by other considerations than energy efficiency (e.g. productivity, product quality), and will happen as part of the normal business cycle or expansion project. Under these conditions the measure will have a lower payback period depending on plant-specific conditions.
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Table 4. Energy Efficiency Measures in Wet Process Cement Plants. The estimated savings and payback periods are averages for indication, based on the average performance of the U.S. cement industry (e.g. clinker to cement ratio). The actual savings and payback period may vary by project based on the specific conditions in the individual plant. More information can be found in the description of the measures above.
Energy Efficiency Measure Specific Fuel Savings (MBtu/ton cement) Specific Electricity Savings (kWh/ton cement) Estimated Payback Period (1)
(years) Raw Materials Preparation Slurry Blending and Homogenizing 0.1 0.6 <3 Wash Mills with Closed Circuit Classifier 10 14 > 10 (1) High-Efficiency Classifiers 4.3 5.8 > 10 (1) Fuel Preparation: Roller Mills 0.7 1.6 N/A (1) Clinker Making Energy Management & Control Systems 0.14 0.27 1.0 2.0 <2 Seal Replacement 0.02 <1 Combustion System Improvement 0.15 0.55 23 Indirect Firing 0.13 0.19 N/A Shell Heat Loss Reduction 0.09 0.30 1 Optimize Grate Cooler 0.06- 0.13 12 Conversion to Grate Cooler 0.24 -2.4 12 Conversion to Semi-Dry Process Kiln 0.8 1.2 -4 - -6 > 10 (1) Conversion to Semi-Wet Process Kiln 0.9 -4 > 10 (1) Conversion to Dry Precalciner Kiln 1.9 2.7 -9 > 10 (1) Efficient Mill Drives 0.7 2.7 1 Use of Secondary Fuels > 0.5 1 Finish Grinding Energy Management & Process Control 1.6 <1 Improved Grinding Media in Ball Mills 1.8 8 (1) High Pressure Roller Press 7 25 > 10 (1) High-Efficiency Classifiers 1.7 5.4 > 10 (1) Plant Wide Measures Preventative Maintenance 0.04 05 <1 High Efficiency Motors 05 <1 Adjustable Speed Drives 57 2- 3 Optimization of Compressed Air Systems 05 <3 Efficient Lighting 0 0.5 N/A Product Change Blended Cement 1.21 -15 <1 Limestone Portland Cement 0.30 3.0 <1 Use of Steel Slag in Clinker (CemStar) 0.16 <2 Low Alkali Cement 0.16 0.4 n.a. Immediate Reduced Fineness of Cement for Selected Uses 0 14 Immediate Notes: (1) Payback periods are calculated on the basis of energy savings alone. In reality this investment may be driven by other considerations than energy efficiency (e.g. productivity, product quality), and will happen as part of the normal business cycle or expansion project. Under these conditions the measure will have a lower payback period depending on plant-specific conditions.
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Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the Climate Protection Partnerships Division, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. Many people have been very helpful in the data collection and review of earlier versions of this report. We especially would like to thank Alexander Goebel (Krupp Polysius, Germany), Steve McGarel, Tom Evans, Amy George and Greg Martin (Pavilion Technologies Inc., Texas) for providing data for this study. We thank the following people for reviewing the draft of this report: John Chadbourne (Essroc), Greg Galvin (RMC Pacific), Ted Jones (Consortium for Energy Efficiency), Robert Miller (Metso Minerals), Joel Fleming (Lafarge North America), Ilene Mason (Consortium for Energy Efficiency), John Malinowski (Baldor Electric Company), Aimee McKane (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), Greg Miller (CTL, IL), Linda Raynes (Electrical Apparatus Service Association), Hendrik van Oss (USGS), Robin Riester (FLS Automation), Dan Willis (Trinity Consultants, TX), Ray Worthington (BMH Americas Inc.) and Gerald Young (Penta Engineering). We thank Tom Carter (PCA) for helping to collect the helpful suggestions. Also, we would like to thank Ann Dougherty and Gregg Miller (Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL), George Lesnikoff (Hanson Cement, Cupertino, CA), and Michael Nisbet (JAN Consultants, Montreal, Canada) for reviewing earlier reports on which this report is based and providing technical information. Unfortunately, Michael Nisbet passed away too early, and before this report was finished. Despite all their efforts any errors remaining are those of the authors.
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Electricity Journal. July: 40-51. Radgen, P. and E. Blaustein (eds.), 2001. Compressed Air Systems in the European Union, Energy, Emissions, Savings Potential and Policy Actions, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems Technology and Innovation, Karlsruhe, Germany. Rajbhandari, C.D., 1995. Modern Vertical Shaft Kiln Technology World Cement 1 26 pp.65-67 (1995). Regitz, John, 1996. Evaluation of Mill Drive Options IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 3 32, pp. 653. Research Triangle Institute, 1996. Economic Analysis of Air Pollution Regulations: Portland Cement. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI. Ruby, C.W., 1997. A New Approach to Expert Kiln Control. Proc.1997 IEEE/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference XXXIX Conference Record, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: New Jersey. Salzborn, D. and A. Chin-Fatt, 1993. "Operational Results of a Vertical Roller Mill Modified with a High Efficiency Classifier" Proc. 35th IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 1993. Sauli, R.S., 1993. "Rotary Kiln Modernization and Clinker Production Increase at Testi Cement Plant of S.A.C.C.I. Spa., Italy" Proc. KHD Symposium '92, Volume 2 "Modern Burning Technology", KHD Humboldt Wedag, Cologne, Germany. Scheuer, A. and Sprung, S., 1990. Energy Outlook in West Germanys Cement Industry Energy Efficiency in the Cement Industry (Ed. J. Sirchis), London, England: Elsevier Applied Science. Schmidt, H-J., 1998. Chrome Free Basic Bricks A Determining Factor in Cement Production Proc.1998 IEEEIAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, pp.155-167. Seebach, H.M. von, E. Neumann and L. Lohnherr, 1996. "State-of-the-Art of Energy-Efficient Grinding Systems" ZKG International 2 49 pp.61-67 (1996). Shafer, B., 2001. Oxygen Enrichment at California Portland Cement Companys Mojave Plant Proc 2001. IEEEIAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, pp. 293-299. Smart, J. and B. Jenkins, 2000. Combustion in the Rotary Kiln, The Combustion Institute, Leeds, UK (http://www.chemeng.ucl.ac.uk/research/combustion/nl2000_1/nl00_1_9.html) Solomon, C. 1994. Cement Minerals Yearbook, in U.S. Geological SurveyMinerals Information. Washington, DC: USGS. (Located on the World Wide Web at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/). Somani, R.A., S.S. Kothari, 1997. Die Neue Zementlinie bei Rajashree Cement in Malkhed/Indien ZKG International 8 50 pp.430-436 (1997). Southern California Edison (SCE) (2003). Southern California Edison Educational Publication: Saving Money with Motors in Pharmaceutical Plants. Rosemead, California. Steinbliss, E., 1990. Traditional and Advanced Concepts of Waste Heat Recovery in Cement Plants Energy Efficiency in the Cement Industry (Ed. J. Sirchis), London, England: Elsevier Applied Science. Steuch, H.E. and Riley, P., Ash Groves New 2200 tpd Seattle Plant Comes on Line, World Cement, April 1993. Su, L-H., 1997. TPI Polene, An Operational View International Cement Review, December 1997, pp.28-40.
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Sssegger, A., 1993. "Separator-Report '92" Proc. KHD Symposium '92, Volume 1 "Modern Roller Press Technology", KHD Humboldt Wedag, Cologne, Germany (1993). Sutoh, K., M. Murata, S. Hashimoto, I. Hashimoto, S. Sawamura and H. Ueda, 1992. "Gegenwrtiger Stand der Vormahlung von Klinker und Zement-rohmaterialien nach dem CKP-System" ZKG 1 45 pp.21-25 (1992). Suzuki, K., H. Tochinai, T. Uematsa, and S. Mishiro, 1993. "A New Grinding Method for Ceramics Uisng a Biaxially Vibrated Nonrotational Ultrasonic Tool" CIRP Annuals 1 42 pp.375-378 (1993). Tokheim, L.A., D. Bjerketvedt, I. Husum, and O. Hoidalen, 1998. NOx Minderung in einem Zementofen mit Vorcalcinierung durch Reduzierende Verbrennung von Kunststoffen ZKG International 1 51 pp.12-23 (January 1998). UNEP, OECD, IEA, and IPCC, 1996. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories: Reference Manual. UNIDO, 1994. Cement Industry, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna, Austria. (http://www.unido.org/userfiles/PuffK/cement.pdf) United States Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies (U.S.DOE-OIT), 1996. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S.Iron and Steel Industry, Washington, DC: U.S.DOE-OIT. United States Department of Energy (DOE) and Compressed Air Challenge (CAC) (2003). Improving Compressed Air System Performance - A Sourcebook for Industry. Office of Industrial Technologies, Washington, D.C. United States Department of Energy (DOE). (2005). Energy Tips: Estimate Voltage Unbalance. Information Sheet. Office of Industrial Technologies, Washington, DC. Motor Systems Tip Sheet #7. United States Department of Energy (DOE) (2006). Save Energy Now in Your Motor-Driven Systems. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technologies Program, Washington, D.C. Report DOE/GO102006-2276. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. 2000 Buy Recycled Products: Construction Products, U.S.EPA, Washington, DC (http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/procure/pdf/const-00.pdf). United States Geological Survey, various years, Minerals Yearbook, Washington, D.C., USGS (Located on the World Wide Web at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/). van den Broeck, M., 1998. A SD100 Sturtevant High-Efficiency Classifier for Origny-Rochefort, International Cement Journal 2 pp.39-45 (1998). van den Broeck, M., 1999. GO Control Goes Multi-Circuit International Cement Journal 1, pp.35-37 (1999). van Oss, H., 1999. Personal Communication. U.S. Geological Survey, February 9th. van Oss, H., 2002. Personal Communication. U.S. Geological Survey, March May 2002 Van Kuijk, A.H.J., A.M. Schakel and P. Vissers, 1997. "Dutch Notes on BAT for the Production of Cement Clinker", Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, The Hague, The Netherlands. Venkateswaran, S.R. and H.E. Lowitt, 1988. "The U.S. Cement Industry, An Energy Perspective", U.S. Department of Energy, Washington D.C., USA.
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APPENDIX A
Basic Energy Efficiency Actions for Plant Personnel

Staff can be trained in both skills and the general approach to energy efficiency in day-to-day practices. Personnel at all levels should be aware of energy use and objectives for efficiency. By passing information to everyone, each employee can save energy. In addition, performance results should be regularly evaluated and communicated to all personnel, recognizing high performers. Examples of some simple tasks employees can do include the following (Caffal, 1995): Switch off motors, fans and machines when they are not being used, especially at the end of the working day or shift, and during breaks, when it does not affect production, quality or safety. Similarly, turn on equipment no earlier than needed to reach the correct settings (temperature, pressure) at the start time. Switch off unnecessary lights; rely on daylighting whenever possible. Use weekend and night setbacks on HVAC in offices or conditioned buildings. Report leaks of water (both process water and dripping taps), steam and compressed air. Ensure they are repaired quickly. The best time to check for leaks is a quiet time like the weekend. Look for unoccupied areas being heated or cooled, and switch off heating or cooling. Check that heating controls are not set too high or cooling controls set too low. In this situation, windows and doors are often left open to lower temperatures instead of lowering the heating. Check to make sure the pressure and temperature of equipment is not set too high. Prevent drafts from badly fitting seals, windows and doors, and hence, leakage of cool or warm air. Carry out regular maintenance of energy-consuming equipment. Ensure that the insulation on process heating equipment is effective.
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Appendix B: Guidelines for Energy Management Assessment Matrix
Energy Management Program Assessment Matrix

Introduction The U.S. EPA has developed guidelines for establishing and conducting an effective energy management program based on the successful practices of ENERGY STAR partners. These guidelines, illustrated in the graphic, are structured on seven fundamental management elements that encompass specific activities. This assessment matrix is designed to help organizations and energy managers compare their energy management practices to those outlined in the Guidelines. The full Guidelines can be viewed on the ENERGY STAR web site http://www.energystar.gov/. How To Use The Assessment Matrix The matrix outlines the key activities identified in the ENERGY STAR Guidelines for Energy Management and three levels of implementation: 1. No evidence Most elements Fully Implemented Print the assessment matrix.
2. Compare your program to the Guidelines by identifying the degree of implementation that most closely matches your organization's program. 3. Use a highlighter to fill in the cell that best characterizes the level of implementation of your program. You will now have a visual comparison of your program to the elements of the ENERGY STAR Guidelines for Energy Management. 4. Identify the steps needed to fully implement the energy management elements and record these in the Next Steps column.
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Little or no evidence Some elements Fully implemented Next Steps Make Commitment to Continuous Improvement No central corporate resource Energy Director Decentralized management Energy Team No company energy network No formal policy Corporate or organizational resource not empowered Informal organization Referenced in environmental or other policies Empowered corporate leader with senior management support Active cross-functional team guiding energy program Formal stand-alone EE policy endorsed by senior mgmt.
Energy Policy
Assess Performance and Opportunities Gather and Track Data Normalize Establish baselines Benchmark Little metering/no tracking Not addressed Local or partial metering/tracking/ reporting Some unit measures or weather adjustments Various facilityestablished Some internal comparisons among company sites All facilities report for central consolidation/analysis All meaningful adjustments for corporate analysis Standardized corporate base year and metric established Regular internal & external comparisons & analyses
No baselines Not addressed or only same site historical comparisons Not addressed
Analyze Technical assessments and audits
Profiles identifying Some attempt to identify trends, peaks, valleys & and correct spikes causes Internal facility reviews Set Performance Goals Reviews by multifunctional team of professionals
Not addressed
Determine scope Estimate potential for improvement Establish goals
No quantifiable goals
Short term facility goals Short & long term facility or nominal corporate and corporate goals goals Specific projects based on limited vendor projections Loosely defined or sporadically applied Create Action Plan Facility & corporate defined based on experience Specific & quantifiable at various organizational levels
No process in place
Not addressed
Define technical steps and targets Determine roles and resources
Not addressed Not addressed or done on ad hoc basis
Facility-level consideration as opportunities occur Informal interested person competes for funding
Detailed multi-level targets with timelines to close gaps Internal/external roles defined & funding identified
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Little or no evidence Some elements Implement Action Plan Create a communication plan Raise awareness Build capacity Not addressed No promotion of energy efficiency Indirect training only No or occasional contact with energy users and staff No system for monitoring progress Tools targeted for some groups used occasionally Periodic references to energy initiatives Some training for key individuals Threats for nonperformance or periodic reminders Annual reviews by facilities Evaluate Progress Measure results Review action plan No reviews Historical comparisons Informal check on progress Recognize Achievements Provide internal recognition Get external recognition Identify successful projects Incidental or vendor acknowledgement Acknowledge contributions of individuals, teams, facilities Government/third party highlighting achievements Compare usage & costs vs. goals, plans, competitors Revise plan based on results, feedback & business factors All stakeholders are addressed on regular basis All levels of organization support energy goals Broad training/certification in technology & best practices Recognition, financial & performance incentives Regular reviews & updates of centralized system Fully implemented Next Steps
Motivate Track and monitor
No reviews
Not addressed
Not sought
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Interpreting Your Results Comparing your program to the level of implementation identified in the Matrix should help you identify the strengths and weaknesses of your program.
The U.S. EPA has observed that organizations fully implementing the practices outlined in the Guidelines achieve the greatest results. Organizations are encouraged to implement the Guidelines as fully as possible. By highlighting the cells of the matrix, you now can easily tell how well balanced your energy program is across the management elements of the Guidelines. Use this illustration of your energy management program for discussion with staff and management. Use the "Next Steps" column of the Matrix to develop a plan of action for improving your energy management practices.
Resources and Help ENERGY STAR offers a variety tools and resources to help organizations strengthen their energy management programs.
Here are some next steps you can take with ENERGY STAR: 1. Read the Guidelines sections for the areas of your program that are not fully implemented. 2. Become an ENERGY STAR Partner, if you are not already. 3. Review ENERGY STAR Tools and Resources. 4. Find more sector-specific http://www.energystar.gov/industry. energy management information at
5. Contact ENERGY STAR for additional resources.
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Appendix C: Check List for Organizing Energy Teams

The following checklist can be used as a handy reference to key tasks for establishing and sustaining an effective energy team. For more detailed information on energy teams, consult the U.S. EPAs Teaming Up to Save Energy guide (U.S. EPA 2006), which is available at http://www.energystar.gov/. ORGANIZE YOUR ENERGY TEAM
Energy Director
Able to work with all staff levels from maintenance to engineers to financial officers. Senior-level person empowered by top management support Energy director reports to senior executive or to a senior management council. Senior champion or council provides guidance and support Members from business units, operations/engineering, facilities, and regions. Energy networks formed. Support services (PR, IT, HR).
Senior Management Energy Team
Facility Involvement Facility managers, electrical personnel. Two-way information flow on goals and opportunities. Facility-based energy teams with technical person as site champion. Partner Involvement Energy Team Structure Resources & Responsibilities Consultants, vendors, customers, and joint venture partners. Energy savings passed on through lower prices. Separate division and/or centralized leadership. Integrated into organizations structure and networks established. Energy projects incorporated into normal budget cycle as line item. Energy director is empowered to make decisions on projects affecting energy use. Energy team members have dedicated time for the energy program.
STARTING YOUR ENERGY TEAM
Management Briefing Planning Strategy Program Launch
Senior management briefed on benefits, proposed approach, and potential energy team members. Energy team met initially to prepare for official launch. Energy team met initially to prepare for official launch. Organizational kickoff announced energy network, introduced energy director, unveiled energy policy, and showcased real-world proof. Facility audits and reports conducted. Energy efficiency opportunities identified.
Energy Team Plans Work plans, responsibilities, and annual action plan established. Facility Engagement
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BUILDING CAPACITY
Tracking and Monitoring Transferring Knowledge
Systems established for tracking energy performance and best practices implementation. Events for informal knowledge transfer, such as energy summits and energy fairs, implemented.
Raising Awareness Awareness of energy efficiency created through posters, intranet, surveys, and competitions. Formal Training Participants identified, needs determined, training held. Involvement in ENERGY STAR Web conferences and meetings encouraged. Professional development objectives for key team members. Use of outside help has been evaluated and policies established. Outside company successes sought and internal successes shared. Information exchanged to learn from experiences of others.
Outsourcing Cross-Company Networking
SUSTAINING THE TEAM
Effective Communications Recognition and Rewards External Recognition
Awareness of energy efficiency created throughout company. Energy performance information is published in company reports and communications. Internal awards created and implemented. Senior management is involved in providing recognition. Credibility for your organizations energy program achieved. Awards from other organizations have added to your companys competitive advantage.
MAINTAINING MOMENTUM
Succession Measures of Success
Built-in plan for continuity established. Energy efficiency integrated into organizational culture. Sustainability of program and personnel achieved. Continuous improvement of your organizations energy performance attained.
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Appendix D
Support Programs for Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement

This appendix provides a list of energy efficiency support available to industry. A brief description of the program or tool is given, as well as information on its target audience and the URL for the program. Included are federal and state programs. Use the URL to obtain more information from each of these sources. An attempt was made to provide as complete a list as possible; however, information in this listing may change with the passage of time. Tools for Self-Assessment Steam System Assessment Tool Description: Software package to evaluate energy efficiency improvement projects for steam systems. It includes an economic analysis capability. Target Group: Any industry operating a steam system Format: Downloadable software package (13.6 MB) Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html Steam System Scoping Tool Description: Spreadsheet tool for plant managers to identify energy efficiency opportunities in industrial steam systems. Target Group: Any industrial steam system operator Format: Downloadable software (Excel) Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html 3E Plus: Optimization of Insulation of Boiler Steam Lines Description: Downloadable software to determine whether boiler systems can be optimized through the insulation of boiler steam lines. The program calculates the most economical thickness of industrial insulation for a variety of operating conditions. It makes calculations using thermal performance relationships of generic insulation materials included in the software. Target Group: Energy and plant managers Format: Downloadable software Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html MotorMaster+ Description:
Target Group: Format: Contact: URL:
Energy-efficient motor selection and management tool, including a catalog of over 20,000 AC motors. It contains motor inventory management tools, maintenance log tracking, efficiency analysis, savings evaluation, energy accounting, and environmental reporting capabilities. Any industry Downloadable software (can also be ordered on CD) U.S. Department of Energy http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html
ASDMaster: Adjustable Speed Drive Evaluation Methodology and Application
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Description:
Software program helps to determine the economic feasibility of an adjustable speed drive application, predict how much electrical energy may be saved by using an ASD, and search a database of standard drives. Any industry Software package (not free) Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), (800) 832-7322 http://www.epri-peac.com/products/asdmaster/asdmaster.html
The 1-2-3 Approach to Motor Management Description: A step-by-step motor management guide and spreadsheet tool that can help motor service centers, vendors, utilities, energy-efficiency organizations, and others convey the financial benefits of sound motor management. Target Group: Any industry Format: Downloadable Microsoft Excel spreadsheet Contact: Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), (617) 589-3949 URL: http://www.motorsmatter.org/tools/123approach.html AirMaster+: Compressed Air System Assessment and Analysis Software Description: Modeling tool that maximizes the efficiency and performance of compressed air systems through improved operations and maintenance practices Target Group: Any industry operating a compressed air system Format: Downloadable software Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html Fan System Assessment Tool (FSAT) Description: The Fan System Assessment Tool (FSAT) helps to quantify the potential benefits of optimizing a fan system. FSAT calculates the amount of energy used by a fan system, determines system efficiency, and quantifies the savings potential of an upgraded system. Target Group: Any user of fans Format: Downloadable software Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html Combined Heat and Power Application tool (CHP) Description: The Combined Heat and Power Application Tool (CHP) helps industrial users evaluate the feasibility of CHP for heating systems such as fuel-fired furnaces, boilers, ovens, heaters, and heat exchangers. Target Group: Any industrial heat and electricity user Format: Downloadable software Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html Pump System Assessment Tool 2004 (PSAT) Description: The tool helps industrial users assess the efficiency of pumping system operations. PSAT uses achievable pump performance data from Hydraulic Institute standards and motor performance data from the MotorMaster+ database to calculate potential energy and associated cost savings. Target Group: Any industrial pump user Format: Downloadable software Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html
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Quick Plant Energy Profiler Description: The Quick Plant Energy Profiler, or Quick PEP, is an online software tool provided by the U.S. Department of Energy to help industrial plant managers in the United States identify how energy is being purchased and consumed at their plant and also identify potential energy and cost savings. Quick PEP is designed so that the user can complete a plant profile in about an hour. The Quick PEP online tutorial explains what plant information is needed to complete a Quick PEP case. Target Group: Any industrial plant Format: Online software tool Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager Description: Online software tool helps to assess the energy performance of buildings by providing a 1-100 ranking of a building's energy performance relative to the national building market. Measured energy consumption forms the basis of the ranking of performance. Target Group: Any building user or owner Format: Online software tool Contact: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency URL: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=evaluate_performance.bus_portfoliomanager Assessment and Technical Assistance Industrial Assessment Centers Description: Small- to medium-sized manufacturing facilities can obtain a free energy and waste assessment. The audit is performed by a team of engineering faculty and students from 30 participating universities in the U.S. and assesses the plants performance and recommends ways to improve efficiency. Target Group: Small- to medium-sized manufacturing facilities with gross annual sales below $75 million and fewer than 500 employees at the plant site. Format: A team of engineering faculty and students visits the plant and prepares a written report with energy efficiency, waste reduction and productivity recommendations. Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/iacs.html Save Energy Now Assessments Description: The U.S. DOE conducts plant energy assessments to help manufacturing facilities across the nation identify immediate opportunities to save energy and money, primarily by focusing on energy-intensive systems, including process heating, steam, pumps, fans, and compressed air. Target Group: Large plants Format: Online request Contact: U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/saveenergynow/ Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) Description: MEP is a nationwide network of not-for-profit centers in over 400 locations providing small- and medium-sized manufacturers with technical assistance. A center provides expertise and services tailored to the plant, including a focus on clean production and energy-efficient technology. Target Group: Small- and medium-sized plants Format: Direct contact with local MEP Office Contact: National Institute of Standards and Technology, (301) 975-5020 URL: http://www.mep.nist.gov/
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Small Business Development Center (SBDC) Description: The U.S Small Business Administration (SBA) administers the Small Business Development Center Program to provide management assistance to small businesses through 58 local centers. The SBDC Program provides counseling, training and technical assistance in the areas of financial, marketing, production, organization, engineering and technical problems and feasibility studies, if a small business cannot afford consultants. Target Group: Small businesses Format: Direct contact with local SBDC Contact: Small Business Administration, (800) 8-ASK-SBA URL: http://www.sba.gov/sbdc/ ENERGY STAR Selection and Procurement of Energy-Efficient Products for Business Description: ENERGY STAR identifies and labels energy-efficient office equipment. Look for products that have earned the ENERGY STAR. They meet strict energy efficiency guidelines set by the EPA. Office equipment included such items as computers, copiers, faxes, monitors, multifunction devices, printers, scanners, transformers and water coolers. Target Group: Any user of labeled equipment. Format: Website Contact: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency URL: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=business.bus_index
Training ENERGY STAR Description:
As part of ENERGY STARs work to promote superior energy management systems, energy managers for the companies that participate in ENERGY STAR are offered the opportunity to network with other energy managers in the partnership. The networking meetings are held monthly and focus on a specific strategic energy management topic to train and strengthen energy managers in the development and implementation of corporate energy management programs. Corporate and plant energy managers Web-based teleconference Climate Protection Partnerships Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency http://www.energystar.gov/
Best Practices Program Description: The U.S. DOE Best Practices Program provides training and training materials to support the efforts of the program in efficiency improvement of utilities (compressed air, steam) and motor systems (including pumps). Training is provided regularly in different regions. One-day or multi-day trainings are provided for specific elements of the above systems. The Best Practices program also provides training on other industrial energy equipment, often in coordination with conferences. Target Group: Technical support staff, energy and plant managers Format: Various training workshops (one day and multi-day workshops) Contact: Office of Industrial Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/training.html
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Compressed Air Challenge

Description: The not-for-profit Compressed Air Challenge develops and provides training on compressed air system energy efficiency via a network of sponsoring organizations in the United States and Canada. Three levels of training are available: (1) Fundamentals (1 day); (2) Advanced (2 days); and (3) Qualified Specialist (3-1/2 days plus an exam). Training is oriented to support implementation of an action plan at an industrial facility. Compressed air system managers, plant engineers Training workshops Compressed Air Challenge: Info@compressedairchallenge.org http://www.compressedairchallenge.org/
Target Group: Format: Contact: URL: Financial Assistance
Below major federal programs are summarized that provide assistance for energy efficiency investments. Many states also offer funds or tax benefits to assist with energy efficiency projects (see below for State Programs). However, these programs can change over time, so it is recommended to review current policies when making any financial investment decisions. Industries of the Future - U.S. Department of Energy Description: Collaborative R&D partnerships in nine vital industries. The partnership consists of the development of a technology roadmap for the specific sector and key technologies, and cost-shared funding of research and development projects in these sectors. Target Group: Nine selected industries: agriculture, aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass, metal casting, mining, petroleum and steel. Format: Solicitations (by sector or technology) Contact: U.S. Department of Energy Office of Industrial Technologies URL: http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/technologies/industries.html Inventions & Innovations (I&I) Description: The program provides financial assistance through cost-sharing of 1) early development and establishing technical performance of innovative energy-saving ideas and inventions (up to $75,000) and 2) prototype development or commercialization of a technology (up to $250,000). Projects are performed by collaborative partnerships and must address industry-specified priorities. Target Group: Any industry (with a focus on energy-intensive industries) Format: Solicitation Contact: U.S. Department of Energy Office of Industrial Technologies URL: http://www.eere.energy.gov/inventions/ Small Business Administration (SBA) Description: The Small Business Administration provides several loan and loan guarantee programs for investments (including energy-efficient process technology) for small businesses. Target Group: Small businesses Format: Direct contact with SBA Contact: Small Business Administration URL: http://www.sba.gov/
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State and Local Programs Many state and local governments have general industry and business development programs that can be used to assist businesses in assessing or financing energy-efficient process technology or buildings. Please contact your state and local government to determine what tax benefits, funding grants, or other assistance they may be able to provide your organization. This list should not be considered comprehensive but instead merely a short list of places to start in the search for project funding. These programs can change over time, so it is recommended to review current policies when making any financial investment decisions. Summary of Motor and Drive Efficiency Programs by State Description: A report that provides an overview of state-level programs that support the use of NEMA Premium motors, ASDs, motor management services, system optimization and other energy management strategies. Target Group: Any industry Contact: Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), (617) 589-3949 URL: http://www.motorsmatter.org/tools/123approach.html California Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Description: PIER provides funding for energy efficiency, environmental, and renewable energy projects in the state of California. Although there is a focus on electricity, fossil fuel projects are also eligible. Target Group: Targeted industries (e.g. food industries) located in California Format: Solicitation Contact: California Energy Commission, (916) 654-4637 URL: http://www.energy.ca.gov/pier/funding.html California Energy Innovations Small Grant Program (EISG) Description: EISG provides small grants for development of innovative energy technologies in California. Grants are limited to $75,000. Target Group: All businesses in California Format: Solicitation Contact: California Energy Commission, (619) 594-1049 URL: http://www.energy.ca.gov/research/innovations/index.html/ California Savings By Design Description: Design assistance is available to building owners and to their design teams for energy-efficient building design. Financial incentives are available to owners when the efficiency of the new building exceeds minimum thresholds, generally 10% better than Californias Title 24 standards. The maximum owner incentive is $150,000 per free-standing building or individual meter. Design team incentives are offered when a building design saves at least 15%. The maximum design team incentive per project is $50,000. Target Group: Nonresidential new construction or major renovation projects Format: Open year round URL: http://www.savingsbydesign.com/
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Indiana Industrial Programs Description: The Energy Policy Division of the Indiana Department of Commerce operates two industrial programs. The Industrial Energy Efficiency Fund (IEEF) is a zero-interest loan program (up to $250,000) to help Indiana manufacturers increase the energy efficiency of manufacturing processes. The fund is used to replace or convert existing equipment, or to purchase new equipment as part of a process/plant expansion that will lower energy use. The Distributed Generation Grant Program (DGGP) offers grants of up to $30,000 or up to 30% of eligible costs for distributed generation with an efficiency over 50% to install and study distributed generation technologies such as fuel cells, micro turbines, cogeneration, combined heat & power and renewable energy sources. Other programs support can support companies in the use of biomass for energy, research or building efficiency. Target Group: Any industry located in Indiana Format: Application year-round for IEEF and in direct contact for DGGP Contact: Energy Policy Division, (317) 232-8970. URL: http://www.iedc.in.gov/Grants/index.asp Iowa Alternate Energy Revolving Loan Program Description: The Alternate Energy Revolving Loan Program (AERLP) was created to promote the development of renewable energy production facilities in the state. Target Group: Any potential user of renewable energy Format: Proposals under $50,000 are accepted year-round. Larger proposals are accepted on a quarterly basis. Contact: Iowa Energy Center, (515) 294-3832 URL: http://www.energy.iastate.edu/funding/aerlp-index.html New York Industry Research and Development Programs Description: The New York State Energy Research & Development Agency (NYSERDA) operates various financial assistance programs for New York businesses. Different programs focus on specific topics, including process technology, combined heat and power, peak load reduction and control systems. Target Group: Industries located in New York Format: Sollicitation Contact: NYSERDA, (866) NYSERDA URL: http://www.nyserda.org/programs/Commercial_Industrial/default.asp?i=2 Wisconsin Focus on Energy Description: Energy advisors offer free services to identify and evaluate energy-saving opportunities, recommend energy efficiency actions, develop an energy management plan for business; and integrate elements from national and state programs. It can also provide training. Target Group: Industries in Wisconsin Format: Open year round Contact: Wisconsin Department of Administration, (800) 762-7077 URL: http://focusonenergy.com/portal.jsp?pageId=4
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APP Booklet of Cement Technology

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Energy Efficiency and Resource Saving Technologies in Cement Industry

ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP ON CLEAN DEVELOPMENT & CLIMATE

CEMENT TASK FORCE

4. Republic of Korea 130

United States of America 148

1. Peoples Republic of China

Energy Efficiency and Emission Reduction Technology in China

High Belite Cement

Energy-saving: up to 20% Reduction in CO2 emission: about 10%

2. Alternative Fuel and Raw Materials (AFR) Technology

3. Integrated Equipment and Technology

Annual Energy saving and emission reduction Tailings reduction: 80,000~100,000t/y

New high efficiency dryer

Power saving: 400,000 kWh/y

High- efficiency combustor

NOx emission reduction: 0.961106=9.6105kg/y =960t/y

Generation IV high efficiency grate cooler

Coal saving: 4.9106 =4.9106 kg/y =4900 t/y

New dual pressure or flash pure low heat power co-generation

Waste heat utilization power generation: 37 kWh/tcl

Vertical roller mill for raw materials

Application process Raw material process

Production Specific power consumption The reduction of power consumption(*)

Cost estimation Related matters References

External circulating system to vertical roller mill

Application process Raw material process

Mill fan External circulating system

Kiln IDF (Kiln gas exhaust fan)

Capacity Gas pressure loss (draft) Gas flow rate

Cost estimation Related matters Reference

Direct dust collection system to vertical mill grinding process

Application process Raw material process

Raw Mill EP fan

Fig.1 Flow of Conventional Vertical Mill Grinding System

Raw materials Raw Mill EP

Raw Mill EP fan

Fig.2 Flow of direct dust collection system

Results Cost estimation Related matters Reference

Pre-grinding equipment for raw material grinding process

Application process Raw material process

Mixed raw materials Pre-grinder

Coarse powder Raw material tube mill

Cost estimation Related matters Reference

About 7.3 million US$ (depending on the scale) [1US$=110]

Classification of powder returned from raw material separator

Application process Raw material process

Grid screen To EP Coarse powder Fine powder

Refined powder Raw materials

Fig. Classification of returned powder by double-rotator mill

Results Cost estimation Related matters Reference

Automation of raw material mixing control

Application process Raw material process

EP dust Limestone CFW

Silica Iron raw material

Cost estimation Related matters Reference

Optimization of raw material fineness

Application process Raw material process

1975 1981 1987 1996

8.0 11.7 15.4 21.2

Cost estimation Related matters Reference

Basically, the above adjustment only

Intermittent charging of electric dust collector

Application process Raw material process

Time Current Current